1.
Austria
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Austria, officially the Republic of Austria, is a federal republic and a landlocked country of over 8.7 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Hungary and Slovakia to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, the territory of Austria covers 83,879 km2. The terrain is mountainous, lying within the Alps, only 32% of the country is below 500 m. The majority of the population speaks local Bavarian dialects of German as their native language, other local official languages are Hungarian, Burgenland Croatian, and Slovene. The origins of modern-day Austria date back to the time of the Habsburg dynasty, from the time of the Reformation, many northern German princes, resenting the authority of the Emperor, used Protestantism as a flag of rebellion. Following Napoleons defeat, Prussia emerged as Austrias chief competitor for rule of a greater Germany, Austrias defeat by Prussia at the Battle of Königgrätz, during the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, cleared the way for Prussia to assert control over the rest of Germany. In 1867, the empire was reformed into Austria-Hungary, Austria was thus the first to go to war in the July Crisis, which would ultimately escalate into World War I. The First Austrian Republic was established in 1919, in 1938 Nazi Germany annexed Austria in the Anschluss. This lasted until the end of World War II in 1945, after which Germany was occupied by the Allies, in 1955, the Austrian State Treaty re-established Austria as a sovereign state, ending the occupation. In the same year, the Austrian Parliament created the Declaration of Neutrality which declared that the Second Austrian Republic would become permanently neutral, today, Austria is a parliamentary representative democracy comprising nine federal states. The capital and largest city, with a population exceeding 1.7 million, is Vienna, other major urban areas of Austria include Graz, Linz, Salzburg and Innsbruck. Austria is one of the richest countries in the world, with a nominal per capita GDP of $43,724, the country has developed a high standard of living and in 2014 was ranked 21st in the world for its Human Development Index. Austria has been a member of the United Nations since 1955, joined the European Union in 1995, Austria also signed the Schengen Agreement in 1995, and adopted the euro currency in 1999. The German name for Austria, Österreich, meant eastern realm in Old High German, and is cognate with the word Ostarrîchi and this word is probably a translation of Medieval Latin Marchia orientalis into a local dialect. Austria was a prefecture of Bavaria created in 976, the word Austria is a Latinisation of the German name and was first recorded in the 12th century. Accordingly, Norig would essentially mean the same as Ostarrîchi and Österreich, the Celtic name was eventually Latinised to Noricum after the Romans conquered the area that encloses most of modern-day Austria, around 15 BC. Noricum later became a Roman province in the mid-first century AD, heers hypothesis is not accepted by linguists. Settled in ancient times, the Central European land that is now Austria was occupied in pre-Roman times by various Celtic tribes, the Celtic kingdom of Noricum was later claimed by the Roman Empire and made a province
2.
Vienna
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Vienna is the capital and largest city of Austria and one of the nine states of Austria. Vienna is Austrias primary city, with a population of about 1.8 million, and its cultural, economic and it is the 7th-largest city by population within city limits in the European Union. Today, it has the second largest number of German speakers after Berlin, Vienna is host to many major international organizations, including the United Nations and OPEC. The city is located in the part of Austria and is close to the borders of the Czech Republic, Slovakia. These regions work together in a European Centrope border region, along with nearby Bratislava, Vienna forms a metropolitan region with 3 million inhabitants. In 2001, the city centre was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site, apart from being regarded as the City of Music because of its musical legacy, Vienna is also said to be The City of Dreams because it was home to the worlds first psycho-analyst – Sigmund Freud. The citys roots lie in early Celtic and Roman settlements that transformed into a Medieval and Baroque city and it is well known for having played an essential role as a leading European music centre, from the great age of Viennese Classicism through the early part of the 20th century. The historic centre of Vienna is rich in architectural ensembles, including Baroque castles and gardens, Vienna is known for its high quality of life. In a 2005 study of 127 world cities, the Economist Intelligence Unit ranked the city first for the worlds most liveable cities, between 2011 and 2015, Vienna was ranked second, behind Melbourne, Australia. Monocles 2015 Quality of Life Survey ranked Vienna second on a list of the top 25 cities in the world to make a base within, the UN-Habitat has classified Vienna as being the most prosperous city in the world in 2012/2013. Vienna regularly hosts urban planning conferences and is used as a case study by urban planners. Between 2005 and 2010, Vienna was the worlds number-one destination for international congresses and it attracts over 3.7 million tourists a year. The English name Vienna is borrowed from the homonymous Italian version of the name or the French Vienne. The etymology of the name is still subject to scholarly dispute. Some claim that the name comes from Vedunia, meaning forest stream, which produced the Old High German Uuenia. A variant of this Celtic name could be preserved in the Czech and Slovak names of the city, the name of the city in Hungarian, Serbo-Croatian and Ottoman Turkish has a different, probably Slavonic origin, and originally referred to an Avar fort in the area. Slovene-speakers call the city Dunaj, which in other Central European Slavic languages means the Danube River, evidence has been found of continuous habitation since 500 BC, when the site of Vienna on the Danube River was settled by the Celts. In 15 BC, the Romans fortified the city they called Vindobona to guard the empire against Germanic tribes to the north
3.
Anton Zeilinger
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Zeilinger is professor of physics at the University of Vienna and Senior Scientist at the Institute for Quantum Optics and Quantum Information IQOQI at the Austrian Academy of Sciences. Most of his concerns the fundamental aspects and applications of quantum entanglement. Anton Zeilinger, born 1945 in Austria, has held positions at the Technical University of Vienna and he has held visiting positions at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, at Humboldt University in Berlin, Merton College, Oxford and the Collège de France in Paris. Zeilingers awards include the Wolf Prize in Physics, the Inaugural Isaac Newton Medal of the IOP, in 2005, Anton Zeilinger was among the 10 people who could change the world, elected by the British newspaper New Statesman. He is a member of seven Scientific Academies, since 2006, Zeilinger is the vice chairman of the board of trustees of the Institute of Science and Technology Austria, an ambitious project initiated by Zeilingers proposal. In 2009, he founded the International Academy Traunkirchen which is dedicated to the support of gifted students in science and he is a fan of the Hitchhikers Guide To The Galaxy by Douglas Adams, going so far as to name his sailboat 42. Anton Zeilinger is a pioneer in the field of quantum information, most widely known is his first realization of quantum teleportation of an independent qubit. He later expanded this work to developing a source for freely propagating teleported qubits and most recently, Quantum teleportation is an essential concept in many quantum information protocols. Besides its role for the transfer of information, it is also considered as an important possible mechanism for building gates within quantum computers. Entanglement swapping is the teleportation of an entangled state, after its proposal, entanglement swapping has first been realized experimentally by Zeilinger’s group in 1998. It has recently applied to carry out a delayed-choice entanglement swapping test. Entanglement swapping is the ingredient for quantum repeaters which are expected to connect future quantum computers. Anton Zeilinger contributed decisively to the opening up of the field of multi-particle entanglement, in 1990, he was the first with Greenberger and Horne to work on entanglement of more than two qubits. The resulting GHZ theorem is fundamental for quantum physics, as it provides the most succinct contradiction between local realism and the predictions of quantum mechanics, also, GHZ states opened up the field of multi-particle entanglement. Surprisingly, multi-particle entangled states exhibit different properties compared to two-particle entanglement. In the 1990s, it became the goal of Zeilinger’s research to realize such GHZ states in the laboratory. Finally, in 1999, he succeeded in providing the first experimental evidence of entanglement beyond two particles and also the first test of quantum nonlocality for GHZ states and he also was the first to realize that there are different classes of higher-dimensional entangled states and proposed W-states. Today, multi-particle states have become a workhorse in quantum computation and thus
4.
