1.
Great Eastern Crisis
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The state of Ottoman administration in the Balkans continued to deteriorate throughout the 19th century, with the central government occasionally losing control over whole provinces. Reforms imposed by European powers did little to improve the conditions of the Christian population, Bosnia suffered at least two waves of rebellion by the local Muslim population, the most recent in 1850. Austria consolidated after the turmoil of the first half of the century, meanwhile, the nominally autonomous, de facto independent principalities of Serbia and Montenegro also sought to expand into regions inhabited by their compatriots. Nationalist and irredentist sentiments were strong and were encouraged by Russia, on 24 August 1854, during the Crimean War, the Ottoman Empire took its first foreign loans. A large amount of money was spent for building new ships for the Ottoman Navy during the reign of Sultan Abdülaziz. In 1875, the Ottoman Navy had 21 battleships and 173 warships of other types, all of these expenditures, however, put a huge strain on the Ottoman treasury. In the meantime, a drought in Anatolia in 1873 and flooding in 1874 caused famine. This made the European creditors bondholders, and assigned special rights to the OPDA for collecting various types of tax and customs revenues. After the Treaty of Berlin in 1878, Austria-Hungary stationed military garrisons in the Ottoman Vilayet of Bosnia and Ottoman Sanjak of Novi Pazar, taking advantage of the chaos that occurred during the Young Turk Revolution in 1908, Bulgaria declared its formal independence on 5 October 1908. Herzegovina Uprising April Uprising Razlovtsi insurrection On June 28,1876, Montenegro, great eastern crisis and Serbia, 1875-1878. Svetska srpska zajednica, Institut srpskog naroda, király, Béla K. Rothenberg, Gunther Erich. War and Society in East Central Europe, Insurrections wars and the crisis in the 1870s
2.
Bosnia and Herzegovina
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Bosnia and Herzegovina, sometimes called Bosnia-Herzegovina, and, in short, often known informally as Bosnia, is a country in Southeastern Europe located on the Balkan Peninsula. Sarajevo is the capital and largest city, in the central and eastern interior of the country the geography is mountainous, in the northwest it is moderately hilly, and the northeast is predominantly flatland. The inland is a larger region and has a moderate continental climate, with hot summers and cold. The southern tip of the country has a Mediterranean climate and plain topography, Bosnia and Herzegovina is a region that traces permanent human settlement back to the Neolithic age, during and after which it was populated by several Illyrian and Celtic civilizations. Culturally, politically, and socially, the country has a rich history, the Ottomans brought Islam to the region, and altered much of the cultural and social outlook of the country. This was followed by annexation into the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, which lasted up until World War I. In the interwar period, Bosnia was part of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and after World War II, following the dissolution of Yugoslavia, the country proclaimed independence in 1992, which was followed by the Bosnian War, lasting until late 1995. The country is home to three ethnic groups or, officially, constituent peoples, as specified in the constitution. Bosniaks are the largest group of the three, with Serbs second and Croats third, a native of Bosnia and Herzegovina, regardless of ethnicity, is identified in English as a Bosnian. The terms Herzegovinian and Bosnian are maintained as a rather than ethnic distinction. Moreover, the country was simply called Bosnia until the Austro-Hungarian occupation at the end of the 19th century, Bosnia and Herzegovina has a bicameral legislature and a three-member Presidency composed of a member of each major ethnic group. The Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina is itself complex and consists of 10 cantons, additionally, the country has been a member of the Council of Europe since April 2002 and a founding member of the Mediterranean Union upon its establishment in July 2008. The name is believed to have derived from the hydronym of the river Bosna coursing through the Bosnian heartland. According to philologist Anton Mayer the name Bosna could be derived from Illyrian Bass-an-as which would be a diversion of the Proto-Indo-European root bos or bogh, meaning the running water. According to English medievalist William Miller the Slavic settlers in Bosnia adapted the Latin designation Basante, to their own idiom by calling the stream Bosna, the name Herzegovina originates from Bosnian magnate Stephen Vukčić Kosačas title, Herceg of Hum and the Coast. Hum, formerly Zahumlje, was a medieval principality that was conquered by the Bosnian Banate in the first half of the 14th century. Bosnia is located in the western Balkans, bordering Croatia to the north and west, Serbia to the east and it has a coastline about 20 kilometres long surrounding the city of Neum. It lies between latitudes 42° and 46° N, and longitudes 15° and 20° E, the countrys name comes from the two regions Bosnia and Herzegovina, which have a very vaguely defined border between them
3.
Austro-Hungarian rule in Bosnia and Herzegovina
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Bosnia and Herzegovina fell under Austro-Hungarian rule in 1878 when the Congress of Berlin approved the occupation of the Bosnia Vilayet, which officially remained part of the Ottoman Empire. Following the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78, in June and July 1878 the Congress of Berlin was organized by the Great Powers, according to article 25, The provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina shall be occupied and administered by Austria-Hungary. To this end the governments of Austria-Hungary and Turkey reserve to themselves to come to an understanding on the details, the primary commander was Josip Filipović, the forward XVIII infantry division was under the command Stjepan Jovanović, while the rear army commander in Dalmatia was Gavrilo Rodić. The occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina started on 29 July 1878 and was over on 20 October, the Ottoman army in Bosnia and Herzegovina at the time consisted of roughly 40,000 troops with 77 cannons, that combined with local militias to around 93,000 men. Despite setbacks at Maglaj and Tuzla, Sarajevo was occupied in October 1878, Austro-Hungarian casualties amounted to over 5,000 and the unexpected violence of the campaign led to recriminations between commanders and political leaders. Fierce resistance from Muslims was expected as Austro-Hungarians realized their occupation meant that Bosnian Muslims would lose their status based on their religion. Tensions remained in parts of the country and a mass emigration of predominantly Muslim dissidents occurred. The Austro-Hungarian administration advocated the ideal of a pluralist and multi-confessional Bosnian nation, between 1861 and 1869, Topal Osman Pasha, an Ottoman grand vizier had striven to do the same. Croats and Serbs who opposed the policy mostly ignored Bosnian nationhood and instead sought to claim Bosnian Muslims as their own, the idea of a unified South Slavic state became a popular political ideology in the region at this time, including Bosnia and Herzegovina. Certain Muslim circles in Bosnia and Herzegovina published the newspaper Bošnjak and this newspaper caused fierce discussions in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, and Serbia. The newspaper supported Kállays policy, whose goal was to strengthen Austro-Hungarian rule in occupied Bosnia, although Kállays policy was not widely accepted even amongst Muslims, Bošnjak nevertheless represented the national aspirations of some Muslims in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Kállays policy was defeated in 1896 and 1899, when Bosnian Serbs and Muslims called for religious. Kállays policy had some potential to resist Croatian and Serbian national aspirations, after the death of Kallay, the policy was abandoned. By 1905, nationalism was a factor of Bosnian politics. Soon after Austria-Hungary occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1878, the government took the religious activities. Austro-Hungarian authorities issued regulations which made Muslim clergy Austro-Hungarian state officials and this was to isolate Bosnian Muslims from the Ottoman Empire, and its clergy who were subordinate to the Sultan. The Muslims were largely unhappy with their new status, and formed Muslim political opposition and this Muslim opposition demanded, at first, Muslim religious autonomy from Austria-Hungary, but later, as it grew stronger, they demanded autonomy from the Ottoman Empire. The Muslim opposition tried to align itself with the Serbs, who were also demanding religious, but unsolved agrarian relations between the Muslim leadership and the Serbs was an obstacle to any far-reaching alliance
4.
Austria-Hungary
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The union was a result of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 and came into existence on 30 March 1867. Austria-Hungary consisted of two monarchies, and one region, the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia under the Hungarian crown. It was ruled by the House of Habsburg, and constituted the last phase in the evolution of the Habsburg Monarchy. Following the 1867 reforms, the Austrian and the Hungarian states were co-equal, Foreign affairs and the military came under joint oversight, but all other governmental faculties were divided between respective states. Austria-Hungary was a state and one of the worlds great powers at the time. Austria-Hungary was geographically the second-largest country in Europe after the Russian Empire, at 621,538 km2, the Empire built up the fourth-largest machine building industry of the world, after the United States, Germany, and the United Kingdom. After 1878, Bosnia and Herzegovina was under Austro-Hungarian military and civilian rule until it was annexed in 1908. The annexation of Bosnia also led to Islam being recognized as a state religion due to Bosnias Muslim population. Austria-Hungary was one of the Central Powers in World War I and it was already effectively dissolved by the time the military authorities signed the armistice of Villa Giusti on 3 November 1918. The realms full, official name was The Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council, each enjoyed considerable sovereignty with only a few joint affairs. Certain regions, such as Polish Galicia within Cisleithania and Croatia within Transleithania, enjoyed autonomous status, the division between Austria and Hungary was so marked that there was no common citizenship, one was either an Austrian citizen or a Hungarian citizen, never both. This also meant that there were always separate Austrian and Hungarian passports, however, neither Austrian nor Hungarian passports were used in the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia-Dalmatia. Instead, the Kingdom issued its own passports which were written in Croatian and French and it is not known what kind of passports were used in Bosnia-Herzegovina, which was under the control of both Austria and Hungary. The Kingdom of Hungary had always maintained a separate parliament, the Diet of Hungary, the administration and government of the Kingdom of Hungary remained largely untouched by the government structure of the overarching Austrian Empire. Hungarys central government structures remained well separated from the Austrian imperial government, the country was governed by the Council of Lieutenancy of Hungary – located in Pressburg and later in Pest – and by the Hungarian Royal Court Chancellery in Vienna. The Hungarian government and Hungarian parliament were suspended after the Hungarian revolution of 1848, despite Austria and Hungary sharing a common currency, they were fiscally sovereign and independent entities. Since the beginnings of the union, the government of the Kingdom of Hungary could preserve its separated. After the revolution of 1848–1849, the Hungarian budget was amalgamated with the Austrian, from 1527 to 1851, the Kingdom of Hungary maintained its own customs controls, which separated her from the other parts of the Habsburg-ruled territories
5.
Bosnia Vilayet
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The Bosnia Vilayet was a first-level administrative division of the Ottoman Empire, mostly comprising the territory of the present-day state of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It bordered Kosovo Vilayet to the south, before the administrative reform in 1867, it was called the Bosnia Eyalet. In the late 19th century it reportedly had an area of 17,900 square miles and this excluded Old Herzegovina, which was ceded to the Principality of Montenegro in 1878. In 1908 Austria-Hungary formally annexed it into its own territory
6.
