1.
Latin
–
Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
Latin
–
Latin inscription, in the
Colosseum
Latin
–
Julius Caesar 's
Commentarii de Bello Gallico is one of the most famous classical Latin texts of the Golden Age of Latin. The unvarnished, journalistic style of this
patrician general has long been taught as a model of the urbane Latin officially spoken and written in the floruit of the
Roman republic.
Latin
–
A multi-volume Latin dictionary in the
University Library of Graz
Latin
–
Latin and Ancient Greek Language - Culture - Linguistics at
Duke University in 2014.
2.
Auctoritas
–
Auctoritas is a Latin word and is the origin of English authority. While historically its use in English was restricted to discussions of the history of Rome. In ancient Rome, Auctoritas referred to the level of prestige a person had in Roman society, and, as a consequence, his clout, influence. Auctoritas was not merely political, however, it had a numinous content, noble women could also achieve a degree of Auctoritas. For example, the wives, sisters, and mothers of the Julio-Claudians had immense influence on society, the masses, and their Auctoritas was exercised less overtly than their male counterparts due to Roman societal norms, but they were powerful nonetheless. According to French linguist Emile Benveniste, auctor is derived from Latin augeō, the auctor is is qui auget, the one who augments the act or the juridical situation of another. Auctor in the sense of author, comes from auctor as founder or, one might say, similarly, auctoritas refers to rightful ownership, based on ones having produced or homesteaded the article of property in question - more in the sense of sponsored or acquired than manufactured. This auctoritas would, for example, persist through an usucapio of ill-gotten or abandoned property, politically, auctoritas was connected to the Roman Senates authority, not to be confused with potestas or imperium, which were held by the magistrates or the people. In this context, Auctoritas could be defined as the power to authorize some other act. The 19th-century classicist Theodor Mommsen describes the force of auctoritas as more than advice and less than command, cicero says of power and authority, Cum potestas in populo auctoritas in senatu sit. In the private domain, those under tutelage, such as women, thus, auctoritas characterizes the auctor, The pater familias authorizes – that is, validates and legitimates – his sons wedding in prostate. In this way, auctoritas might function as a kind of passive counsel, much as, for example, the notion of auctoritas was often invoked by the papacy during the Middle Ages, in order to secure the temporal power of the Pope. Innocent III most famously invoked auctoritas in order to depose kings and emperors, hannah Arendt considered auctoritas a reference to founding acts as the source of political authority in Ancient Rome. She took foundation to include, the conservation and increase of principles handed down from the beginning. Arendt views a crisis of authority as common to both the American and French Revolutions, and the response to that crisis a key factor in the success of the former. Philosopher Giorgio Agamben suggests a relationship between the Roman auctoritas, Max Webers charismatic power, and Carl Schmitts theoretical/ideological basis for the Nazi Führertum doctrine, Agamben compares auctoritas to the Führer in their relationship to the observance of gramma, γράμμα, written law. William Smith, A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, alvaro dOrs, Derecho privado romano Rafael Domingo Osle, Auctoritas
Auctoritas
–
Representation of a sitting of the Roman Senate:
Cicero attacks
Catilina, from a 19th-century fresco
Auctoritas
–
Ancient Rome
3.
Legitimacy (political)
–
In political science, legitimacy is the right and acceptance of an authority, usually a governing law or a régime. Whereas authority denotes a specific position in a government, the term legitimacy denotes a system of government — wherein government denotes sphere of influence. An authority viewed as legitimate often has the right and justification to exercise power, political legitimacy is considered a basic condition for governing, without which a government will suffer legislative deadlock and collapse. In political systems where this is not the case, unpopular régimes survive because they are considered legitimate by a small, Legitimacy is a value whereby something or someone is recognized and accepted as right and proper. Traditionalists understand this form of rule as historically accepted, hence its continuity, therefore, the institutions of traditional government usually are historically continuous, as in monarchy and tribalism. However, if the leader has a successor, a government derived from charismatic legitimacy might continue. Rational-legal legitimacy derives from a system of institutional procedure, wherein government institutions establish and enforce law, therefore, it is through public trust that the government will abide the law that confers rational-legal legitimacy. In a theocracy, government legitimacy derives from the authority of a god or a goddess. In Ancient Egypt, the legitimacy of the dominion of a Pharaoh was theologically established by doctrine that posited the pharaoh as the Egyptian patron god Horus, son of Osiris. The political legitimacy of a civil government derives from agreement among the autonomous constituent institutions—legislative, judicial, one way civil society grants legitimacy to governments is through public elections. Assessing the political legitimacy of a government can be done by looking at three different aspects of which a government can derive legitimacy from. A third normative criterion was added by Vivien Schmidt, who analyzes legitimacy also in terms of what she calls throughput, does legitimacy draw on actors or their actions. Abulof distinguishes between negative political legitimacy, which is about the object of legitimation, and positive political legitimacy, NPL is concerned with establishing where to draw the line between good and bad, PPL with who should be drawing it in the first place. From the NPL perspective, political legitimacy emanates from appropriate actions, from a PPL perspective, in the social contract tradition, Hobbes and Locke focused on NPL, while Rousseau focused more on PPL. Arguably, political stability depends on both forms of legitimacy, webers understanding of legitimacy rests on shared values, such as tradition and rational-legality. But policies that aim at constructing legitimacy by improving the delivery or output of a state often only respond to shared needs. Therefore, substantive sources of legitimacy need to be distinguished from more instrumental ones, instrumental legitimacy rests on the rational assessment of the usefulness of an authority, describing to what extent an authority responds to shared needs. Instrumental legitimacy is very much based on the effectiveness of service delivery
Legitimacy (political)
–
Max Weber: societies are politically cyclical.
Legitimacy (political)
–
John Locke: consent of the governed confers political legitimacy.
Legitimacy (political)
–
Mattei Dogan
4.
Power (social and political)
–
In social science and politics, power is the ability to influence or outright control the behavior of people. The term authority is used for power perceived as legitimate by the social structure. Power can be seen as evil or unjust, but the exercise of power is accepted as endemic to humans as social beings, in business, power is often expressed as being upward or downward. With downward power, a companys superior influences subordinates, when a company exerts upward power, it is the subordinates who influence the decisions of their leader or leaders. The use of power need not involve force or the threat of force, at one extreme, it closely resembles what an English-speaking person might term influence, although some authors distinguish influence as a means by which power is used. One such example is power, as compared to hard power. The philosopher Michel Foucault saw power as an expression of a complex strategic situation in a given social setting that requires both constraint and enablement. Social psychologists John R. P. French and Bertram Raven, in a now-classic study, a must draw on the base or combination of bases of power appropriate to the relationship, to effect the desired outcome. Drawing on the power base can have unintended effects, including a reduction in As own power. French and Raven argue that there are five significant categories of such qualities, further bases have since been adduced – in particular by Gareth Morgan in his 1986 book, Images of Organization. Also called positional power, it is the power of an individual because of the relative position, legitimate power is formal authority delegated to the holder of the position. It is usually accompanied by various attributes of such as a uniform. Referent power is the power or ability of individuals to attract others and it is based on the charisma and interpersonal skills of the power holder. A person may be admired because of specific personal trait, here the person under power desires to identify with these personal qualities, and gains satisfaction from being an accepted follower. Nationalism and patriotism count towards a sort of referent power. For example, soldiers fight in wars to defend the honor of the country and this is the second least obvious power, but the most effective. Advertisers have long used the referent power of sports figures for products endorsements, the charismatic appeal of the sports star supposedly leads to an acceptance of the endorsement, although the individual may have little real credibility outside the sports arena. Abuse is possible when someone that is likable, yet lacks integrity and honesty, rises to power, referent power is unstable alone, and is not enough for a leader who wants longevity and respect
Power (social and political)
–
Sociology
5.
State (polity)
–
A state is a type of polity that is an organized political community living under a single system of government. States may or may not be sovereign, for instance, federated states are members of a federal union, and may have only partial sovereignty, but are, nonetheless, states. Some states are subject to external sovereignty or hegemony, in which ultimate sovereignty lies in another state, States that are sovereign are known as sovereign states. The term state can also refer to the branches of government within a state, often as a manner of contrasting them with churches. Speakers of American English often use the state and government as synonyms. Many human societies have been governed by states for millennia, over time a variety of different forms developed, employing a variety of justifications of legitimacy for their existence. In the 21st century, the modern nation-state is the predominant form of state to which people are subjected, there is no academic consensus on the most appropriate definition of the state. The term state refers to a set of different, but interrelated and often overlapping, general categories of state institutions include administrative bureaucracies, legal systems, and military or religious organizations. Another commonly accepted definition of the state is the one given at the Montevideo Convention on Rights, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, a state is a. an organized political community under one government, a commonwealth, a nation. B. such a community forming part of a federal republic, confounding the definition problem is that state and government are often used as synonyms in common conversation and even some academic discourse. According to this schema, the states are nonphysical persons of international law. The relationship between a government and its state is one of representation and authorized agency, States may be classified as sovereign if they are not dependent on, or subject to any other power or state. Other states are subject to external sovereignty or hegemony where ultimate sovereignty lies in another state, many states are federated states which participate in a federal union. A federated state is a territorial and constitutional community forming part of a federation, such states differ from sovereign states in that they have transferred a portion of their sovereign powers to a federal government. One can commonly and sometimes readily classify states according to their apparent make-up or focus, the concept of the nation-state, theoretically or ideally co-terminous with a nation, became very popular by the 20th century in Europe, but occurred rarely elsewhere or at other times. Imperial states have sometimes promoted notions of racial superiority, the concept of temple states centred on religious shrines occurs in some discussions of the ancient world. To some extent, urban secession, the creation of a new city-state, a state can be distinguished from a government. The government is the group of people, the administrative bureaucracy that controls the state apparatus at a given time
State (polity)
–
The frontispiece of
Thomas Hobbes '
Leviathan
State (polity)
–
IWW poster "
Pyramid of Capitalist System " (c. 1911), depicting an
anti-capitalist perspective on statist/capitalist social structures
State (polity)
–
Painting of Roman Senators encircling
Julius Caesar
6.
