1.
National Museum of Australia
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The National Museum of Australia preserves and interprets Australias social history, exploring the key issues, people and events that have shaped the nation. It was formally established by the National Museum of Australia Act 1980, the Museum did not have a permanent home until 11 March 2001, when a purpose-built museum building was officially opened in the national capital Canberra. The Museum profiles 50,000 years of Indigenous heritage, settlement since 1788 and key events including Federation, the Museum holds the worlds largest collection of Aboriginal bark paintings and stone tools, the heart of champion racehorse Phar Lap and the Holden prototype No.1 car. The Museum also develops and travels exhibitions on subjects ranging from bushrangers to surf lifesaving, the National Museum of Australia Press publishes a wide range of books, catalogues and journals. The Museums Research Centre takes an approach to history, ensuring the museum is a lively forum for ideas and debate about Australias past, present. The Museums innovative use of new technologies has been central to its international reputation in outreach programming. From 2003 to 2008, the Museum hosted Talkback Classroom, a student political forum, the Museum is located on Acton Peninsula in the suburb of Acton, next to the Australian National University. The peninsula on Lake Burley Griffin was previously the home of the Royal Canberra Hospital, as designed by architect Howard Raggatt, the museum building is based on a theme of knotted ropes, symbolically bringing together the stories of Australians. The architects stated, We liked to think that the story of Australia was not one, not an authorized version but a puzzling confluence, not merely the resolution of difference but its wholehearted embrace. The building is meant to be the centre of a knot, the entirely non-symmetrical complex is designed to not look like a museum, with startling colours and angles, unusual spaces and unpredictable projections and textures. Though hard to categorise, the building can be seen as an example of Charles Jencks new paradigm. Some characteristics of Deconstructivism can also be identified, the buildings architecture is thus meant to imply that the story of Australia is not one story, but many stories tangled together. The Bulletin magazine first publicly raised allegations of plagiarism in June 2000, libeskind was reported to be angry with the copying. Raggatts defence against plagiarism was that the design was a rather than a copy. The director of the museum, Dawn Casey, claimed in the press that she, the exterior of the building is covered in anodised aluminium panels. Many of the panels include words written in braille and other decorative devices, among the messages are mate and shell be right. Also included were such controversial words and phrases as sorry and forgive us our genocide and these more controversial messages have been obscured with silver discs being attached to the surface making the braille illegible. Among the phrases in braille are the words Resurrection city, the phrase may refer to the clearing of the former Canberra Hospital to make way for the museum or it could be a reference to reconciliation between Indigenous Australians and European settlers
2.
Sydney
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Sydney /ˈsɪdni/ is the state capital of New South Wales and the most populous city in Australia and Oceania. Located on Australias east coast, the metropolis surrounds the worlds largest natural harbour, residents of Sydney are known as Sydneysiders. The Sydney area has been inhabited by indigenous Australians for at least 30,000 years, the first British settlers, led by Captain Arthur Phillip, arrived in 1788 to found Sydney as a penal colony, the first European settlement in Australia. Since convict transportation ended in the century, the city has transformed from a colonial outpost into a major global cultural. As at June 2016 Sydneys estimated population was 5,005,358, in the 2011 census,34 percent of the population reported having been born overseas, representing many different nationalities and making Sydney one of the most multicultural cities in the world. There are more than 250 different languages spoken in Sydney and about one-third of residents speak a language other than English at home and it is classified as an Alpha+ World City by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network, indicating its influence in the region and throughout the world. Ranked eleventh in the world for economic opportunity, Sydney has a market economy with strengths in finance, manufacturing. Its gross regional product was $337 billion in 2013, the largest in Australia, there is a significant concentration of foreign banks and multinational corporations in Sydney and the city is promoted as one of Asia Pacifics leading financial hubs. Its natural features include Sydney Harbour, the Royal National Park, man-made attractions such as the Sydney Opera House, Sydney Tower and the Sydney Harbour Bridge are also well known to international visitors. The first people to inhabit the now known as Sydney were indigenous Australians having migrated from northern Australia. Radiocarbon dating suggests human activity first started to occur in the Sydney area from around 30,735 years ago, the earliest British settlers called them Eora people. Eora is the term the indigenous used to explain their origins upon first contact with the British. Its literal meaning is from this place, prior to the arrival of the British there were 4,000 to 8,000 native people in Sydney from as many as 29 different clans. Sydney Cove from Port Jackson to Petersham was inhabited by the Cadigal clan, the principal language groups were Darug, Guringai, and Dharawal. The earliest Europeans to visit the area noted that the people were conducting activities such as camping and fishing, using trees for bark and food, collecting shells. Development has destroyed much of the citys history including that of the first inhabitants, there continues to be examples of rock art and engravings located in the protected Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park. The first meeting between the people and the British occurred on 29 April 1770 when Lieutenant James Cook landed at Botany Bay on the Kurnell Peninsula. He noted in his journal that they were confused and somewhat hostile towards the foreign visitors, Cook was on a mission of exploration and was not commissioned to start a settlement
3.
New South Wales
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New South Wales is a state on the east coast of Australia. It borders Queensland to the north, Victoria to the south and it has a coast line with the Tasman Sea on its east side. The Australian Capital Territory is an enclave within the state, New South Wales state capital is Sydney, which is also Australias most populous city. In March 2014, the population of New South Wales was 7.5 million. Just under two-thirds of the population,4.67 million. Inhabitants of New South Wales are referred to as New South Welshmen, the Colony of New South Wales was founded as a penal colony in 1788. It originally comprised a more than half of the Australian mainland with its western boundary set at 129th meridian east in 1825, in addition, the colony also included the island territories of New Zealand, Van Diemens Land, Lord Howe Island, and Norfolk Island. During the 19th century, most of the area was detached to form separate British colonies that eventually became New Zealand. However, the Swan River Colony has never administered as part of New South Wales. Lord Howe Island remains part of New South Wales, while Norfolk Island has become a federal Territory, as have the now known as the Australian Capital Territory. The prior inhabitants of New South Wales were the Aboriginal tribes who arrived in Australia about 40,000 to 60,000 years ago, before European settlement there were an estimated 250,000 Aboriginal people in the region. The Wodi Wodi people are the custodians of the Illawarra region of South Sydney. The Bundjalung people are the custodians of parts of the northern coastal areas. The European discovery of New South Wales was made by Captain James Cook during his 1770 survey along the eastern coast of the Dutch-named continent of New Holland. In his original journal covering the survey, in triplicate to satisfy Admiralty Orders, Cook first named the land New Wales, however, in the copy held by the Admiralty, he revised the wording to New South Wales. After years of chaos and anarchy after the overthrow of Governor William Bligh, macquaries legacy is still evident today. During the 19th century, large areas were separated to form the British colonies of Tasmania, South Australia, Victoria. Responsible government was granted to the New South Wales colony in 1855, following the Treaty of Waitangi, William Hobson declared British sovereignty over New Zealand in 1840
4.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
5.
Natural history
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Natural history is the research and study of organisms including animals, fungi and plants in their environment, leaning more towards observational than experimental methods of study. It encompasses scientific research but is not limited to it, with articles nowadays more often published in magazines than in academic journals. Grouped among the sciences, natural history is the systematic study of any category of natural objects or organisms. That is a broad designation in a world filled with many narrowly focused disciplines. For example, geobiology has a strong multi-disciplinary nature combining scientists, a person who studies natural history is known as a naturalist or natural historian. The English term natural history is a translation of the Latin historia naturalis and its meaning has narrowed progressively with time, while the meaning of the related term nature has widened. In antiquity, it covered essentially anything connected with nature or which used materials drawn from nature. For example, Pliny the Elders encyclopedia of this title, published circa 77 to 79 AD, covers astronomy, geography, man and his technology, medicine and superstition as well as animals and plants. Medieval European academics considered knowledge to have two divisions, the humanities and divinity, with science studied largely through texts rather than observation or experiment. In modern terms, natural philosophy roughly corresponded to modern physics and chemistry, natural history had been encouraged by practical motives, such as Linnaeus aspiration to improve the economic condition of Sweden. Similarly, the Industrial Revolution prompted the development of geology to help find useful mineral deposits, the astronomer, William Herschel was also a natural historian. Instead of working with plants or minerals he worked with the stars and he spent his time building telescopes to see the stars and the rest of the time watching the stars. In the beginning, he believed there to be a known as a nebulae. Herschel can be considered a natural historian because he observed the natural world, in the process he made charts of all the stars and kept records of all that he saw. S. Wilcove and T. Eisner, The close observation of organisms—their origins, their evolution, their behavior and it encompasses changes in internal states insofar as they pertain to what organisms do. Some definitions go further, focusing on observation of organisms in their environment. Bartholomew, A student of history, or a naturalist, studies the world by observing plants. A common thread in many definitions of natural history is the inclusion of a component, as seen in a recent definition by H. W. Greene
6.
Anthropology
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Anthropology is the study of various aspects of humans within past and present societies. Social anthropology and cultural anthropology study the norms and values of societies, linguistic anthropology studies how language affects social life. Biological or physical anthropology studies the development of humans. The abstract noun anthropology is first attested in reference to history and its present use first appeared in Renaissance Germany in the works of Magnus Hundt and Otto Casmann. Their New Latin anthropologia derived from the forms of the Greek words ánthrōpos and lógos. It began to be used in English, possibly via French anthropologie, various short-lived organizations of anthropologists had already been formed. The Société Ethnologique de Paris, the first to use Ethnology, was formed in 1839 and its members were primarily anti-slavery activists. When slavery was abolished in France in 1848 the Société was abandoned and these anthropologists of the times were liberal, anti-slavery, and pro-human-rights activists. Anthropology and many other current fields are the results of the comparative methods developed in the earlier 19th century. For them, the publication of Charles Darwins On the Origin of Species was the epiphany of everything they had begun to suspect, Darwin himself arrived at his conclusions through comparison of species he had seen in agronomy and in the wild. Darwin and Wallace unveiled evolution in the late 1850s, there was an immediate rush to bring it into the social sciences. When he read Darwin he became a convert to Transformisme. His definition now became the study of the group, considered as a whole, in its details. Broca, being what today would be called a neurosurgeon, had taken an interest in the pathology of speech and he wanted to localize the difference between man and the other animals, which appeared to reside in speech. He discovered the speech center of the brain, today called Brocas area after him. The title was translated as The Anthropology of Primitive Peoples. The last two volumes were published posthumously, Waitz defined anthropology as the science of the nature of man. By nature he meant matter animated by the Divine breath, i. e. he was an animist and he stresses that the data of comparison must be empirical, gathered by experimentation
7.