Ottoman Empire
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After 1354, the Ottomans crossed into Europe, and with the conquest of the Balkans the Ottoman Beylik was transformed into a transcontinental empire. The Ottomans ended the Byzantine Empire with the 1453 conquest of Constantinople by Mehmed the Conqueror, at the beginning of the 17th century the empire contained 32 provinces and numerous vassal states. Some of these were later absorbed into the Ottoman Empire, while others were granted various types of autonomy during the course of centuries. With Constantinople as its capital and control of lands around the Mediterranean basin, while the empire was once thought to have entered a period of decline following the death of Suleiman the Magnificent, this view is no longer supported by the majority of academic historians. The empire continued to maintain a flexible and strong economy, society, however, during a long period of peace from 1740 to 1768, the Ottoman military system fell behind that of their European rivals, the Habsburg and Russian Empires. While the Empire was able to hold its own during the conflict, it was struggling with internal dissent. Starting before World War I, but growing increasingly common and violent during it, major atrocities were committed by the Ottoman government against the Armenians, Assyrians and Pontic Greeks. The word Ottoman is an anglicisation of the name of Osman I. Osmans name in turn was the Turkish form of the Arabic name ʿUthmān, in Ottoman Turkish, the empire was referred to as Devlet-i ʿAlīye-yi ʿOsmānīye, or alternatively ʿOsmānlı Devleti. In Modern Turkish, it is known as Osmanlı İmparatorluğu or Osmanlı Devleti, the Turkish word for Ottoman originally referred to the tribal followers of Osman in the fourteenth century, and subsequently came to be used to refer to the empires military-administrative elite. In contrast, the term Turk was used to refer to the Anatolian peasant and tribal population, the term Rūmī was also used to refer to Turkish-speakers by the other Muslim peoples of the empire and beyond. In Western Europe, the two names Ottoman Empire and Turkey were often used interchangeably, with Turkey being increasingly favored both in formal and informal situations and this dichotomy was officially ended in 1920–23, when the newly established Ankara-based Turkish government chose Turkey as the sole official name. Most scholarly historians avoid the terms Turkey, Turks, and Turkish when referring to the Ottomans, as the power of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum declined in the 13th century, Anatolia was divided into a patchwork of independent Turkish principalities known as the Anatolian Beyliks. One of these beyliks, in the region of Bithynia on the frontier of the Byzantine Empire, was led by the Turkish tribal leader Osman, osmans early followers consisted both of Turkish tribal groups and Byzantine renegades, many but not all converts to Islam. Osman extended the control of his principality by conquering Byzantine towns along the Sakarya River and it is not well understood how the early Ottomans came to dominate their neighbours, due to the scarcity of the sources which survive from this period. One school of thought which was popular during the twentieth century argued that the Ottomans achieved success by rallying religious warriors to fight for them in the name of Islam, in the century after the death of Osman I, Ottoman rule began to extend over Anatolia and the Balkans. Osmans son, Orhan, captured the northwestern Anatolian city of Bursa in 1326 and this conquest meant the loss of Byzantine control over northwestern Anatolia. The important city of Thessaloniki was captured from the Venetians in 1387, the Ottoman victory at Kosovo in 1389 effectively marked the end of Serbian power in the region, paving the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe
7.
Bosnia (region)
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Bosnia is the northern region of Bosnia and Herzegovina, encompassing roughly 80% of the country, the other eponymous region, the southern part, is Herzegovina. Bosnia is a term for the whole country. The two regions have formed a geopolitical entity since medieval times, and the name Bosnia commonly occurs in historical and geopolitical senses as generally referring to both regions, the official use of the combined name started only in the late period of Ottoman-rule. Bosnia lies mainly in the Dinaric Alps, ranging to the borders of the Pannonian plain, with the rivers Sava. The area of Bosnia comprises approximately 41,000 km2, and makes up about 80% of the territory of the state of Bosnia. There are no borders between the region of Bosnia and the region of Herzegovina. Unofficially, Herzegovina is south of the mountain Ivan planina, according to another unofficial definition, Herzegovina encompasses watersheds Neretva and Trebišnjica rivers. The historical records of the region are scarce until its first recorded standalone ruler and viceroy of Bosnian state, Ban Borić, de Administrando Imperio describes a small župa of Bosona that was located around the river Bosna in the modern-day fields of Sarajevo and of Visoko. The area is thought to have been inhabited by the Illyrian tribe of the Daesitiates. Under its first known ruler, Stephen, Duke of Bosnia, in the 1080s, the region spanned the upper course of the rivers Bosna, the Vrbas. At the end of the 14th century, under Tvrtko I of Bosnia, the kingdom lost its independence to the Ottoman Empire in 1463. The region of Bosnias westernmost city at the time of the conquest was Jajce, the Ottoman Empire initially expanded into Bosnia and Herzegovina through a territory called the Bosansko Krajište. It was transformed into the Sanjak of Bosnia and the Sanjak of Herzegovina after 1462/1463, eventually, following the Great Turkish War, in the 18th century the Eyalet came to encompass the area largely matching that of todays Bosnia and Herzegovina. In 1833, the Eyalet of Herzegovina was temporarily split off under Ali-paša Rizvanbegović, the area acquired the name of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1853 as a result of a twist in political events following his death. After the 1864 administrative reform, the province was named Vilayet of Bosnia, Austria-Hungary occupied the whole country in 1878. It remained formally part of the Ottoman Empire under the title of Condominium of Bosnia and Herzegovina until 1908, bosanska Krajina, western Birač, eastern Posavina, northernmost Semberija, northeastern Herzegovina
8.
Herzegovina
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Herzegovina is the southern region of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Measurements of the range from 11,419 km2, or around 22% of the total area of the present-day country, to 12,276 km2. The name Herzegovina means dukes land, referring to the duchy of Stjepan Vukčić Kosača who took the title Herceg of Saint Sava. Herceg is derived from the German title Herzog, the terrain of Herzegovina is mostly hilly karst with high mountains in the north such as Čvrsnica and Prenj, except for the central valley of the river Neretva River. The largest city is Mostar, in the center of the region, other larger towns include Trebinje, Stolac, Široki Brijeg, Posusje, Ljubuski, Grude, Konjic, and Čapljina. Borders between Bosnia and Herzegovina are unclear and often disputed, the upper flow of the Neretva River lies in the northern parts of Herzegovina, a heavily forested area with fast flowing rivers and high mountains. Towns like Konjic and Jablanica lie in this area, considered by many the most beautiful part of Bosnia, the Neretva rises on Lebršnik Mountain, close to the border to Montenegro, and as the river flows towards west, it enters Herzegovina. The entire upper catchment of Neretva constitutes a precious ecoregion with many endemic, the Rakitnica River flows into Neretva upstream from Konjic. The Neretva then flows towards northwest, through the town of Konjic, the river enters the Jablanica Reservoir, one of the largest in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The lake ends near the town of Jablanica, from here on, the Neretva turns southward continuing its course towards the Adriatic Sea. With mountains lining its shores gradually receding, the Neretva enters a valley where the city of Mostar lies and it flows under the well-known old bridge and continues now more widely flowing towards the town of Čapljina and the Neretva Delta in Croatia before emptying into the Adriatic Sea. Mostar is the best known and the unofficial capital and it is also the only city with over 100,000 citizens. There are no large cities in Herzegovina, though some have illustrious histories. Stolac, for example, is perhaps the oldest city in Herzegovina, there have been settlements dating from the Paleolithic period. An Illyrian tribe lived in the city of Daorson, there were several Roman settlements alongside the Bregava River and medieval inhabitants left large and beautiful stone grave monuments called stećak in Radimlja. Trebinje, on the Trebišnjica River, is the southernmost city in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Čapljina and Ljubuški are known for their history and their rivers, the village of Međugorje has religious importance for many Croats and Catholics. In the modern Bosnian-Herzegovinian state, Herzegovina is divided between two entities, Republika Srpska and the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, while the population of Herzegovina throughout history has been ethnically mixed, the Bosnian War in the 1990s resulted in mass ethnic cleansing and large-scale displacement of people. The last pre-war census in 1991 recorded a population of 437,095 inhabitants, Serbs are the majority in eastern Herzegovina, including the municipalities of Berkovići, Bileća, Gacko, Istočni Mostar, Ljubinje, Nevesinje, Foča and Trebinje
9.
Sarajevo
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Sarajevo is the capital and largest city of Bosnia and Herzegovina, with a population of 275,524 in its current administrative limits. The Sarajevo metropolitan area, including Sarajevo Canton and East Sarajevo is home to 688,384 inhabitants, nestled within the greater Sarajevo valley of Bosnia, it is surrounded by the Dinaric Alps and situated along the Miljacka River in the heart of Southeastern Europe and the Balkans. Due to its long and rich history of religious and cultural variety and it is the only major European city to have a mosque, Catholic church, Orthodox church and synagogue within the same neighbourhood. Although settlement in the area back to prehistoric times, the modern city arose as an Ottoman stronghold in the 15th century. Sarajevo has attracted international attention several times throughout its history, in 1885, Sarajevo was the first city in Europe and the second city in the world to have a full-time electric tram network running through the city, following San Francisco. For nearly four years, from 1992 to 1996, the city suffered the longest siege of a city in the history of warfare during the Bosnian War. Sarajevo has been undergoing reconstruction, and is the fastest growing city in Bosnia. The travel guide series, Lonely Planet, has named Sarajevo as the 43rd best city in the world, in 2011, Sarajevo was nominated to be the European Capital of Culture in 2014 and will be hosting the European Youth Olympic Festival in 2019. The earliest known name for the large central Bosnian region of todays Sarajevo is Vrhbosna, Sarajevo is a slavicized word based on saray, the Turkish word for palace. The evo portion may come from the term saray ovası first recorded in 1455, the first mention of name Sarajevo was in 1507 letter written by Feriz Beg. The earliest is Šeher, which is the term Isa-Beg Ishaković used to describe the town he was going to build and it is a Turkish word meaning an advanced city of key importance which in turn comes from Persian, شهر shahr. As Sarajevo developed, numerous nicknames came from comparisons to other cities in the Islamic world, the most popular of these was European Jerusalem. Some argue that a correct translation of saray is government office or house. Saray is a word in Turkish for a palace or mansion. Sarajevo is located near the center of the triangular-shaped Bosnia-Herzegovina. It is situated 518 meters above sea level and lies in the Sarajevo valley, the valley itself once formed a vast expanse of greenery, but gave way to urban expansion and development in the post-World War II era. The city is surrounded by forested hills and five major mountains. The last four are known as the Olympic Mountains of Sarajevo
10.