Academic
–
Academy is a type of secondary or tertiary education institutions. The word comes from the Academy in ancient Greece, which derives from the Athenian hero, outside the city walls of Athens, the gymnasium was made famous by Plato as a center of learning. The sacred space, dedicated to the goddess of wisdom, Athena, had formerly been an olive grove, in these gardens, the philosopher Plato conversed with followers. Plato developed his sessions into a method of teaching philosophy and in 387 BC, by extension academia has come to mean the cultural accumulation of knowledge, its development and transmission across generations and its practitioners and transmitters. In the 17th century, British, Italian and French scholars used the term to describe types of institutions of higher learning, in ancient Greece, after the establishment of the original Academy, Platos colleagues and pupils developed spin-offs of his method. Arcesilaus, a Greek student of Plato established the Middle Academy, carneades, another student, established the New Academy. In 335 BC, Aristotle refined the method with his own theories, the library of Alexandria in Egypt was frequented by intellectuals from Africa, Europe and Asia studying various aspects of philosophy, language and mathematics. The University of Timbuktu was a university in Timbuktu, present-day Mali. During its zenith, the university had an attendance of around 25,000 students within a city of around 100,000 people. In China a higher education institution Shang Xiang was founded by Shun in the Youyu era before the 21st century BC, in the 8th century another kind of institution of learning emerged, named Shuyuan, which were generally privately owned. There were thousands of Shuyuan recorded in ancient times, the degrees from them varied from one to another and those advanced Shuyuan such as Bailudong Shuyuan and Yuelu Shuyuan can be classified as higher institutions of learning. Taxila or Takshashila, in ancient India, modern-day Pakistan, was an early Buddhist centre of learning and it is considered as one of the ancient universities of the world. According to scattered references which were only fixed a millennium later it may have dated back to at least the 5th century BC, some scholars date Takshashilas existence back to the 6th century BC. The school consisted of several monasteries without large dormitories or lecture halls where the instruction was most likely still provided on an individualistic basis. Takshashila is described in detail in later Jātaka tales, written in Sri Lanka around the 5th century AD. It became a centre of learning at least several centuries BC. Takshashila is perhaps best known because of its association with Chanakya, the famous treatise Arthashastra by Chanakya, is said to have been composed in Takshashila itself. Chanakya, the Maurya Emperor Chandragupta and the Ayurvedic healer Charaka studied at Taxila, generally, a student entered Takshashila at the age of sixteen
Academic
–
Students and scholars at the entrance to the
University of Concepción,
Chile.
Academic
–
Nalanda, ancient center of higher learning in
Bihar,
India from 427 to 1197
7.
Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority
–
PREPA is the only entity authorized to conduct such business in Puerto Rico, effectively making it a government monopoly. The authority is ruled by a board of directors appointed by the governor with the advice, government-owned, PRWRA unified diverse regional and local electric power companies into one unified electric grid. The board of directors is the body of the Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority. Its membership usually consists of citizens who are supposed to represent the public interest. This inconsistency happens as the structure changes whenever a political party gains power. Once both the governor and the legislature of Puerto Rico belong to the party, one of the earliest laws amended is the one governing the authority in order to change the boards composition. Once the new board is settled in, one of the very first acts enacted by the new board is to appoint a new executive director. Of the different members of the board, the governor is required to appoint four members with the advice. Three additional members of the board are elected by consumers by plurality-at-large. The last structural change to the board occurred on June 25,2013 after governor Alejandro García Padilla enacted Act 29 of 2013 together with the 17th Legislative Assembly, the public corporation also provides fiber optic broadband to private carriers through one of its subsidiary, PREPA Networks. There are four labor unions represent the workers from the authority exclusively UTIER, UITICE, UEPI. As of 2014 the authority carries liabilities of $10.1 billion USD against assets of $6 billion and it also operates with a deficit of about $354 million against revenues of $4.8 billion. In terms of costs, $2.6 billion or about 58% of PREPAs expenses are attributed to fuel purchases alone while salaries and collective bargains represent less than 13% of the authoritys expenses. On May 23,2014, Citigroup severely curtailed PREPAs line of credit for fuel purchase, forcing PREPA to run out of cash to pay Petrobras, Petrobras, in turn, threatened to cut off further shipments to the authority. This forced the authority to take $100 million out of its Capital Improvements Fund in order to pay its debt to Petrobras, an additional $600 million is owed to the authority by residential and commercial consumers, some of them by consumers living in public housing. The authority argues that it wouldnt have a problem being self-sufficient if it were paid the aforementioned debt, on June 3,2014, senator Ramón Luis Nieves admitted publicly that, part of the financial problem at PREPA was provoked by the government and the Puerto Rican legislature. On June 11,2014, Fitch Ratings downgraded its rating on the authoritys to speculative non-investment grade from BB+ to BB while putting the authority on negative rating watch
Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority
–
Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority
Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority
–
Palo Seco Power Plant, 1973. Photo by
John Vachon.
8.
Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority
–
The Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority is the public agency responsible for operating most public transportation services in Greater Boston, Massachusetts. Earlier modes of transportation in Boston were independently owned and operated. In 2008, the system averaged 1.3 million passenger trips each weekday, of which the subway averaged 598,200, making it the fourth-busiest subway system in the United States. Further, the Green Line and Ashmont–Mattapan High Speed Line comprise the busiest light-rail system in the U. S. with a ridership of 255,100. The MBTA is the largest consumer of electricity in Massachusetts, in 2007, its CNG bus fleet was the largest consumer of alternative fuels in the state. The MBTA operates an independent law enforcement agency, the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority Police, development of mass transportation both followed and shaped economic and population patterns. This marked the beginning of the development of American intercity railroads, which in Massachusetts would later become the MBTA Commuter Rail system, starting with the opening of the Cambridge Railroad on March 26,1856, a profusion of streetcar lines appeared in Boston under chartered companies. Despite the change of companies, Boston is the city with the oldest continuously working streetcar system in the world, many of these companies consolidated, and animal-drawn vehicles were converted to electric propulsion. Streetcar congestion in downtown Boston led to the subways in 1897, the Tremont Street Subway was the first rapid transit tunnel in the United States. Grade-separation added capacity and avoided delays caused by cross streets, various extensions and branches were added at both ends, bypassing more surface tracks. As grade-separated lines were extended, street-running lines were cut back for faster downtown service, however, the Green Lines Causeway Street Elevated remained in service until 2004, when it was relocated into a tunnel with an incline to reconnect to the Lechmere Viaduct. The Boston Elevated Railway started replacing trains with buses in 1922, in 1936, it started replacing rail with trackless trolleys. The last Middlesex & Boston Street Railway streetcar ran in 1930, by the beginning of 1953, the only remaining streetcar lines fed two tunnels—the main Tremont Street Subway network downtown and the short tunnel in Harvard Square. The old elevated railways proved to be an eyesore and required several sharp curves in Bostons twisty streets, the Atlantic Avenue Elevated was closed in 1938 amidst declining ridership and was demolished in 1942. As rail passenger service became unprofitable, largely due to rising automobile ownership. The MTA purchased and took over subway, elevated, streetcar, in the 1950s, the MTA ran new subway extensions, while the last two streetcar lines running into the Pleasant Street Portal of the Tremont Street Subway were substituted with buses in 1953 and 1962. While the operations of the MTA were relatively stable by the early 1960s, the 1945 Coolidge Commission plan assumed that most of the commuter rail lines would be replaced by shorter rapid transit extensions, or simply feed into them at reduced service levels. Passenger service on the entire Old Colony Railroad system serving the part of the state was abandoned by the New Haven Railroad in 1959
Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority
–
The MBTA provides services in five different modes (boat not pictured) around Greater Boston.
Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority
–
Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority
Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority
–
Steam railroads in Boston in 1880. From the
US Census Bureau.
Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority
–
Park Street station in Boston on the
Green Line soon after opening, circa 1898
9.
Government
–
A government is the system by which a state or community is controlled. In the case of this broad definition, government normally consists of legislators, administrators. Government is the means by which state policy is enforced, as well as the mechanism for determining the policy of the state. Forms of government, or forms of governance, refers to the set of political systems. Governments control the economy, social freedoms, and political systems and this usage is analogous to what is called an administration in American English. Finally, government is sometimes used in English as a synonym for governance. In addition to the political meanings, in grammar and theoretical linguistics
Government
–
presidential republics
10.
Crowd
–
A crowd is a large group of people that are gathered or considered together. The term the crowd may sometimes refer to the orders of people in general. The term crowd is sometimes defined in contrast to other group nouns for collections of humans or animals, such as aggregation, audience, group, mass, mob, populous, public, rabble and throng. Opinion researcher Vincent Price compares masses and crowds, saying that Crowds are defined by their shared emotional experiences, in human sociology, the term mobbed simply means extremely crowded, as in a busy mall or shop. In animal behaviour mobbing is a technique where many individuals of one species gang up on an individual of another species to drive them away. Mobbing behaviour is seen in birds. Social aspects are concerned with the formation, management and control of crowds, often crowd control is designed to persuade a crowd to align with a particular view, or to contain groups to prevent damage or mob behaviour. Politically organised crowd control is conducted by law enforcement but on some occasions military forces are used for particularly large or dangerous crowds. At a general level, crowd psychology is concerned with the behaviour and thought processes of individual crowd members, many studies on crowds have given insights on how crowds respond to different situations. The degree to which informed members can affect the crowd depends on their position within the group, understanding crowd behaviours 2015 Mina Stampede
Crowd
–
A crowd of people returning from a show of fireworks spill in to the street stopping traffic at the intersection of
Fulton Street and Gold Street in
Lower Manhattan
Crowd
–
A crowd leaves the
Vienna station on the
Washington Metro in 2006.
11.
Lynching
–
Lynching is an extrajudicial punishment by an informal group. It is most often used to characterise informal public executions by a mob in order to punish an alleged transgressor, or to intimidate a group. It is a form of informal group social control such as charivari, skimmington, riding the rail, and tarring and feathering. Lynchings have been frequent in times of social and economic tension. However, it has resulted from long-held prejudices and practices of discrimination that have conditioned societies to accept this type of violence as normal practices of popular justice. Indeed, instances of it can be found in societies long antedating European settlement of North America, the legal and cultural antecedents of American lynching were carried across the Atlantic by migrants from the British Isles to colonial North America. Collective violence was an aspect of the early modern Anglo-American legal landscape. In the United States, during the decades before the Civil War, assertive free-Blacks, Latinos in the South West, Violence rose even more at the end of the 19th century, after southern white Democrats regained their political power in the South in the 1870s. Nearly 3,500 African Americans and 1,300 whites were lynched in the United States between 1882 and 1968, mostly from 1882 to 1920, the origins of the word lynch are obscure, but it likely originated during the American revolution. The verb comes from the phrase Lynch Law, a term for a punishment without trial, two Americans during this era are generally credited for the phrase, Charles Lynch and William Lynch, who both lived in Virginia in the 1780s. Charles Lynch has the claim, as he was known to have used the term in 1782. There is no evidence that death was imposed as a punishment by either of the two men, in 1782, Charles Lynch wrote that his assistant had administered Lynchs law to Tories for Dealing with negroes, &c. In the United States, the origin of the terms lynching, Charles Lynch was a Virginia planter and American Revolutionary who headed a county court in Virginia which incarcerated Loyalist supporters of the British for up to one year during the war. While he lacked proper jurisdiction, he claimed this right by arguing wartime necessity, subsequently, he prevailed upon his friends in the Congress of the Confederation to pass a law which specifically exonerated him and his associates from wrongdoing. He was concerned that he might face legal action from one or more of those so incarcerated, Lynch was not accused of racist bias, and indeed acquitted blacks accused of murder on three separate occasions, as dictated by the facts brought before him. He was accused, however, of ethnic prejudice in his abuse of Welsh miners, William Lynch from Virginia claimed that the phrase was first used for a 1780 compact signed by him and his neighbors in Pittsylvania County. While Edgar Allan Poe claimed that he found this document, this was likely a hoax, however, linguistic evidence is strongly against it, and the story was likely invented in the 19th century. Racist extremism with an eye to viciousness and public spectacle was frequently evident, in the South, members of the abolitionist movement or other people opposing slavery were usually targets of lynch mob violence before the Civil War
Lynching
–
A
black American man killed by hanging in a lynching in 1925.