Officer of the Order of Australia
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Before the establishment of the order, Australian citizens received British honours. The Queen of Australia is Sovereign Head of the Order, while the Governor-General is Principal Companion/Dame/Knight, the Governor-Generals Official Secretary is Secretary of the Order. The order is divided into a general and a military division, honorary awards at all levels may be made to deserving non-citizens – these awards are made additional to the quotas. The badge of the Order of Australia is a convex disc representing the Golden Wattle flower, at the centre is a ring, representing the sea, with the word Australia below two branches of golden wattle. The whole disc is topped by the Crown of St Edward, the AC badge is decorated with citrines, blue enamelled ring and enamelled crown. The AO badge is similar, without the citrines, for the AM badge only the crown is enamelled, and the OAM badge is plain. The AK/AD badge is similar to that of the AC badge, the star for knights and dames is a convex golden disc decorated with citrines, with a blue royally crowned inner disc bearing an image of the coat of arms of Australia. The ribbon of the order is blue with a stripe of golden wattle flower designs. AKs, male ACs and AOs wear their badges on a necklet, women usually wear their badges on a bow on the left shoulder, although they may wear the same insignia as males, if so desired. The orders insignia were designed by Stuart Devlin, the Order currently consists of four levels and the medal, in both general and military divisions. Since 2015, the level has been discontinued. Awards of Knight and Dame of the Order have been made in the division only. Military Division – Not awarded in the military division. There was a quota of four per year, excluding honorary appointments, the Knight- and Damehoods were conferred between 1976 and 1983, and again from 2014 till 2015. Although this level is not awarded anymore, several knight and dames of the Order are still alive, Companion General Division – Eminent achievement and merit of the highest degree in service to Australia or to humanity at large. Military Division – Eminent service in duties of great responsibility. Excluding honorary appointments, until 2003, no more than 25 Companions were appointed in any calendar year, in 2003 this was increased to 30. This was increased in 2016 to 35, Officer General Division – Distinguished service of a high degree to Australia or to humanity at large. Military Division – Distinguished service in responsible positions. Prior to 2003, the quota was 100 Officers appointed in any calendar year, in 2003 this was increased to 125. This was increased in 2016 to 140, Member General Division – Service in a particular locality or field of activity or to a particular group. Military Division – Exceptional service or performance of duty
8.
Museum railway station, Sydney
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Museum is located on the City Circle at the southern end of Hyde Park in the Sydney central business district. It is served by Sydney Trains T2 Airport, Inner West & South and it is named after the nearby Australian Museum. There are two platforms, each 158.5 metres long by 3.8 metres wide, under an arch with span 14.6 metres, until the construction of the Airport Line in the 1990s, it was the only underground station in Sydney without an island platform. It is a companion to St James station, both opened at the time and use a roundel design on their station signage that is similar to the one used on the London Underground. The station opened on 20 December 1926 with the opening of the city line from Central to St James. It became part of the City Circle loop on 22 January 1956, the main entrance to the station is located at the corner of Elizabeth and Liverpool Streets. Another entrance featuring a sandstone façade is located on the corner of Liverpool and this entrance sits at the foot of the District Court of New South Wales Downing Centre, formerly the site of the Mark Foys department store. Other entrances are located on three corners of the intersection of Elizabeth and Bathurst Streets. There are photos of the station being built and a photo history through the pedestrian tunnels of this station. The platforms feature various period advertisements, work commenced 27 May 2015 on lifts between the street and the concourse level at the Elizabeth and Liverpool Streets entrance with further lifts to the platforms. Media related to Museum railway station at Wikimedia Commons Museum station details Sydney Trains
9.
Sydney Explorer
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The Sydney Explorer is an Australian open top bus tourist sightseeing service operating in the Sydney central business district and Eastern Suburbs. On 23 November 1980, the Urban Transit Authority commenced operating the Sydney Explorer looping the Sydney central business district. It was operated with Mercedes-Benz O305 and O405 buses that apart from being painted in red Sydney Explorer livery, in 1990, a fleet of six Pressed Metal Corporation bodied Mercedes-Benz O405 coaches were introduced. In September 1998, the Bondi & Bay Explorer was introduced operating from Circular Quay to the Eastern Suburbs and it was operated by four Ansair bodied Scania L113CRLs painted in a blue livery. In November 2010, both services were sold to City Sightseeing who had been operating open top bus tours in Sydney since the early 2000s, no buses were included in the sale, with City Sightseeing continuing to operate its existing routes only with its fleet of MCW Metrobuses. From May 2012 new Anhui Ankai buses were introduced on these routes, operations initially operated under the City Sightseeing brand, before the Sydney Explorer name was reintroduced in late 2012 for both routes. When Ensignbus sold the City Sightseeing business in 2011, it retained ownership of the Sydney operation, in 2016, Sydney Explorer relinquished its City Sightseeing franchise and became a Big Bus Tours affiliate. A casualty of the takeover by City Sightseeing was the pass on the Sydney Explorer which was no longer valid. This used to allow unlimited use on the Sydney and Bondi Explorer buses. The Sydney Explorer now stops at 26 different locations in Sydney, Sydney Pass good way to explore city, cant inherit frequent-flier miles Daily Breeze 2 October 2005 page B7 For a fun thing to do, see Sydney Explorer The Mosman Daily 20 September 2007 page 27
10.
Sydney sandstone
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It forms the bedrock for much of the region of Sydney, Australia. Well known for its quality, it is the reason many Aboriginal rock carvings and drawings in the area still exist. This bedrock gives the city some of its personality by dint of its meteorological, horticultural, aesthetic, one author describes Sydneys sandstone as a kind of base note, an ever-present reminder of its Georgian beginnings and more ancient past. Sydney sandstone was deposited in the Triassic Period probably in a delta and is the caprock which controls the erosion. Six kilometres of sandstone and shale lie under Sydney and this means that the highest part of the visible lines almost always faces approximately south. It is a porous stone and acts as a giant filter. It is composed of pure silica grains and a small amount of the iron mineral siderite in varying proportions. It oxidises to the warm yellow-brown colour that is notable in the buildings which are constructed of it, the sand was washed from Broken Hill, and laid down in a bed that is about 200 metres thick. Currents washed through it, leaching out most of the minerals and they washed out channels in some places, while in others, the currents formed sand banks that show a characteristic current bedding or cross-bedding that can often be seen in cuttings. At a time in the past, monocline formed to the west of Sydney. The monocline is a bend that raises the sandstone well above where it is expected to be seen. From the beginnings of the colony in 1788, settlers and convicts had to work with the stone, the sandstone had a negative effect on farming because it underlay most of the available flat land at a very shallow depth. In the late 19th century, it was thought that the sandstone might contain gold, some efforts were made at the University to test this idea. The sandstone is the basis of the nutrient-poor soils found in Sydney that developed over millennia and came to nurture a brilliant and it is, for example, the heartland of those most characteristic of Australian trees, the eucalypts. As plants cannot afford to lose leaves to herbivores when nutrients are scarce so they defend their foliage with toxins, in eucalypts, these toxins give the bush its distinctive smell. Sandstone escarpments box in the Sydney area on three sides, to the west the Blue Mountains, and to the north and south, the Hornsby and Woronora plateaux. These escarpments, avoided by the settlers, kept Sydney in its bounds. Other rock types found in Sydney include Narrabeen shale and the younger Wianamatta shale, the quality of the sandstone known to Sydneysiders as Yellow block became well known early
11.
Mortimer Lewis
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Mortimer William Lewis was an English-born architect, surveyor and public servant who migrated to Australia and became Colonial Architect in the state of New South Wales from 1835 to 1849. Lewis was responsible for designing and overseeing many government buildings in Sydney and rural New South Wales, in 1819, he married Elizabeth Clements, who bore him three sons and a daughter. Another son was to be later in Sydney, Australia. Lewis lived in the Eyre Estate at 11 South Bank, near St Johns Wood, after eight years in private practice, Lewis received an appointment as assistant surveyor in the office of surveyor-general of New South Wales. He set sail with his family in 1829 and arrived in Sydney in March,1830, Lewis arrived in Sydney via Hobart on 1 April 1830 as a free settler aboard the convict ship the Dunvegan Castle, which left Britain on 28 September 1829. From 1830 Lewis worked in the office of surveyor-general of New South Wales under Sir Thomas Mitchell, Lewis was appointed to be the Town Surveyor, in 1835 he was further promoted to the position of Colonial Architect which he held for 14 years during a period of great expansion. A long series of works throughout New South Wales followed, including court houses, police stations. Lewis also supervised the construction of buildings designed by other architects, Lewis became the leading proponent in Australia of the Classical Revival style, in particular the Doric variation, although he did not exclusively design in this style. Lewiss post as Colonial Architect ended sourly after a controversy concerning the construction of Sydney’s first museum. In the late 1840s he began designing Sydneys first museum, which would later be absorbed into the present Australian Museum, the project experienced substantial cost overruns during construction and Lewis was heavily criticised by both the press and politicians. Lewis discovery to Bourke came at a time there was desperate need of a Lunatic Asylum which was adequate to deal with problem people within the colony. Lewis began work in 1836 and the Gladesville Asylum opened in 1838 and his design had a simple traditional facade, symmetrical in plan and elevation. The Ionic columns of the portico would have one of the first examples of such ornate craftsmanship within Australia at this time. Previously it was common to see Doric columns with circular detailing at the capitals, requiring far less detail. The church was constructed from materials such as stone and clay. The clay is known to produce bricks with a variation in colour. Lewis had an affinity with stucco at the time of construction, ironically the roughly laid bricks resulted in a richness in the facade, adding character and depth. Darlinghurst Court House, Darlinghurst Said to be one of Lewis’ most important works, Lewis’ plan placed the court room in the centre, with a symmetrical arrangement of rooms for magistrates and court officials either side
12.
James Barnet
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James Johnstone Barnet was the Colonial Architect for Colonial New South Wales, serving from 1862 to 1890. The list of Barnets work includes 169 post and telegraph offices,130 courthouses,155 police stations,110 lock-ups and 20 lighthouses, born the son of a builder, Barnet was educated at the local high school. In 1843, at the age of sixteen, Barnet moved to London and he then became of clerk of works with the Worshipful Company of Fishmongers. In 1854 he married and sailed for Sydney, Australia, with his new wife, in Sydney, he worked first as a builder for Edmund Blacket, then became Clerk of Works at the University of Sydney. In 1860, he joined the Colonial Architects Office, in 1862, he was acting head of the office, in 1865, he was promoted to the post of Colonial Architect. Between 1865 and 1881, Barnet had supervised 1,490 projects, other roles were assigned to Barnet, for example, he was put in charge of the arrangements for the visit of the Duke of Edinburgh in 1868. In 1879, Barnet was put in charge of the design, night shifts were used to get through the project using the first electric light in Sydney. Although the project was judged a success at the end, Barnet was constantly criticised in Parliament during the construction, the project overran its budget of £50,000 by more than three times, costing £184,570. Barnet had previously been criticised in 1874 over the new wing of the Australian Museum by the Museums trustees, by contrast, also in 1874, his General Post Office in Martin Place received high praise. Between 1870 and 1889 Barnet was on the set up to plan the colonys defence. Barnet built new batteries and barracks, in July 1889, defence works became the responsibility of a military works branch of the Public Works Department. The new director was Lieutenant–Colonel F. R. de Wolski, Barnet was not prompt in handing over plans and documents for defence works. There had been rumours about the project at Bare Island battery in Botany Bay, on 1 July 1890, a Royal Commission was set up to investigate the letting of contracts and report on the work completed. The evidence presented by staff of the Colonial Architects office and Barnet was contradictory, the Commission found that the work was below standard and the Colonial Architects supervision of the project was not adequate. While the minister supported Barnet, the Commissions censure was an end to his distinguished career. He believed that de Wolski had significantly influenced the Commission and held that the Commission’s findings were unjust, petty, in 1899, Barnet published Architectural work in Sydney, New South Wales, 1788-1899. Barnets work was influenced by the Italian Renaissance. He had little time for the new styles of architecture becoming fashionable in Sydney at the end of the nineteenth century, Barnet was also critical of domestic architectural fashions, cluttered with what he saw as useless ornamentation, and surmounted with blazing red tiles from France
13.