Urban warfare
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Urban warfare is combat conducted in urban areas such as towns and cities. Urban combat is very different from combat in the open at both the operational and tactical level, complicating factors in urban warfare include the presence of civilians and the complexity of the urban terrain. Fighting in urban areas negates the advantages that one side may have over the other in armour, heavy artillery, some civilians may be difficult to distinguish from combatants such as armed militias and gangs, and particularly individuals who are simply trying to protect their homes from attackers. The United States Armed Forces term for urban warfare is UO, the previously used U. S. military term MOUT, an abbreviation for military operations in urban terrain, has been replaced by UO, although the term MOUT Site is still in use. The British armed forces terms are OBUA, FIBUA, or sometimes FISH, or FISH, israel Defense Forces calls urban warfare לשב, a Hebrew acronym for warfare on urban terrain. LASHAB in the IDF includes large-scale tactics, CQB training for fighting forces, the IDF has a special large and advanced facility for training soldiers and units in urban warfare. Urban military operations in World War II often relied on large quantities of artillery bombardment, in some particularly vicious urban warfare operations such as Stalingrad and Warsaw, all weapons were used irrespective of their consequences. However, when liberating occupied territory some restraint was often applied, Military forces are bound by the laws of war governing military necessity to the amount of force which can be applied when attacking an area where there are known to be civilians. Until the 1970s, this was covered by the 1907 Hague Convention IV – The Laws, sometimes distinction and proportionality, as in the case of the Canadians in Ortona, causes the attacking force to restrain from using all the force they could when attacking a city. In other cases, such as the Battle of Stalingrad and the Battle of Berlin, when Russian forces attacked Grozny in 1999, large amounts of artillery fire were used. Fighting in an environment can offer some advantages to a weaker defending force or to guerrilla fighters through ambush-induced attrition losses. The attacking army must account for three dimensions more often, and consequently expend greater amounts of manpower in order to secure a myriad of structures, and mountains of rubble. Ferroconcrete structures will be ruined by heavy bombardment, but it is difficult to demolish such a building totally when it is well defended. The characteristics of a city include tall buildings, narrow alleys, sewage tunnels. Defenders may have the advantage of detailed knowledge of the area, right down to the layout inside of buildings. The buildings can provide excellent sniping posts while alleys and rubble-filled streets are ideal for planting booby traps, defenders can move from one part of the city to another undetected using underground tunnels and spring ambushes. Meanwhile, the attackers tend to more exposed than the defender as they must use the open streets more often, unfamiliar with the defenders secret. During a house to search the attacker is often also exposed on the streets
11.
Guerrilla warfare
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The term, the diminutive form of war in Spanish, is usually translated as little war, and the word, guerrilla, has been used to refer to the concept since the 18th century, and perhaps earlier. In correct Spanish usage, a person who is a member of a guerrilla is a guerrillero if male, the term guerrilla was used in English as early as 1809, to refer to the fighters, and also to denote a group or band of such fighters. However, in most languages guerrilla still denotes the style of warfare. The use of the diminutive evokes the differences in number, scale, guerrillas usually carries positive connotations, and is often used by such fighters themselves and by their sympathizers, while their foes in many cases call them terrorists. Making an objective definition of the difference between a guerrilla and a terrorist has proven a difficult task, the strategy and tactics of guerrilla warfare tend to focus around the use of a small, mobile force competing against a larger, more unwieldy one. The Guerrilla focuses on organizing in small units, depending on the support of the local population, tactically, the guerrilla army would avoid any confrontation with large units of enemy troops, but seek and eliminate small groups of soldiers to minimize losses and exhaust the opposing force. Not limiting their targets to personnel, enemy resources are preferred targets. All of that is to weaken the strength, to cause the enemy eventually to be unable to prosecute the war any longer. It is often misunderstood that guerrilla warfare must involve disguising as civilians to cause enemy troops to fail in telling friend from foe, however, this is not a primary feature of a guerrilla war. This type of war can be practiced anywhere there are places for combatants to cover themselves, at least one author credits the ancient Chinese work The Art of War with providing instruction in such tactics to Mao. The Chinese general and strategist Sun Tzu, in his The Art of War or 600 BC to 501 BC, was the earliest to propose the use of guerrilla warfare and this directly inspired the development of modern guerrilla warfare. Guerrilla tactics were employed by prehistoric tribal warriors against enemy tribes. Evidence of conventional warfare, on the hand, did not emerge until 3100 BC in Egypt. Since the Enlightenment, ideologies such as nationalism, liberalism, socialism, because of the innovative tactics he used during his command, he made himself the name of Terror Romanorum. A counter-insurgency or counterinsurgency operation involves actions taken by the government of a nation to contain or quell an insurgency taken up against it. Counter-insurgency operations are common during war, occupation and armed rebellions, the two most influential of scholars of counter-insurgency have been Westerners whose job it had been to fight insurgents. Robert Thompson fought during the Malayan Emergency and David Galula fought during the Algerian War, together these officers advocated multi-pronged strategies to win over the civilian population to the side of the counter-insurgent. The widely distributed and influential work of Sir Robert Thompson, counter-insurgency expert of the Malayan Emergency, thompsons underlying assumption was that the counter-insurgent was committed to improving the rule of law and bettering local governance
12.
Congress of Berlin
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The Congress came to an end with the signing of the Treaty of Berlin, which replaced the preliminary Treaty of San Stefano signed three months earlier between Russia and the Ottoman Empire. Romania achieved full independence, forced to turn part of Bessarabia to Russia in order to gain Northern Dobruja. Serbia and Montenegro finally gained independence, but with smaller territories. Austria-Hungary also took over Bosnia and Herzegovina, whereas Britain took over Cyprus, the results were first hailed as a great achievement in peacemaking and stabilization. Serbia, Bulgaria, and Greece made gains, but far less than they thought they deserved, the Ottoman Empire, called at the time the sick man of Europe, was humiliated and significantly weakened, rendering it more liable to domestic unrest and more vulnerable to attack. Although Russia had been victorious in the war that occasioned the conference, it was humiliated at Berlin, Austria gained a great deal of territory, which angered the South Slavs, and led to decades of tensions in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Bismarck became the target of hatred by Russian nationalists and Pan-Slavists, in the long run, tensions between Russia and Austria-Hungary intensified, as did the nationality question in the Balkans. The congress was aimed at revising the Treaty of San Stefano and it effectively disavowed Russias victory over the decaying Ottoman Empire in the Russo-Turkish War. In the decades leading up to the Congress of Berlin, Russia and the Balkans had been gripped by a movement known as Pan-Slavism, a desire to unite all the Balkan Slavs under one rule. This movement, which evolved similarly to the Pan-Germanic and Pan-Italian movements that resulted in the unification of their respective nations, in Imperial Russia, Pan-Slavism meant the creation of a unified Slavic state under Russian direction – essentially a byword for Russian conquest of the Balkan peninsula. It is worth remembering that the creation of a Bulgarian Exarch by the Ottomans in 1870 intended to separate the Bulgarians religiously from the Greek Patriarch, from the Balkan point of view, the peninsula needed a Piedmont, and a corresponding France to sponsor its unification. Though the views of how Balkan politics should proceed differed, both began with the deposition of the Sultan as ruler of the Balkans and the ousting of the Ottomans from Europe. How this was to proceed, or whether it was to proceed at all, was the question to be answered at the Congress of Berlin. The Balkans were a stage for competition between the European Great Powers in the second half of the nineteenth century. Britain and Russia both had stake in the fate of the Balkans, furthermore, the unification of Italy and Germany had stymied the ability of a third European power, Austria-Hungary, to further expand its domain to the southwest. This meant that the Congress of Berlin was mainly a dispute among supposed allies with conflicting goals, Otto von Bismarck and the German Empire, the arbiter of the discussion, would thus have to choose before the end of the congress which of their allies to support. This decision was to have consequences on the future of European geopolitics. MacKenzie says, sympathy for the Serbian Christians existed in Court circles, among nationalist diplomats, and in the lower classes, eventually Russia sought and obtained Austria-Hungarys pledge of benevolent neutrality in the coming war in return for ceding Bosnia Herzegovina to Austria-Hungary in the Budapest Convention of 1877
13.
Treaty of Berlin (1878)
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At the time, being non-existent on the world map, Bulgaria was not a subject of international law, neither were the Bulgarians themselves. This exclusion was already a fact in the Constantinople Conference of the Great Powers. The most notable result of the conference is the de jure recognition of de facto independent states of Romania, Serbia, the Treaty of San Stefano had created a Bulgarian state, which was just what Great Britain and Austria-Hungary feared most. Despite the pleas of the Romanian delegates, Romania was forced to cede southern Bessarabia to the Russian Empire, as a compensation, Romania received Dobruja, including the Danube Delta. The treaty also limited the Russian occupation of Bulgaria to 9 months, Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia in 1908, sparking a major European crisis. It stipulated that Romania recognize non-Christians as full citizens and it also vaguely called for a border rectification between Greece and the Ottoman Empire, which occurred after protracted negotiations in 1881 with the transfer of Thessaly to Greece. Historian A. J. P. Taylor wrote, If the treaty of San Stefano had been maintained, the British, except for Beaconsfield in his wilder moments, had expected less and were therefore less disappointed. Salisbury wrote at the end of 1878, We shall set up a rickety sort of Turkish rule again south of the Balkans, but it is a mere respite. There is no vitality left in them, the Kosovo Vilayet remained part of the Ottoman Empire. Austria-Hungary was allowed to station garrisons in the Ottoman Vilayet of Bosnia. The Vilayet of Bosnia was placed under Austro-Hungarian occupation, though remaining a part of the Ottoman Empire until being annexed by Austria-Hungary in 1908. Report presented to the commission at Constantinople [European commission for Eastern Roumelia as to the state of Macedonia since the treaty of Berlin. The Berlin Treaty and the Anglo-Turkish Convention, speech of the Right Hon. W. E, gladstone, M. P. in the House of Commons on Tuesday, July 30th,1878. The Treaty of Berlin, July 30th,1878, gladstones Speeches, Descriptive Index and Bibliography by Arthur Tilney Bassett with a Preface by Viscount Bryce, O. M. and Introduction to the Selected Speeches by Herbert Paul. London, Methuen & Co. pp. 505–52, the Congress of Berlin and After, A Diplomatic History of the Near East Settlement, 1878–1880. Britain and the Eastern question, 1875–1878, the struggle for mastery in Europe, 1848–1918. Yavuz, M. Hakan, Sluglett, Peter, eds, War and Diplomacy, The Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878 and the Treaty of Berlin. Goldfrank, David M. Berlin, Congress of, in Millar, James R. Encyclopedia of Russian History
14.