Lynching
–
The lynching of
Laura Nelson in
Okemah, Oklahoma on May 25, 1911; she was lynched together with her son.
Lynching
–
One of the largest mass lynchings in American history involved the lynching of eleven
Italian immigrants in
New Orleans in 1891.
Lynching
–
Thomas Shipp and Abram Smith, lynched in
Marion, Indiana on August 7, 1930
12.
Rule of law
–
The rule of law is the legal principle that law should govern a nation, as opposed to being governed by arbitrary decisions of individual government officials. It primarily refers to the influence and authority of law within society, particularly as a constraint upon behaviour, including behaviour of government officials. The phrase can be traced back to 16th century Britain, John Locke defined freedom under the rule of law as follows, “Freedom is constrained by laws in both the state of nature and political society. Freedom of nature is to be no other restraint but the law of nature. Freedom of people under government is to be under no restraint apart from standing rules to live by that are common to everyone in the society and made by the lawmaking power established in it. Persons have a right or liberty to follow their own will in all things that the law has not prohibited and not be subject to the inconstant, uncertain, unknown, and arbitrary wills of others. ”The rule of law was further popularized in the 19th century by British jurist A. V. Dicey. The concept, if not the phrase, was familiar to ancient philosophers such as Aristotle, Rule of law implies that every citizen is subject to the law, including lawmakers themselves. In this sense, it stands in contrast to an autocracy, dictatorship, Government based upon the rule of law is called nomocracy. In the West, the ancient Greeks initially regarded the best form of government as rule by the best men, Plato advocated a benevolent monarchy ruled by an idealized philosopher king, who was above the law. More than Plato attempted to do, Aristotle flatly opposed letting the highest officials wield power beyond guarding and serving the laws, according to the Roman statesman Cicero, We are all servants of the laws in order that we may be free. During the Roman Republic, controversial magistrates might be put on trial when their terms of office expired, under the Roman Empire, the sovereign was personally immune, but those with grievances could sue the treasury. In contrast, the Huang-Lao school of Daoism rejected legal positivism in favor of a law that even the ruler would be subject to. There has recently been an effort to reevaluate the influence of the Bible on Western constitutional law, according to Professor Bernard M. Levinson, This legislation was so utopian in its own time that it seems never to have been implemented. The Deuteronomic social vision may have influenced opponents of the right of kings. In Islamic jurisprudence rule of law was formulated in the century, so that no official could claim to be above the law. However, this was not a reference to law. Alfred the Great, Anglo-Saxon King of the 9th century, reformed the law of his kingdom and created a law code with the biblical Mosaic law and he ruled that justice had to be equal between people, whether rich or poor, friends or enemies. This was likely inspired from Leviticus 19, You shall do no injustice in judgment and you shall not be partial to the poor, nor defer to the great
Rule of law
–
Mosaic representing both the judicial and legislative aspects of law. The woman on the throne holds a sword to chastise the guilty and a
palm branch to reward the meritorious.
Glory surrounds her head, and the
aegis of
Minerva signifies the armor of righteousness and wisdom.
13.
Court
–
Similarly, the rights of those accused of a crime include the right to present a defense before a court. The system of courts that interprets and applies the law is known as the judiciary. The place where a court sits is known as a venue, the practical authority given to the court is known as its jurisdiction – the courts power to decide certain kinds of questions or petitions put to it. It is also usual in the courts to have barristers, and attorneys or counsel, as assistants, though, often, courts consist of additional barristers, bailiffs, reporters. The term the court is used to refer to the presiding officer or officials. The judge or panel of judges may also be referred to as the bench. In the United States, and other common law jurisdictions, the court by law is used to describe the judge himself or herself. In the United States, the authority of a court to take action is based on personal jurisdiction, subject-matter jurisdiction. The English word court is a cognate of the Latin word hortus, the verb to court, meaning to win favor, derives from the same source since people traveled to the sovereigns court to win his favor. The word jurisdiction comes from juris and dictio, jurisdiction is defined as the official authority to make legal decisions and judgements over an individual or materialistic item within a territory. Whether a given court has jurisdiction to preside over a case is a key question in any legal action. Three basic components of jurisdiction are jurisdiction over the person (personal jurisdiction, jurisdiction over the subject matter or thing. Other concepts of jurisdiction include general jurisdiction, exclusive jurisdiction, territorial jurisdiction, appellate jurisdiction, trial courts are courts that hold trials. Sometimes termed courts of first instance, trial courts have varying original jurisdiction, trial courts may conduct trials with juries as the finders of fact or trials in which judges act as both finders of fact and finders of law. Juries are less common in court systems outside the Anglo-American common law tradition, appellate courts are courts that hear appeals of lower courts and trial courts. Some courts, such as the Crown Court in England and Wales may have both trial and appellate jurisdictions, the two major legal traditions of the western world are the civil law courts and the common law courts. These two great legal traditions are similar, in that they are products of western culture although there are significant differences between the two traditions, civil law courts are profoundly based upon Roman Law, specifically a civil body of law entitled Corpus iuris civilis. Civil law is firmly ensconced in the French and German legal systems, Common law courts were established by English royal judges of the Kings Council after the Norman Invasion of Britain in 1066
Court
–
A trial at the
Old Bailey in
London as drawn by Thomas Rowlandson and Augustus Pugin for Ackermann's Microcosm of London (1808–11).
14.
Political authority
–
Political authority grants members of a government the right to rule over citizens using coercion if necessary, while imposing an obligation for the citizens to obey government orders. A central question in philosophy is To what extent is political authority legitimate. Views range from political authority having no legitimacy to political authority being virtually unlimited in scope
Political authority
–
Sociology
15.
Max Weber
–
Karl Emil Maximilian Max Weber was a German sociologist, philosopher, jurist, political economist and the husband of Marianne Schnitger. His ideas profoundly influenced social theory and social research, Weber is often cited, with Émile Durkheim and Karl Marx, as among the three founders of sociology. Unlike Durkheim, he did not believe in monocausality and rather proposed that for any outcome there can be multiple causes and he argued that it was in the basic tenets of Protestantism to boost capitalism. Thus, it can be said that the spirit of capitalism is inherent to Protestant religious values, against Marxs historical materialism, Weber emphasised the importance of cultural influences embedded in religion as a means for understanding the genesis of capitalism. In another major work, Politics as a Vocation, Weber defined the state as an entity that successfully claims a monopoly of the use of physical force within a given territory. He was also the first to categorise social authority into distinct forms, which he labelled as charismatic, traditional and his analysis of bureaucracy emphasised that modern state institutions are increasingly based on rational-legal authority. Weber also made a variety of contributions in economic history, as well as economic theory. Webers analysis of modernity and rationalisation significantly influenced the theory associated with the Frankfurt School. After the First World War, Max Weber was among the founders of the liberal German Democratic Party and he also ran unsuccessfully for a seat in parliament and served as advisor to the committee that drafted the ill-fated democratic Weimar Constitution of 1919. After contracting Spanish flu, he died of pneumonia in 1920, Karl Emil Maximilian Weber was born in 1864, in Erfurt, Province of Saxony, Prussia. Weber Sr. s involvement in public life immersed his home in politics and academia, as his salon welcomed many prominent scholars and public figures. The young Weber and his brother Alfred, who became a sociologist and economist. Before entering the university, he would read many other classical works, in 1882 Weber enrolled in the University of Heidelberg as a law student. After a year of service, he transferred to the University of Berlin. Simultaneously with his studies, he worked as a junior lawyer, in 1886 Weber passed the examination for Referendar, comparable to the bar association examination in the British and American legal systems. Throughout the late 1880s, Weber continued his study of law and this work was used as part of a longer work On the History of Trading Companies in the Middle Ages, based on South-European Sources, published in the same year. Two years later, Weber completed his Habilitationsschrift, Roman Agrarian History and its Significance for Public and Private Law, having thus become a Privatdozent, Weber joined the University of Berlins faculty, lecturing and consulting for the government. In the years between the completion of his dissertation and habilitation, Weber took an interest in social policy
Max Weber
–
Weber in 1894
Max Weber
–
Max Weber and his brothers,
Alfred and Karl, in 1879
Max Weber
–
Max Weber and his wife Marianne in 1894
16.
Hannah Arendt
–
Johanna Hannah Arendt was a German-born Jewish American political theorist. She escaped Europe during the Holocaust, becoming an American citizen and her works deal with the nature of power and the subjects of politics, direct democracy, authority, and totalitarianism. The Hannah Arendt Prize is named in her honor, Arendt was born into a secular family of German Jews in Linden, the daughter of Martha and Paul Arendt. She grew up in Königsberg and Berlin, at the University of Marburg, she studied philosophy with Martin Heidegger. Arendts family was assimilated and she later remembered, With us from Germany. You can hardly realize how serious we were about it, Arendt came to define her Jewish identity negatively after encountering antisemitism as an adult. Arendt later wrote about Varnhagen that she was my very closest woman friend, during the philosophy course taught by Heidegger, she fell in love with her married professor, and a relationship began. In 1929, when Heidegger failed to recognize her at a station, Arendt was devastated, writing, When I was a small child. I had read the tale about Dwarf Nose, whose nose gets so long nobody recognizes him anymore. My mother pretended that had happened to me, I still vividly recall the blind terror with which I kept crying, but I am your child, I am your Hannah. —That is what it was like today. In 1929, in Berlin, she married Günther Stern, later known as Günther Anders, the dissertation was published in 1929. In 1932, Arendt was deeply troubled by reports that Heidegger was speaking at National Socialist meetings, Heidegger wrote back to her and in his letter did not seek to deny the rumors, and merely assured her that his feelings for her were unchanged. Arendt was prevented from habilitating because she was Jewish and she researched antisemitism for some time before being arrested and briefly imprisoned by the Gestapo in 1933. While in France, she worked to support and aid Jewish refugees, in 1937, she was stripped of her German citizenship. In 1940, she married the German poet and Marxist philosopher Heinrich Blücher, like many others, Arendt was able to leave Gurs after a few weeks, and left France in 1941 with her husband and her mother, traveling via Portugal to the United States. They relied on visas illegally issued by the American diplomat Hiram Bingham, varian Fry, another American humanitarian, paid for their travel and helped obtain the visas. Upon arriving in New York, Arendt became active in the German-Jewish community, from 1941 to 1945, she wrote a column for the German-language Jewish newspaper Aufbau. From 1944, she directed research for the Commission of European Jewish Cultural Reconstruction, during World War II, Arendt worked for Youth Aliyah, a Zionist organization, which saved thousands of children from the Holocaust and settled them in the British Mandate of Palestine
Hannah Arendt
–
Hannah Arendt from a 1988 German stamp among the
Women in German history series
17.