President (corporate title)
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The President is a leader of an organization, company, community, club, trade union, university or other group. In many organizations, it is the legally recognized highest titled corporate officer, the president may also be the chairman. The relationship between the president and the Chief Executive Officer varies, depending on the structure of the specific organization, in a similar vein to the Chief Operating Officer, the title of corporate President as a separate position is also loosely defined. The powers of the president vary widely across organizations and such powers come from specific authorization in the bylaws, originally, the term president was used to designate someone who presided over a meeting, and was used in the same way that foreman or overseer is used now. It has now come to mean chief officer in terms of administrative or executive duties. In addition to the administrative or executive duties in organizations, the president has the duties of presiding over meetings, in committees or small boards, the president votes along with the other members. However, in assemblies or larger boards, the president should vote only when it can affect the result, at a meeting, the president only has one vote. The powers of the president vary widely across organizations, the amount of power given to the president depends on the type of organization, its structure, and the rules it has created for itself. If the president exceeds the given authority, engages in misconduct, or fails to perform the duties, such procedures may include censure, suspension, or removal from office. The rules of the organization would provide details on who can perform these disciplinary procedures. Usually, whoever appointed or elected the president has the power to discipline this officer, some organizations may have a position of President-Elect in addition to the position of President. Generally the membership of the organization elects a President-Elect and when the term of the President-Elect is complete, some organizations may have a position of Immediate Past President in addition to the position of President. In those organizations, when the term of the President is complete, the organization can have such a position only if the bylaws provide it. The duties of such a position would also have to be provided in the bylaws, riding Shotgun, The Role of the COO. National Association of Parliamentarians®, Education Committee, independence, MO, National Association of Parliamentarians®
5.
Acoustics Research Institute
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The Acoustics Research Institute is a non-university research institution of the Austrian Academy of Sciences in Vienna. It was founded in 1972 as Kommission für Schallforschung, became a Forschungsstelle in 1994, ARI is a multidisciplinary research institution, working in application-oriented basic research. It is addressing question related to the chain of sound, ranging from sound generation over propagation to perception, the institute is led by Peter Balazs
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German language
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German is a West Germanic language that is mainly spoken in Central Europe. It is the most widely spoken and official language in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, South Tyrol, the German-speaking Community of Belgium and it is also one of the three official languages of Luxembourg. Major languages which are most similar to German include other members of the West Germanic language branch, such as Afrikaans, Dutch, English, Luxembourgish and it is the second most widely spoken Germanic language, after English. One of the languages of the world, German is the first language of about 95 million people worldwide. The German speaking countries are ranked fifth in terms of publication of new books. German derives most of its vocabulary from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family, a portion of German words are derived from Latin and Greek, and fewer are borrowed from French and English. With slightly different standardized variants, German is a pluricentric language, like English, German is also notable for its broad spectrum of dialects, with many unique varieties existing in Europe and also other parts of the world. The history of the German language begins with the High German consonant shift during the migration period, when Martin Luther translated the Bible, he based his translation primarily on the standard bureaucratic language used in Saxony, also known as Meißner Deutsch. Copies of Luthers Bible featured a long list of glosses for each region that translated words which were unknown in the region into the regional dialect. Roman Catholics initially rejected Luthers translation, and tried to create their own Catholic standard of the German language – the difference in relation to Protestant German was minimal. It was not until the middle of the 18th century that a widely accepted standard was created, until about 1800, standard German was mainly a written language, in urban northern Germany, the local Low German dialects were spoken. Standard German, which was different, was often learned as a foreign language with uncertain pronunciation. Northern German pronunciation was considered the standard in prescriptive pronunciation guides though, however, German was the language of commerce and government in the Habsburg Empire, which encompassed a large area of Central and Eastern Europe. Until the mid-19th century, it was essentially the language of townspeople throughout most of the Empire and its use indicated that the speaker was a merchant or someone from an urban area, regardless of nationality. Some cities, such as Prague and Budapest, were gradually Germanized in the years after their incorporation into the Habsburg domain, others, such as Pozsony, were originally settled during the Habsburg period, and were primarily German at that time. Prague, Budapest and Bratislava as well as cities like Zagreb, the most comprehensive guide to the vocabulary of the German language is found within the Deutsches Wörterbuch. This dictionary was created by the Brothers Grimm and is composed of 16 parts which were issued between 1852 and 1860, in 1872, grammatical and orthographic rules first appeared in the Duden Handbook. In 1901, the 2nd Orthographical Conference ended with a standardization of the German language in its written form
7.
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
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Leibnizs notation has been widely used ever since it was published. It was only in the 20th century that his Law of Continuity and he became one of the most prolific inventors in the field of mechanical calculators. He also refined the number system, which is the foundation of virtually all digital computers. Leibniz, along with René Descartes and Baruch Spinoza, was one of the three great 17th-century advocates of rationalism and he wrote works on philosophy, politics, law, ethics, theology, history, and philology. Leibnizs contributions to this vast array of subjects were scattered in various learned journals, in tens of thousands of letters and he wrote in several languages, but primarily in Latin, French, and German. There is no complete gathering of the writings of Leibniz in English, Gottfried Leibniz was born on July 1,1646, toward the end of the Thirty Years War, in Leipzig, Saxony, to Friedrich Leibniz and Catharina Schmuck. Friedrich noted in his journal,21. Juny am Sontag 1646 Ist mein Sohn Gottfried Wilhelm, post sextam vespertinam 1/4 uff 7 uhr abents zur welt gebohren, in English, On Sunday 21 June 1646, my son Gottfried Wilhelm is born into the world a quarter after six in the evening, in Aquarius. Leibniz was baptized on July 3 of that year at St. Nicholas Church, Leipzig and his father died when he was six and a half years old, and from that point on he was raised by his mother. Her teachings influenced Leibnizs philosophical thoughts in his later life, Leibnizs father had been a Professor of Moral Philosophy at the University of Leipzig, and the boy later inherited his fathers personal library. He was given access to it from the age of seven. Access to his fathers library, largely written in Latin, also led to his proficiency in the Latin language and he also composed 300 hexameters of Latin verse, in a single morning, for a special event at school at the age of 13. In April 1661 he enrolled in his fathers former university at age 15 and he defended his Disputatio Metaphysica de Principio Individui, which addressed the principle of individuation, on June 9,1663. Leibniz earned his masters degree in Philosophy on February 7,1664, after one year of legal studies, he was awarded his bachelors degree in Law on September 28,1665. His dissertation was titled De conditionibus, in early 1666, at age 19, Leibniz wrote his first book, De Arte Combinatoria, the first part of which was also his habilitation thesis in Philosophy, which he defended in March 1666. His next goal was to earn his license and Doctorate in Law, in 1666, the University of Leipzig turned down Leibnizs doctoral application and refused to grant him a Doctorate in Law, most likely due to his relative youth. Leibniz then enrolled in the University of Altdorf and quickly submitted a thesis, the title of his thesis was Disputatio Inauguralis de Casibus Perplexis in Jure. Leibniz earned his license to practice law and his Doctorate in Law in November 1666 and he next declined the offer of an academic appointment at Altdorf, saying that my thoughts were turned in an entirely different direction
8.