Sanjak of Novi Pazar
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The Sanjak of Novi Pazar was an Ottoman sanjak that existed at times from 1864 until the Balkan Wars of 1912–13 in the territory of present-day Montenegro, Serbia and Kosovo. Today, the region is known as Raška and Sandžak, in 1456, Isaković began building the town, establishing a marketplace, a mosque, a public bath, a hostel, and a compound. Novi Pazar initially belonged to the Jeleč vilayet of the Skopsko Krajište, there were also the vilayets of Ras and Sjenica. By 1463, Jeleč was incorporated into the larger Sanjak of Bosnia, the seat of the kadı was subsequently transferred from Jeleč to Novi Pazar little before 1485, which led to the foundation of a separate Sanjak of Novi Pazar administered within the Rumelia Eyalet. After promotion of the Bosnian Sanjak into an eyalet in 1580, throughout its existence it included most of the present day Sandžak region, also called Raška, as well as northern parts of Kosovo. High military authorities desired immediate major expedition with Salonika as its objective, on 28 September 1878 the Finance Minister, Koloman von Zell, threatened to resign if the army, behind which stood the Archduke Albert, were allowed to advance to Salonika. The motion was lost by 179 to 95, by the Opposition rank and file the gravest accusations were raised against Andrassy. This Austro-Hungarian expansion southward at the expense of the Ottoman Empire was designed to prevent the extension of Russian influence and the union of Serbia and Montenegro. In 1880, the Sanjak of Pljevlja was established, which included the kaza of Pljevlja, Prijepolje, and the mundirate in Priboj, in 1902, the Sanjak of Sjenica was established, which included the districts of Sjenica, Nova Varoš, Bijelo Polje and Lower Kolašin. At the beginning of 1908, Austria-Hungary announced intentions to build a railway through the Sanjak towards Ottoman Macedonia, however, in negotiations with Russia the Austro-Hungarians indicated they would be willing to vacate the Sanjak in exchange for recognition of the annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina. The Sanjak of Novi Pazar was mainly populated by Slavic-speaking Muslims, Serbs, Albanian Muslims, some important cities in the sanjak were. The Sanjak of Novi Pazar is a song in the 1973 novel Gravitys Rainbow by Thomas Pynchon, the Sanjak of Novipazar was an American band, inspired by fellow parody-rock acts, The Fugs and The Mothers of Invention. From 1967-1968, The Sanjak of Novipazar frequented WBAIs Bob Fass show, the group performed at the Woodstock Sound-Outs festival in 1968. Salnâme-i Vilâyet-i Kosova, Yedinci defa olarak vilâyet matbaasında tab olunmuştur,1896 Kosova vilâyet-i salnâmesi, İstanbul, Rumeli Türkleri Kültür ve Dayanışma Derneği
15.
Foreign Ministry of Austria-Hungary
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From 1753 to 1792 Austrian foreign policy was headed by State Chancellor Prince Wenzel Anton of Kaunitz-Rietberg. The Baroque building, venue of the Vienna Congress, had erected in 1719 according to plans designed by Johann Lukas von Hildebrandt. The word Ballhausplatz was often used as a metonym for the ministry, the Foreign Policy, the Austro-Hungarian Army and the Navy. The headquarters of the remained at No.2 Ballhausplatz. Directly beneath the minister stood the First Section Chief who deputised for the minister and was in charge of administrative affairs, the Second Section Chief was lower in the hierarchy, but was in charge of the political departments of the ministry. Over the decades, the service was not able to attenuate the impression of Austria-Hungary as a potential adversary of numerous European states. The last Austro-Hungarian foreign minister Ludwig von Flotow did not resign until 8 November 1920, for a list of Imperial Foreign Ministers, see List of foreign ministers of Austria-Hungary. Erwin Matsch, Geschichte des Auswärtigen Dienstes von Österreich-Ungarn 1720-1920, Vienna, Böhlau,1980. —, Der Auswärtige Dienst von Österreich-Ungarn 1720-1920, Vienna, Böhlau,1986
16.
Russian Empire
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The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until it was overthrown by the short-lived February Revolution in 1917. One of the largest empires in history, stretching over three continents, the Russian Empire was surpassed in landmass only by the British and Mongol empires. The rise of the Russian Empire happened in association with the decline of neighboring powers, the Swedish Empire, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Persia. It played a role in 1812–14 in defeating Napoleons ambitions to control Europe. The House of Romanov ruled the Russian Empire from 1721 until 1762, and its German-descended cadet branch, with 125.6 million subjects registered by the 1897 census, it had the third-largest population in the world at the time, after Qing China and India. Like all empires, it included a large disparity in terms of economics, ethnicity, there were numerous dissident elements, who launched numerous rebellions and assassination attempts, they were closely watched by the secret police, with thousands exiled to Siberia. Economically, the empire had an agricultural base, with low productivity on large estates worked by serfs. The economy slowly industrialized with the help of foreign investments in railways, the land was ruled by a nobility from the 10th through the 17th centuries, and subsequently by an emperor. Tsar Ivan III laid the groundwork for the empire that later emerged and he tripled the territory of his state, ended the dominance of the Golden Horde, renovated the Moscow Kremlin, and laid the foundations of the Russian state. Tsar Peter the Great fought numerous wars and expanded an already huge empire into a major European power, Catherine the Great presided over a golden age. She expanded the state by conquest, colonization and diplomacy, continuing Peter the Greats policy of modernisation along West European lines, Tsar Alexander II promoted numerous reforms, most dramatically the emancipation of all 23 million serfs in 1861. His policy in Eastern Europe involved protecting the Orthodox Christians under the rule of the Ottoman Empire and that connection by 1914 led to Russias entry into the First World War on the side of France, Britain, and Serbia, against the German, Austrian and Ottoman empires. The Russian Empire functioned as a monarchy until the Revolution of 1905. The empire collapsed during the February Revolution of 1917, largely as a result of failures in its participation in the First World War. Perhaps the latter was done to make Europe recognize Russia as more of a European country, Poland was divided in the 1790-1815 era, with much of the land and population going to Russia. Most of the 19th century growth came from adding territory in Asia, Peter I the Great introduced autocracy in Russia and played a major role in introducing his country to the European state system. However, this vast land had a population of 14 million, grain yields trailed behind those of agriculture in the West, compelling nearly the entire population to farm. Only a small percentage lived in towns, the class of kholops, close to the one of slavery, remained a major institution in Russia until 1723, when Peter I converted household kholops into house serfs, thus including them in poll taxation
17.
Principality of Serbia
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The Principality of Serbia was a semi-independent state in the Balkans that came into existence as a result of the Serbian Revolution which lasted between 1804 and 1817. Its creation was negotiated first through an agreement between Miloš Obrenović, leader of the Second Serbian Uprising and Ottoman official Marashli Pasha. It was followed by the series of documents published by the Porte in 1828,1829. Its de facto independence ensued in 1867, following the expulsion of all Ottoman troops from the country, by 1882 the country was elevated to Kingdom of Serbia. The Serbian revolutionary leaders — first Karađorđe and then Miloš Obrenović — succeeded in their goal of liberating Serbia from centuries-long Turkish rule, Turkish authorities acknowledged the state in 1830 by the charter known as the Hatt-i Sharif, and Miloš Obrenović became a hereditary prince of the Serbian Principality. At first, the principality included only the territory of the former Pashaluk of Belgrade, but in 1831–33 it expanded to the east, south, in 1866 Serbia began campaign of forging The First Balkan Alliance by signing the series of agreements with other Balkan entities in period 1866-68. On 18 April 1867 the Ottoman government ordered the Ottoman garrison, the only stipulation was that the Ottoman flag continue to fly over the fortress alongside the Serbian one. Serbias de facto independence dates from this event, a new constitution in 1869 defined Serbia as an independent state. Serbia was further expanded to the southeast in 1878, when its independence from the Ottoman Empire won full international recognition at the Treaty of Berlin, the Principality would last until 1882 when it was raised to the level of the Kingdom of Serbia. Rejected by Mahmud II in 1828,1829 Hatišerif 1830 Hatišerif 1833 Hatišerif The Principality was ruled by the Obrenović dynasty, except for a period under Prince Aleksandar of the Karađorđević dynasty. Princes Miloš and Mihailo Obrenović each reigned twice, history of Serbia Kingdom of Serbia Катић, Бојана Миљковић. Пољопривреда Кнежевине Србије, Agriculture of the Principality of Sebia, mrđenović, Dušan, ed. Устави и владе Кнежевине Србије. Устави и владе Кнежевине Србије, Краљевине Србије, Краљевине СХС и Краљевине Југославије, nikolić, Dragan, Ristić, V. Arsić, L. & Kostov, V. Krivični zakonik Kneževine Srbije. Насељавање Кнежевине Србије, 1861-1880, Settlement of the Princedom of Serbia, politička propaganda Srbije u jugoslovenskim pokrajinama, 1844-1858 godine. Jugoslovenski nacionalni i državni program Kneževine Srbije iz 1844 god, građa za istoriju Kneževine Srbije, vreme prve vlade kneza Miloša Obrenovića. Nikolić, Dragan K. Izvori i priroda krivičnog prava Kneževine Srbije u vreme pripreme krivičnog zakona, Arsić, M. Crkvene matične knjige u propisima Kneževine Srbije. Србија и Русија за време друге владавине кнеза Михаила, Универзитет у Београду, Филозофски факултет,2014. Srbija i Grčka, borba za Balkan, Greek-Serbian Cooperation, 1830-1908, Collection of Reports from the Second Greek-Serbian Symposium,1980
18.
Principality of Montenegro
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The Principality of Montenegro was a former realm in Southeastern Europe that existed from 13 March 1852 to 28 August 1910. It was then proclaimed a kingdom by Nikola I, who became king. The capital was Cetinje and the Montenegrin perper was used as state currency from 1906, the territory corresponded to the central area of modern Montenegro. It was a monarchy, but de facto absolutist. In Danilo Is Code, dated to 1855, he states that he is the knjaz and gospodar of the Free Black Mountain. In 1870, Nikola had the title of knjaz of Crna Gora and Brda, with the first Montenegrin constitution being proclaimed in 1855, known as Danilos Code. After centuries of rule, this turned Montenegro into a secular principality. Grand Duke Mirko Petrović, elder brother of Danilo I, led an army of 7,500. This victory forced the Great Powers to officially demarcate the borders between Montenegro and Ottoman Turkey, de facto recognizing Montenegros centuries-long independence. Montenegro gained Grahovo, Rudine, Nikšić, more than half of Drobnjaci, Tušina, Uskoci, Lipovo, Upper Vasojevići, the glory of the Montenegrins was soon immortalized in songs and literature of all South Slavs. After the assassination of Knjaz Danilo on 13 August 1860, Knjaz Nikola I, Nikola sent aid to the Serb rebels in the Herzegovina Uprising, and then led a war against the Ottomans, the Montenegrin–Ottoman War. Montenegro also gained the towns of Nikšić, Kolašin, Spuž, Podgorica, Žabljak, Bar, under the rule of Nikola I, diplomatic relations were established with the Ottoman Empire. Minor border skirmishes excepted, diplomacy ushered in approximately 30 years of peace between the two states until the deposition of Abdul Hamid II, the political skills of Abdul Hamid and Nikola I played a major role on the mutually amicable relations. Modernization of the state followed, culminating with the draft of a Constitution in 1905, however, political rifts emerged between the parliamentary Peoples Party that supported the process of democratization and union with Serbia and those of the True Peoples Party who were monarchist. Danilo I Nikola I The historical war flags were the krstaš-barjak, the same flag was used in Cetinje in 1878, upon recognition of independence by the Ottoman Empire at San Stefano. According to the 1905 constitution, the flag was a tricolour of red-blue-white. Danilo I used the Law of Petar I Petrović-Njegoš, as an inspiration for his own General Law of the Land from 1855, Danilos Code was based on Montenegrin traditions and customs and it is considered to be the first national constitution in Montenegrin history. It also stated rules, protected privacy and banned warring on the Austrian Coast, at the beginning of the 20th century political differences were starting to culminate
19.