Giorgio Agamben
–
Giorgio Agamben is an Italian philosopher best known for his work investigating the concepts of the state of exception, form-of-life and homo sacer. The concept of biopolitics informs many of his writings, Agamben was educated at the University of Rome, where in 1965 he wrote an unpublished laurea thesis on the political thought of Simone Weil. Agamben participated in Martin Heideggers Le Thor seminars in 1966 and 1968, in the 1970s, he worked primarily on linguistics, philology, poetics, and topics in medieval culture. During this period, Agamben began to elaborate his primary concerns, in 1974–1975 he was a fellow at the Warburg Institute, University of London, due to the courtesy of Frances Yates, whom he met through Italo Calvino. During this fellowship, Agamben began to develop his second book, Agamben was close to the poets Giorgio Caproni and José Bergamín, and to the Italian novelist Elsa Morante, to whom he devoted the essays The Celebration of the Hidden Treasure and Parody. His strongest influences include Martin Heidegger, Walter Benjamin and Michel Foucault, Agamben edited Benjamins collected works in Italian translation until 1996, and called Benjamins thought the antidote that allowed me to survive Heidegger. In 1981, Agamben discovered several important lost manuscripts by Benjamin in the archives of the Bibliothèque nationale de France, Benjamin had left these manuscripts to Georges Bataille when he fled Paris shortly before his death. The most relevant of these to Agambens own later work were Benjamins manuscripts for his theses On the Concept of History, Agamben has engaged since the nineties in a debate with the political writings of the German jurist Carl Schmitt, most extensively in the study State of Exception. His recent writings also elaborate on the concepts of Michel Foucault, in his later work, Agamben intervenes in the theoretical debates following the publication of Nancys essay La communauté désoeuvrée, and Maurice Blanchots response, La communauté inavouable. These texts analyzed the notion of community at a time when the European Community was under debate, Agamben proposed his own model of a community which would not presuppose categories of identity in The Coming Community. At this time, Agamben also analyzed the condition and political attitude of Bartleby — a scrivener who does not react. He also has held visiting appointments at several American universities, from the University of California, Berkeley, to Northwestern University, Agamben received the Prix Européen de lEssai Charles Veillon in 2006. In 2013 he was awarded the Dr. Leopold Lucas Prize by the University of Tübingen for his work titled Leviathans Rätsel. Much of Giorgio Agambens work since the 1980s can be viewed to leading up to the so-called Homo Sacer-project, in this series of works, Agamben responds to Hannah Arendts and Foucaults studies of totalitarianism and biopolitics. Since 1995 he has been best known for this project, the volumes of which have been published out of order. Homo Sacer II,1 Stasis, Civil War as a Political Paradigm, Homo Sacer II,2 The Sacrament of Language, An Archaeology of the Oath. Homo Sacer II,3 The Kingdom and the Glory, For a Theological Genealogy of Economy, Homo Sacer II,4 Opus Dei, An Archeology of Duty. Homo Sacer II,5 Remnants of Auschwitz, The Witness, the Highest Poverty, Monastic Rules and Forms-of-Life
Giorgio Agamben
–
Wall painting of Agamben at the
Abode of Chaos, France
18.
Political philosophy
–
In a vernacular sense, the term political philosophy often refers to a general view, or specific ethic, political belief or attitude, about politics, synonymous to the term political ideology. Chinese political philosophy dates back to the Spring and Autumn period, Chinese political philosophy was developed as a response to the social and political breakdown of the country characteristic of the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period. The major philosophies during the period, Confucianism, Legalism, Mohism, Agrarianism and Taoism, philosophers such as Confucius, Mencius, and Mozi, focused on political unity and political stability as the basis of their political philosophies. Confucianism advocated a hierarchical, meritocratic government based on empathy, loyalty, Legalism advocated a highly authoritarian government based on draconian punishments and laws. Mohism advocated a communal, decentralized government centered on frugality and ascetism, the Agrarians advocated a peasant utopian communalism and egalitarianism. Legalism was the dominant political philosophy of the Qin Dynasty, but was replaced by State Confucianism in the Han Dynasty, prior to Chinas adoption of communism, State Confucianism remained the dominant political philosophy of China up to the 20th century. Western political philosophy originates in the philosophy of ancient Greece, where political philosophy dates back to at least Plato, ancient Greece was dominated by city-states, which experimented with various forms of political organization, grouped by Plato into four categories, timocracy, tyranny, democracy and oligarchy. One of the first, extremely important classical works of philosophy is Platos Republic. Roman political philosophy was influenced by the Stoics and the Roman statesman Cicero, Indian political philosophy evolved in ancient times and demarcated a clear distinction between nation and state religion and state. The constitutions of Hindu states evolved over time and were based on political and legal treatises, the institutions of state were broadly divided into governance, administration, defense, law and order. Mantranga, the governing body of these states, consisted of the King, Prime Minister, Commander in chief of army. The Prime Minister headed the committee of ministers along with head of executive, chanakya, 4th century BC Indian political philosopher. Another influential extant Indian treatise on philosophy is the Sukra Neeti. An example of a code of law in ancient India is the Manusmṛti or Laws of Manu, the early Christian philosophy of Augustine of Hippo was heavily influenced by Plato. Augustine also preached that one was not a member of his or her city, augustines City of God is an influential work of this period that attacked the thesis, held by many Christian Romans, that the Christian view could be realized on Earth. Thomas Aquinas meticulously dealt with the varieties of law, according to Aquinas, there are four kinds of law, Eternal law Divine positive law Natural law Human law Aquinas never discusses the nature or categorization of canon law. There is scholarly debate surrounding the place of law within the Thomistic jurisprudential framework. Aquinas was an influential thinker in the Natural Law tradition
Political philosophy
–
Plato (left) and
Aristotle (right), from a detail of
The School of Athens, a fresco by
Raphael. Plato's
Republic and Aristotle's
Politics secured the two Greek philosophers as two of the most influential political philosophers.
Political philosophy
–
Eugène Delacroix's
Liberty Leading the People (1830, Louvre), a painting created at a time when old and modern political philosophies came into violent conflict.
19.
Sovereignty
–
Sovereignty is understood in jurisprudence as the full right and power of a governing body to govern itself without any interference from outside sources or bodies. In political theory, sovereignty is a term designating supreme authority over some polity. It is a basic principle underlying the dominant Westphalian model of state foundation, derived from Latin through French souveraineté, its attainment and retention, in both Chinese and Western culture, has traditionally been associated with certain moral imperatives upon any claimant. The concept of sovereignty has been discussed throughout history, and is still actively debated and it has changed in its definition, concept, and application throughout, especially during the Age of Enlightenment. The current notion of state sovereignty contains four aspects consisting of territory, population, authority, Sovereignty is a hypothetical trade, in which two potentially conflicting sides, respecting de facto realities of power, exchange such recognitions as their least costly strategy. The Roman jurist Ulpian observed that, The imperium of the people is transferred to the Emperor, the Emperor is not bound by the law. Emperor is the law making and abiding force, Ulpian was expressing the idea that the Emperor exercised a rather absolute form of sovereignty, although he did not use the term expressly. Classical Ulpians statements were known in medieval Europe, but sovereignty was an important concept in medieval times, Medieval monarchs were not sovereign, at least not strongly so, because they were constrained by, and shared power with, their feudal aristocracy. Furthermore, both were strongly constrained by custom, Sovereignty existed during the Medieval Period as the de jure rights of nobility and royalty, and in the de facto capability of individuals to make their own choices in life. 1380–1400, the issue of sovereignty was addressed in Geoffrey Chaucers Middle English collection of Canterbury Tales. The story revolves around the knight Sir Gawain granting to Dame Ragnell, his new bride, what is purported to be wanted most by women and we desire most from men, From men both lund and poor, To have sovereignty without lies. For where we have sovereignty, all is ours, Though a knight be ever so fierce and it is our desire to have master Over such a sir. Jean Bodin, partly in reaction to the chaos of the French wars of religion, in his 1576 treatise Les Six Livres de la République Bodin argued that it is inherent in the nature of the state that the sovereign must have both great and perpetual authority. Bodin rejected the notion of transference of sovereignty from people to the ruler, however, although he is often connected with absolutism, Bodin held some moderate opinions on how government should in practice be carried out. Thus, Bodin’s sovereign was restricted by the law of the state. Bodin believed that “the most divine, most excellent, and the form most proper to royalty is governed partly aristocratically and partly democratically”. With his doctrine that sovereignty is conferred by law, Bodin predefined the scope of the divine right of kings. During the Age of Enlightenment, the idea of sovereignty gained both legal and moral force as the main Western description of the meaning and power of a State
Sovereignty
–
The frontispiece of
Thomas Hobbes '
Leviathan, depicting the Sovereign as a massive body wielding a
sword and
crozier and composed of many
individual people.
20.
Plato
–
Plato was a philosopher in Classical Greece and the founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. He is widely considered the most pivotal figure in the development of philosophy, unlike nearly all of his philosophical contemporaries, Platos entire work is believed to have survived intact for over 2,400 years. Along with his teacher, Socrates, and his most famous student, Aristotle, Plato laid the foundations of Western philosophy. Alfred North Whitehead once noted, the safest general characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato. In addition to being a figure for Western science, philosophy. Friedrich Nietzsche, amongst other scholars, called Christianity, Platonism for the people, Plato was the innovator of the written dialogue and dialectic forms in philosophy, which originate with him. He was not the first thinker or writer to whom the word “philosopher” should be applied, few other authors in the history of Western philosophy approximate him in depth and range, perhaps only Aristotle, Aquinas and Kant would be generally agreed to be of the same rank. Due to a lack of surviving accounts, little is known about Platos early life, the philosopher came from one of the wealthiest and most politically active families in Athens. Ancient sources describe him as a bright though modest boy who excelled in his studies, the exact time and place of Platos birth are unknown, but it is certain that he belonged to an aristocratic and influential family. Based on ancient sources, most modern scholars believe that he was born in Athens or Aegina between 429 and 423 BCE. According to a tradition, reported by Diogenes Laertius, Ariston traced his descent from the king of Athens, Codrus. Platos mother was Perictione, whose family boasted of a relationship with the famous Athenian lawmaker, besides Plato himself, Ariston and Perictione had three other children, these were two sons, Adeimantus and Glaucon, and a daughter Potone, the mother of Speusippus. The brothers Adeimantus and Glaucon are mentioned in the Republic as sons of Ariston, and presumably brothers of Plato, but in a scenario in the Memorabilia, Xenophon confused the issue by presenting a Glaucon much younger than Plato. Then, at twenty-eight, Hermodorus says, went to Euclides in Megara, as Debra Nails argues, The text itself gives no reason to infer that Plato left immediately for Megara and implies the very opposite. Thus, Nails dates Platos birth to 424/423, another legend related that, when Plato was an infant, bees settled on his lips while he was sleeping, an augury of the sweetness of style in which he would discourse about philosophy. Ariston appears to have died in Platos childhood, although the dating of his death is difficult. Perictione then married Pyrilampes, her mothers brother, who had served many times as an ambassador to the Persian court and was a friend of Pericles, Pyrilampes had a son from a previous marriage, Demus, who was famous for his beauty. Perictione gave birth to Pyrilampes second son, Antiphon, the half-brother of Plato and these and other references suggest a considerable amount of family pride and enable us to reconstruct Platos family tree
Plato
–
Plato: copy of portrait bust by
Silanion
Plato
–
Plato from
The School of Athens by
Raphael, 1509
Plato
–
Plato and
Socrates in a medieval depiction
Plato
–
Plato (left) and Aristotle (right), a detail of
The School of Athens, a fresco by
Raphael. Aristotle gestures to the earth, representing his belief in knowledge through empirical observation and experience, while holding a copy of his
Nicomachean Ethics in his hand. Plato holds his
Timaeus and gestures to the heavens, representing his belief in
The Forms
21.