New South Wales Government Architect
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Historically, the government architect was in charge of the governments public building projects across the state of New South Wales, Australia. The first appointed officer to the role, styled Colonial Architect, was Francis Greenway, Francis Greenway was the first official architect for the Colony of New South Wales in a role that was called Colonial Architect. He was appointed in 1816 by Governor Macquarie to be Acting Civil Architect and Assistant Engineer responsible to Captain J M Gill, Greenway was a convict who had been sentenced to transportation for forgery. Greenways works included the Macquarie Lighthouse on South Head, the Fort on Bennelong Point, greenways other major buildings include the Obelisk in Macquarie Place, the Church of St James, St Mathews Church at Windsor and the Hyde Park Barracks. Bigge generally agreed with the criticisms, and elements of his reports criticised Governor Macquarie’s administration including his excessive spending on public works. Bigges reports on the led to Macquaries resignation in 1821. Brisbanes two replacement appointees lasted only short terms, Governor Darling arrived in December 1825 and dismissed the incumbent architect, George Cookney, a few months later. Governor Bourke succeeded Darling in 1831, Bourke initiated a major enquiry into the Department of Public Works and suspended its Director, Charles Wilson. Bourke had received numerous allegations anonymously against Wilson and the Department, Wilson was dismissed and following him, six of the next top officers were also dismissed. In effect, the Department of Public Works ceased to function on the date of those dismissals,13 March 1832, Bourke established the Colonial Architects Department in 1832 to be responsible for the planning and supervision of the construction and repair of public buildings. From 1833 to 1835 the Department briefly became the Architectural Branch of the Department of the Surveyor General before the Colonial Architects Department was again separately established, to replace Greenway, Brisbane appointed Standish Lawrence Harris, a recently arrived free settler as Civil Architect in late 1822. Harris main achievement seems to be in preparing a report on the condition of the Colonys public buildings requested by the Governor, Governor Brisbane found Harriss fees to be excessive. The Civil Architect reported to the Chief Engineer, Major John Ovens, Ovens had stated that Harris services can no longer be useful to me and Harris was dismissed in October 1824. Other than his report on the public buildings, Harriss possible contribution was the completion of the new Courthouse at Sydney begun by Greenway. Harris made enlargements and prepared drawings and specifications, but there is doubt as to whether even his design was that ultimately adopted. Harris made recommendations about the organisation of the Office for Public Works and the role of the Civil Architect, George Cookney was an English architect, the son of Darcy Wentworths London agent. Cookney was sponsored by Wentworth and his son William Charles Wentworth, Governor Brisbane appointed him in April 1825, however, there were not a lot of projects he was asked to look at. The only major work completed by Cookney was a memorial at the Sydney suburb of La Pérouse to Jean-François de la Pérouse, the memorial was requested by Baron de Bougainville, the son of the more famous French explorer, Louis Antoine de Bougainville, who visited Sydney in 1825
14.
Museum
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Most large museums are located in major cities throughout the world and more local ones exist in smaller cities, towns and even the countryside. Museums have varying aims, ranging from serving researchers and specialists to serving the general public, the goal of serving researchers is increasingly shifting to serving the general public. There are many types of museums, including art museums, natural history museums, science museums, war museums, the city with the largest number of museums is Mexico City with over 128 museums. According to The World Museum Community, there are more than 55,000 museums in 202 countries, the English museum comes from the Latin word, and is pluralized as museums. The first museum/library is considered to be the one of Plato in Athens, however, Pausanias gives another place called Museum, namely a small hill in Classical Athens opposite to the Akropolis. The hill was called Mouseion after Mousaious, a man who used to sing on the hill, the purpose of modern museums is to collect, preserve, interpret, and display items of artistic, cultural, or scientific significance for the education of the public. The purpose can also depend on ones point of view, to a family looking for entertainment on a Sunday afternoon, a trip to a local history museum or large city art museum could be a fun, and enlightening way to spend the day. To city leaders, a healthy museum community can be seen as a gauge of the health of a city. To a museum professional, a museum might be seen as a way to educate the public about the museums mission, Museums are, above all, storehouses of knowledge. In 1829, James Smithsons bequest, that would fund the Smithsonian Institution, stated he wanted to establish an institution for the increase, Museums of natural history in the late 19th century exemplified the Victorian desire for consumption and for order. Gathering all examples of classification of a field of knowledge for research. As American colleges grew in the 19th century, they developed their own natural history collections for the use of their students, while many large museums, such as the Smithsonian Institution, are still respected as research centers, research is no longer a main purpose of most museums. While there is a debate about the purposes of interpretation of a museums collection, there has been a consistent mission to protect. Much care, expertise, and expense is invested in efforts to retard decomposition in aging documents, artifacts, artworks. All museums display objects that are important to a culture, as historian Steven Conn writes, To see the thing itself, with ones own eyes and in a public place, surrounded by other people having some version of the same experience can be enchanting. Museum purposes vary from institution to institution, some favor education over conservation, or vice versa. For example, in the 1970s, the Canada Science and Technology Museum favored education over preservation of their objects and they displayed objects as well as their functions. One exhibit featured a printing press that a staff member used for visitors to create museum memorabilia
15.
Australia
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Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia
16.
Vertebrate
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Vertebrates /ˈvɜːrtᵻbrᵻts/ comprise all species of animals within the subphylum Vertebrata /-ɑː/. Vertebrates represent the majority of the phylum Chordata, with currently about 66,000 species described. Vertebrates include the fish and the jawed vertebrates, which include the cartilaginous fish. A bony fish known as the lobe-finned fishes is included with tetrapods, which are further divided into amphibians, reptiles, mammals. Extant vertebrates range in size from the frog species Paedophryne amauensis, at as little as 7.7 mm, to the blue whale, vertebrates make up less than five percent of all described animal species, the rest are invertebrates, which lack vertebral columns. The vertebrates traditionally include the hagfish, which do not have proper vertebrae due to their loss in evolution, though their closest living relatives, hagfish do, however, possess a cranium. For this reason, the vertebrate subphylum is sometimes referred to as Craniata when discussing morphology, molecular analysis since 1992 has suggested that hagfish are most closely related to lampreys, and so also are vertebrates in a monophyletic sense. Others consider them a group of vertebrates in the common taxon of craniata. The word origin of vertebrate derives from the Latin word vertebratus, the Proto-Indo-European language origins are still unclear. Vertebrate is derived from the vertebra, which refers to any of the bones or segments of the spinal column. All vertebrates are built along the basic body plan, a stiff rod running through the length of the animal, with a hollow tube of nervous tissue above it. In all vertebrates, the mouth is found at, or right below, the remaining part of the body continuing after the anus forms a tail with vertebrae and spinal cord, but no gut. However, a few vertebrates have secondarily lost this anatomy, retaining the notochord into adulthood, such as the sturgeon, jawed vertebrates are typified by paired appendages, but this trait is not required in order for an animal to be a vertebrate. All basal vertebrates breathe with gills, the gills are carried right behind the head, bordering the posterior margins of a series of openings from the pharynx to the exterior. Each gill is supported by a cartilagenous or bony gill arch, the bony fish have three pairs of arches, cartilaginous fish have five to seven pairs, while the primitive jawless fish have seven. The vertebrate ancestor no doubt had more arches than this, as some of their relatives have more than 50 pairs of gills. In amphibians and some primitive fishes, the larvae bear external gills. These are reduced in adulthood, their function taken over by the gills proper in fishes, some amphibians retain the external larval gills in adulthood, the complex internal gill system as seen in fish apparently being irrevocably lost very early in the evolution of tetrapods
17.
Invertebrate
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Invertebrates are animals that neither possess nor develop a vertebral column, derived from the notochord. This includes all animals apart from the subphylum Vertebrata, familiar examples of invertebrates include insects, crabs, lobsters and their kin, snails, clams, octopuses and their kin, starfish, sea-urchins and their kin, jellyfish, and worms. The majority of species are invertebrates, one estimate puts the figure at 97%. Many invertebrate taxa have a number and variety of species than the entire subphylum of Vertebrata. Some of the invertebrates, such as the Tunicata and Cephalochordata are more closely related to the vertebrates than to other invertebrates. This makes the term invertebrate paraphyletic and hence almost meaningless for taxonomic purposes, the word invertebrate comes from the form of the Latin word vertebra, which means a joint in general, and sometimes specifically a joint from the spinal column of a vertebrate. In turn the jointed aspect of vertebra derived from the concept of turning, coupled with the prefix in-, meaning not or without. The term invertebrates is not always precise among non-biologists since it does not accurately describe a taxon in the way that Arthropoda. Each of these describes an valid taxon, phylum, subphylum or family. Invertebrata is a term of convenience, not a taxon, it has very little circumscriptional significance except within the Chordata, the Vertebrata as a subphylum comprises such a small proportion of the Metazoa that to speak of the kingdom Animalia in terms of Vertebrata and Invertebrata has limited practicality. That would at least circumscribe the Chordata, however, even the notochord would be a less fundamental criterion than aspects of embryological development and symmetry or perhaps bauplan. The following text reflects earlier scientific understanding of the term and of animals which have constituted it. According to this understanding, invertebrates do not possess a skeleton of bone and they include hugely varied body plans. Many have fluid-filled, hydrostatic skeletons, like jellyfish or worms, others have hard exoskeletons, outer shells like those of insects and crustaceans. The most familiar invertebrates include the Protozoa, Porifera, Coelenterata, Platyhelminthes, Nematoda, Annelida, Echinodermata, Mollusca, Arthropoda include insects, crustaceans and arachnids. By far the largest number of described species are insects. The following table lists the number of described extant species for major invertebrate groups as estimated in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species,2014.3. The IUCN estimates that 66,178 extant vertebrate species have been described, the trait that is common to all invertebrates is the absence of a vertebral column, this creates a distinction between invertebrates and vertebrates
18.