Serbs of Bosnia and Herzegovina
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The Serbs of Bosnia and Herzegovina are one of the three constitutive nations of the country, predominantly residing in the political-territorial entity of Republika Srpska. In the other entity Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina Serbs form the majority in Drvar, Glamoč, Bosansko Grahovo and they are frequently referred to as Bosnian Serbs in English, regardless of whether they are from Bosnia or Herzegovina. They are also known by names such as Krajišnici, Semberci, Bosanci, Hercegovci. The 2013 population census registered 1,086,733 Serbs or 30. 8% of the population of Bosnia. Bosnian Serbs are the most territorially widespread nation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the vast majority live on the territory of the Republika Srpska, where they constitute around 88% of population. The majority of Bosnian Serbs are adherents of the Serbian Orthodox Church, the Serbs of Bosnia and Herzegovina speak the Serbian language in its Ijekavian accent, similar to that of Serbs of Montenegro and Croatia, and also to the language of Bosniaks and Bosnian Croats. Slavs settled the Balkans in the 6th and 7th centuries, according to De Administrando Imperio, the Serbs had settled what is now Bosnia and Herzegovina. They inhabited and ruled Serbia, which included Bosnia, and the principalities of Travunija, Zahumlje and Paganija. Serbia was at the time ruled by the Vlastimirović dynasty, during the rule of Mutimir, the Serbs were Christianized. Prince Petar, defeated Tišemir in Bosnia, annexing the valley of Bosna, Petar took over the Neretva, after which he seems to have come into conflict with Michael, a Bulgarian vassal ruling Zahumlje. Časlav defeated the Magyars on the Drina river banks when protecting Bosnia, however, after his death, Duklja emerged as the most powerful Serb polity, ruled by the Vojislavljević dynasty. Constantine Bodin installed his relative Stefan as Ban of Bosnia, next, the Nemanjić dynasty acquired the rule of the Serbian lands. With the establishment of the autocephalous Serbian Church, Archbishop Sava founded the Metropolitanate of Zahumlje, with the Ottoman conquest of medieval Serbia, there were large migrations towards Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Serb Uprising of 1596–97 was suppressed at Gacko, in 1809, Jančićs Revolt broke out in Gradiška. In 1834, Priest Jovicas Revolt broke out in Gradiška, in 1858, Pecijas First Revolt broke out in Knešpolje. In 1875, the Herzegovina Uprising broke out in the Bosnia Vilayet, on July 2,1876, Golub Babić and his 71 commanders signed the Proclamation of the Unification of Bosnia with Serbia. In 1878, Bosnia and Herzegovina became a protectorate of Austria-Hungary, the first parliamentary elections in Bosnia and Herzegovina were held in 1910, the winner was Serbian National Organization. On June 28,1914, Bosnian Serb Gavrilo Princip made international headlines after assassinating Arch Duke Francis Ferdinand in Sarajevo and this sparked World War I leading to Austria-Hungarys defeat and the incorporation of Bosnia and Herzegovina into the Kingdom of Yugoslavia
20.
Bosniaks
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The Bosniaks are a South Slavic nation and ethnic group inhabiting mainly the area of Bosnia and Herzegovina. A native minority of Bosniaks live in countries in the Balkans, especially in the Sandžak region of Serbia and Montenegro. Over two million Bosniaks live in the Balkans, with an additional million settled and living around the world. Ethnic cleansing and genocide during the Bosnian War have had an effect on the distribution of the population. Partly due to this, a significant Bosniak diaspora exists in a number of countries, including Austria, Germany, Australia, Sweden, Turkey, Canada and the United States. The modern spelling is contained in the 1836 Penny Cyclopaedia V. 231/1, The inhabitants of Bosnia are composed of Bosniaks, a race of Sclavonian origin. In the Slavic languages, -ak is a suffix appended to words to create a masculine noun, for instance also found in the ethnonym of Poles. As such, Bosniak is etymologically equivalent to its non-ethnic counterpart Bosnian, from the perspective of Bosniaks, bosanstvo and bošnjaštvo are closely and mutually interconnected, as Bosniaks connect their identity with Bosnia and Herzegovina. The earliest attestation to a Bosnian ethnonym emerged with the historical term Bošnjanin which denoted the people of the medieval Bosnian kingdom, Bosniak, as well as the older term Bošnjanin, is originally a name defining the inhabitants of the medieval Bosnian state. The Bosniaks derive their ethnonym from Bosnia, first mentioned in De Administrando Imperio by the Byzantine emperor Constantine VII as the horion of Bosona, some scholars also connect the Roman road station Ad Basante, first attested in the 5th century Tabula Peutingeriana, to Bosnia. According to philologist Anton Mayer the name Bosna could essentially be derived from Illyrian Bass-an-as which would be a diversion of the Proto-Indo-European root *bhoĝ-, other theories involve the rare Latin term Bosina, meaning boundary, and possible Slavic and Thracian origins. Nevertheless, leaders and intellectuals of the Bosniak community may have various perceptions of what it means to be Bosniak, some may point to an Islamic heritage, while others stress the purely secular and national character of the Bosniak identity and its connection with Bosnian territory and history. Moreover, individuals outside of Bosnia and Herzegovina may hold their own interpretations as well. Some people, such as Montenegrin Abdul Kurpejović, recognize an Islamic component in the Bosniak identity, still others consider all Slavic Muslims in the former Yugoslavia to be Bosniaks. In Yugoslavia, unlike the preceding Austro-Hungarian Empire, there was no recognition of Bosniak ethnicity. In other ex-Yugoslav countries with significant Slavic Muslim populations, adoption of the Bosniak name has been less consistent, the effects of this phenomenon can best be seen in the censuses. For instance, the 2003 Montenegrin census recorded 48,184 people who registered as Bosniaks and 28,714 who registered as Muslim by nationality. Although Montenegros Slavic Muslims form one community with a shared culture and history
21.
Croats of Bosnia and Herzegovina
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They are a native ethnic group of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Croats of Bosnia and Herzegovina have made significant contributions to the culture of Bosnia and their mother tongue is Croatian, and most identify as Roman Catholic, although there is a small minority of atheists. From the 15th to the 19th century, Croats in modern-day Bosnia and Herzegovina were often persecuted under the Ottoman Empire, in the 20th century, political turmoil and poor economic conditions caused more to emigrate. Ethnic cleansing within Bosnia and Herzegovina in the 1990s saw Croats forced to different parts of Bosnia-Herzegovina, according to the report by the Bosnia and Herzegovina statistics office, on the census of 2013 there were 544,780 Croats living in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Croats settled the areas of modern Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina in the 7th century, there, they assimilated with native Illyrians and Romans during the great migration of the Slavs. Red Croatia, to the south, was land of a few minor states, one of the most important events of the Croats in Bosnia and Herzegovina in the early Middle Ages is the First Croatian Assembly held in 753 in Županjac. The second major event was the coronation of Tomislav, the first King of Croatia,925, in the fields of Županjac. By this act, Pannonian Croatia and Dalmatian Croatia formed a united Croatian kingdom, which included Dalmatia and part of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Pannonia, and Savia. A basic feature of period in Croatia is its isolation from European cultural and political events which resulted in a small number of secular monuments. In 1102 Croatia entered into a union with the Kingdom of Hungary, after this, Bosnia, which was earlier part of the Kingdom of Croatia, started to disassociate with Croatia. In the 14th century, King Tvrtko I conquered part of western Serbia and later part of the Kingdom of Croatia, thus, the Kingdom of Bosnia emerged, but part of present territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina remained in the Kingdom of Hungary-Croatia. Another connection of Bosnia with Croatia is that Bosnian rulers always used the title ban in similarity with their Croatian counterparts. The specific religion in medieval Bosnia was Bogomilism and Bosnian Church, so some of the feudal lords in Medieval Bosnia were followers of this religion. Due to the scarcity of records, there are no definite figures dealing with the religious composition of medieval Bosnia. However, Croat scholars generally suggest that a majority of Bosnias medieval population were Catholics who, according to Zlopaša, some 100,000 were Bogomils and other 100,000 were Orthodox Christians. In the middle of the 15th century, Turks started to invade Bosnia, in 1451 they took Vrhbosna province and conquered Bosnia in 1463. Herzegovina was conquered in 1481, while northern Bosnia was still under Hungary and Croatia until 1527, after the Turkish conquest, many Catholic Bosnians converted to Islam, and their numbers in some areas shrank as many fled from fear of conversion and persecution. The present-day boundaries of Bosnia and Herzegovina were made in 1699, in the first 50 years of Ottoman rule, many Catholics fled from Bosnia
22.
Kingdom of Dalmatia
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The Kingdom of Dalmatia was a crown land of the Austrian Empire and the Cisleithanian half of Austria-Hungary. It encompassed the entirety of the region of Dalmatia with its capital at Zadar, in turn, Napoleon ceded to him the possessions of the Republic of Venice, including the Dalmatian coast and the Bay of Kotor. La Serenissima had sided with Austria in order to defend her Domini di Terraferma and was occupied by French troops on 14 May 1797, the treaty ended the centuries-long history of the Venetian Republic. When in 1804 Francis II created the title of Emperor of Austria for himself, however, the possessions were again lost after the Austrian defeat in the Battle of Austerlitz and the 1805 Peace of Pressburg, when they temporarily formed part of the French Illyrian Provinces. Around 1850, the Austrians had the Prevlaka fortress erected to control the traffic in the Bay of Kotor. Upon the Revolutions of 1848, Dalmatia was temporarily under the control of Ban Josip Jelačić of Croatia, in the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, a unification with the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia was denied. While Croatia-Slavonia was incorporated into the Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen, Dalmatia remained a crown land of the Cislethanian half of the Dual Monarchy. According to M. Lorković, the population of Dalmatia numbered 297,912 in 1818,326,739 in 1825,338,599 in 1830,390,381 in 1840. Based on the 1857 census, the Kingdom of Dalmatia had 415,628 inhabitants, according to an analysis of the 1857 census,318,500 inhabitants were Croats,77,500 were Serbs, and ca.20,000 were Italian-speakers. The percentage of Dalmatian Serbs had been 19. 9% in the 1830–50 period, in the cities, the inhabitants were 71% Croat, 22% Italian and 7% Serb. There were 745 Serbs in Kotor, in all other cities there were fewer than 400, the number of Serbs in Dalmatia fell, however, in the north it rose. Among the Orthodox, there was one priest for every 400 people, while among the Catholics, the Roman Catholic archbishop had his seat in Zadar, while the diocese of Kotor, diocese of Hvar, diocese of Dubrovnik, diocese of Šibenik and diocese of Split were bishoprics. At the head of the Orthodox community stood the bishop of Zadar, in 1904, the Vatican forbade the use of Glagolitic at the festival of SS. Cyril and Methodius, as likely to impair the unity of Catholicism, heads of the Austrian imperial administration in Dalmatia were Imperial-Royal Provincial Governors appointed by the emperor. From 1852 they were known as Imperial-Royal Lieutenants
23.