Aristotle
–
Aristotle was an ancient Greek philosopher and scientist born in the city of Stagira, Chalkidice, on the northern periphery of Classical Greece. His father, Nicomachus, died when Aristotle was a child, at seventeen or eighteen years of age, he joined Platos Academy in Athens and remained there until the age of thirty-seven. Shortly after Plato died, Aristotle left Athens and, at the request of Philip II of Macedon, teaching Alexander the Great gave Aristotle many opportunities and an abundance of supplies. He established a library in the Lyceum which aided in the production of many of his hundreds of books and he believed all peoples concepts and all of their knowledge was ultimately based on perception. Aristotles views on natural sciences represent the groundwork underlying many of his works, Aristotles views on physical science profoundly shaped medieval scholarship. Their influence extended from Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages into the Renaissance, some of Aristotles zoological observations, such as on the hectocotyl arm of the octopus, were not confirmed or refuted until the 19th century. His works contain the earliest known study of logic, which was incorporated in the late 19th century into modern formal logic. Aristotle was well known among medieval Muslim intellectuals and revered as The First Teacher and his ethics, though always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of virtue ethics. All aspects of Aristotles philosophy continue to be the object of academic study today. Though Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues – Cicero described his style as a river of gold – it is thought that only around a third of his original output has survived. Aristotle, whose means the best purpose, was born in 384 BC in Stagira, Chalcidice. His father Nicomachus was the physician to King Amyntas of Macedon. Aristotle was orphaned at a young age, although there is little information on Aristotles childhood, he probably spent some time within the Macedonian palace, making his first connections with the Macedonian monarchy. At the age of seventeen or eighteen, Aristotle moved to Athens to continue his education at Platos Academy and he remained there for nearly twenty years before leaving Athens in 348/47 BC. Aristotle then accompanied Xenocrates to the court of his friend Hermias of Atarneus in Asia Minor, there, he traveled with Theophrastus to the island of Lesbos, where together they researched the botany and zoology of the island. Aristotle married Pythias, either Hermiass adoptive daughter or niece and she bore him a daughter, whom they also named Pythias. Soon after Hermias death, Aristotle was invited by Philip II of Macedon to become the tutor to his son Alexander in 343 BC, Aristotle was appointed as the head of the royal academy of Macedon. During that time he gave not only to Alexander
Aristotle
–
Roman copy in marble of a Greek bronze bust of Aristotle by
Lysippus,
c. 330 BC. The
alabaster mantle is modern.
Aristotle
–
Aristotelianism
Aristotle
–
School of Aristotle in
Mieza,
Macedonia, Greece
Aristotle
–
"Aristotle" by
Francesco Hayez (1791–1882)
22.
Democracy
–
Democracy, in modern usage, is a system of government in which the citizens exercise power directly or elect representatives from among themselves to form a governing body, such as a parliament. Democracy is sometimes referred to as rule of the majority, Democracy was originally conceived in Classical Greece, where political representatives were chosen by a jury from amongst the male citizens, rich and poor. The English word dates to the 16th century, from the older Middle French, in the 5th century BC, to denote the political systems then existing in Greek city-states, notably Athens, the term is an antonym to aristocracy, meaning rule of an elite. While theoretically these definitions are in opposition, in practice the distinction has been blurred historically, the political system of Classical Athens, for example, granted democratic citizenship to free men and excluded slaves and women from political participation. In 1906, Finland became the first government to harald a more inclusive democracy at the national level. Democracy contrasts with forms of government where power is held by an individual, as in an absolute monarchy, or where power is held by a small number of individuals. Nevertheless, these oppositions, inherited from Greek philosophy, are now ambiguous because contemporary governments have mixed democratic, oligarchic, and monarchic elements. Karl Popper defined democracy in contrast to dictatorship or tyranny, thus focusing on opportunities for the people to control their leaders, No consensus exists on how to define democracy, but legal equality, political freedom and rule of law have been identified as important characteristics. These principles are reflected in all eligible citizens being equal before the law, other uses of democracy include that of direct democracy. In some countries, notably in the United Kingdom which originated the Westminster system, in the United States, separation of powers is often cited as a central attribute. In India, parliamentary sovereignty is subject to the Constitution of India which includes judicial review, though the term democracy is typically used in the context of a political state, the principles also are applicable to private organisations. Majority rule is listed as a characteristic of democracy. Hence, democracy allows for political minorities to be oppressed by the tyranny of the majority in the absence of legal protections of individual or group rights. An essential part of a representative democracy is competitive elections that are substantively and procedurally fair, i. e. just. It has also suggested that a basic feature of democracy is the capacity of all voters to participate freely and fully in the life of their society. While representative democracy is sometimes equated with the form of government. Many democracies are constitutional monarchies, such as the United Kingdom, the term democracy first appeared in ancient Greek political and philosophical thought in the city-state of Athens during classical antiquity. The word comes from demos, common people and kratos, strength, led by Cleisthenes, Athenians established what is generally held as the first democracy in 508–507 BC
Democracy
–
A woman casts her vote in the second round of the
2007 French presidential election.
Democracy
–
Cleisthenes, "father of
Athenian democracy ", modern bust.
Democracy
–
Magna Carta, 1215, England.
Democracy
–
The establishment of
universal male suffrage in France in 1848 was an important milestone in the history of democracy.
23.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
United States
–
Native Americans meeting with Europeans, 1764
United States
–
Flag
United States
–
The signing of the
Mayflower Compact, 1620.
United States
–
The
Declaration of Independence: the
Committee of Five presenting their draft to the
Second Continental Congress in 1776
24.
Founding Fathers of the United States
–
Adams, Jefferson, and Franklin were members of the Committee of Five that drafted the Declaration of Independence. Hamilton, Madison, and Jay were authors of the The Federalist Papers, Jay, Adams and Franklin negotiated the Treaty of Paris that would end the American Revolutionary War. Washington was Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army and was President of the Constitutional Convention, according to the CIA, Washington, Jay and Franklin helped define the powers of the Executive Branch All held additional important roles in the early government of the United States. The term Founding Fathers is sometimes used narrowly, referring specifically to the those who signed the engrossed version of the Declaration of Independence in 1776. Of the 55 Framers, only 39 signed the Constitution, a further subset of Founders includes those who signed the Continental Association or the Articles of Confederation. During much of the 19th century, they were referred to as either the Founders or the Fathers, the First Continental Congress met briefly in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in 1774 and consisted of fifty-six delegates from twelve of the Thirteen Colonies that became the United States of America. On the list of attendees was George Washington, who would soon be out of military retirement to command the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War. Also in attendance was Patrick Henry, and John Adams, who were elected by their respective colonial assemblies, other notable delegates included Samuel Adams from Massachusetts, John Dickinson from Pennsylvania and New Yorks John Jay. This congress in addition to formulating appeals to the British crown, when the Second Continental Congress came together on May 10,1775, it was, in effect, a reconvening of the First Congress. Many of the same 56 delegates who attended the first meeting participated in the second, notable new arrivals included Benjamin Franklin and Robert Morris of Pennsylvania, John Hancock of Massachusetts, and John Witherspoon of New Jersey. Hancock was elected Congress President two weeks into the session when Peyton Randolph was summoned back to Virginia to preside over the House of Burgesses, Thomas Jefferson replaced Randolph in the Virginia congressional delegation. The second Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence, Witherspoon was the only active clergyman to sign the Declaration. He also signed the Articles of Confederation and attended the New Jersey convention that ratified the Federal Constitution, the newly founded country of the United States had to create a new government to replace the British Parliament. The Americans adopted the Articles of Confederation, a declaration that established a government which was made up of a one-house legislature. Its ratification by all thirteen colonies gave the second Congress a new name, the Congress of the Confederation, later, the Constitutional Convention took place during the summer of 1787, in Philadelphia. The delegates elected George Washington to preside over the Convention, the result of the Convention was the United States Constitution. The Founding Fathers represented a cross-section of 18th-century American leadership, almost all of them were well-educated men of means who were leaders in their communities. Many were also prominent in national affairs, virtually every one had taken part in the American Revolution, at least 29 had served in the Continental Army, most of them in positions of command
Founding Fathers of the United States
–
Declaration of Independence, a painting by
John Trumbull depicting the
Committee of Five presenting their draft of the
Declaration of Independence to the Congress on June 28, 1776. Trumbull's painting appears on the reverse of the
United States two-dollar bill.
Founding Fathers of the United States
–
The
Albany Congress of 1754 was a conference attended by seven colonies, which presaged later efforts at cooperation. The
Stamp Act Congress of 1765 included representatives from nine colonies.
Founding Fathers of the United States
–
Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States, by
Howard Chandler Christy
Founding Fathers of the United States
–
Portrait of
George Washington and his valet slave
William Lee.
25.
Michael Huemer
–
Michael Huemer is a professor of philosophy at the University of Colorado, Boulder. He has defended ethical intuitionism, direct realism, libertarianism and philosophical anarchism, huemers book Ethical Intuitionism was reviewed in Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews, Philosophy and Phenomenological Research and Mind. Michael Huemer, Skepticism and the Veil of Perception, review, Recent Writings on Ethics, Ayn Rands Normative Ethics by Tara Smith. The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies
Michael Huemer
–
Dr. Huemer answering questions at NYC Junto, October 1st, 2015
26.