Zoology
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The term is derived from Ancient Greek ζῷον, zōion, i. e. animal and λόγος, logos, i. e. knowledge, study. The history of zoology traces the study of the kingdom from ancient to modern times. This ancient work was developed in the Middle Ages by Muslim physicians. During the Renaissance and early period, zoological thought was revolutionized in Europe by a renewed interest in empiricism. Microscopy revealed the unknown world of microorganisms, laying the groundwork for cell theory. The growing importance of natural theology, partly a response to the rise of mechanical philosophy, over the 18th and 19th centuries, zoology became an increasingly professional scientific discipline. Naturalists began to reject essentialism and consider the importance of extinction, cell theory provided a new perspective on the fundamental basis of life. These developments, as well as the results from embryology and paleontology, were synthesized in Charles Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection. In 1859, Darwin placed the theory of evolution on a new footing, by his discovery of a process by which organic evolution can occur. Darwin gave new direction to morphology and physiology, by uniting them in a biological theory. The end of the 19th century saw the fall of spontaneous generation, cell biology studies the structural and physiological properties of cells, including their behavior, interactions, and environment. This is done on both the microscopic and molecular levels, for single-celled organisms such as bacteria as well as the cells in multicellular organisms such as humans. Understanding the structure and function of cells is fundamental to all of the biological sciences, the similarities and differences between cell types are particularly relevant to molecular biology. Anatomy considers the forms of macroscopic structures such as organs and organ systems and it focuses on how organs and organ systems work together in the bodies of humans and animals, in addition to how they work independently. Anatomy and cell biology are two studies that are related, and can be categorized under structural studies. Physiology studies the mechanical, physical, and biochemical processes of living organisms by attempting to understand how all of the function as a whole. The theme of structure to function is central to biology, for example, what is learned about the physiology of yeast cells can also apply to human cells. The field of animal physiology extends the tools and methods of physiology to non-human species
19.
Mineralogy
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Mineralogy is a subject of geology specializing in the scientific study of chemistry, crystal structure, and physical properties of minerals and mineralized artifacts. Specific studies within mineralogy include the processes of mineral origin and formation, classification of minerals, their geographical distribution, the German Renaissance specialist Georgius Agricola wrote works such as De re metallica and De Natura Fossilium which began the scientific approach to the subject. Systematic scientific studies of minerals and rocks developed in post-Renaissance Europe, the modern study of mineralogy was founded on the principles of crystallography and to the microscopic study of rock sections with the invention of the microscope in the 17th century. Nicholas Steno first observed the law of constancy of interfacial angles in quartz crystals in 1669 and this was later generalized and established experimentally by Jean-Baptiste L. Romé de lIslee in 1783. In 1814, Jöns Jacob Berzelius introduced a classification of minerals based on their chemistry rather than their crystal structure, james D. Dana published his first edition of A System of Mineralogy in 1837, and in a later edition introduced a chemical classification that is still the standard. It, however, retains a focus on the structures commonly encountered in rock-forming minerals. An initial step in identifying a mineral is to examine its physical properties and these can be classified into density, measures of mechanical cohesion, macroscopic visual properties, magnetic and electric properties, radioactivity and solubility in hydrogen chloride. If the mineral is crystallized, it will also have a distinctive crystal habit that reflects the crystal structure or internal arrangement of atoms. It is also affected by crystal defects and twinning. Many crystals are polymorphic, having more than one crystal structure depending on factors such as pressure and temperature. ”Examples of polymorphs are calcite and aragonite - two minerals with identical chemical composition, distinguished by their crystallography, calcite is rhombohedral and aragonite is orthorhombic. The crystal structure is the arrangement of atoms in a crystal and it is represented by a lattice of points which repeats a basic pattern, called a unit cell, in three dimensions. The lattice can be characterized by its symmetries and by the dimensions of the unit cell and these dimensions are represented by three Miller indices. The lattice remains unchanged by certain symmetry operations about any point in the lattice, reflection, rotation, inversion, and rotary inversion. Together, they make up an object called a crystallographic point group or crystal class. There are 32 possible crystal classes, in addition, there are operations that displace all the points, translation, screw axis, and glide plane. In combination with the point symmetries, they form 230 possible space groups, most geology departments have X-ray powder diffraction equipment to analyze the crystal structures of minerals. X-rays have wavelengths that are the order of magnitude as the distances between atoms. In a sample that is ground to a powder, the X-rays sample a random distribution of all crystal orientations, powder diffraction can distinguish between minerals that may appear the same in a hand sample, for example quartz and its polymorphs tridymite and cristobalite
20.
Palaeontology
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Paleontology or palaeontology is the scientific study of life that existed prior to, and sometimes including, the start of the Holocene Epoch. It includes the study of fossils to determine organisms evolution and interactions with each other, paleontological observations have been documented as far back as the 5th century BC. The science became established in the 18th century as a result of Georges Cuviers work on comparative anatomy, and developed rapidly in the 19th century. The term itself originates from Greek παλαιός, palaios, i. e. old, ancient, ὄν, on, i. e. being, creature and λόγος, logos, i. e. speech, thought, study. Paleontology lies on the border between biology and geology, but differs from archaeology in that it excludes the study of modern humans. It now uses techniques drawn from a range of sciences, including biochemistry, mathematics. The final quarter of the 20th century saw the development of molecular phylogenetics, molecular phylogenetics has also been used to estimate the dates when species diverged, but there is controversy about the reliability of the molecular clock on which such estimates depend. The simplest definition is the study of ancient life, paleontology is one of the historical sciences, along with archaeology, geology, astronomy, cosmology, philology and history itself. This means that it aims to describe phenomena of the past, hence it has three main elements, description of the phenomena, developing a general theory about the causes of various types of change, and applying those theories to specific facts. Sometimes the smoking gun is discovered by an accident during other research. Paleontology lies on the boundary between biology and geology since paleontology focuses on the record of past life but its source of evidence is fossils. In addition paleontology often uses techniques derived from other sciences, including biology, osteology, ecology, chemistry, techniques developed in engineering have been used to analyse how ancient organisms might have worked, for example how fast Tyrannosaurus could move and how powerful its bite was. As knowledge has increased, paleontology has developed specialised subdivisions, vertebrate paleontology concentrates on fossils of vertebrates, from the earliest fish to the immediate ancestors of modern mammals. Invertebrate paleontology deals with fossils of such as molluscs, arthropods. Paleobotany focuses on the study of plants, but traditionally includes the study of fossil algae. Palynology, the study of pollen and spores produced by plants and protists. Micropaleontology deals with all microscopic fossil organisms, regardless of the group to which they belong, one example is the development of oxygenic photosynthesis by bacteria, which hugely increased the productivity and diversity of ecosystems. This also caused the oxygenation of the atmosphere, together, these were a prerequisite for the evolution of the most complex eukaryotic cells, from which all multicellular organisms are built
21.
Gerard Krefft
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Johann Ludwig Gerard Krefft, one of Australias first and greatest zoologists and palaeontologists. He published the description of the Queensland Lungfish, considered a living fossil. Krefft was born in the Duchy of Brunswick the son of William Krefft, confectioner and he was educated at St Martins College, Brunswick, and as a youth was interested in art and wished to study painting. He was, however, placed in a house and about 1850 emigrated to New York City. Krefft arrived in Australia in November 1852 and worked in the Victorian goldfields for some years before joining William Blandowskis explorations on the Murray River, Krefft visited Germany in 1858 following the death of his father. Krefft arrived in Sydney, New South Wales in 1860 and was appointed Assistant Curator of the Australian Museum on the recommendation of Governor Sir William Denison, in 1864 he was appointed Director. In 1869 Krefft brought out The Snakes of Australia and in 1871 The Mammals of Australia and his Catalogue of the Minerals and Rocks in the Collection of the Australian Museum was published in 1873. He was carried in his chair to the door of the Museum and he had fallen foul of the Trustees, William John Macleay in particular, because he had accused them of using the museums resources to augment private collections. They responded by accusing him of drunkenness, falsifying attendance records and he subsequently brought an action against one of the trustees and obtained a verdict for £250. The judge held that Krefft was an officer under government. Subsequently parliament passed a vote of £1000 to be applied in satisfaction of Kreffts claims, in 1877 he began the publication of Kreffts Nature in Australia, a popular journal for the discussion of questions of natural history, but it quickly ceased publication. Krefft died on 19 February 1881 from congestion of the lungs, he was buried in the churchyard of St Judes Church of England and he was survived by his wife Annie, née McPhail, whom he had married on 6 February 1869, and two sons. Krefft was a member of scientific societies, and contributed papers to the Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London and other scientific. Some of these were printed separately as pamphlets, Krefft is honored in the scientific names of two reptiles endemic to Australia, Cacophis krefftii, a species of venomous snake, and Emydura macquarii krefftii, a subspecies of freshwater turtle. The mountain group of Krefftberget at Barentsøya, Svalbard, is named after him, works by or about Gerard Krefft at Internet Archive Serle, Percival. Gerard Krefft in the National Library of Australias collection
22.
William Street, Sydney
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William Street is a 1. 4-kilometre-long major thoroughfare in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. The street was named in honour of King William IV and was gazetted in 1834, the streets eastern terminus is located on the boundary between Kings Cross, Rushcutters Bay and Paddington at the streets junction with Barcom Avenue, Bayswater Road and New South Head Road. The streets western terminus is located adjacent to Hyde Park where it turns into Park Street at the junction of College Street in the Sydney central business district, the street forms the border between the two suburbs of Woolloomooloo and Darlinghurst. The Cross City Tunnel, a motorway, follows much of the route of William Street. The tunnel was constructed in an attempt to ease congestion for through traffic across the east-west of the CBD. William Street is closed to traffic for the City2Surf road running fun run and race. In the 1880s notable Australian poet Henry Lawson lived in a house along William Street before he became famous for his poetry. In 1909 it was decided to resume the south side of the street to widen the street into a larger boulevard style, the resuming was conducted between 1910 and 1914. In 1894 the Watsons Bay tram service was introduced in 1894, an electric system was introduced in 1905. Motor buses were introduced after World War I, during the 1930s, the tram service from William Street through Kings Cross ran as frequently as one tram per minute during weekdays. With the combination of trams, buses and cars, the William Street, Darlinghurst Road, the tram line along William Street and through Kings Cross was closed on Sunday,10 July 1960, superseded by buses and later, the Eastern Suburbs railway line. Razor gang RTA Webcam Kelly, Max, faces of the Street, William Street Sydney 1916
23.