Royal Society
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Founded in November 1660, it was granted a royal charter by King Charles II as The Royal Society. The society is governed by its Council, which is chaired by the Societys President, according to a set of statutes and standing orders. The members of Council and the President are elected from and by its Fellows, the members of the society. As of 2016, there are about 1,600 fellows, allowed to use the postnominal title FRS, there are also royal fellows, honorary fellows and foreign members, the last of which are allowed to use the postnominal title ForMemRS. The Royal Society President is Venkatraman Ramakrishnan, who took up the post on 30 November 2015, since 1967, the society has been based at 6–9 Carlton House Terrace, a Grade I listed building in central London which was previously used by the Embassy of Germany, London. The Royal Society started from groups of physicians and natural philosophers, meeting at variety of locations and they were influenced by the new science, as promoted by Francis Bacon in his New Atlantis, from approximately 1645 onwards. A group known as The Philosophical Society of Oxford was run under a set of rules still retained by the Bodleian Library, after the English Restoration, there were regular meetings at Gresham College. It is widely held that these groups were the inspiration for the foundation of the Royal Society, I will not say, that Mr Oldenburg did rather inspire the French to follow the English, or, at least, did help them, and hinder us. But tis well known who were the men that began and promoted that design. This initial royal favour has continued and, since then, every monarch has been the patron of the society, the societys early meetings included experiments performed first by Hooke and then by Denis Papin, who was appointed in 1684. These experiments varied in their area, and were both important in some cases and trivial in others. The Society returned to Gresham in 1673, there had been an attempt in 1667 to establish a permanent college for the society. Michael Hunter argues that this was influenced by Solomons House in Bacons New Atlantis and, to a lesser extent, by J. V. The first proposal was given by John Evelyn to Robert Boyle in a letter dated 3 September 1659, he suggested a scheme, with apartments for members. The societys ideas were simpler and only included residences for a handful of staff and these plans were progressing by November 1667, but never came to anything, given the lack of contributions from members and the unrealised—perhaps unrealistic—aspirations of the society. During the 18th century, the gusto that had characterised the early years of the society faded, with a number of scientific greats compared to other periods. The pointed lightning conductor had been invented by Benjamin Franklin in 1749, during the same time period, it became customary to appoint society fellows to serve on government committees where science was concerned, something that still continues. The 18th century featured remedies to many of the early problems
9.
French Academy of Sciences
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The French Academy of Sciences is a learned society, founded in 1666 by Louis XIV at the suggestion of Jean-Baptiste Colbert, to encourage and protect the spirit of French scientific research. It was at the forefront of developments in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries. Currently headed by Sébastien Candel, it is one of the five Academies of the Institut de France, the Academy of Sciences makes its origin to Colberts plan to create a general academy. He chose a group of scholars who met on 22 December 1666 in the Kings library. The first 30 years of the Academys existence were relatively informal, in contrast to its British counterpart, the Academy was founded as an organ of government. The Academy was expected to remain apolitical, and to avoid discussion of religious, on 20 January 1699, Louis XIV gave the Company its first rules. The Academy received the name of Royal Academy of Sciences and was installed in the Louvre in Paris, following this reform, the Academy began publishing a volume each year with information on all the work done by its members and obituaries for members who had died. This reform also codified the method by which members of the Academy could receive pensions for their work, on 8 August 1793, the National Convention abolished all the academies. Almost all the old members of the previously abolished Académie were formally re-elected, among the exceptions was Dominique, comte de Cassini, who refused to take his seat. In 1816, the again renamed Royal Academy of Sciences became autonomous, while forming part of the Institute of France, in the Second Republic, the name returned to Académie des sciences. During this period, the Academy was funded by and accountable to the Ministry of Public Instruction, the Academy came to control French patent laws in the course of the eighteenth century, acting as the liaison of artisans knowledge to the public domain. As a result, academicians dominated technological activities in France, the Academy proceedings were published under the name Comptes rendus de lAcadémie des sciences. The Comptes rendus is now a series with seven titles. The publications can be found on site of the French National Library, in 1818 the French Academy of Sciences launched a competition to explain the properties of light. The civil engineer Augustin-Jean Fresnel entered this competition by submitting a new theory of light. Siméon Denis Poisson, one of the members of the judging committee, being a supporter of the particle-theory of light, he looked for a way to disprove it. The Poisson spot is not easily observed in every-day situations, so it was natural for Poisson to interpret it as an absurd result. However, the head of the committee, Dominique-François-Jean Arago, and he molded a 2-mm metallic disk to a glass plate with wax
10.
First Austrian Republic
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The Republics constitution was enacted in October 1,1920 and amended on December 7,1929. The republican period was marked by violent strife between those with left-wing and right-wing views, leading to the July Revolt of 1927 and the Austrian Civil War of 1934. Despite Austrian protests this treaty also forbade Anschluss, or union of Austria with Germany, the new Republic was created by the will of Allies who did not want the defeated Germany to expand its borders. The new state managed to prevent two land claims from being taken by their neighbours, the first was the south-eastern part of Carinthia, which was inhabited partly by Slovenians. It was prevented from being taken over by the new SHS-state through a Carinthian plebiscite on October 10,1920, the second prevented land-claim was Hungarys claim to Burgenland, which, under the name Western Hungary, had been part of the Hungarian kingdom since 1647. It was inhabited mostly by a German-speaking population, but had also Croat-, through the Treaty of St. Germain it became part of the Austrian Republic in 1921. However, after a plebiscite which was disputed by Austria, the capital city of Sopron remained in Hungary. Many of them felt that with the loss of 60% of the territory of the prewar empire, Austria was no longer economically and politically viable as a separate state without union with Germany. In the country of 6.5 million, Vienna, with its population of almost 2 million, was left as a capital without an empire to feed it. For much of the early 1920s, Austrias survival was very much in doubt and this was partly because Austria had never been a German/Austrian nation state in the true sense of the term. The Federal President was elected for a four year tearm in a session of both houses, while Chancellor was elected by the Nationalrat. After 1920, Austrias government was dominated by the anti-Anschluss Christian Social Party which retained close ties to the Roman Catholic Church, the partys first Chancellor Ignaz Seipel came to power in May 1922 and attempted to forge a political alliance between wealthy industrialists and the Roman Catholic Church. After the legislative elections of October 17,1920 Social Democrats lost parliamentary majority and remained in the opposition until 1934, Christian Socials won 85, Social Democrats 69, Greater Germany Party 20 and Peasants Union 8 seats. Michael Hainisch was elected Federal President, after October 1923 elections Ignaz Seipel stayed in power and resigned in November 1924 when he was succeeded by Rudolf Ramek. After the 1930 legislative elections Social Democrats emerged as the largest party with 72 seats, country was dividen between conservative population of country side and Social Democrat controlled Red Vienna. In 1927, during a clash in Schattendorf, an old man. On July 14,1927 the shooters were acquitted and left-wing supporters began a massive protest during which the Ministry of Justice building was burned, to restore order police and army shot and killed 89 people and injured 600. The huge protest is known as the July Revolt of 1927, Social Democrats called for a general strike which lasted four days
11.
Christian Doppler
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Christian Andreas Doppler was an Austrian mathematician and physicist. He is celebrated for his principle — known as the Doppler effect — that the frequency of a wave depends on the relative speed of the source. He used this concept to explain the color of binary stars, Christian Doppler was born in Salzburg in Austria in 1803. After completing high school, Doppler studied philosophy in Salzburg and mathematics and physics at the Imperial–Royal Polytechnic Institute where he work as an assistant in 1829. In 1835 he began work at the Prague Polytechnic, where he received an appointment in 1841, there is a facsimile edition with an English translation by Alec Eden. While he worked at the Prague Polytechnic as a professor he published over 50 articles on mathematics, physics and astronomy. In 1847 he left Prague for the professorship of mathematics, physics, and mechanics at the Academy of Mines and Forests in Selmecbánya, Dopplers research was interrupted by the revolutionary incidents of 1848. During the Hungarian Revolution, he fled to Vienna, there he was appointed head of the Institute for Experimental Physics at the University of Vienna in 1850. While there, Doppler, along with Franz Unger, influenced the development of young Gregor Mendel, the father of genetics. Doppler died on 17 March 1853 at age 49 from a disease in Venice. His tomb, found by Dr. Peter M. Schuster is just inside the entrance of the Venetian island cemetery of San Michele, some confusion exists about Dopplers full name. Doppler referred to himself as Christian Doppler, the records of his birth and baptism stated Christian Andreas Doppler. Forty years after Dopplers death the misnomer Johann Christian Doppler was introduced by the astronomer Julius Scheiner, scheiners mistake has since been copied by many. Teil, Helmuth Grössing, Wissenschaft, Leben, Umwelt, Gesellschaft,2, List of Austrian scientists List of Austrians List of minor planets named after people Alec Eden, Christian Doppler, Leben und Werk. The Life of an Unknown Person, Christian Doppler’s Youth in Salzburg and Vienna. In, Ewald Hiebl, Maurizio Musso, Christian Doppler – Life, proceedings of the Commemorative Symposia in Salzburg, Salzburg, Prague, Vienna, Venice. Pöllauberg/Austria, Hainault/UK, Atascadero/US, pages 33 –46, Christian Doppler at Find a Grave OConnor, John J. Robertson, Edmund F. Christian Doppler, MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews
12.