Sava
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The Sava is a river in Central and Southeastern Europe, a right tributary of the Danube. It flows through Slovenia, Croatia, along the border of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Its central part is a border of Bosnia-Herzegovina and Croatia. The Sava forms the border of the Balkan Peninsula. The Sava is 990 kilometres long, including the 45-kilometre Sava Dolinka headwater rising in Zelenci and it is the greatest tributary of the Danube by volume of water, and second-largest after Tisza in terms of catchment area and length. It drains a significant portion of the Dinaric Alps region, through the tributaries of Drina, Bosna, Kupa, Una, Vrbas, Lonja, Kolubara, Bosut. The Sava is one of the longest rivers in Europe and among a handful of European rivers of that length that do not drain directly into a sea. The population in the Sava River basin is estimated at 8,176,000, the Sava is navigable for larger vessels from the confluence of the Kupa River in Sisak, Croatia, approximately two-thirds of its length. The Sava River is formed from the Sava Dolinka and the Sava Bohinjka headwaters in northwest Slovenia, the Sava Dolinka rises at the Zelenci Pools near Kranjska Gora, Slovenia, in a valley separating the Julian Alps from the Karavanke mountain range. The spring is located near the Slovene-Italian border at 833 metres above sea level, the Sava Dolinka spring is fed by groundwater possibly exhibiting bifurcation of source karst aquifer to the Sava and Soča basins. Nadiža creek, a losing stream flowing nearby, is the source of Zelenci Pools water. The Sava Dolinka is considered the Savas initial, 45-kilometre segment, the Sava Bohinjka originates in Ribčev Laz, at the confluence of the Jezernica, a short watercourse flowing out from Lake Bohinj and the Mostnica River. The watercourse flows 41 kilometres —including the length of the Savica—east to Radovljica, downstream from the confluence, the river is referred to as the Sava. The Sava is located in Southeast Europe, flowing through Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia and its total length is 990 kilometres, including the 45-kilometre Sava Dolinka and the 945-kilometre Sava proper. As a right tributary of the Danube, the river belongs to the Black Sea drainage basin and it is also the largest tributary of the Danube by discharge. The river course is used to describe the northern boundary of the Balkans. Before the breakup of Yugoslavia in 1991, the river was located completely inside Yugoslav borders, downstream of Radovljica, the Sava proceeds southeast towards Kranj. Between Kranj and Medvode, its course comprises the Lake Trboje and the Lake Zbilje reservoirs, built for the Mavčiče, the Sava then flows through the capital of Slovenia, Ljubljana, where another reservoir is located on the river, adjacent to the Tacen Whitewater Course
24.
Kostajnica, Bosnia and Herzegovina
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Kostajnica, is a town and municipality in northern Bosnia and Herzegovina, part of the Republika Srpska entity. It is situated in the part of the Кrajina region, the municipality was created from part of the pre-war municipality of Novi Grad. It is located across the Una from Hrvatska Kostajnica, Croatia, during the Bosnian War, it was renamed to Srpska Kostajnica. After that, name of the town was changed to Kostajnica, from 1929 to 1941, Bosanska Kostajnica was part of the Vrbas Banovina of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. Municipalities of Republika Srpska Official website Kostajnica Kostajnica
25.
Banja Luka
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Banja Luka or Banjaluka is the largest city of the Republika Srpska entity and second largest city in Bosnia and Herzegovina after the capital Sarajevo. Traditionally, it has been the centre of the Bosanska Krajina region and it is home of the University of Banja Luka, as well as numerous state and entity institutions of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The city lies on the River Vrbas and is known in the countries of the former Yugoslavia for being full of tree-lined avenues, boulevards, gardens. According to the 2013 census the City of Banja Luka, has 185,042 inhabitants, the name Banja Luka was first mentioned in a document dated 6 February 1494, by Vladislav II. The name is interpreted as Bans meadow, from the words ban, the identity of the ban and the meadow in question remain uncertain, and popular etymology combines the modern words banja, or bajna and luka. A different interpretation is suggested by the Hungarian name Lukácsbánya, i. e. Lukes Mine, in modern usage, the name is pronounced and usually declined as one word, and often written as such, the citizens reportedly prefer the form with inflected adjective. Banja Luka covers some 96.2 km2 of land in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the city is located at 44. 78°N17. 19°E /44.78,17.19. Banja Lukas downtown is at 163 m above sea level, surrounded by hills, the source of the Vrbas River is about 90 km to the south. The tributary rivers Suturlija, Crkvena, and Vrbanja flow into the Vrbas at Banja Luka, Banja Luka has also a number of springs close by. The area around Banja Luka is mostly woodland, although there are mountains a little further from the city, the city itself is built in the Banja Luka valley, which is located at the transition between high and low mountain areas. The most notable of these mountains are Manjača, Čemernica, and these are all part of the Dinaric Alps mountain range. Banja Luka has a humid subtropical climate which borders a humid continental climate, with cold winters. The warmest month of the year is July, with a temperature of 21.3 °C. The coldest month of the year is January, when temperatures average near freezing at 0.8 °C, annual precipitation for Banja Luka is about 988 millimetres. Banja Luka has an average of 143 rainy days a year, due to the citys latitude, it snows in Banja Luka almost every year. Strong winds come from the north and northeast, sometimes southern winds which bring hot weather are also prevalent. The history of inhabitation of the area of Banja Luka dates back to ancient times, there is a substantial evidence of the Roman presence in the region during the first few centuries A. D. including an old fort Kastel in the centre of the city. The area of Banja Luka was entirely in the kingdom of Illyria and then a part of the Roman province of Illyricum, ancient Illyrian maps call the settlement in Banja Lukas present day location as Ad Ladios, a settlement located on the river Vrbas
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Vrbas (river)
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The Vrbas is a major river with a length of 235 kilometres, in western Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is a tributary of the Sava river. The city of Banja Luka is located on the river banks, the word vrba means willow in Bosnian, Serbian and Croatian, and a number of weeping willow trees adorn the river banks in Banja Luka. It lent its name to one of the provinces of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and it is a right tributary of the river Sava. It empties into the Sava river at around 90 metres above sea level, total length of the main watercourse is around 235 kilometres. Average annual rainfall is around 800 l/m2 at the mouth of the Vrbas to the Sava river, gornji Vakuf Bugojno Donji Vakuf Jajce Banja Luka
27.
Dervish
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A dervish or darvesh is someone guiding a Sufi Muslim ascetic down a path or Tariqah, known for their extreme poverty and austerity. Their focus is on the values of love and service. In most Sufi orders, a dervish is known to practice dhikr through physical exertions or religious practices to attain the ecstatic trance to reach God and their most common practice is Sama which is associated with Rumi. Dervish is a Turkish word from the 1580s that is derived from the Persian word darvīsh and it has been used in the same manner as the Arabic word Faqir to refer to Muslim holy men who have given up worldly pleasures for an austere and religious life. Many dervishes are mendicant ascetics who have taken a vow of poverty, the main reason they beg is to learn humility, but Dervishes are prohibited to beg for their own good. They have to give the money to other poor people. Others work in professions, Egyptian Qadiriyya – known in Turkey as Kadiri – are fishermen. Some classical writers indicate that the poverty of the dervish is not merely economic and it is, however, also practiced by other orders. The Sama is only one of the many Sufi ceremonies performed to try to reach religious ecstasy, the name Mevlevi comes from the Persian poet Rumi, who was a dervish himself. This practice, though not intended as entertainment, has become a tourist attraction in Turkey, there are various orders of Dervishes, almost all of which trace their origins from various Muslim saints and teachers, especially Imam Ali. Various orders and suborders have appeared and disappeared over the centuries, Dervishes spread into North Africa, Turkey, the Balkans, the Caucasus, Iran, Pakistan, India, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan. Other groups include the Bektashis, who are connected to the janissaries, and the Senussi, other fraternities and subgroups chant verses of the Quran, play drums or whirl in groups, all according to their specific traditions. They practice meditation, as is the case with most of the Sufi orders in South Asia, many of whom owe allegiance to, or were influenced by, each fraternity uses its own garb and methods of acceptance and initiation, some of which may be rather severe. This Dervish army enabled Hassan to carve out a state through conquest of lands claimed by the Somali Sultans, the Ethiopians. The Dervish State acquired renown in the Islamic and Western worlds due to its resistance against Britain, the Dervish State successfully repulsed British-led Somali and Ethiopian forces four times and forced them to retreat to the coastal region. The polity also maintained relations with authorities, receiving support from the Ottoman and German empires. The Turks also named Hassan Emir of the Somali nation, the Dervish State was finally defeated by the British in 1920. Various western historical writers have used the term dervish rather loosely, linking it to, among other things
28.