Entomologist
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Entomology is the scientific study of insects, a branch of zoology. This wider meaning may still be encountered in informal use, Entomology is rooted in nearly all human cultures from prehistoric times, primarily in the context of agriculture, but scientific study began only as recently as the 16th century. William Kirby is widely considered as the father of Entomology, in collaboration with William Spence, he published a definitive entomological encyclopedia, Introduction to Entomology, regarded as the subjects foundational text. He also helped to found the Royal Entomological Society in London in 1833, one of the earliest such societies in the world, earlier antecedents, such as the Aurelian society date back to the 1740s. There has also been a history of people becoming entomologists through museum curation and research assistance, insect identification is an increasingly common hobby, with butterflies and dragonflies being the most popular. Most insects can easily be recognized to such as Hymenoptera or Coleoptera. However, insects other than Lepidoptera are typically identifiable to genus or species only through the use of Identification keys and Monographs. Because the class Insecta contains a large number of species and the characteristics separating them are unfamiliar, and often subtle. This has led to the development of automated species identification systems targeted on insects, for example, Daisy, ABIS, SPIDA, in 1994 the Entomological Society of America launched a new professional certification program for the pest control industry called The Associate Certified Entomologist. To qualify as a true entomologist an individual would require an advanced degree. Trichopterology - caddis flies Vespology - Social wasps Like other scientific specialties, entomologists have a number of local, national, there are also many organizations specializing in specific subareas. C. Y. Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas University of Minnesota, big Fleas Have Little Fleas, How Discoveries of Invertebrate Diseases Are Advancing Modern Science University of Arizona Press, Tucson,208 pages, ISBN 0-8165-2544-7. Triplehorn, Charles A. and Norman F. Johnson, borror and DeLongs Introduction to the Study of Insects, 7th edition, Thomas Brooks/Cole. — a classic textbook in North America, cS1 maint, Multiple names, authors list Capinera, JL.2008. Iowa State Entomology Index of Internet Resources, archived from the original on 2006-11-14. Archived from the original on 2006-12-06, archived from the original on 2007-02-07. Compendium of References on Flies and Disease, archived from the original on 2006-10-15. USDA Collecting methods. Detailed instructions Arthropa Extensive photo album sorted by topic, Tereshkin Scientific illustration in entomology Tereshkin, A.2008, Methodology of a scientific drawings preparation in entomology on example of ichneumon flies
24.
Linnean Society of London
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The Linnean Society of London is a society dedicated to the study of, and the dissemination of information concerning, natural history and taxonomy. It possesses several important biological specimen, manuscript and literature collections and publishes academic journals and books on plant, the society also awards a number of prestigious medals and prizes for achievement. A product of the 18th century enlightenment, the society is important as the venue for the first public presentation of the Theory of Evolution. The patron of the society is Queen Elizabeth II, the Linnean Society was founded in 1788 by botanist Sir James Edward Smith. The society derives its name from the Swedish naturalist Carolus Linnaeus, the father of taxonomy and he was known as Carl von Linné after his ennoblement, hence the spelling Linnean, rather than Linnaean. The society had a number of minor name variations before it gained its Royal Charter on 26 March 1802, in 1802, as a newly incorporated society, it comprised 228 fellows. It is the oldest extant natural history society in the world, throughout its history the society has been a non-political and non-sectarian institution, existing solely for the furtherance of natural history. The society has numbered many prominent scientists amongst its fellows, one such was the botanist Robert Brown, who was president, he named the cell nucleus and discovered Brownian motion. In 1854 Charles Darwin was elected a fellow, he is undoubtedly the most illustrious scientist ever to appear on the rolls of the society. Another famous fellow was biologist Thomas Huxley, who gained the nickname Darwins bulldog for his defence of evolution. At this meeting a joint presentation of papers by Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace was made, sponsored by Joseph Hooker, in 1904 the society experienced the novelty of electing women fellows, this followed a number of years of campaigning by the botanist Marian Farquharson. Whilst the societys council was reluctant to admit women, the fellows were much less so, among the first to benefit from this were, Lilian J. Veley, a microbiologist and Annie Lorrain Smith, a lichenologist and mycologist, both formally admitted on 19 January 1905. Also amongst the first women to be elected in 1904 was the paleobotanist, the societys connection with evolution remained strong into the 20th century. Sir Edward Poulton, who was president 1912-1916, was a defender of natural selection and was the first biologist to recognise the importance of frequency-dependent selection. The first female president of the society was Irene Manton, who pioneered the use of electron microscopy. Her work revealed the structure of the flagellum and cilia, which are central to systems of cellular motility. Recent years have seen an increased interest within the society in issues of biodiversity conservation and this was highlighted by the inception in 2015 of an annual award, the John Spedan Lewis Medal, specifically honouring persons making significant and innovative contributions to conservation. Fellowship requires nomination by at least one fellow, and election by a minimum of two thirds of those electors voting, fellows may employ the post-nominal letters FLS
25.
Alexander Macleay
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Hon. Alexander Macleay MLC FLS FRS was a leading member of the Linnean Society, a fellow of the Royal Society and member of the New South Wales Legislative Council. Macleay was born on Ross-shire, Scotland, eldest son of William Macleay, Alexander had a classical education, before relocating to London and becoming a wine merchant with his business partner William Sharp - after whom his first son was named. In 1795 he was elected a fellow of the Linnean Society of London, also serving as its Secretary, when the office was linked with the Transport Board after war broke out, Macleay became head of the correspondence department and by 1806 secretary. The Board was abolished in 1815, and Macleay retired on an annual pension and this included the British Collection of John Curtis now housed in Melbourne, Australia. In 1813, he was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. On 14 June 1825, Macleay was appointed Colonial Secretary for New South Wales and he arrived in Sydney in January 1826, with his wife Eliza,9 of his 10 surviving children, and his extensive collection. He was soon working twelve-hour days and on 17 July 1825 was nominated to the New South Wales Legislative and Executive Councils, holding both positions until December 1836. Macleay represented Counties of Gloucester, Macquarie, and Stanley in the partially elected Legislative Council from June 1843 until 19 June 1848 and his extensive entomological collections formed the basis of the Macleay Museum at the University of Sydney. Macleay was also very active beyond his scientific pursuits and was the president of the Australian Club. Macleay married a Miss Barclay of Urie and he was the father of the entomologist William Sharp Macleay who expanded his fathers collection and of George Macleay, also a zoologist. Sir William John Macleay was his nephew and his daughter Rosa Roberta married Arthur Pooley Onslow, her children included Arthur Alexander Walton Onslow and Sir Alexander Onslow. Archived from the original on 24 June 2007, McLeay, Alexander, Australian Dictionary of Biography, Volume 2, MUP,1967, pp 177–180. Macleay, Alexander, Australian National Herbarium Boulger, George Simonds, McLeay, Alexander National Library of Australia, Trove, People and Organisation record for Alexander McLeay
26.
Chief Secretary of New South Wales
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Its role changed significantly from the time of its creation in 1821 to its final use in 1995, with various responsibilities changing hands. Originally having the role of the secretary to the Governor as well as secretary of the Colony this office was at first known as the Colonial Secretary or Principal Secretary. On 30 June 1820 Major Frederick Goulburn was commissioned as Colonial Secretary and Registrar of the Records of New South Wales, from 1894 the Colonial Secretary was thus a government minister and was basically equivalent to the British Home Secretary. For most of the role of the Chief Secretary up to its penultimate abolition in 1975. Gaming, racing, betting and poker machines, censorship and regulation of literature, art, films and plays. Electoral matters Environmental protection and fisheries
27.
Earl Bathurst
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Earl Bathurst, of Bathurst in the County of Sussex, is a title in the Peerage of Great Britain. The medieval English word was Botehurst, thought to date at least from 13th century, bote is the origination of Battle, although the family may have settled there post-dating the Conquest. This translated as a wood in a wood which may in contradistinction have meant a clearing, the name of Apsley adopted by the family derived from Thakenham, near Pulborough in east Sussex, which may have referred to apse - lea or a church in a meadow. The Bathurst estates were at Cirencester Park and Paulspury, Northamptonshire and it was created in 1772 for Allen Bathurst, 1st Baron Bathurst. He was a politician and an opponent of Sir Robert Walpole and he was also known for his wit and learning, for his connections with poets and scholars of his time, and the famous landscape garden he created at his seat, Cirencester House, in Gloucestershire. Sixty years before being created an Earl, in 1712, he had elevated to the Peerage of Great Britain as Baron Bathurst. Bathurst was the son of Sir Benjamin Bathurst, Cofferer of the Household and Governor of the British East India Company, by his wife Frances and he married his cousin Catherine Apsley, daughter of his maternal uncle Sir Peter Apsley, in 1704. He was succeeded by his second but eldest surviving son, the second Earl and he was a prominent lawyer and politician. In 1771, four years before the death of his father, he was raised to the Peerage of Great Britain in his own right as Baron Apsley and he then served as Lord High Chancellor until 1778 and later held office as Lord President of the Council. Bathurst constructed Apsley House in London, which became the seat of the Dukes of Wellington. His eldest son Henry, the third Earl, was a noted politician and he served as President of the Board of Trade, as Foreign Secretary, as Secretary of State for War and the Colonies and as Lord President of the Council. He gave his name to Bathurst, the capital of The Gambia, now called Banjul, and also the Australian town of Bathurst and his eldest son, the fourth Earl, represented Weobley and Cirencester in the House of Commons as a Tory. He never married and was succeeded by his brother, the fifth Earl. He sat as Member of Parliament for Weobly and he also died unmarried and was succeeded by his nephew, the sixth Earl. He was the son of Lieutenant-Colonel the Hon. Thomas Seymour Bathurst, third, Lord Bathurst represented Cirencester in Parliament as a Conservative. On his death the titles passed to his eldest son, the seventh Earl and he was for some years the owner of the Morning Post. Lord Bathursts eldest son and heir apparent Allen Bathurst, Lord Apsley, was Member of Parliament for Southampton, in 1942 he was killed in the Second World War, predeceasing his father by one year. His wife Viola Bathurst, Lady Apsley, succeeded him as Member of Parliament for Bristol Central, as of 2014 the titles are held by his son, the ninth Earl, who succeeded in 2011
28.
Secretary of State for the Colonies
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The Secretary of State for the Colonies or Colonial Secretary was the British Cabinet minister in charge of managing the United Kingdoms various colonial dependencies. The position was first created in 1768 to deal with the increasingly troublesome North American colonies, joint responsibility continued under the Secretary of State for the Colonies, but led to a diminution of the boards status and it became an adjunct to the new Secretarys Department. Following this, colonial duties given to the Home Secretary, then Lord Sydney, following the Treaty of Paris 1783, a new board, named the Committee of Council on Trade and Plantations was established under William Pitt the Younger, by an Order in Council in 1784. In the latter part of the century the United Kingdom also gained control over a number of territories with the status of protectorate. The ministerial responsibility for these territories was initially held by the Foreign Secretary, however, by the early years of the twentieth century the responsibility for each of these territories had been transferred to the Colonial Secretary as well. The League of Nations mandated territories acquired as a result of the Treaty of Versailles became a responsibility of the Colonial Office in the aftermath of the First World War. In 1925 part of the Colonial Office was separated out as the Dominions Office, the new office was responsible for dealing with the Dominions together with a small number of other territories. In the twenty years following the end of the Second World War, in 1968 the Commonwealth Office was subsumed into the Foreign Office, which was renamed the Foreign and Commonwealth Office. The Colonial Secretary never had responsibility for the provinces and princely states of India, from 1768 until 1966 the Secretary of State was supported by an Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies, and latterly by a Minister of State
29.