Theodor Billroth
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Christian Albert Theodor Billroth was a Prussian-born Austrian surgeon and amateur musician. As a surgeon, he is regarded as the founding father of modern abdominal surgery. As a musician, he was a friend and confidant of Johannes Brahms, a leading patron of the Viennese musical scene. Billroth was born at Bergen auf Rügen in the Kingdom of Prussia and he went to school in Greifswald. He was an indifferent student, and spent more time practicing piano than studying, torn between a career as a musician or as a physician, he acceded to his mothers wishes and enrolled himself at the University of Greifswald to study medicine. He then followed his professor, Wilhelm Baum, to the University of Göttingen, along with Rudolph Wagner and Georg Meissner, Billroth went to Trieste to study the torpedo fish. Billroth worked as a doctor from 1853–1860 at the Charité in Berlin, in Berlin he was also apprenticed to Carl Langenbuch. From 1860–1867 he was Professor at the University of Zurich and director of the surgical hospital, while in Zurich, Billroth published his classic textbook Die allgemeine chirurgische Pathologie und Therapie. He was appointed professor of surgery at the University of Vienna in 1867, Billroth was instrumental in establishing the first modern school of thought in surgery. Among his disciples were luminaries such as Alexander von Winiwarter, Jan Mikulicz-Radecki, william Halsteds pioneer surgical residency program was greatly influenced by Billroths own methods of surgical education. Billroth was an amateur pianist and violinist. He met Brahms in the 1860s, when the composer was a star of the Viennese musical scene. They became close friends and shared musical insights, Brahms dedicated his first two string quartets, Opus 51, to Billroth. In the conflict, known as the War of the Romantics, Billroth supported Brahms, Wagner was indeed a very considerable talent in many directions, he wrote in 1888. Billroth started an essay called Wer ist musikalisch, which was published posthumously by Hanslick. It was one of the earliest attempts to scientific methods to musicality. In the essay, Billroth identifies different types of amusicality that suggest some of the different cognitive skills involved in the perception of music, Billroth died in Opatija, Austria-Hungary, before he could complete the research. Excelling at both his vocation and his avocation, Billroth never saw science and music as being in conflict, on the contrary, he considered the two to complement each other
13.
Anton Eiselsberg
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Anton Freiherr von Eiselsberg was born on July 31,1860 at Schloss Steinhaus, Upper Austria. He was one of the founders of neurosurgery, co-founder of the Austrian Cancer Society in 1910, and it was his initiative that lead to the creation of the world-first emergency surgery station in Vienna, dramatically increasing the effectiveness of medical intervention after accidents. Eiselsberg was awarded the second Lister Medal in 1927 for his contributions to surgical science, as part of the award, he was invited to give the Lister Memorial Lecture at the Royal College of Surgeons of England in July 1927. He himself died during the days of World War II in an accident caused by the collision of two trains in the vicinity of St. Valentin, Lower Austria, on October 25,1939. He was one of the greatest surgeons, teachers and clinical researchers of his time, billroth described him as my best student. In 1909 he founded, along with Julius Hochenegg the worlds first model emergency rooms, Eiselsberg and Hochenegg are considered fathers of the emergency rooms Die Werkstatt des Chirurgen. The letters of William Halsted and Anton von Eiselsberg, a special friendship. The letters from Jacques-Louis Reverdin and Theodore Kocher to Anton v. Eiselsberg, a study on the discovery of deficiency symptoms following total extirpation of the thyroid gland. On the 100th birthday of Professor Anton von EISELSBERG, works by or about Anton Eiselsberg at Internet Archive aeiou. at Article on Eiselsberg in Ärztewoche Austrian Cancer Society Van-Swieten Society
14.
Eduard Suess
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Eduard Suess was an Austrian geologist who was an expert on the geography of the Alps. He is responsible for hypothesising two major geographical features, the supercontinent Gondwana and the Tethys Ocean. Eduard Suess was born on August 20,1831, in London, England, the oldest son of Adolph Suess, a Lutheran Saxon merchant, when he was three, his family relocated to Prague, and then to Vienna when he was 14. He became interested in geology at a young age, while working as an assistant at the Hofmuseum in Vienna, he published his first paper—on the geology of Carlsbad —when he was 19. In 1855, Suess married Hermine Strauss, the daughter of a prominent physician from Prague and their marriage produced five sons and one daughter. In 1856, he was appointed professor of paleontology at the University of Vienna and he gradually developed views on the connection between Africa and Europe. Eventually, he concluded that the Alps to the north were once at the bottom of an ocean, Suess was not correct in his analysis, which was predicated upon the notion of contractionism—the idea that the Earth is cooling down and, therefore, contracting. Nevertheless, he is credited with postulating the existence of the Tethys Ocean. He claimed in 1885 that land bridges had connected South America, Africa, India, Australia and he named this ancient broken continent Gondwanaland. Suess published a synthesis of his ideas between 1885 and 1901 titled Das Antlitz der Erde, which was a popular textbook for many years. His theory was based upon glossopteris fern fossils occurring in South America, Africa and his explanation was that the three lands were once connected in a supercontinent, which he named Gondwanaland. Again, this is not quite correct, Suess believed that the oceans flooded the spaces currently between those lands, in his work Das Antlitz der Erde, Suess also introduced the concept of the biosphere, which was later extended by Vladimir I. Suess wrote, One thing seems to be foreign on this large body consisting of spheres, namely. But this life is limited to a zone at the surface of the lithosphere. He was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1895 and he received the Wollaston Medal of the Geological Society of London in 1896 and he won the Copley Medal of the Royal Society in 1903. Suess died on April 26,1914, in Vienna and he is buried in the town of Marz in Burgenland, Austria. Suess is considered one of the practitioners of ecology. The crater Suess on the Moon and a crater on Mars are named after him and his son, Franz Eduard Suess, was superintendent and geologist at the Imperial Geological Institute in Vienna
15.
Ludwig Boltzmann
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Boltzmann was born in Vienna, the capital of the Austrian Empire. His father, Ludwig Georg Boltzmann, was a revenue official and his grandfather, who had moved to Vienna from Berlin, was a clock manufacturer, and Boltzmanns mother, Katharina Pauernfeind, was originally from Salzburg. He received his education from a private tutor at the home of his parents. Boltzmann attended high school in Linz, Upper Austria, when Boltzmann was 15, his father died. Boltzmann studied physics at the University of Vienna, starting in 1863, among his teachers were Josef Loschmidt, Joseph Stefan, Andreas von Ettingshausen and Jozef Petzval. Boltzmann received his PhD degree in 1866 working under the supervision of Stefan, in 1867 he became a Privatdozent. After obtaining his degree, Boltzmann worked two more years as Stefans assistant. It was Stefan who introduced Boltzmann to Maxwells work, in 1869 at age 25, thanks to a letter of recommendation written by Stefan, he was appointed full Professor of Mathematical Physics at the University of Graz in the province of Styria. In 1869 he spent several months in Heidelberg working with Robert Bunsen and Leo Königsberger and then in 1871 he was with Gustav Kirchhoff, in 1873 Boltzmann joined the University of Vienna as Professor of Mathematics and there he stayed until 1876. In 1872, long before women were admitted to Austrian universities, he met Henriette von Aigentler and she was refused permission to audit lectures unofficially. Boltzmann advised her to appeal, which she did, successfully, on July 17,1876 Ludwig Boltzmann married Henriette, they had three daughters and two sons. Boltzmann went back to Graz to take up the chair of Experimental Physics, among his students in Graz were Svante Arrhenius and Walther Nernst. He spent 14 happy years in Graz and it was there that he developed his concept of nature. Boltzmann was appointed to the Chair of Theoretical Physics at the University of Munich in Bavaria, in 1893, Boltzmann succeeded his teacher Joseph Stefan as Professor of Theoretical Physics at the University of Vienna. Boltzmann spent a deal of effort in his final years defending his theories. He did not get along with some of his colleagues in Vienna, particularly Ernst Mach and that same year Georg Helm and Wilhelm Ostwald presented their position on Energetics at a meeting in Lübeck. They saw energy, and not matter, as the component of the universe. Boltzmanns position carried the day among other physicists who supported his theories in the debate
16.