Military of the Ottoman Empire
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The history of military of the Ottoman Empire can be divided in five main periods. The earliest form of the Ottoman military was a cavalry force. This was centralized by Osman I from Turkoman tribesmen inhabiting western Anatolia in the late 13th century and these horsemen became an irregular force of raiders used as shock troops, armed with simple weapons like bows and spears. They were given fiefs called timars in the lands, and were later called timariots. In addition they acquired wealth during campaigns, Orhan I organized a standing army paid by salary rather than booty or fiefs. The infantry were called yayas and the cavalry was known as müsellems, the force was made up by foreign mercenaries for the most part, and only a few Turks were content to accept salaries in place of timars. Foreign mercenaries were not required to convert to Islam as long as they obeyed their Ottoman commanders, the Ottomans began using guns sometime at the 15th century. Ottoman Classical Army was the structure established by Mehmed II, during his reorganization of the state. This is the reorganization following Orhan I which organized a standing army paid by salary rather than booty or fiefs. This army was the force during rise of the Ottoman Empire, the organization was twofold, central and peripheral. Following a century long reform efforts, this Army was forced to disbandment by Sultan Mahmud II on 15 June 1826 by what is known as Auspicious Incident, the main theme of this period is reforming the Janissaries. The Janissary corps were made up of conscripted young Christian boys who became military educated under the Ottoman Empire. During the 15th and 16th Centuries they became known as the most efficient, aside from the Janissary infantry, there was also the Sipahi Cavalry. They were, however, different from the Janissaries in that they had military and administrative duties. Within these agricultural lands, the Sipahi were in charge of collecting the taxes which would serve as their salary, at the same time they were responsible for maintaining peace and order there. They were also expected to be able to serve in the military whenever the Sultan deemed their service necessary, western cavalry military people were imported as advisors but their abilities to enact change on the Classic Army were limited. The Ottoman Empire made numerous efforts to recruit French experts for its modernization, another officer François Baron de Tott was involved in the reform efforts for the Ottoman military. He succeeded in having a new foundry built to make howitzers and he built fortifications on the Bosphorus and started a naval science course that laid the foundation stone for the later Turkish Naval Academy
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Hussars
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A Hussar was a member of any one of several types of light cavalry used during the 18th and 19th centuries, beginning in Central Europe. Historically, the term derives from the cavalry of late medieval Hungary, the title and distinctive dress of these horsemen were subsequently widely adopted by light cavalry regiments in European and European colonial armies in the late 17th and 18th centuries. A number of armored or ceremonial mounted units in modern armies retain the designation of hussars, the first written mention of the word Hussarones has been found in documents dating from 1432 in Southern Hungary. A type of light horsemen was already well-established by the 15th century in medieval Hungary. Etymologists are divided over the derivation of the word hussar, byzantinist scholars argue that the term originated in Roman military practice, and the cursarii. 10th-century Byzantine military manuals mention chonsarioi, light cavalry, recruited in the Balkans, especially Serbs and this word was subsequently reintroduced to Western European military practice after its original usage had been lost with the collapse of Rome in the west. According to Websters Dictionary, the word stems from the Hungarian huszár. On the other hand, husz means twenty in Hungarian whilst ar is a unit of measurement or acre. Hussars are so named as they were a form of military levy whereby any land owner with twenty acres was duty bound to provide a mounted and equipped soldier to the army at their own expense. The elaborate uniforms were based on traditional Magyar horsemans clothes with highly braided, tight riding breeches, close fitting pointed boots, the hussars reportedly originated in bands of mostly Serbian warriors, crossing into southern Hungary after the Ottoman conquest of Serbia at the end of the 14th century. Regent-Governor John Hunyadi created mounted units inspired by the Ottomans and his son, Matthias Corvinus, later king of Hungary, is unanimously accepted as the creator of these troops, commonly called Rac. Initially, they fought in bands, but were reorganised into larger. The first hussar regiments comprised the cavalry of the Black Army of Hungary. Under Corvinus command, the took part in the war against the Ottoman Empire in 1485 and proved successful against the sipahis as well as against the Bohemians. After the kings death, in 1490, hussars became the form of cavalry in Hungary in addition to the heavy cavalry. The Habsburg emperors hired Hungarian hussars as mercenaries to serve against the Ottomans, early hussars wore armor when they could afford to it like the later Polish hussars. Hungarian hussars abandoned using shields and later armors and became entirely light cavalry in the first half of the 17th century, initially the first units of Polish hussars in the Kingdom of Poland were formed in 1500, influenced by Serbian mercenaries. A small number of Serbian mercenaries were recruited and became citizens of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Polish heavy hussars of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth were far more manoeuvrable than the heavily armoured lancers previously employed
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Maglaj
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Maglaj is a town and municipality in northern Bosnia and Herzegovina. Maglaj is one of 12 municipalities of the Zenica-Doboj Canton, the city lies 25 km south of Doboj, the regional trade, education, culture, entertainment, and business centre. The city has a population of 25,000, the whole municipality has a population of 43,000. The town is situated in the part of Bosnia and Herzegovina and is situated in territory where Bosniaks presently form a large majority. The new part of Maglaj, situated on the West side of the river Bosna, is made up of modern architecture that was started in the 1950s, the Bosna flows through Maglaj on its way north to the Sava river on the border between Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia. Nowadays, the river has become cleaner due to decreased industrial activity at those plants, the city, as well as the entire Maglaj municipality, have been subject to a large demographic population shift. A significant number of former Croat inhabitants have also settled in Croatias capital Zagreb, due to severe fighting around Maglaj throughout the Bosnian War, and the catasrophic conditions it was exposed to, numerous Bosniak Muslims have departed the region as well. Pre-war Maglaj was unique because one third of its married couples were made up of mixed ethnic groups. As a result of this, a number of these Maglaj inhabitants felt welcome by none of the three warring ethnic groups, and tried to settle abroad. Maglaj originated in the 14th century, the river Bosna goes through this town. From 1929 to 1941, Maglaj was part of the Vrbas Banovina of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. The city endured a siege by Bosnian Serbs forces between 1993 and 1994 during the Bosnian War, when the area was the scene of heavy fighting. The last flooding occurred on May 16,2014
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Bosna (river)
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It is the namesake of Bosnia. The Bosna flows for 271 kilometers, the river is possibly mentioned for the first time during the 1st century AD by Roman historian Marcus Velleius Paterculus under the name Bathinus flumen. According to philologist Anton Mayer the name Bosna could be derived from Illyrian Bass-an-as which would be a diversion of the Proto-Indo-European root *bhoĝ-, meaning the running water. The Bosna river also makes up the Bosna River Valley, the industrial center and home to close to a million people. The rivers biggest tributaries are the Željeznica, Miljacka, Fojnica, Lašva, Gostović, Krivaja, Usora and its source is at the spring Vrelo Bosne, at the foothills of the Mount Igman, on the outskirts of Sarajevo, capital of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The spring is one of Bosnia and Herzegovinas chief natural landmarks, from there, the Bosna flows northwards, through the heart of Bosnia, eventually becoming a right tributary of the Sava River in Bosanski Šamac. The Bosna flows through a number of cantons, from its starting point in the Sarajevo Canton, it flows through Zenica-Doboj Canton, Doboj Region, and Posavina Canton, in that order. On its way north the River Bosna also passes through the cities of Visoko, Zenica, Maglaj, Doboj, Modriča and Bosanski Šamac
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Martial law
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It is usually imposed temporarily when the government or civilian authorities fail to function effectively. Martial law can be used by governments to enforce their rule over the public, such incidents may occur after a coup détat, when threatened by popular protest, to suppress political opposition, or to stabilize insurrections or perceived insurrections. Martial law may be declared in cases of natural disasters, however, most countries use a different legal construct. Martial law has also been imposed during conflicts, and in cases of occupations, examples of this form of military rule include post World War II reconstruction in Germany and Japan as well as the Southern Reconstruction following the U. S. Civil War. Civilians defying martial law may be subjected to military tribunal, the Black War was a period of violent conflict between British colonists and Aboriginal Australians in Tasmania from the mid-1820s to 1832. With an escalation of violence in the late 1820s, Lieutenant-Governor George Arthur declared martial law in November 1828—effectively providing legal immunity for killing Aboriginal people and it would remain in force for more than three years, the longest period of martial law in Australian history. Brunei has been under a law since a rebellion occurred on 8 December 1962 known as the Brunei Revolt and was put down by British troops from Singapore. e. The military does not administer justice, which remains in the hands of the courts, the Act has been invoked three times, During World War I, World War II, and the October Crisis of 1970. In 1988, the War Measures Act was replaced by the Emergencies Act, during the colonial era, martial law was proclaimed and applied in the territory of the Province of Quebec during the invasion of Canada by the army of the American Continental Congress in 1775–1776. It was also applied twice in the territory of Lower Canada during the 1837–1838 insurrections and it was imposed until April 27,1838. Martial law was proclaimed a second time on November 4,1838, this time by acting Governor John Colborne, in Egypt, a State of Emergency has been in effect almost continuously since 1967. Following the assassination of President Anwar el-Sadat in 1981, state of emergency was declared, Egypt has been under state of emergency ever since, the Parliament has renewed the emergency laws every three years since they were imposed. The legislation was extended in 2003 and were due to expire at the end of May 2006, but after the Dahab bombings in April of that year, state of emergency was renewed for another two years. In May 2008 there was an extension to June 2010. In May 2010, the state of emergency was extended, albeit with a promise from the government to be applied only to Terrorism. Public demonstrations are banned under the legislation, under martial law the source of power is not the people, not the parliament, not the constitution, not a Holy Text, but solely the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces. The military issued in its announcement the end of the State of Emergency as soon as order is restored in Egypt. Before martial law, the Egyptian parliament under the constitution had the power to declare a State of Emergency
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Jajce
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Jajce is a town and municipality located in the central part of Bosnia and Herzegovina, in the Bosanska Krajina region. It is part of the Central Bosnia Canton of the Federation of Bosnia and it is on the crossroads between Banja Luka, Mrkonjić Grad and Donji Vakuf, on the confluence of the rivers Pliva and Vrbas. Jajce was first built in the 14th century and served as the capital of the independent Kingdom of Bosnia during its time, the town has gates as fortifications, as well as a castle with walls which lead to the various gates around the town. About 10–20 kilometres from Jajce lies the Komotin Castle and town area which is older but smaller than Jajce and it is believed the town of Jajce was previously Komotin but was moved after the Black Death. The first references to the name of Jajce in written sources is from the year 1396, skenderbeg Mihajlović besieged Jajce in 1501 without success and was defeated by Ivaniš Korvin assisted by Zrinski, Frankopan, Karlović and Cubor. During this period, Queen Catherine restored the Saint Marys Church in Jajce, eventually, in 1527, Jajce became the last Bosnian town to fall to Ottoman rule. The town then lost its importance, as the border moved further North. There are several churches and mosques built in different times during different rules, Jajce passed with the rest of Bosnia and Herzegovina under the administration of Austria-Hungary in 1878. The Franciscan monastery of Saint Luke was completed in 1885, from 1929-41, Jajce was part of the Vrbas Banovina of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. Post-war economy of Jajce in socialist times was based on industry, at the end of April and the beginning of May 1992, almost all ethnic Serbs left and fled to territory under Republika Srpska control. Retreating forces where joined by a column of 30,000 to 40,000 civilian refugees, stretching 16 kilometres towards Travnik, shrader defined it as the largest and most wretched single exodus of the Bosnian War. Bosniak refugees re-settled in Central Bosnia, while Croats moved either to Croatia or closer to the Croatian border due to rising tensions, by November 1992 the pre-war population of Jajce had shrunk from 45,000 to just several thousand. In the following weeks, all mosques and Catholic churches in Jajce were demolished as retribution for the HVOs destruction of the towns only Serbian Orthodox monastery on 10–11 October. The VRS converted the towns Franciscan monastery into a prison and its archives, museum collections and artworks were looted, by 1992, all religious buildings in Jajce had been destroyed, save for two mosques whose perilous positioning on a hilltop had made them unsuitable for demolition. Jajce was recaptured together with Bosanski Petrovac in mid-September 1995 during Operation Mistral 2 by the Croatian Defence Council, Jajce became part of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina according to the Dayton Agreement. A significant number of Serb refugees settled in Brčko while the rest settled in Mrkonjić Grad, Šipovo, the economy of the Jajce municipality is nowadays weak. UNESCO has started to renovate the historical parts of the city together with Kulturarv utan gränser, the main project of the company was to renovate the old traditional houses which symbolised the panoramic view of the city and the waterfall. As of 2006, most of the houses were rebuilt, Jajce was a popular tourist destination in Yugoslav times, mostly due to the historical importance of the AVNOJ session
34.