Hyde Park, Sydney
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Hyde Park, the oldest public parkland in Australia, is a 16. 2-hectare park in the central business district of Sydney, New South Wales. Hyde Park is on the side of the Sydney city centre. It is the southernmost of a chain of parkland that extends north to the shore of Sydney Harbour via The Domain, Hyde Park is approximately rectangular in shape, being squared at the southern end and rounded at the northern end. It is bordered on the west by Elizabeth Street, on the east by College Street, on the north by St. James Road and Prince Albert Road, around the parks boundaries lie the Supreme Court of New South Wales, St. It is divided in two by the east-west running Park Street, Hyde Park contains well-kept gardens and approximately 580 trees, a mixture of Hills Figs, palms, and other varieties. It is famed for its magnificent fig tree lined avenues, Sandringham Gardens sit on the eastern side of the park, close to the intersection of Park Street and College Street. Hyde Park was named after the original Hyde Park in London, busbys Bore was built between 1827 and 1837 using convict labour and fresh water from Lachlan Swamp to the city. From the very early days of the colony, the area to the south east of the settlement was a favorite place for sport. It was known variously as The Common, the Exercising Ground, the Cricket Ground and he kept the Domain for his own exclusive use. The quoit players, in particular, used a close to the cricket pitch. In 2005 a number of disease-affected trees were discovered and felled, following investigations a significant proportion of the trees were found to be infected with three different fungi. In 2006, a Tree Management Plan recommended the removal of about 230 diseased trees, seven Arab horses taken on board the First Fleet at the Cape Colony were the first horses to be brought to Australia. The first thoroughbred to be brought to Australia was Rockingham in 1799, by 1800 there were 200 horses in the colony which grew to 1100 by 1810. A race ground on the Hawkesbury River near Richmond was probably Australias first racecourse being used as early as 1806, match races were run there as part of a holiday at Parramatta in April 1810. The meetings to devise the rules and organise the event were held in the officers mess, the race meeting consisted of a series of heats with weights set depending on the sex and age of a horse. There were also a number of races between two horses and sweepstake prizes offered. Governor Macquarie himself attended each day of the meeting and this format for race meetings was followed in the colony for the next 50 years. Owners mostly rode their own horses and the courses were marked by flags, meetings continued to be held at Hyde Park up until the formation of the Sydney Turf Club in 1825 when they were moved to the Bellevue course
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International Style (architecture)
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A visually weightless quality engendered by the use of cantilever construction. Glass and steel, in combination with usually less visible reinforced concrete, are the materials of the construction. Commissioned in 1931 by the director of the Museum of Modern Art, Alfred H. Barr Jr. The original exhibition catalogue was then followed up immediately by the book titled The International Style, the aesthetics-based definition of The International Style identified, categorized and expanded upon characteristics said to be common to Modernism across the world and its stylistic aspects. Hitchcock and Johnson identified three principles, the expression of volume rather than mass, the emphasis on rather than preconceived symmetry. The aim of Hitchcock and Johnson was to define a style that would encapsulate this modern architecture, all the works in the 1932 Museum of Modern Art exhibition were carefully selected, only displaying those that strictly followed these rules. Many Modernists disliked the term, believing that they had arrived at an approach to architecture that transcended style, the British architectural historian Sir Nikolaus Pevsner commented, To me what had been achieved in 1914 was the style of the century. It never occurred to me to look beyond, here was the one and only style which fitted all those aspects which mattered, aspects of economics and sociology, of materials and function. It seems folly to think anybody would wish to abandon it. The exhibition Modern Architecture, International Exhibition opened on February 9,1932, at the Museum of Modern Art, in the Heckscher Building at Fifth Avenue and 56th Street in New York. In the largest exhibition space, Room C, were works by Le Corbusier, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Room B was a section titled Housing, presenting the need for a new domestic environment” as it had been identified by historian and critic Lewis Mumford. In Room D were works by Raymond Hood and Richard Neutra, among these works was shown Alvar Aaltos Turun Sanomat newspaper offices building in Turku, Finland. The exhibition is significant for its approach to the architectural exhibition. Highly curated in nature, the 1932 exhibition was driven by a desire to promote and consolidate the theory of international modernism, as such, the exhibition featured prominently the work of the core of the modernist group. With Van Der Rohe, Corbusier, Oud, and Gropius at the forefront, moMAs then director Alfred H. Barr hired art historians Philip Johnson and Henry-Russell Hitchcock to curate the museums first architectural exhibition. In 1929, Johnson attended the ceremony of his sister in Wellesley College, where he met Barr. In one month, Barr would be interviewed by Abby Aldrich Rockefeller for the position of the director of the MOMA, Barr added Johnson to MOMAs Junior Advisory Committee. Hitchcock graduated in 1924 after having completed his studies in three years and spending his senior year in architecture
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Incorporation (business)
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Incorporation is the formation of a new corporation. The corporation may be a business, an organization, sports club. This article focuses on the process of incorporation, see also corporation, the information required differ in different states. However, there are some information that are asked by almost all the states and so, must be included in the Certificate of Incorporation. They are as follows, Business purpose - It would describe the incorporated tasks a company has to do or provide, at present, only two types of business purpose clauses are used. They are, General - General purpose clauses are accepted by some and it indicates that the budding company has been formed to carry out all lawful business in the region. Specific - Alternatively, some states have made it mandatory for the owners to furnish a more detailed explanation of the products and/or services to be offered by their companies. Corporate name - A chosen name must be added to the Certificate of Incorporation and this should be followed with the corporate identifier like Corporation, Incorporated, Company, or one of the abbreviations like Inc. A preliminary name availability search is advisable, prior to the submission of the Articles of Incorporation, in case of online incorporation, the state will have final say with regards to the name chosen for the company and that the name shouldnt deceive or mislead the consumers. Registered agent - Almost all the states require every corporation to have an agent of their own in the state of incorporation. Registered agents will receive all the important legal as well as tax documents on behalf of the corporation, a typical registered agent will need a physical address in the state of incorporation and should be accessible during normal business hours. Incorporator - An incorporator is the person who prepares and files the Certificate of Incorporation with the concerned state, share par value - It refers to the stated minimum value, and generally doesnt correspond to the actual value. Usually, $0.01, $1.00 or no par are some of the common par values, in reality, the value of a share is based on its fair market value, or whatever amount a buyer is willing to pay for the same. Number of authorized shares of stock - An incorporation needs to stipulate the exact number of shares they as a company are willing to authorize, moreover, it is mandatory for every corporation, be it small or large, to have stock. A stock represents ownership in the corporation, directors - A lot of states need the name and addresses of the initial directors of the corporation in the incorporation papers. They are responsible for the daily affairs and oversee major corporate decisions. Directors hold an office as chosen by the shareholders mandate. Generally, preferred shares provide its shareholders preferential payments of distribution of assets or dividends, a lot of small business owners only allow shares of common stock
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Board of trustees
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A board of directors is a body of elected or appointed members who jointly oversee the activities of a corporation or organization, which can include a non-profit organization or a government agency. A board of directors activities are determined by the powers, duties and responsibilities conferred on it by an authority outside itself and these matters are typically detailed in regulations or in the organizations constitution and bylaws. These authorities may specify the number of members of the board, how they are to be chosen, and how often they are to meet. In an organization with voting members, the board is accountable to, and might be subordinate to, the full membership. In a stock corporation, non-executive directors are voted for by the shareholders, the board of directors appoints the chief executive officer of the corporation and sets out the overall strategic direction. In corporations with dispersed ownership, the identification and nomination of directors are often done by the board itself, in a non-stock corporation with no general voting membership, the board is the supreme governing body of the institution, its members are sometimes chosen by the board itself. Other names include Board of directors and advisors, board of governors, board of managers, board of regents, board of trustees and it may also be called the executive board and is often simply referred to as the board. For companies with publicly trading stock, these responsibilities are typically much more rigorous, typically, the board chooses one of its members to be the chairman, who holds whatever title is specified in the bylaws or articles of association. However, in organizations, the members elect the president of the organization. The directors of an organization are the persons who are members of its board, several specific terms categorize directors by the presence or absence of their other relationships to the organization. An inside director is a director who is also an employee, officer, chief executive, major shareholder, inside directors represent the interests of the entitys stakeholders, and often have special knowledge of its inner workings, its financial or market position, and so on. Executive directors often have an area of responsibility in the organization, such as finance, marketing, human resources. An outside director is a member of the board who is not otherwise employed by or engaged with the organization, a typical example is a director who is president of a firm in a different industry. Outside directors are not employees of the company or affiliated with it in any other way, outside directors bring outside experience and perspectives to the board. One of the arguments for having outside directors is that they can keep a eye on the inside directors. Outside directors are unlikely to tolerate insider dealing between insider directors, as outside directors do not benefit from the company or organization, outside directors are often useful in handling disputes between inside directors, or between shareholders and the board. They are thought to be advantageous because they can be objective, director - a person appointed to serve on the board of an organization, such as an institution or business. This practice results in an interlocking directorate, where a small number of individuals have significant influence over a large number of important entities
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William Sharp Macleay
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William Sharp Macleay or McLeay was a British civil servant and entomologist. After graduating, he worked for the British embassy in Paris, following his interest in history at the same time, publishing essays on insects. Macleay moved to Havana, Cuba, where he was in turn commissioner of arbitration, commissary judge, retiring from this work, he emigrated to Australia where he continued to collect insects and studied marine natural history. Macleay was born in London, eldest son of Alexander Macleay who named him for his business partner. He attended Westminster School and Trinity College, Cambridge graduating with honours in 1814, macleays principal work was Horae Entomologicae, or, Essays on the Annulose Animals, parts 1-2. He also published Annulosa Javanica or an Attempt to illustrate the Natural Affinities and Analogies of the Insects collected in Java by T. Horsfield, Macleay sent many insects to Frederick William Hope, which are now preserved in the Hope Department of Entomology at Oxford University. He was also a correspondent of Charles Darwin, though he disagreed fervently with the theories of evolution. Macleay was the originator of the short-lived Quinarian system of classification and this was an attempt to classify animals into related groups and was put forward in Part 2 of his book Horae Entomologicae. According to his reasoning, each group of animals could be subdivided into 5 subgroups. MacLeay was one of the first systematists to note the difference between similarity due to true relation, called affinity, and similarity due to function, called analogy. Major groups united by affinities could also be related to groups or subgroups by overlaps known as osculations. The ideas were taken up by William Swainson, Nicholas Aylward Vigors. He retired in 1836 on a pension of £900, throughout these years he also maintained a correspondence with his sister Frances Leonora Macleay. These letters typically convey a harsh, even severe impression of his character, Macleay had maintained his scientific work whilst in Havana and was elected to the Linnean Society, of which his father had been Secretary, and the Zoological Society. He was elected president of the history section of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. He took possession of the estate in 1845 having taken on his father Alexanders considerable debts, in an attempt to raise funds he also sold furniture he had acquired in London on behalf of his father but for which he had never been reimbursed. He did not however complete the house, and it remained without its planned colonnade, the house became a meeting place for a small circle of intellectuals and naturalists, though Macleay was not known for being actively sociable. Thomas Mitchell Jnr satirised the house and owner, Bleak House blears blindly oer Elizas Bay, Macleay was interested in the natural history of Australia, the marine fauna around Port Jackson in particular
34.