Hans Horst Meyer
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Hans Horst Meyer was a German pharmacologist. He studied medicine and did research in pharmacology, the Meyer-Overton hypothesis on the mode of action on general anaesthetics is partially named after him. He also discovered the importance of acid as a reaction partner for drugs. Meyer was born in Insterburg, East Prussia and he studied medicine in Königsberg, Leipzig, Berlin and again in Königsberg. After his promotion to Doctor of medicine in Königsberg he worked with Oswald Schmiedeberg, one of the founders of pharmacology as an independent scientific discipline, in 1881 he was appointed to the Chair of Pharmacology in Dorpat. Also in 1881, he married Doris née Boehm, together they had three sons, Kurt Heinrich, Arthur Woldemar and Friedrich Horst. Between 1884 and 1904 Meyer occupied the Chair of Pharmacology in Marburg where he worked with Emil Adolf von Behring and Otto Loewi, in 1904, Meyer moved to Vienna, and Loewi joined him until he was appointed to the Chair of Pharmacology in Graz. Ernst Peter Pick joined the department in 1911, Pick would later succeed Meyer as Chair. During Meyers time in Vienna, he worked with three scientists who would win the Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine. George Hoyt Whipple won the award in 1934, Corneille Heymans won in 1938, Meyer retired in 1924 and remained in Vienna. Meyers later life was impacted by National Socialism and his second son, Arthur was a well-known surgeon in Berlin who was one of the first to successfully carry out surgical embolectomy in massive pulmonary embolism. On November 14,1933, Arthur shot his wife and then committed suicide, Arthurs wife was Jewish, and allegations were made that he was also Jewish. In 1938, Meyer and Pick were expelled from the German Academy of Sciences Leopoldina as non-Aryan, after this, Pick emigrated to the United States. Meyer died the year in Vienna. Meyer’s eldest son, Kurt Heinrich Meyer, was director of BASF from 1920 to 1929 later served as a professor of chemistry of the University of Geneva. He supervised the thesis of Edmond Henri Fischer, who with Edwin Gerhard Krebs won the Nobel prize in physiology. Horst Meyer, the son of Meyers second son Arthur, was adopted by Kurt after Arthurs death. He grew up in Geneva, where he studied Physics at the University and in 1959 joined the Physics faculty of Duke University, in Durham, NC, Meyer is best remembered for three discoveries
17.
Roland Scholl
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Roland Heinrich Scholl was a Swiss chemist who taught at various European universities. Among his most notable achievements are the synthesis of coronene, the co-development of the Bally-Scholl synthesis, Roland Heinrich Scholl was born on 30 September 1865 in Zurich, Switzerland, the son of a Badensian merchant. After primary education by a teacher and secondary education at a Gymnasium in Zurich, he studied chemistry. One of his teachers there was Johannes Wislicenus, his mothers brother, after military service in a Bavarian regiment, he continued his studies in 1885 at the Eidgenössisches Polytechnikum in Zurich. In 1890 he received a Dr. phil. degree from the University of Basel, in 1893, Roland Scholl became Privatdozent in chemistry at the Polytechnikum as well as at the University of Zurich. In 1897, he became the assistant director of the laboratory of the Technische Hochschule Karlsruhe. After being promoted to professor in 1904, he moved to the University of Graz. Among other things, Scholl developed a method for the synthesis of pyranthron, Scholl was one of the first persons to use the microbalance developed by Fritz Pregl, the father of microanalysis, who was a close collaborator of Scholl. In 1932, Scholl was the first person to synthesise coronene, over the course of his career, Scholl published about 180 scientific articles. In 1944 he was awarded the Goethe-Medaille für Kunst und Wissenschaft, untersuchungen über Indanthren und Flavanthren I. Scholls first article on the vat dyes Indanthrene and Flavanthrene Scholl, pyranthron, ein stickstofffreies Methinanalogon des Flavanthrens, und Dimethylpyranthron. On the first synthesis of pyranthron Bally, Oscar, Scholl, description of the Bally-Scholl synthesis Scholl, Roland, Meyer, Kurt. Synthese des anti-diperi-Dibenz-coronens und dessen Abbau zum Coronen, on the first synthesis of coronene Scholl, Roland, Holdermann, Karl, Seer, Christian. Versuche zur Darstellung von Harnsäure durch Oxydation nichtcyclischer Aminosäureamide, scholls final article, written from memory in the refugee camp Kernbauer, A. Scholl, Roland. Vienna, Austrian Academy of Sciences Press
18.
Nobel Prize
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The Nobel Prize is a set of annual international awards bestowed in a number of categories by Swedish and Norwegian institutions in recognition of academic, cultural, or scientific advances. The will of the Swedish inventor Alfred Nobel established the prizes in 1895, the prizes in Chemistry, Literature, Peace, Physics, and Physiology or Medicine were first awarded in 1901. Medals made before 1980 were struck in 23 carat gold, between 1901 and 2016, the Nobel Prizes and the Prize in Economic Sciences were awarded 579 times to 911 people and organisations. With some receiving the Nobel Prize more than once, this makes a total of 23 organisations, the prize ceremonies take place annually in Stockholm, Sweden. Each recipient, or laureate, receives a medal, a diploma. The Nobel Prize is widely regarded as the most prestigious award available in the fields of literature, medicine, physics, chemistry, peace, and economics. The prize is not awarded posthumously, however, if a person is awarded a prize and dies before receiving it, though the average number of laureates per prize increased substantially during the 20th century, a prize may not be shared among more than three people. Alfred Nobel was born on 21 October 1833 in Stockholm, Sweden and he was a chemist, engineer, and inventor. In 1894, Nobel purchased the Bofors iron and steel mill and this invention was a precursor to many smokeless military explosives, especially the British smokeless powder cordite. As a consequence of his patent claims, Nobel was eventually involved in a patent infringement lawsuit over cordite, Nobel amassed a fortune during his lifetime, with most of his wealth from his 355 inventions, of which dynamite is the most famous. In 1888, Nobel was astonished to read his own obituary, titled The merchant of death is dead, as it was Alfreds brother Ludvig who had died, the obituary was eight years premature. The article disconcerted Nobel and made him apprehensive about how he would be remembered and this inspired him to change his will. On 10 December 1896, Alfred Nobel died in his villa in San Remo, Italy, Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime. He composed the last over a year before he died, signing it at the Swedish–Norwegian Club in Paris on 27 November 1895, Nobel bequeathed 94% of his total assets,31 million SEK, to establish the five Nobel Prizes. Because of skepticism surrounding the will, it was not until 26 April 1897 that it was approved by the Storting in Norway. The executors of Nobels will, Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist, formed the Nobel Foundation to take care of Nobels fortune, Nobels instructions named a Norwegian Nobel Committee to award the Peace Prize, the members of whom were appointed shortly after the will was approved in April 1897. Soon thereafter, the other prize-awarding organisations were designated or established and these were Karolinska Institutet on 7 June, the Swedish Academy on 9 June, and the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences on 11 June. The Nobel Foundation reached an agreement on guidelines for how the prizes should be awarded, and, in 1900, in 1905, the personal union between Sweden and Norway was dissolved
19.