Neretva
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The Neretva, also known as the Narenta, is the largest river of the eastern part of the Adriatic basin. Four HE power-plants with large dams provide flood protection, power and water storage and it is still recognized for its natural beauty and diversity of its landscape. Freshwater ecosystems have suffered from a population and the associated development pressures. One of the most valuable resources of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia is its freshwater resource, contained by an abundant wellspring. Situated between the major rivers the Neretva basin contains the most significant source of drinking water. The Neretva is notable among rivers of the Dinaric Alps region, especially regarding its diverse ecosystems and habitats, flora and fauna, cultural, the Neretva flows through Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia until reaching the Adriatic Sea. It is the largest karst river in the Dinaric Alps in the part of the Adriatic basin/watershed. Its total length is 230 kilometres, of which 208 kilometres are in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Trebišnjica River basin is included in the Neretva watershed due to a physical link of the two basins by the porous karst terrain. The hydrological parameters of Neretva are regularly monitored in Croatia at Metković, geographically and hydrologically the Neretva is divided into three sections. Its source and headwaters gorge are situated deep in the Dinaric Alps at the base of the Zelengora and Lebršnik mountains, the river source is at 1,227 meters above sea level. 2%. Right below Konjic, the Neretva briefly expands into a valley which provides fertile agricultural land. The large Jablaničko Lake was artificially formed after construction of a dam near Jablanica, the second section begins from the confluence of the Neretva and the Rama between Konjic and Jablanica where the Neretva suddenly takes a southern course. From Jablanica, the Neretva enters the largest canyons of its course, running through the steep mountains of Prenj, Čvrsnica. Three hydroelectric dams operate between Jablanica and Mostar, when the Neretva expands for the second and final time, it reaches its third section. This area is called the Bosnian and Herzegovinian California. The last 30 kilometres form a delta, before the river empties into the Adriatic Sea. The biggest town on the Neretva River is Mostar in Bosnia, the upper course of the Neretva river is simply called the Upper Neretva. The Upper Neretva has water of Class I purity and is almost certainly the coldest river water in the world, rising from the base of the Zelengora and Lebršnik Mountain, Neretva headwaters run in undisturbed rapids and waterfalls, carving steep gorges reaching 600–800 metres in depth
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Mostar
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Mostar is a city and municipality in southern Bosnia and Herzegovina. Inhabited by 105,797 people, it is the most important city in the Herzegovina region, its capital. Mostar is situated on the Neretva River and is the fifth-largest city in the country, Mostar was named after the bridge keepers who in the medieval times guarded the Stari Most over the Neretva. Human settlements on the river Neretva, between the Hum Hill and the Velež Mountain, have existed since prehistory, as witnessed by discoveries of fortified enceintes and cemeteries, evidence of Roman occupation was discovered beneath the present town. As far as medieval Mostar goes, although the Christian basilicas of late antiquity remained in use, few historical sources were preserved, during this time it was also the seat of a kadiluk. Since Mostar was on the route between the Adriatic and the mineral-rich regions of central Bosnia, the settlement began to spread to the right bank of the river. Prior to the 1474 the names of two towns appear in historical sources, along with their later medieval territories and properties – the towns of Nebojša. In the early 15th century the county of Večenike covered the site of the present-day Mostar along the bank of the Neretva, including the sites of Zahum, Cim, Ilići, Raštani. It was at the center of area, which in 1408 belonged to Radivojević. Mostar is indirectly referred to in a 1454 charter of King Alfonso V of Aragon as Pons, prior to 1444, the Nebojša fort was built on the left bank of the Neretva, which belonged to the late medieval county still known as Večenike or Večerić. ”. In 1468 the region came under Ottoman rule and the urbanization of the settlement began and it was named Köprühisar, meaning fortress at the bridge, at the centre of which was a cluster of 15 houses. Following the unwritten rule, the town was organized into two distinct areas, čaršija, the crafts and commercial centre of the settlement, and mahala or a residential area. The town was fortified between the years 1520 and 1566, and the bridge was rebuilt in stone. The stone bridge, the Old Bridge, was erected in 1566 on the orders of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent,28 metres long and 20 metres high, quickly became a wonder in its own time. In the late 16th century, Köprühisar was one of the towns of the Sanjak of Herzegovina and it is thrown from rock to rock as high as the sky. During this period, Mostar was recognized as the capital of Herzegovina. The first church in the city of Mostar, a Serbian Orthodox Church, was built in 1834 during Ottoman rule, in 1881 the town became the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Mostar-Duvno and in 1939, it became a part of the Banovina of Croatia. During World War II Mostar was also an important city in the fascist Independent State of Croatia, after World War II, Mostar developed a production of plastics, tobacco, bauxite, wine, aircraft and aluminium products
36.
Livno
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Livno is a city and municipality in the west of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is part of Canton 10 of the Federation of Bosnia, the plains of Livno have been populated since approximately 2000 BC. In the late Bronze Age, the Neolithic population was replaced by more Indo-European tribes known as the Illyrians, the region was inhabited by Illyrian tribe of Dalmatae which capital was Delminium in todays Tomislavgrad. They left remains that testify about their presence in this area, the most important of them are the gradine, remains of Illyrian settlements which were distributed along the Livno Field. The three most important are Velika gradina, Mala gradina and Kasalov gradac, after the Roman conquest of the area, it was part of the province of Dalmatia. During the twenties of the first century AD, Roman government built a road connecting Salona, a city on the coast with Servitium and its route passed through the Livno Field where two road stations have been established. The station of Pelva was located at the area of village Lištani, Livno celebrates its founding date as 28 September 892 AD, being mentioned in a document from Duke Mutimir which was released at that time. It was the centre of Hlebiana županija of the Kingdom of Croatia, from 1199 Emeric until 1326 Mladen II Šubić of Bribir, who was a resident of Livno, it was part of the Chelmensis territory. From 1326 until 1463 Livno was part of the Bosnian Kingdom, one of the noble families of the Bosnian Kingdom bought Livno, Duvno, and Kupres then called Tropolje. The beginning of 15th century saw the Ottoman Empire advance, invade, Mosque complex in the picture the Hajji Ahmed the Ducat Minters Mosque is one of the most recognizable architectural symbols of Livno. Constructed upon design by Mimar Sinan in 1574 and it is situated on a hill overlooking the old town of Livno, the river Bistrica and the spring Duman in the upper section of the old town of Livno. The mosque complex consists of main building of the mosque under a dome and uncharacteristically short minaret, with a clock tower which was erected around 1659. Within the perimeter is an almost 500-year-old necropolis with characteristic early Bosnian Muslim tombstones, in 1878 Livno was occupied by the Austro-Hungarian Empire. From 1918 it was part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, in 1929 the kingdom was renamed the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and divided into nine banates. Livno was divided into the Littoral Banovina, with its centre in the city of Split and this division brought Livno politically closer to Croatia. In 1939, the banates were further redrawn so that there was a Croatian banate of which Livno was also part, from 1941-45, Livno was part of the Independent State of Croatia. Croatian writer Ivan Goran Kovačić joined the Partisans where he wrote his epic poem Jama and he finished his poem in Livno. At the end of World War II, Livno was a part of Socialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Yugoslavia, and after its collapse in 1995, Livno is 96 km from Split,127 km from Mostar,167 km from Banja Luka and 212 km from Sarajevo
37.
Karl von Blaas
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Karl von Blaas was an Austrian painter known for his portraits and religious compositions executed on canvas as well as in the form of frescoes. Carl Von Blaas was born to a peasant family at Nauders in the Tyrol and he is best known as a history painter and painter of portraits. His first art lessons were in Innsbruck, where he received an education as a writer, but he was more interested in art, and so, like many painters at the time, he aspired to visit Italy to realize his goal of an in-depth art education. His uncle, a judge in Verona, recognized his talent and gave him support for study in Venice. In his autobiography he recounts many of his adventures, some rather harrowing and he was a student at the Venice Academy between 1832 and 1837, where he studied under Lodovico Lipparini. He won many awards and began to receive portrait commissions, in 1837 he received the Prix de Rome from the Venetian Academy, which allowed him to study in Rome for five years. He traveled there and during his visit came into contact with the member of the Nazarene School, German artist Friedrich Overbeck and his circle. However, he disagreed artistically with them and realized that his art aimed at more powerful, while in Italy he traveled extensively, studying and copying many old master paintings. He also studied in Munich for two years and then painted commissioned works for churches in Paris, London, Italy, Hungary, in 1850 he was appointed to Academy of Vienna, and painted several frescoes in the Alt-Lerchenfeld church. In 1855 he received a prize at the Paris Exposition for his painting Charlemagne Visiting a Boys School and he was a Professor of the Venice Academy from 1856 to 1866. In 1866 he returned to Vienna and his autobiography was published in Vienna in 1876. Von Blaas shared the Nazarene’s fascination with Renaissance artists and identified with their view of the mission of art. He became well-known in Vienna social circles and painted the boy emperor Franz Joseph in 1853, some years later he began to execute forty two-fresco paintings for the Vienna Arsenal from Austria’s history, which occupied him for eleven years. These are considered to be among his major works and he is the father of the famous genre painter Eugene von Blaas, whose reputation has overshadowed that of his father, and Julius von Blaas, also a painter. He died in Vienna in 1894, among his pupils was Francesco Beda. Back at the guesthouse I sketched her from memory, and the landlord said right away, “That is the beautiful Bernabo girl. ”She was like the noble Lina, in the evening on the Promenade I saw her again, and she attracted me like some invisible power. And as she walked into a street, I asked her mother if I could paint her beautiful daughter. I told her I was an itinerant artist, seeking beauty wherever I found it, the lady was not offended or unkind, and let me into her house
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Bosnia Vilayet
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