The Problem of Political Authority
–
The Problem of Political Authority, An Examination of the Right to Coerce and the Duty to Obey is a book by University of Colorado philosophy professor Michael Huemer released in January 2013. In April 2011, while he was writing the book, Huemer was profiled by the Arts and Sciences Magazine of the University of Colorado. The profile quoted Huemer as saying that political authority is a moral illusion we’re suffering from, in May 2012, a few months prior to the publication of the book, Huemer defended the argument of the book in a video. Ole Martin Moen of the University of Oslo, Norway, reviewed the book in Philosophical Quarterly, Moen concluded his review by writing, In addition to being a solid scholarly work, Huemer’s book will work well as assigned reading in classes on political philosophy. It is bound to spark debate, and its inclusion would help remedy the sad fact that anarchism is often ignored or put aside without serious engagement. This is a pity, for if one rejects his conclusions. The book has also reviewed in Ethics by George Klosko. The book was reviewed in Le Québécois Libre, the Machinery of Freedom by David D. Friedman lays out the groundwork of the vision of an anarcho-capitalist society that Huemer builds on in Part II. Tomasz Kaye, the creator of the George Ought to Help video series, for a New Liberty by Murray Rothbard provides much of the basis for Chapter 10s discussion of Individual Security in a Stateless Society. Chaos Theory by Robert P. Murphy, Kaye said that Huemers book was superior to Chaos Theory. Order Without Law, How Neighbors Settle Disputes by Robert C, libertarian Anarchy, Against the State by Gerard Casey
The Problem of Political Authority
–
The first edition (2013)
27.
Social contract
–
The question of the relation between natural and legal rights, therefore, is often an aspect of social contract theory. The term takes its name from The Social Contract, a 1762 book by Jean-Jacques Rousseau that discussed this concept, the starting point for most social contract theories is an examination of the human condition absent any political order that Thomas Hobbes termed the state of nature. In this condition, individuals actions are only by their personal power. Each solved the problem of authority in a different way. Grotius posited that human beings had natural rights. Thomas Hobbes famously said that in a state of nature, human life would be solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, though the sovereigns edicts may well be arbitrary and tyrannical, Hobbes saw absolute government as the only alternative to the terrifying anarchy of a state of nature. Hobbes asserted that humans consent to abdicate their rights in favor of the authority of government. Pufendorf disputed Hobbess equation of a state of nature with war, the central assertion of social contract approaches is that law and political order are not natural, but are instead human creations. According to Hobbes citizens are not obligated to submit to the government when it is too weak to act effectively to suppress factionalism, the Lockean concept of the social contract was invoked in the United States Declaration of Independence. The concept of the contract is posed by Glaucon, as described by Plato in The Republic. They say that to do injustice is, by nature, good, to suffer injustice, evil, for no man who is worthy to be called a man would ever submit to such an agreement if he were able to resist, he would be mad if he did. Such is the account, Socrates, of the nature. The social contract theory also appears in Crito, another dialogue from Plato, Social contract formulations are preserved in many of the worlds oldest records. The Buddhist text of the second century BCE, Mahāvastu, recounts the legend of Mahasammata, then gradually the process of cosmic decay began its work, and mankind became earthbound, and felt the need of food and shelter. As men lost their glory, distinctions of class arose, and they entered into agreements with one another, accepting the institution of private property. He was called the Great Chosen One, and he received the title of raja because he pleased the people, in his rock edicts, the Buddhist king Asoka was said to have argued for a broad and far-reaching social contract. Natural justice is a pledge of reciprocal benefit, to prevent one man from harming or being harmed by another. There never was such a thing as justice, but only agreements made in mutual dealings among men in whatever places at various times providing against the infliction or suffering of harm
Social contract
–
The original cover of
Thomas Hobbes 's work
Leviathan, 1651.
28.
Thomas Hobbes
–
Thomas Hobbes, in some older texts Thomas Hobbes of Malmesbury, was an English philosopher who is considered one of the founders of modern political philosophy. Hobbes is best known for his 1651 book Leviathan, which established the social theory that has served as the foundation for most later Western political philosophy. Thomas Hobbes was born at Westport, now part of Malmesbury in Wiltshire, England, born prematurely when his mother heard of the coming invasion of the Spanish Armada, Hobbes later reported that my mother gave birth to twins, myself and fear. His childhood is almost completely unknown, and his mothers name is unknown and his father, Thomas Sr. was the vicar of Charlton and Westport. Thomas Hobbes, the younger, had a brother Edmund, about two years older, and a sister, Thomas Sr. was involved in a fight with the local clergy outside his church, forcing him to leave London and abandon the family. The family was left in the care of Thomas Sr. s older brother, Francis, Hobbes was a good pupil, and around 1603 he went up to Magdalen Hall, the predecessor college to Hertford College, Oxford. The principal John Wilkinson was a Puritan, and he had influence on Hobbes. At university, Hobbes appears to have followed his own curriculum and he did not complete his B. A. Hobbes became a companion to the younger William and they both took part in a grand tour of Europe in 1610. Hobbes was exposed to European scientific and critical methods during the tour and it has been argued that three of the discourses in the 1620 publication known as Horea Subsecivae, Observations and Discourses, also represent the work of Hobbes from this period. Although he associated with figures like Ben Jonson and briefly worked as Francis Bacons amanuensis. His employer Cavendish, then the Earl of Devonshire, died of the plague in June 1628, the widowed countess dismissed Hobbes but he soon found work, again as a tutor, this time to Gervase Clifton, the son of Sir Gervase Clifton, 1st Baronet. This task, chiefly spent in Paris, ended in 1631 when he found work with the Cavendish family, tutoring William. Over the next seven years, as well as tutoring, he expanded his own knowledge of philosophy and he visited Florence in 1636 and was later a regular debater in philosophic groups in Paris, held together by Marin Mersenne. Hobbess first area of study was an interest in the doctrine of motion. Despite his interest in this phenomenon, he disdained experimental work as in physics and he went on to conceive the system of thought to the elaboration of which he would devote his life. He then singled out Man from the realm of Nature and plants, finally he considered, in his crowning treatise, how Men were moved to enter into society, and argued how this must be regulated if Men were not to fall back into brutishness and misery. Thus he proposed to unite the separate phenomena of Body, Man, Hobbes came home, in 1637, to a country riven with discontent which disrupted him from the orderly execution of his philosophic plan. However, by the end of the Short Parliament in 1640, he had written a treatise called The Elements of Law, Natural
Thomas Hobbes
–
Thomas Hobbes
Thomas Hobbes
Thomas Hobbes
–
Frontispiece from De Cive (1642)
Thomas Hobbes
–
Frontispiece of Leviathan
29.
Leviathan (book)
–
Leviathan or The Matter, Forme and Power of a Common Wealth Ecclesiasticall and Civil—commonly referred to as Leviathan—is a book written by Thomas Hobbes and published in 1651. Its name derives from the biblical Leviathan, the work concerns the structure of society and legitimate government, and is regarded as one of the earliest and most influential examples of social contract theory. Leviathan ranks as a classic work on statecraft comparable to Machiavellis The Prince. Written during the English Civil War, Leviathan argues for a social contract, Hobbes wrote that civil war and the brute situation of a state of nature could only be avoided by strong, undivided government. After lengthy discussion with Thomas Hobbes, the Parisian Abraham Bosse created the etching for the famous frontispiece in the géometrique style which Bosse himself had refined. It is similar in organisation to the frontispiece of Hobbes De Cive, the frontispiece has two main elements, of which the upper part is by far the more striking. In it, a giant crowned figure is seen emerging from the landscape, clutching a sword,24 —linking the figure to the monster of that book. The torso and arms of the figure are composed of three hundred persons, in the style of Giuseppe Arcimboldo, all are facing inwards with just the giants head having visible features. The lower portion is a triptych, framed in a wooden border, the centre form contains the title on an ornate curtain. The two sides reflect the sword and crosier of the main figure – earthly power on the left, each side element reflects the equivalent power – castle to church, crown to mitre, cannon to excommunication, weapons to logic, and the battlefield to the religious courts. The giant holds the symbols of both sides, reflecting the union of secular, and spiritual in the sovereign, but the construction of the torso also makes the figure the state, Hobbes begins his treatise on politics with an account of human nature. Hobbes proceeds by defining terms clearly, and in an unsentimental way, hope is nothing more than an appetite for a thing combined with opinion that it can be had. He suggests the dominant political theology of the time, Scholasticism, thrives on confused definitions of words, such as incorporeal substance. Hobbes describes human psychology without any reference to the summum bonum, or greatest good, not only is the concept of a summum bonum superfluous, but given the variability of human desires, there could be no such thing. Consequently, any community that sought to provide the greatest good to its members would find itself driven by competing conceptions of that good with no way to decide among them. The result would be civil war, however, Hobbes states that there is a summum malum, or greatest evil. This is the fear of violent death, a political community can be oriented around this fear. Since there is no summum bonum, the state of man is not to be found in a political community that pursues the greatest good
Leviathan (book)
–
Frontispiece of "Leviathan," by
Abraham Bosse, with input from Hobbes.
30.
Social sciences
–
Social science is a major category of academic disciplines, concerned with society and the relationships among individuals within a society. It in turn has many branches, each of which is considered a social science, the social sciences include economics, political science, human geography, demography, psychology, sociology, anthropology, archaeology, jurisprudence, history, and linguistics. The term is sometimes used to refer specifically to the field of sociology. A more detailed list of sub-disciplines within the sciences can be found at Outline of social science. Positivist social scientists use methods resembling those of the sciences as tools for understanding society. In modern academic practice, researchers are often eclectic, using multiple methodologies, the term social research has also acquired a degree of autonomy as practitioners from various disciplines share in its aims and methods. Social sciences came forth from the philosophy of the time and were influenced by the Age of Revolutions, such as the Industrial Revolution. The social sciences developed from the sciences, or the systematic knowledge-bases or prescriptive practices, the beginnings of the social sciences in the 18th century are reflected in the grand encyclopedia of Diderot, with articles from Jean-Jacques Rousseau and other pioneers. The growth of the sciences is also reflected in other specialized encyclopedias. The modern period saw social science first used as a distinct conceptual field, Social science was influenced by positivism, focusing on knowledge based on actual positive sense experience and avoiding the negative, metaphysical speculation was avoided. Auguste Comte used the term science sociale to describe the field, taken from the ideas of Charles Fourier, following this period, there were five paths of development that sprang forth in the social sciences, influenced by Comte on other fields. One route that was taken was the rise of social research, large statistical surveys were undertaken in various parts of the United States and Europe. Another route undertaken was initiated by Émile Durkheim, studying social facts, a third means developed, arising from the methodological dichotomy present, in which social phenomena were identified with and understood, this was championed by figures such as Max Weber. The fourth route taken, based in economics, was developed and furthered economic knowledge as a hard science, the last path was the correlation of knowledge and social values, the antipositivism and verstehen sociology of Max Weber firmly demanded this distinction. In this route, theory and prescription were non-overlapping formal discussions of a subject, around the start of the 20th century, Enlightenment philosophy was challenged in various quarters. The development of social science subfields became very quantitative in methodology, examples of boundary blurring include emerging disciplines like social research of medicine, sociobiology, neuropsychology, bioeconomics and the history and sociology of science. Increasingly, quantitative research and qualitative methods are being integrated in the study of action and its implications. In the first half of the 20th century, statistics became a discipline of applied mathematics
Social sciences
–
Buyers bargain for good prices while sellers put forth their best front in
Chichicastenango Market,
Guatemala.