Julius Wagner-Jauregg
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Julius Wagner-Jauregg was an Austrian physician, who won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1927, and is the only psychiatrist to have done so. His Nobel award was for his discovery of the value of malaria inoculation in the treatment of dementia paralytica. Julius Wagner-Jauregg was born Julius Wagner on 7 March 1857 in Wels, Upper Austria and his family name was changed to Wagner von Jauregg when his father was conferred a Ritter in 1883 by the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Hence he retained the name Julius Wagner Ritter von Jauregg until 1918 when the empire was dissolved, the family name was then contracted to Wagner-Jauregg. He obtained his doctorate in 1880 with the thesis Lorigine et la fonction du cœur accéléré and he left the institute in 1882. After leaving the clinic, he conducted experiments with animals. From 1883 to 1887 he worked with Maximilian Leidesdorf in the Psychiatric Clinic, in 1889 he succeeded the famous Richard von Krafft-Ebing at the Neuro-Psychiatric Clinic of the University of Graz, and started his research on Goitre, cretinism and iodine. In 1893 he became Extraordinary Professor of Psychiatry and Nervous Diseases, a student and assistant of Wagner-Jauregg during this time was Constantin von Economo. Ten years later, in 1902, Wagner-Jauregg moved to the clinic at the General Hospital. The main work pursued by Wagner-Jauregg throughout his life was related to the treatment of disease by inducing a fever. In 1887 he investigated the effects of diseases on psychoses, making use of erisipela. It had been observed that some who develop high fevers could be cured of syphilis, thus, from 1917 to the mid 1940s, malaria induced by the least aggressive parasite, Plasmodium vivax, was used as treatment for tertiary syphilis because it produced prolonged and high fevers. This was considered a risk because the malaria could later be treated with quinine. This discovery earned him the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1927 and his main publication was a book titled Verhütung und Behandlung der progressiven Paralyse durch Impfmalaria in the Memorial Volume of the Handbuch der experimentellen Therapie. The technique was known as malariotherapy, however, it was dangerous, killing about 15% of patients, other patients were deemed schizophrenic because of excessive masturbation, where Wagner-Jauregg sterilized them, resulting in an improved condition. In 1928, Wagner-Jauregg retired from his post but remained active, in his retirement he published nearly 80 scientific papers. Many schools, roads and hospitals are named after him in Austria, towards his last days Wagner-Jauregg was influenced by Hitlers German nationalism, and became an anti-Semite and sympathizer of Nazism. Documentary evidence indicates that he supported the Nazi party shortly after the invasion of Austria in 1938 by Germany, however, a denazification commission in Austria found that his application for NSDAP membership had been refused. on grounds of race, as his first wife was Jewish
20.
Victor Hess
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Victor Franz Hess was an Austrian-American physicist, and Nobel laureate in physics, who discovered cosmic rays. He was born to Vinzenz Hess and Serafine Edle von Grossbauer-Waldstätt, in Waldstein Castle and his father was a royal forester in Prince Louis of Oettingen-Wallersteins service. He attended secondary school at Graz Gymnasium from 1893 to 1901, from 1901 to 1905 Hess was an undergraduate student at the University of Graz, and continued postgraduate studies in physics until he received his PhD there in 1910. He worked as Assistant under Stefan Meyer at the Institute for Radium Research, Viennese Academy of Sciences, in 1920 he married Marie Bertha Warner Breisky. In 1923, he returned to the University of Graz, and was appointed the Ordinary Professor of Experimental Physics in 1925, the University of Innsbruck appointed him Professor, and Director Institute of Radiology, in 1931. Hess relocated to the United States with his Jewish wife in 1938, the same year Fordham University appointed him Professor of Physics, and he later became a naturalized United States citizen in 1944. His wife died of cancer in 1955, the same year he married Elizabeth M. Hoenke, the woman who nursed Berta at the end of her life. He was a practicing Roman Catholic, and in 1946 he wrote on the topic of the relationship between science and religion in his article My Faith, in which he explained why he believed in God. He retired from Fordham University in 1958 and he died on 17 December 1964, in Mount Vernon, between 1911 and 1913, Hess undertook the work that won him the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1936. For many years, scientists had been puzzled by the levels of ionizing radiation measured in the atmosphere, the assumption at the time was that the radiation would decrease as the distance from the earth, the source of the radiation, increased. Hess approached this mystery first by greatly increasing the precision of the measuring equipment and he systematically measured the radiation at altitudes up to 5.3 km during 1911-12. The daring flights were made both at day and during the night, at significant risk to himself, hesss discovery opened the door to many new discoveries in particle and nuclear physics. In particular, both the positron and the muon were first discovered in cosmic rays by Carl David Anderson, Hess and Anderson shared the 1936 Nobel Prize in Physics. Lieben Prize Abbe Memorial Prize Abbe Medal of the Carl Zeiss Institute, Jena Nobel Prize in Physics Austrian Decoration for Science and Art A lunar crater is named after Hess Hess, the Electrical Conductivity of the Atmosphere and Its Causes
21.
Konrad Lorenz
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Konrad Zacharias Lorenz was an Austrian zoologist, ethologist, and ornithologist. He shared the 1973 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Nikolaas Tinbergen and he is often regarded as one of the founders of modern ethology, developing an approach that began with an earlier generation, including his teacher Oskar Heinroth. Lorenz studied instinctive behavior in animals, especially in greylag geese, although Lorenz did not discover the topic, he became widely known for his descriptions of imprinting as an instinctive bond. In 1936 he met Dutch biologist Nikolaas Tinbergen, and the two collaborated in developing ethology as a separate sub-discipline of biology, Lorenzs work was interrupted by the onset of World War II and in 1941 he was recruited into the German army as a medic. In 1944 he was sent to the Eastern Front where he was captured, after the war he regretted his membership in the Nazi party. Lorenz wrote numerous books, some of which, such as King Solomons Ring, On Aggression and his last work Here I Am – Where Are You. is a summary of his lifes work and focuses on his famous studies of greylag geese. At the request of his father, Adolf Lorenz, he began a premedical curriculum in 1922 at Columbia University and he graduated as Doctor of Medicine in 1928 and became an assistant professor at the Institute of Anatomy until 1935. He finished his studies in 1933 and received his second doctorate. While still a student, Lorenz began developing what would become a large menagerie, in 1936, at an international scientific symposium on instinct, Lorenz met his great friend and colleague Nikolaas Tinbergen. Together they studied geese—wild, domestic, and hybrid, Lorenz began to suspect and fear that analogous processes of deterioration may be at work with civilized humanity. In 1940 he became a professor of psychology at the University of Königsberg and he was drafted into the Wehrmacht in 1941. He sought to be a mechanic, but instead he was assigned as a military psychologist. The objective was to study the characteristics of German-Polish half-breeds to determine whether they were psychologically and physically fit to be allowed to reproduce. Those who were judged unfit were sent to concentration camps, the degree to which Lorenz participated in the project is unknown, but the project director Hippius referred a couple of times to Lorenz as an examining psychologist. Lorenz later described that he once saw transports of concentration camp inmates near Poznań and he was sent to the Russian front in 1944 where he quickly became a prisoner of war in the Soviet Union from 1944 to 1948. In captivity he continued to work as a medic and got quite friendly with some Russians, when he was repatriated, he was allowed to keep the manuscript of a book he had been writing, and his pet starling. He arrived back in Altenberg both with manuscript and bird intact, the manuscript became his 1973 book Behind the Mirror. The Max Planck Society established the Lorenz Institute for Behavioral Physiology in Buldern, Germany, in his memoirs Lorenz described the chronology of his war years differently from what historians have been able to document after his death
22.
Eco.mont
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Eco. mont – Journal on Protected Mountain Areas Research and Management is a peer-reviewed open access scientific journal on mountain research in protected areas. The editors-in-chief are Axel Borsdorf and Günter Köck, the journal covers research on protected areas in the Alps and in other mountain regions. From 2015 the journal is published as open access, the journal is abstracted and indexed in the Science Citation Index Expanded, Current Contents/Agriculture, Biology & Environmental Sciences, and Scopus
23.