Moreton Bay
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The Moreton Bay is a bay located on the eastern coast of Australia 14 kilometres from central Brisbane, Queensland. It is one of Queenslands most important coastal resources, the waters of Moreton Bay are a popular destination for recreational anglers and are used by commercial operators who provide seafood to market. The Port of Brisbane coordinates large traffic along the channel which crosses the northern section of the bay. The bay serves as an approach to the airport and reduces noise pollution over the city to the west of the runway. A number of barge, ferry and water-taxi services also travel over the bay, Moreton Bay was the site of conflict between the indigenous Quandamooka people and early European settlers. It contains environmentally significant habitats and large areas of sandbanks, the bay is the only place in Australia where dugong gather into herds. Many parts of the foreshore and southern islands are settled. Moreton Bay is described as lagoonal because of the existence of a series of barrier islands that restrict the flow of oceanic water. The tidal range is moderate at 1. 5–2 metres in range, Moreton Bay has an average depth of 6.8 metres. This shallow depth lets light filter through to the seafloor, allowing an array of plants to grow which support a diverse range of fauna. The bay itself covers 1,523 square kilometres and has a catchment area 14 times larger, the waters of the bay are mostly blue in colour. Western parts of the bay are sometimes tinted green from algae, Moreton Bay was formed roughly 6000 years ago as the sea level rose and inundated what was then the floodplains of the Brisbane River. Moreton Bay and its islands were inhabited by indigenous tribes, in indigenous economy was very rich, one of the strongest for its productive yields of edible natural resources on the Australian continent. In the 1840s, resident white administrators estimated the population of the area to be around 4,000. They were only outnumbered with the influx over the five year period of 1850-1855 with saw the disembarkation of 3,000 European migrants on their land. The name Mortons Bay was given by Captain Cook when he passed the area on 15 May 1770, honouring Lord Morton, the spelling Moreton was an error in the first published account of Cooks voyage. Cook gave the only to the bight formed by the northern end of Stradbroke Island. He was unaware of the South Passage between the two islands, and did not sail into what is the present Moreton Bay, matthew Flinders was the first recorded European to enter the bay in 1799 touching down at the Pumicestone Passage, Redcliffe and Coochiemudlo Island
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George Bennett (naturalist)
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F. Z. S. was an English-born Australian physician and naturalist, winner of the Clarke Medal in 1890. Bennett was born at Plymouth, England and he obtained the degree of M. R. C. S. on 7 March 1828, and later became F. R. C. S. After qualifying as a physician Bennett obtained employment as a ships surgeon, in May 1832 Bennett left Plymouth on a voyage which terminated almost exactly two years later. An account of this appeared in 1834 in two volumes under the title Wanderings in New South Wales, Batavia, Pedir Coast, Singapore, in 1835 Bennett published in the Transactions of the Zoological Society of London, vol. I, pp. 229–58, Notes on the Natural History and Habits of the Ornithorhyncus paradoxus, Blum, in 1833, Bennett lent support in absentia to the founding of what became the Royal Entomological Society of London. Bennett was awarded the gold medal of the Royal College of Surgeons in recognition of his contributions to zoological science. Bennett went to Australia again in 1836 and established a practice as a physician at Sydney. However he kept up his general interest in science, and acted as secretary of the Australian Museum which had just been established. He compiled A Catalogue of the Specimens of Natural History and Miscellaneous Curiosities deposited in the Australian Museum which was published in 1837, in 1860 he brought out his Gatherings of a Naturalist in Australasia. He kept up a correspondence with his early friend Sir Richard Owen, to whom he had sent the first specimens of the Nautilus to arrive in England, and with Darwin and other scientists of the time. He was much interested in the Sydney Botanic Gardens and the Acclimatization Society, and was a vice-president of the Zoological Society, Bennett also contributed papers to the The Lancet, the Medical Gazette, the Journal of Botany, Loudons Magazine of Natural History, and other journals. The Royal Society of New South Wales awarded Bennett the Clarke memorial medal in 1890 for his contributions to the natural history of Australia. Bennett died in Sydney on 29 September 1893, Bennett is commemorated in science by the scientific names of the dwarf cassowary and Bennetts tree-kangaroo. Bennett married three times, on 28 November 1835 to Julian Ludovina Cameron, daughter of Charles Cameron and she took her own life by taking prussic acid. They had two sons and three daughters and he married Charlotte James Elliott on 10 December 1846, they had one son. He married Sarah Jane Adcock on 4 January 1854, their two children died as infants
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Edward Pierson Ramsay
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Edward Pierson Ramsay was an Australian zoologist who specialised in ornithology. Pierson was born in Dobroyd Estate, Long Cove, Sydney and educated at St Marks Collegiate School, The Kings School and he studied medicine from 1863 to 1865 at the University of Sydney but did not graduate. Although he never had had any formal training in zoology, Ramsay had a keen interest in natural history. In 1868 Ramsay joined with his brothers in a plantation in Queensland which. Ramsay was one of the members of the Linnean Society of New South Wales when it was formed in 1874. From 1876 until 1894, when he had to due to his declining health. In 1883 Ramsay traveled to London to attend the International Fisheries Exhibition, at that time he met Military Surgeon Francis Day who had collected fishes over several decades in India, Burma, Malaysia and other areas in southern Asia. Ramsay negotiated purchase a portion of Days collection, including about 150 of Days type specimens, after his resignation as Curator, Ramsay served the Australian Museum as consulting ornithologist until 1909. He died on 16 December 1916 in Sydney, among organisms Ramsay named are the northern death adder, the pig-nosed turtle, the giant bandicoot, the grey-headed robin, and the Papuan king parrot. Ramsay is commemorated in the names of two species of Australian snakes, Aspidites ramsayi and Austrelaps ramsayi
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Records of the Australian Museum
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The Australian Museum is the oldest museum in Australia, with an international reputation in the fields of natural history and anthropology. Apart from exhibitions, the museum is involved in Indigenous studies research. In the museums early years, collecting was its main priority, the scientific stature of the museum was established under the curatorship of Gerard Krefft, himself a published scientist. The museum is located at the corner of William Street and College Strt Sydney, the museum was renamed in June 1836 by a sub-committee meeting, when it was resolved during an argument that it should be renamed the Australian Museum. Its current CEO and Executive Director is Kim McKay AO, the establishment of a museum had first been planned in 1821 by the Philosophical Society of Australasia, and although specimens were collected, the Society folded in 1822. An entomologist and fellow of the Linnean Society of London, Alexander Macleay, after being appointed New South Wales Colonial Secretary, he began lobbying for a museum. The building has evolved to encompass a range of different architectural styles and it was opened to the public in May 1857 where it currently stands on the corner of College and Park Streets, opposite Hyde Park. In order to accommodate the collections of the museum, architect James Barnet was responsible for the construction of the neoclassical west wing along William Street in 1868. A third storey was added to the north Lewis wing in 1890, there were also two basement floors providing workspace for scientific staff. This International Style extension became known as the Parkes/Farmer eastern wing, in 1977, to mark the Museums 150th anniversary, bronze lower case letters were added to the façade identifying the building as The Australian Museum. In the same year two new permanent galleries were opened, Dinosaurs and Surviving Australia, in 2015, the museums carbon-neutral glass box entryway known as the Crystal Hall was opened. Designed by Neeson-Murcutt, it returned the entry to William Street, the museum was administered directly by the colonial government until June 1836, until the establishment of a Committee of Superintendence of the Australian Museum and Botanical Garden. Sub-committees were established for each institution, in that year, the government enacted the Australian Museum Act, thereby incorporating it and establishing a board of trustees consisting of 24 members. William Sharp Macleay, the committee chairman, continued to serve as the chairman of this committee. The position of curator was renamed director and curator in 1918, in 1948, the scientific assistants were redesignated curators and assistant curators. In 1983, during a period of reorganisation, the position of curator was renamed as collection manager, after a run of field collecting activities by the scientific staff in the 1880s and 1890s, field work ceased until after the First World War. During the 19th century, galleries had mainly included large display cases filled with specimens. Under his direction, additional buildings were built, several galleries were entirely overhauled, the size of the education staff was also radically increased
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Frank Howarth
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Frank Richard Howarth PSM is an Australian public servant and was the Director of the Australian Museum from February 2004 to February 2014. He was born in Sydney and educated at Newington College, commencing as a school student in Wyvern House. As his family lived on the lower North Shore of Sydney, on the side of the Parramatta River, Howarth eschewed traditional GPS sport. He gained a degree from Macquarie University and a Master of Science. He was appointed Director and Chief Executive of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Sydney in 1996, Howarth and his long-term partner, Peter, live in an inner-city, eastern suburb of Sydney having recently moved from an eastern beach-side suburb. Public Service Medal –2012 Queens Birthday Honours List For outstanding public service to the Australian Museum in Sydney
39.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
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New Guinea
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New Guinea is a large Island in the South West Pacific region. It is the worlds second-largest island, after Greenland, covering an area of 785,753 km2. The island is divided between two countries, Papua New Guinea to the east, and Indonesia to the west, the island has been known by various names. The name Papua was used to refer to parts of the island before contact with the West and its etymology is unclear, one theory states that it is from Tidore, the language used by the Sultanate of Tidore, which controlled parts of the islands coastal region. The name came from papo and ua, which means not united or, ploeg reports that the word papua is often said to derive from the Malay word papua or pua-pua, meaning frizzly-haired, referring to the highly curly hair of the inhabitants of these areas. When the Portuguese and Spanish explorers arrived in the island via the Spice Islands, when the Dutch colonized it as part of Netherlands East Indies, they called it Nieuw Guinea. The name Irian was used in the Indonesian language to refer the island and Indonesian province, the name was promoted in 1945 by Marcus Kaisiepo, brother of the future governor Frans Kaisiepo. It is taken from the Biak language of Biak Island, and means to rise and this name of Irian is the name used in the Biak language and other languages such as Serui, Merauke and Waropen. The name was used until 2001, when the name Papua was again used for the island, the name Irian, which was originally favored by natives, is now considered to be a name imposed by the authority of Jakarta. New Guinea is an island to the north of Australia, and it is isolated by the Arafura Sea to the west and the Torres Strait and Coral Sea to the east. A spine of east–west mountains, the New Guinea Highlands, dominates the geography of New Guinea, stretching over 1,600 km from the head to the tail of the island. The western half of the island of New Guinea contains the highest mountains in Oceania, rising up to 4,884 m high, the tree line is around 4,000 m elevation and the tallest peaks contain permanent equatorial glaciers—which have been retreating since at least 1936. Various other smaller mountain ranges occur both north and west of the central ranges, except in high elevations, most areas possess a warm humid climate throughout the year, with some seasonal variation associated with the northeast monsoon season. At 4,884 metres, Puncak Jaya makes New Guinea the worlds fourth highest landmass, Puncak Mandala, located in Papua, is the second highest peak on the island at 4,760 metres. Puncak Trikora, also in Papua, is 4,750 metres, mount Wilhelm is the highest peak on the PNG side of the border at 4,509 metres. Its granite peak is the highest point of the Bismarck Range, mount Giluwe 4,368 metres is the second highest summit in PNG. It is also the highest volcanic peak in Oceania, another major habitat feature is the vast southern and northern lowlands. Stretching for hundreds of kilometres, these include lowland rainforests, extensive wetlands, savanna grasslands, the southern lowlands are the site of Lorentz National Park, also a UNESCO World Heritage Site
41.