Social sciences
–
A depiction of world's oldest university, the
University of Bologna, in Italy
Social sciences
–
This article is about the science studying social groups. For the integrated field of study intended to promote civic competence, see
Social studies.
Social sciences
–
A trial at a criminal court, the
Old Bailey in
London
31.
Leadership
–
Leadership is both a research area and a practical skill encompassing the ability of an individual or organization to lead or guide other individuals, teams, or entire organizations. The literature debates various viewpoints, contrasting Eastern and Western approaches to leadership, US academic environments define leadership as a process of social influence in which a person can enlist the aid and support of others in the accomplishment of a common task. Leadership seen from a European and non-academic perspective encompasses a view of a leader who can be moved not only by communitarian goals but also by the search for personal power. Studies of leadership have produced theories involving traits, situational interaction, function, behavior, power, vision and values, charisma, the search for the characteristics or traits of leaders has continued for centuries. Philosophical writings from Platos Republic to Plutarchs Lives have explored the question What qualities distinguish an individual as a leader, underlying this search was the early recognition of the importance of leadership and the assumption that leadership is rooted in the characteristics that certain individuals possess. This idea that leadership is based on individual attributes is known as the theory of leadership. In Heroes and Hero Worship, Carlyle identified the talents, skills, galtons Hereditary Genius examined leadership qualities in the families of powerful men. After showing that the numbers of eminent relatives dropped off when his focus moved from first-degree to second-degree relatives, in other words, leaders were born, not developed. Both of these notable works lent great initial support for the notion that leadership is rooted in characteristics of a leader, international networks of such leaders could help to promote international understanding and help render war impossible. This vision of leadership underlay the creation of the Rhodes Scholarships, in the late 1940s and early 1950s, however, a series of qualitative reviews of these studies prompted researchers to take a drastically different view of the driving forces behind leadership. Subsequently, leadership was no longer characterized as an individual trait, as situational approaches posited that individuals can be effective in certain situations. The focus then shifted away from traits of leaders to an investigation of the behaviors that were effective. Additionally, during the 1980s statistical advances allowed researchers to conduct meta-analyses and this advent allowed trait theorists to create a comprehensive picture of previous leadership research rather than rely on the qualitative reviews of the past. Equipped with new methods, leadership researchers revealed the following, Individuals can and do emerge as leaders across a variety of situations, fail to consider patterns or integrations of multiple attributes. Do not distinguish between those leader attributes that are generally not malleable over time and those that are shaped by, do not consider how stable leader attributes account for the behavioral diversity necessary for effective leadership. Considering the criticisms of the theory outlined above, several researchers have begun to adopt a different perspective of leader individual differences—the leader attribute pattern approach. David McClelland, for example, posited that leadership takes a strong personality with a well-developed positive ego, to lead, self-confidence and high self-esteem are useful, perhaps even essential. Kurt Lewin, Ronald Lipitt, and Ralph White developed in 1939 the seminal work on the influence of leadership styles, the researchers evaluated the performance of groups of eleven-year-old boys under different types of work climate
Leadership
–
General Petraeus talks with U.S. soldiers serving in Afghanistan
Leadership
–
A graphical representation of the managerial grid model
Leadership
–
Julius Caesar, one of the world's greatest military leaders
Leadership
–
Niccolò Machiavelli 's
The Prince argues that it is better to be feared rather than to be loved.
32.
Howard Bloom
–
Howard Bloom is an American author. He was a publicist in the 1970s and 1980s for singers and bands such as Prince, Billy Joel, in 1988 he became disabled with chronic fatigue syndrome. Since then, he has published three books on evolution and group behavior, The Genius of the Beast, Global Brain. Bloom was born to a Jewish family in Buffalo, New York and he began his interest in science as early as ten years old, becoming fascinated in cosmology and microbiology. By sixteen, Bloom was working as an assistant researching the immune system at the Roswell Park Memorial Research Cancer Institute, Bloom graduated from New York University and at the age of twenty-five, veered from his scientific studies to work as an editor for a rock magazine. Bloom would go on to one of the largest public relations firms in the music industry. In 1974 Bloom was made head of public relations of ABC Records and he also was briefly head of Gulf+Westerns music publicity department. In 1976, he founded The Howard Bloom Organization, in 1980 Bloom suggested to Prince and his management that he aggressively pursue the rock and new wave audience. Consequently, Princes management put together a series of performances designed with racially mixed audiences in mind and he tutored the band Styx in how to appeal to more staid magazines such as the Wall Street Journal and People and so make them mainstream. He was hired by Columbia Records to make Billy Joel more media friendly. Bloom was also a publicist for Michael Jackson, Cyndi Lauper, Talking Heads, Lionel Richie, ZZ Top, Bette Midler, AC/DC, Simon & Garfunkel, John Mellencamp, Earth, Wind & Fire and he handled Bob Marley during his Uprising Tour. With his company he had successfully transformed and launched the careers of many stars including John Mellencamp, KISS, Hall and Oates, AC/DC. He has also described as one of the most successful publicists of his generation. Interest in rock and roll had more to do with the study of psychology in action than furthering the aggrandizement of spoiled rock stars. He approached PR as an applied science, in 1979, New York Magazine put him in the Hot 100 plus as one of its Big Dealmakers and observed, His brain is a vinyl storage system, the most thorough and efficient. According to Derek Sutton, manager of the Styx, he was probably the greatest press agent that rock, in 1986, the Howard Bloom Organization was reported to be one of the most successful independent public relations firms in the music business. His books generalize and extend his ideas about what makes rock, merge in a pulse of common emotion. This consolidation mirrors the force that create much of both good and evil
Howard Bloom
–
Howard Bloom
33.
Veneration of the dead
–
The veneration of the dead, including ones ancestors, is based on love and respect for the deceased. In some cultures, it is related to beliefs that the dead have a continued existence, the social or non-religious function of ancestor veneration is to cultivate kinship values, such as filial piety, family loyalty, and continuity of the family lineage. Ancestor veneration occurs in societies with every degree of social, political, and technological complexity, ancestor reverence is not the same as the worship of a deity or deities. In some Afro-diasporic cultures, ancestors are seen as being able to intercede on behalf of the living, as spirits who were once human themselves, they are seen as being better able to understand human needs than would a divine being. In other cultures, the purpose of ancestor veneration is not to ask for favors, some cultures believe that their ancestors actually need to be provided for by their descendants, and their practices include offerings of food and other provisions. Others do not believe that the ancestors are even aware of what their descendants do for them, most cultures who practice ancestor veneration do not call it ancestor worship. In English, the word usually refers to the reverent love. However, in cultures, this act of worship does not confer any belief that the departed ancestors have become some kind of deity. Rather, the act is a way to respect, honor, in this regard, many cultures and religions have similar practices. Some may visit the graves of their parents or other ancestors, leave flowers and pray to them in order to honor and remember them, however, this would not be considered as worshipping them since the term worship shows no such meaning. This is consistent with the meaning of the veneration in English. Although there is no accepted theory concerning the origins of ancestor veneration. Although some historians claim that ancient Egyptian society was a “death cult” because of its tombs and mummification rituals. The philosophy that “this world is but a vale of tears” and this was not to say that they were unacquainted with the harshness of life, rather, their ethos included a sense of continuity between this life and the next. Tombs were housing in the Hereafter and so they were constructed and decorated. Mummification was a way to preserve the corpse so the ka of the deceased could return to receive offerings of the things s/he enjoyed while alive, if mummification was not affordable, a “ka-statue” in the likeness of the deceased was carved for this purpose. The Blessed Dead were collectively called the akhu, or “shining ones” and they were described as “shining as gold in the belly of Nut and were indeed depicted as golden stars on the roofs of many tombs and temples. If the heart was in balance with the Feather of Maat, at this point only was the ka deemed worthy to be venerated by the living through rites and offerings
Veneration of the dead
–
Shrine of St. Amandus
Veneration of the dead
–
Detail from an early 2nd-century Roman
sarcophagus depicting the death of
Meleager
Veneration of the dead
–
Famadihana reburial ceremony
Veneration of the dead
–
Burning of
incense during a veneration at
Mengjia Longshan Temple, which is dedicated to
Guan Yu,
Mazu, and others
34.
Dominance (ethology)
–
Dominance in ethology is an individuals preferential access to resources over another. Dominance in the context of biology and anthropology is the state of having high social status relative to one or more other individuals and this enables the dominant individual to obtain access to resources such as food or potential mates at the expense of the submissive individual, without active aggression. The absence or reduction of aggression means unnecessary energy expenditure and the risk of injury are reduced for both, the opposite of dominance is submissiveness. Dominance may be a purely dyadic relationship, i. e. individual A is dominant over individual B, alternatively, dominance may be hierarchical, with a transitive relationship, so that if A dominates B and B dominates C, A always dominates C. This is called a linear dominance hierarchy, some animal societies have despots, i. e. a single dominant individual with little or no hierarchical structure amongst the rest of the group. Horses use coalitions so that affiliated pairs in a herd have an accumulative dominance to displace a third horse that normally out-ranks both of them on an individual basis, dominance may initially be established by fighting, or simply by threatening displays or interchanges. Once established, however, dominance is usually maintained by agonistic behaviours with aggression considerably reduced or sometimes absent, in the maintenance of dominance relationships, the behaviour of the sub-dominant animal is critical. If a dominant animal perceives its status is being threatened, it will threaten the sub-dominant individual. The sub-dominant must then either escalate the intensity of the interaction to challenge the dominant, in this way, it is often the behaviour of the sub-dominant animal that maintains the dominance relationship, rather than the dominant. The ultimate function of a hierarchy is to increase the individual or inclusive fitness of the animals involved in its formation. Fighting to acquire such as food and mates is expensive in terms of time, energy. Therefore, the functions of a pecking order are to reduce the costs of time, energy and risk of injury incurred during resource acquisition. A dominant animal is one whose sexual, feeding, aggressive, subordinate animals are opposite, their behavior can be relatively easily influenced or inhibited by other group members. g. Naked mole-rat, bees and many farm, laboratory, zoo, studies have shown there is a strong association between high testosterone levels and dominance behaviors that help enhance mating success in men. In hierarchical societies, dominant individuals may exert control over others, for example, in a herd of feral goats it is a large male that is dominant and maintains discipline and coherence of the flock. He leads the group but shares leadership on an expedition with an old she-goat who will normally outlast a succession of dominant males. However, earlier work showed that leadership orders in goats was not related to age or dominance, in sheep, position in a moving flock is highly correlated with social dominance, but there is no definite study to show consistent voluntary leadership by an individual sheep. It has been suggested, however, that more commonly, decision-taking about the actions of the group is dissociated from social dominance and this led to the colloquial term pecking order describing the hierarchical system of social organization in chickens, although it is sometimes loosely applied to other animals
Dominance (ethology)
–
One wolf (right) asserting dominance over another (left) with a threat display - note the teeth are bared, the ears are flattened against the body and the hackles are raised, whereas the submissive wolf lowers its head and turns away to appease the dominant individual.