Carnuntum
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Carnuntum was a Roman Legionary Fortress or castrum legionarium and also headquarters of the Pannonian fleet from 50 AD. After the 1st century it was capital of the Pannonia Superior province and it also became a large city of 50,000 inhabitants. Carnuntum first occurs in history during the reign of Augustus, when Tiberius made it his base of operations as a Roman fort in the campaigns against Maroboduus, significant Romanisation occurred when the town was selected as the garrison of the Legio XV Apollinaris before 14 AD. A few years later, it became the centre of the Roman fortifications along the Danube from Vindobona to Brigetio, to this period belongs the auxiliary castrum of a cavalry ala 1.5 km south-west of the legionary fortress. The legion was sent to Syria and possibly Armenia by Nero in 62 or 63, in 71 AD, after several campaigns, the Legio XV Apollinaris returned to Carnuntum and rebuilt its fortress. The legion fought in the Trajans Dacian Wars the main body of the legion remained in Pannonia, in 115 war with Parthia broke out and the legion was sent to the east. Legio X Gemina was sent to Carnuntum for a few years from about 63 AD, during the brief reign of Galba, it was transferred back to Hispania. Legio VII Gemina, newly founded by Galba in 68 AD, was allocated to Carnuntum until about 71 AD after his defeat by Vespasian, in 117/8 AD, Carnuntum became the permanent quarters of Legio XIV Gemina where it stayed for three centuries until the frontier collapsed in 430. In Roman times Carnuntum had a history as a trading centre for amber, brought from the north to traders who sold it in Italy. As the capital of Pannonia Superior it was made a municipium by Hadrian and its importance is indicated by the fact that Marcus Aurelius resided there for three years during the war against the Marcomanni, and wrote part of his Meditations there. Also Septimius Severus, at the governor of Pannonia, was proclaimed emperor there by his soldiers, to replace Emperor Pertinax. In the Severan dynasty Carnuntum experienced a boom, the canabae reaching its maximum size. Caracalla elevated it to status as Septimia Colonia Aurelia Antoniana. During the reign of Gallienus, the Pannonians rebelled by electing the usurper Regalianus who established a mint whose coins depicted him and he was killed shortly afterwards by his own soldiers probably at Carnuntum. It brought about freedom of religion for the Roman Empire, in 374 it was destroyed by Germanic invaders the Quadi and Iazyges. Although partly restored by Valentinian I, it never regained its former importance, during the Barbarian Invasions, Carnuntum was eventually abandoned and used as a cemetery and source of building material for building projects elsewhere. Eventually, its remains became buried and forgotten, there are several places to see in the city, Roman city quarter in the open-air museum, palace ruins, amphitheatre, and Heidentor. The Roman city ruins are exposed in the museum directly in the present village
24.
Ephesus
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Ephesus was an ancient Greek city on the coast of Ionia, three kilometres southwest of present-day Selçuk in İzmir Province, Turkey. It was built in the 10th century BC on the site of the former Arzawan capital by Attic, during the Classical Greek era it was one of the twelve cities of the Ionian League. The city flourished after it came under the control of the Roman Republic in 129 BC, the city was famed for the nearby Temple of Artemis, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Among many other buildings are the Library of Celsus. Ephesus was one of the seven churches of Asia that are cited in the Book of Revelation, the Gospel of John may have been written here. The city was the site of several 5th century Christian Councils, the city was destroyed by the Goths in 263, and although rebuilt, the citys importance as a commercial centre declined as the harbour was slowly silted up by the Küçükmenderes River. It was partially destroyed by an earthquake in 614 AD, the area surrounding Ephesus was already inhabited during the Neolithic Age, as was revealed by excavations at the nearby höyük of Arvalya and Cukurici. Excavations in recent years have unearthed settlements from the early Bronze Age at Ayasuluk Hill, according to Hittite sources, the capital of the Kingdom of Arzawa was Apasa. Some scholars suggest that this is the later Greek Ephesus, in 1954, a burial ground from the Mycenaean era with ceramic pots was discovered close to the ruins of the basilica of St. John. This was the period of the Mycenaean Expansion when the Achaioi settled in Asia Minor during the 14th and 13th centuries BC, Ephesus was founded as an Attic-Ionian colony in the 10th century BC on the Ayasuluk Hill, three kilometers from the centre of ancient Ephesus. The mythical founder of the city was a prince of Athens named Androklos, according to the legend, he founded Ephesus on the place where the oracle of Delphi became reality. Androklos drove away most of the native Carian and Lelegian inhabitants of the city and he was a successful warrior, and as a king he was able to join the twelve cities of Ionia together into the Ionian League. During his reign the city began to prosper and he died in a battle against the Carians when he came to the aid of Priene, another city of the Ionian League. Androklos and his dog are depicted on the Hadrian temple frieze, later, Greek historians such as Pausanias, Strabo and Herodotos and the poet Kallinos reassigned the citys mythological foundation to Ephos, queen of the Amazons. The Greek goddess Artemis and the great Anatolian goddess Kybele were identified together as Artemis of Ephesus, Pausanias mentions that the temple was built by Ephesus, son of the river god Caystrus, before the arrival of the Ionians. Of this structure, scarcely a trace remains, about 650 BC, Ephesus was attacked by the Cimmerians who razed the city, including the temple of Artemis. After the Cimmerians had been away, the city was ruled by a series of tyrants. Following a revolt by the people, Ephesus was ruled by a council and his signature has been found on the base of one of the columns of the temple
25.
Mountain research
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Mountain research or montology, traditionally also known as orology, is a field of research that regionally concentrates on the Earths surfaces part covered by mountain landscapes. Different approaches have developed to define mountainous areas. While some use a difference of 300 m inside an area to define that zone as mountainous, others consider differences from 1000 m or more. Additionally, some include steepness to define regions, hence excluding high plateaus. In a broader sense, mountain research is considered any research in mountain regions, for instance disciplinary studies on Himalayan plants, Andean rocks, Alpine cities and it is comparable to research that concentrates on the Arctic and Antarctic or coasts. In a narrower sense, mountain research focuses on regions, their description and the explanation of the human-environment interaction in. So-defined mountain research is situated at the nexus of natural sciences, in sum, a narrowly defined mountain research applies an interdisciplinary and integrative regional approach. Slaymaker summarizes, Mountain research or orology—not to be confused with orography—, is sometimes denominated montology and this term stems from Carl Trolls mountain geoecology—geoecology being Trolls English translation of the German Landschaftsökologie—and appeared at a meeting in Cambridge, Massachusetts in 1977. Since then, scholars such as Jack D. Ives, Bruno Messerli, the term montology was included in the Oxford English Dictionary in 2002. It defines montology as, On the one hand, the term montology received criticism due to the mix of Latin, on the other hand, however, this is also the—well accepted—case in several, already established disciplines such as glaciology or sociology. The European and Global Dimension of Mountain Research, An Overview, representing Mountains, From Local and National to Global Common Good. AD2002 Declared by United Nations as International Year of the Mountains
26.