Kermadec Islands
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The Kermadec Islands /kərˈmædɛk/ are a subtropical island arc in the South Pacific Ocean 800–1,000 km northeast of New Zealands North Island, and a similar distance southwest of Tonga. The islands are part of New Zealand,33 km2 in total area and nowadays uninhabited, except for the permanently manned Raoul Island Station, the northernmost outpost of New Zealand. Polynesian people settled the Kermadec Islands in around the 14th century, the islands were named for the Breton captain Jean-Michel Huon de Kermadec, who visited the islands as part of the dEntrecasteaux expedition in the 1790s. European settlers, initially the Bell family, lived on the islands from the nineteenth century until 1937. One of the Bell daughters, Elsie K. Morton, recounted the experience there in her memoir. The Station consists of a government meteorological and radio station, and a hostel for Department of Conservation officers and volunteers and it lies on the northern terraces of Raoul Island, at an elevation of about 50 m, above the cliffs of Fleetwood Bluff. It is the northernmost inhabited outpost of New Zealand, the islands lie within 29° to 31. 5° south latitude and 178° to 179° west longitude, 800–1,000 km northeast of New Zealands North Island, and a similar distance southwest of Tonga. The centre of the Kermadec Islands group is located at approximately 29°16′37″S 177°55′24″W, the total area of the islands is 33.08 km2. The climate of the islands is subtropical, with a mean temperature of 22.4 °C in February and 16.0 °C in August. Rainfall is approximately 1,500 mm annually, with rainfall from October through January. The group includes four islands and some isolated rocks, which are, from north to south. It is located at 29°16′0″S 177°55′10″W,900 km south-southwest of Ata, the southernmost island of Tonga, Raoul Island has an area of 29.06 km2 with neighboring island, Haszard Island. Macdonald Rock is about 4 km north of Macauley Island at 30°11′S 178°26′W, Curtis Island, the third largest, is located at 30°32′32″S 178°33′39″W,35 km south-southwest of Macauley Island,137 m high, area 0.59 km2 with neighbouring Cheeseman Island. Nugent Island is the northernmost island and it is located at 29°13′54″S 177°52′09″W. It is approximately 100 metres across, LEsperance Rock, formerly French Rock, is 80 km south-southwest of Curtis Island at 31°26′S 178°54′W,250 m in diameter,0.05 km2 in area,70 m high. LHavre Rock, about 8 km north-northwest of LEsperance Rock near 31°21′S 178°59′W Seamounts north and south of the Kermadec Islands are an extension of the running from Tonga to New Zealand. The subducting Pacific Plate created the Kermadec Trench, an 8 km deep submarine trench, the islands lie along the undersea Kermadec Ridge, which runs southwest from the islands towards the North Island of New Zealand and northeast towards Tonga. The four main islands are the peaks of volcanoes that rise high enough from the seabed to project above sea level, there are several other volcanoes in the chain that do not reach sea level, but form seamounts with between 65 and 1500 m of water above their peaks
42.
Solomon Islands
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The countrys capital, Honiara, is located on the island of Guadalcanal. The islands have been inhabited for thousands of years, in 1568, the Spanish navigator Álvaro de Mendaña was the first European to visit them, naming them the Islas Salomón. Britain defined its area of interest in the Solomon Islands archipelago in June 1893, during World War II, the Solomon Islands campaign saw fierce fighting between the United States and the Empire of Japan, such as in the Battle of Guadalcanal. The official name of the then British overseas territory was changed from the British Solomon Islands Protectorate to Solomon Islands in 1975, self-government was achieved in 1976, independence was obtained two years later. Today, Solomon Islands is a monarchy with the Queen of Solomon Islands, currently Queen Elizabeth II. Manasseh Sogavare is the current prime minister, in 1568, the Spanish navigator Álvaro de Mendaña was the first European to visit the Solomon Islands archipelago, naming it Islas Salomón after the wealthy biblical King Solomon. It is said that they were given name in the mistaken assumption that they contained great riches. During most of the period of British rule the territory was named the British Solomon Islands Protectorate. On 22 June 1975 the territory was renamed Solomon Islands, when Solomon Islands became independent in 1978 they retained the name. The definite article, the, is not part of the official name but is sometimes used. It is believed that Papuan-speaking settlers began to arrive around 30,000 BC, austronesian speakers arrived c.4000 BC also bringing cultural elements such as the outrigger canoe. Between 1200 and 800 BC the ancestors of the Polynesians, the Lapita people, the first European to visit the islands was the Spanish navigator Álvaro de Mendaña de Neira, coming from Peru in 1568. The people of Solomon Islands were notorious for headhunting and cannibalism before the arrival of the Europeans, missionaries began visiting the Solomons in the mid-19th century. They made little progress at first, because blackbirding led to a series of reprisals, the evils of the labour trade prompted the United Kingdom to declare a protectorate over the southern Solomons in June 1893. Traditional trade and social intercourse between the western Solomon Islands of Mono and Alu and the societies in the south of Bougainville, however. Missionaries settled in the Solomons under the protectorate, converting most of the population to Christianity, in the early 20th century several British and Australian firms began large-scale coconut planting. Economic growth was slow, however, and the islanders benefited little, journalist Joe Melvin visited in 1892, as part of his undercover investigation into blackbirding. In 1908 the islands were visited by Jack London, who was cruising the Pacific on his boat, with the outbreak of the Second World War most planters and traders were evacuated to Australia and most cultivation ceased
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Capricorn Islands
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Many of these islands form part of the Capricornia Cays National Park and are part of the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area. The Capricorn and Bunker groups are a group of 22 reefs straddling the Tropic of Capricorn. There are 16 permanent coral cays on these reefs, including twin cays on Hoskyn, North West Island is the largest coral cay in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. A manned lighthouse operates at North Island and the Australian Museum conducts a research station on One Tree Island. Typically 2 to 5 miles offshore and he then made his second landing in Australia at the town of 1770. Accordingly we hauld in close upon a wind and sent a boat a head to sound, in the AM I went a shore with a party of men in order to examine the Country accompanied by Mr Banks and the other gentlemen. It bore W. ½° N. ten or eleven leagues, in 1803 Captain Eber Bunker of the whaling ship Albion was the first European to discover the region and gave his name to the southern group. The southern cays and reefs were first chartered between 1819 and 1821 by Lieutenant Phillip Parker King Royal Navy initially in the Mermaid and later in the Bathurst, July 19,1820 we steered on, and, a ten o’clock discovered a group of low woody islets. In 1841 Blackwood was appointed to command the corvette HMS Flyin the first hydrographic survey commissioned by the Admiralty for exploring and charting the north-east Australian coast. After a stop in Hobart Town from August to October, the two ships called at Sydney and began the survey in December 1842, in the next three years the Fly charted from Sandy Cape to Whitsunday Island, including Swain Reefs and Capricorn Islands and the broad passages between. On 7 January 1843, was the first time that the crew of the Fly set foot on the First Bunker Island. The Fly then carried on and on January 10,1843, anchored off One Tree Island and gave the island its name the Crew of the Fly landed on this island the following day The single tree. On January the 12th We anchored a few miles farther to the N. W. in the centre of a group of reefs and islands, jan 18 - Landed with Captain Blackwood on Wreck Island. This was so named for part of a vessel 6 or 700 tons, the island was about a quarter of a mile long and not more than 100 yards broad, a pile of sand covered by thick bushes. Jan 21 Captain Blackwood and Mr Evans being ashore to take sights for the chronometers, on one tree was cut The America, June 1831, on another Mary Ann Broughton, on another Capt. E. David, and Nelson November,1831. There were likewise the soles of a pair of shoes, some bottles, some broken dishes. I believe the wreck was that of a whaler, and that the crew were taken off by another whaler, the naturalist, Professor J. Beete Jukes, was on board the HMS Fly and his published journal provides valuable information on some of the cays. The mining of guano was carried out by J. T. Arundel & Co, mining occurred on Lady Musgrave Island, Fairfax Islands and North West Island during the 1890s
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Diorama
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Dioramas are often built by hobbyists as part of related hobbies such as military vehicle modeling, miniature figure modeling, or aircraft modeling. The word diorama originated in 1823 as a type of picture-viewing device, the word literally means through that which is seen, from the Greek di- through + orama that which is seen, a sight. The diorama was invented by Louis Daguerre and Charles Marie Bouton, first exhibited in Paris in July 1822, the meaning small-scale replica of a scene, etc. is from 1902. Daguerres diorama consisted of a piece of material painted on both sides, when illuminated from the front, the scene would be shown in one state and by switching to illumination from behind another phase or aspect would be seen. Scenes in daylight changed to moonlight, a train travelling on a track would crash, or an earthquake would be shown in before, one of the first uses of dioramas in a museum was in Stockholm, Sweden, where the Biological Museum opened in 1893. It had several dioramas, over three floors and they were also implemented by the National Museum Grigore Antipa from Bucharest Romania and constituted a source of inspiration for many important museums in the world. Miniature dioramas are typically smaller, and use scale models. Such a scale model-based diorama is used, for example, in Chicagos Museum of Science and this diorama employs a common model railroading scale of 1,87. Hobbyist dioramas often use such as 1,35 or 1,48. An early, and exceptionally large example was created between 1830 and 1838 by a British Army officer, william Siborne, and represents the Battle of Waterloo at about 7.45 pm, on 18 June,1815. The diorama measures 8.33 by 6 metres and used around 70,000 model soldiers in its construction and it is now part of the collection of the National Army Museum in London. Sheperd Paine, a prominent hobbyist, popularized the modern miniature diorama beginning in the 1970s, modern museum dioramas may be seen in most major natural history museums. Often the distant painted background or sky will be painted upon a continuous curved surface so that the viewer is not distracted by corners, seams, all of these techniques are means of presenting a realistic view of a large scene in a compact space. A photograph or single-eye view of such a diorama can be especially convincing since in case there is no distraction by the binocular perception of depth. Carl Akeley, a naturalist, sculptor, and taxidermist, is credited with creating the first ever habitat diorama in the year 1889, akeleys diorama featured taxidermied beavers in a three-dimensional habitat with a realistic, painted background. With the support of curator Frank M. Chapman, Akeley designed the popular habitat dioramas featured at the American Museum of Natural History, combining art with science, these exhibitions were intended to educate the public about the growing need for habitat conservation. The modern AMNH Exhibitions Lab is charged with the creation of all dioramas, miniature dioramas may be used to represent scenes from historic events. A typical example of type are the dioramas to be seen at Norways Resistance Museum in Oslo
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This article incorporates text by New South Wales State Heritage Register available under the CC BY 3.0 AU licence.