Natural science
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Natural science is a branch of science concerned with the description, prediction, and understanding of natural phenomena, based on observational and empirical evidence. Mechanisms such as review and repeatability of findings are used to try to ensure the validity of scientific advances. Natural science can be divided into two branches, life science and physical science. Physical science is subdivided into branches, including physics, space science, chemistry and these branches of natural science may be further divided into more specialized branches. Modern natural science succeeded more classical approaches to natural philosophy, usually traced to ancient Greece, galileo, Descartes, Francis Bacon, and Newton debated the benefits of using approaches which were more mathematical and more experimental in a methodical way. Still, philosophical perspectives, conjectures, and presuppositions, often overlooked, systematic data collection, including discovery science, succeeded natural history, which emerged in the 16th century by describing and classifying plants, animals, minerals, and so on. Today, natural history suggests observational descriptions aimed at popular audiences, philosophers of science have suggested a number of criteria, including Karl Poppers controversial falsifiability criterion, to help them differentiate scientific endeavors from non-scientific ones. Validity, accuracy, and quality control, such as peer review and this field encompasses a set of disciplines that examines phenomena related to living organisms. The scale of study can range from sub-component biophysics up to complex ecologies, biology is concerned with the characteristics, classification and behaviors of organisms, as well as how species were formed and their interactions with each other and the environment. The biological fields of botany, zoology, and medicine date back to periods of civilization. However, it was not until the 19th century that became a unified science. Once scientists discovered commonalities between all living things, it was decided they were best studied as a whole, modern biology is divided into subdisciplines by the type of organism and by the scale being studied. Molecular biology is the study of the chemistry of life, while cellular biology is the examination of the cell. At a higher level, anatomy and physiology looks at the internal structures, constituting the scientific study of matter at the atomic and molecular scale, chemistry deals primarily with collections of atoms, such as gases, molecules, crystals, and metals. The composition, statistical properties, transformations and reactions of these materials are studied, chemistry also involves understanding the properties and interactions of individual atoms and molecules for use in larger-scale applications. Most chemical processes can be studied directly in a laboratory, using a series of techniques for manipulating materials, chemistry is often called the central science because of its role in connecting the other natural sciences. Early experiments in chemistry had their roots in the system of Alchemy, the science of chemistry began to develop with the work of Robert Boyle, the discoverer of gas, and Antoine Lavoisier, who developed the theory of the Conservation of mass. The success of science led to a complementary chemical industry that now plays a significant role in the world economy
27.
Institute of Molecular Biotechnology
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IMBA operates in close collaboration with the Research Institute of Molecular Pathology, Boehringers basic research center both located next to each other at the Campus Vienna Biocenter. Services offered comprise the Bioinformatics department for sequence analysis, scientific data mining with hardware and software infrastructure, the BioOptics facility offers analytical flow cytometry, cell sorting and microscopy. The Genomics department, for DNA microarray services and next-generation sequencing devices, there is a protein chemistry department for mass spectrometry experiments. The Max Perutz Library provides information service for all literature needs, an animal house helps managing mice colonies, and other facilities include the service department, the workshop, and an art department. The Vienna Drosophila RNAi Center is located at IMBA, and is available to researchers worldwide and it collects an RNAi library with above 22,000 Drosophila strains. The animal facility supervises care of mice and hosts the Austrian Network for Functional Mouse Genomics which focus on transgenic mouse technologies, the Campus Vienna Biocenter and the University of Vienna coordinate a high-standard international PhD program to training outstanding students who want to pursue a scientific career. The students are selected twice a year and are invited to Vienna for a week of interviews, the successful candidates are selected in agreement with principal investigator’s choices and the students perspectives. In 1999 the Institute of Molecular Biotechnology was founded as a joint initiative of the Austrian Academy of Sciences, the construction of the institute started in 2003 until 2006 when it was finally inaugurated. The institute lies wall-to-wall with the IMP, to enhance collaborations, IMBA goes on expanding and in 2007 the Vienna Drosophila RNAi Center in collaboration with the IMP is opened. Since 2007 IMBA has a Scientific Advisory Board for decision making chaired by Nobel prize winner Eric Kandel, even being a newcomer in the Molecular Biology community, the IMBA has soon received recognition in the form of awards to its researchers and grants for outstanding projects. In 2012 Josef Penninger was awarded with the Innovator Award for his project “Novel Approaches to Breast Cancer Prevention and Inhibition of Metastases” through the US Department of Defense. The institute has received support by the European Research Council
28.
Boehringer Ingelheim
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KG is the parent company of Boehringer Ingelheim GmbH, which was founded in 1885 by Albert Boehringer in Ingelheim am Rhein, Germany. The Boehringer Ingelheim group is one of the worlds 20 leading pharmaceutical companies, still headquartered in Ingelheim, it operates globally with 146 affiliates and more than 47,700 employees. The companys key assets of interest are, respiratory diseases, metabolism, immunology, oncology, Boehringer Ingelheim is a full member of the European Federation of Pharmaceutical Industries and Associations EFPIA. The corporate logo of Boehringer Ingelheim depicts a stylized rendition of the section of the imperial palace of Charlemagne. Boehringer Ingelheim works in human pharmaceuticals, animal health and biopharmaceuticals, the group consists of 145 affiliated companies with 47,500 employees in 2015 in all continents. Research and development facilities were in five sites and 20 production plants in 13 countries, the research and development facilities are located in Biberach, Ridgefield, Vienna, Kobe, and Milan. Over 8,000 employees work for Boehringer Ingelheim in research, in July 2015, the company sold its Roxane business to Hikma Pharmaceuticals Plc for $2.65 billion. The company also agreed to cash payments of up to $125 million based on performance milestones. On the same day the company announced it would partner with Hanmi Pharmaceutical to develop and commercialise HM61713, Boehringer also terminated its collaboration with Vitae Pharmaceuticals on a new BACE program for Alzheimers. The deal could mean that Boehringer is now one of the animal healthcare global leaders, in September of the same year, Amgen announced it would purchase the rights to Boehringer Ingelheims Phase I bispecific T-cell engager compound for use in the treatment of multiple myeloma. 1885, Albert Boehringer buys a small factory in Ingelheim am Rhein. 1886, The factory commences production of acid for use in the food industry. 1893, Albert Boehringer renames the company C. H. Boehringer Sohn after his father,1893, While experimenting with the production of citric acid, lactic acid is formed. Albert Boehringer develops this process, with the intention of producing lactic acid on a larger scale,1895, Lactic acid is produced on an industrial scale, and is successful commercially. 1917, Professor Heinrich Wieland, chemist, future Nobel Prize winner and cousin of Albert Boehringer,1928, Albert Boehringer purchases Dr. Karl Thomae, a company based in Winnenden near Stuttgart. 1946, Dr. Karl Thomae GmbH is re-opened in Biberach an der Riss with a staff of 70 people,1954, The company hires former Nazi Fritz Fischer after he is released from jail. Fischer was convicted of war crimes and crimes against humanity at the Nuremberg Trials,1955, The Animal Health division is established as the company acquires Pfizer’s veterinary programme. 1971, The foreign subsidiary, Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Inc is founded in Ridgefield and this site is soon expanded, and becomes the company’s North American research centre
29.
Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
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International Council for Science
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The International Council for Science is an international organization devoted to international cooperation in the advancement of science. Its members are national bodies and international scientific unions. As of 2012, it comprises 120 multi-disciplinary National Scientific Members, Associates and Observers representing 140 countries and 31 international, ICSU also has 22 Scientific Associates. ICSU’s mission is to international science for the benefit of society. To do this, ICSU mobilizes the knowledge and resources of the science community to, Identify and address major issues of importance to science. Facilitate interaction amongst scientists across all disciplines and from all countries, promote the participation of all scientists — regardless of race, citizenship, language, political stance, or gender — in the international scientific endeavour. Provide independent, authoritative advice to stimulate constructive dialogue between the community and governments, civil society, and the private sector. Activities focus on three areas, International Research Collaboration, Science for Policy, and Universality of Science, the universality of science in its broadest sense is about developing a truly global scientific community on the basis of equity and non-discrimination. It is also ensuring that science is trusted and valued by societies across the world. As such, it incorporates issues related to the conduct of science, capacity building, science education and literacy, access to data and information and the relationship between science and society. Underpinning this broader concept of universality is the Principle of the Universality of Science which is narrowly focused on the freedoms. Adherence to this Principle is a condition of ICSU membership, the Freedom and Responsibility Portal on the ICSUs website documents its activities in these areas. The ICSU Secretariat in Paris ensures the day-to-day planning and operations under the guidance of an elected Executive Board, ICSU has three Regional Offices − Africa, Asia and the Pacific as well as Latin America and the Caribbean. The principal source of ICSUs finances is the contributions it receives from its members, ISBN9780881350661 Crawford, Elisabeth Nationalism and Internationalism in Science, 1880-1939. Cambridge University Press ISBN9780521524742 Official website ICSU at University of Waterloo Scholarly Societies directory ICSU at United Nations
Austria