Dominance (ethology)
–
Eringer cattle competing for dominance.
35.
Rational-legal authority
–
Rational-legal authority is a form of leadership in which the authority of an organization or a ruling regime is largely tied to legal rationality, legal legitimacy and bureaucracy. The majority of the states of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries are rational-legal authorities. In sociology, the concept of rational-legal domination comes from Max Webers tripartite classification of authority, all of those three domination types represent an example of his ideal type concept. Weber noted that in history those ideal types of domination are always found in combinations, in traditional authority, the legitimacy of the authority comes from tradition. Charismatic authority is legitimized by the personality and leadership qualities of the ruling individual, finally, rational-legal authority derives its powers from the system of bureaucracy and legality. Under rational-legal authority, legitimacy is seen as coming from a legal order, Weber defined legal order as a system where the rules are enacted and obeyed as legitimate because they are in line with other laws on how they can be enacted and how they should be obeyed. Further, they are enforced by a government that monopolizes their enactment, if society, as a whole, approves the exercise of the power in a certain way, then the power is considered legitimate authority. An example of type of authority would be the viewing of a police car in our rear view mirrors. Max Weber broke down legitimate authority into three different types of societies, Traditional Authority, Rational-legal Authority, and Charismatic Authority, each of these authorities have their own unique complex societies that have evolved from simple definitions. Is the type of power that has been longer, it is the type of power that is traditionally rooted in beliefs. This authority is liked by many individuals because of two reasons, the inheritance of past generations and religiousness that the societies have. Traditional authority is based on a tradition or custom that is followed by the traditional leaders, in traditional authority, status is a key concept. There are no requirements to serving a traditional leader but there are no salaries, the consequences to traditional authority are discouragement of education and rational calculation. Traditional authority consists of a dominant profile, one who embodies tradition and this type of leadership exemplifies the power to construct order. Acquire from law and is constructed from the reliance of societys rules and this type of authority has the confidence to leave the right of leaders to undertake the decisions and set the policy. Rational-legal authority is the bases of modern democracies, examples of this type of authority, officials elected by voters, rules that are in the constitution, or policies that are written in a formal document. Rational-legal authority is built on a structure of bureaucracy, in a rational-legal authority one ascends in their career paths through promotion and they eventually retire. Some of the benefits of rational-legal authority are transportation, large-scale industry, mass communication, other outcomes of rational-legal authority are tendencies towards equal opportunity and a promotion of education
Rational-legal authority
–
Sociology
36.
Traditional authority
–
Traditional authority is a form of leadership in which the authority of an organization or a ruling regime is largely tied to tradition or custom. The main reason for the state of affairs is that it has always been that way. In sociology, the concept of traditional authority comes from Max Webers tripartite classification of authority, all of those three domination types represent an example of his ideal type concept. Weber noted that in history those ideal types of domination are always found in combinations, Weber derives the traditional domination from patriarchs and their households - in other words, from the ancient tradition of family. The master is designated in accordance with the rules of inheritance and he has no administrative staff nor any machinery to enforce his will by force alone, he depends on the willingness of the group members to respect his authority. Those members stand in relations to him. They obey him based on the belief that this is their duty sanctioned by tradition and on feeling of filial piety for the person of the master. Patrimonial government occurs when the rulers household expands with the household administration giving rise to governmental offices, all officials are personal dependents or favourites of the ruler, appointed by him. Their interactions with the ruler are based on authority and filial dependence. The officials treat their work as a service to the ruler. The ruler has complete control over the officials, he empowers them from case to case, assigns specific tasks and they have no rights, rather they have privileges granted and withdrawn by the ruler. It is rare to discover any clear and stable hierarchy and responsibility in the deluge of official titles of most patrimonial administrations, military force is an important instrument of a patrimonial rule. Weber distinguished five types of military organisations, in all of those cases the military is a tool of the ruler, solely for his use - but he is responsible for its upkeep. With the growth of the organized and more independent administrative staff. This usually leads to decentralisation, and some individuals gain more independence in the form of certain rights, one of the best examples of almost pure type of patrimonialism is Ancient Egypt, where the population was entirely dependent upon the control of the waterways. This facilitated the creation of centralised government, when the royal household required it, the individual had to forced to perform the public duties, such as participate in labor-intensive project. Thus the whole country was in fact the patriarchal household of the pharaoh, when land is given to military or officials for the performance of their duties, their independence increases and the power of the ruler weakens. Patrimonial dominance has often prevailed in the Orient, where land remained in the control of the ruler, however, in the Occident the ruler lost control of the lands given to the nobility, which according to Weber was a major reason for patrimonialism being replaced by feudalism
Traditional authority
–
Sociology
37.
Monarchy
–
The actual power of the monarch may vary from purely symbolic, to partial and restricted, to completely autocratic. Traditionally and in most cases, the monarchs post is inherited and lasts until death or abdication, occasionally this might create a situation of rival claimants whose legitimacy is subject to effective election. Finally, there have been cases where the term of a reign is either fixed in years or continues until certain goals are achieved. Thus there are widely divergent structures and traditions defining monarchy, Monarchy was the most common form of government until the 19th century, but it is no longer prevalent. Currently,47 sovereign nations in the world have monarchs acting as heads of state,19 of which are Commonwealth realms that recognise Queen Elizabeth II as their head of state. The monarchs of Cambodia, Japan, and Malaysia reign, the word monarch comes from the Greek language word μονάρχης, monárkhēs which referred to a single, at least nominally absolute ruler. In current usage the word usually refers to a traditional system of hereditary rule. Depending on the held by the monarch, a monarchy may be known as a kingdom, principality, duchy, grand duchy, empire, tsardom, emirate, sultanate, khaganate. The form of societal hierarchy known as chiefdom or tribal kingship is prehistoric, the Greek term monarchia is classical, used by Herodotus. The monarch in classical antiquity is often identified as king, the Chinese, Japanese and Nepalese monarchs continued to be considered living Gods into the modern period. Since antiquity, monarchy has contrasted with forms of democracy, where power is wielded by assemblies of free citizens. In antiquity, monarchies were abolished in favour of such assemblies in Rome, much of 19th century politics was characterised by the division between anti-monarchist Radicalism and monarchist Conservativism. Many countries abolished the monarchy in the 20th century and became republics, advocacy of republics is called republicanism, while advocacy of monarchies is called monarchism. In the modern era, monarchies are more prevalent in small states than in large ones, most monarchs, both historically and in the modern day, have been born and brought up within a royal family, the centre of the royal household and court. Growing up in a family, future monarchs are often trained for the responsibilities of expected future rule. Different systems of succession have been used, such as proximity of blood, primogeniture, and agnatic seniority. While most monarchs have been male, many female monarchs also have reigned in history, rule may be hereditary in practice without being considered a monarchy, such as that of family dictatorships or political families in many democracies. The principal advantage of hereditary monarchy is the continuity of leadership
Monarchy
–
Richard I of England being anointed during his coronation in
Westminster Abbey, from a 13th-century chronicle.
Monarchy
–
Thutmose I, the third
Pharaoh of the
Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt.
Monarchy
–
King George III of the United Kingdom, Portrait by
Allan Ramsay, 1762
Monarchy
–
King
Salman of Saudi Arabia is an absolute monarch.
38.
Tudor dynasty
–
The House of Tudor was a royal house of Welsh and English origin, descended in the male line from the Tudors of Penmynydd. Tudor monarchs ruled the Kingdom of England and its realms, including their ancestral Wales, the Tudors succeeded the House of Plantaganet as rulers of the Kingdom of England, and were succeeded by the House of Stuart. The first monarch, Henry VII, descended through his mother from a branch of the English royal House of Lancaster. The Tudor family rose to power in the wake of the Wars of the Roses and his victory was reinforced by his marriage to Elizabeth of York, daughter of King Edward IV, symbolically uniting the former warring factions under a new dynasty. They also maintained the nominal English claim to the Kingdom of France, although none of them made substance of it, after him, his daughter Mary I lost control of all territory in France permanently with the fall of Calais in 1558. In total, five Tudor monarchs ruled their domains for just over a century, Henry VIII was the only male-line male heir of Henry VII to live to the age of maturity. Issues around the royal succession became major political themes during the Tudor era, the House of Stuart, descended from Henry VIIIs sister Margaret, came to power in 1603 when the direct Tudor line failed, as Elizabeth I died without a legitimate heir. The church retroactively declared the Beauforts legitimate by way of a bull the same year. A subsequent proclamation by John of Gaunts legitimate son, Henry IV, also recognised the Beauforts legitimacy, nevertheless, the Beauforts remained closely allied with Gaunts legitimate descendants from his first marriage, the House of Lancaster. On 1 November 1455, John Beauforts granddaughter, Margaret Beaufort, Countess of Richmond and Derby, married Henry VIs half-brother Edmund Tudor and it was his father, Owen Tudor, who abandoned the Welsh patronymic naming practice and adopted a fixed surname. When he did, he did not choose, as was generally the custom, his fathers name, Maredudd, Owen Tudor was one of the bodyguards for the queen dowager Catherine of Valois, whose husband, Henry V, had died in 1422. Evidence suggests that the two were married in 1429. The two sons born of the marriage, Edmund and Jasper, were among the most loyal supporters of the House of Lancaster in its struggle against the House of York, Edmund died on 3 November 1456. On 28 January 1457, his widow Margaret Beaufort, who had just attained her fourteenth birthday, gave birth to a son, Henry Tudor, at her brother-in-laws Pembroke Castle. Henry Tudor, the future Henry VII, spent his childhood at Raglan Castle, the home of William Herbert, 1st Earl of Pembroke, a leading Yorkist. Following the murder of Henry VI and death of his son, Edward, in 1471, concerned for his young nephews life, Jasper Tudor took Henry to Brittany for safety. Lady Margaret remained in England and remarried, living quietly while advancing the Lancastrian cause, capitalizing on the growing unpopularity of Richard III, she was able to forge an alliance with discontented Yorkists in support of her son. Two years after Richard III was crowned, Henry and Jasper sailed from the mouth of the Seine to the Milford Haven Waterway, upon this victory, Henry Tudor proclaimed himself King Henry VII
Tudor dynasty
–
King Henry VII, the founder of the royal house of Tudor
Tudor dynasty
–
Tudor Rose
Tudor dynasty
–
Catherine of Aragon: marriage was annulled - by the Church of England - for not producing a male heir to the Tudor dynasty
Tudor dynasty
–
Thomas Cromwell, 1st Earl of Essex, Henry VIII's chief minister responsible for the
Dissolution of the Monasteries
39.
Mewar
–
Mewar or Mewāḍ is a region of south-central Rajasthan state in western India. It includes the districts of Bhilwara, Chittorgarh, Rajsamand, Udaipur, Pirawa Tehsil District Jhalawar of Rajasthan and Neemuch, Mandsaur of Madhya Pradesh. The region was for centuries a Rajput kingdom, the Mewar Kingdom or Udaipur Kingdom and it was originally called Medhpaat and Lord Shiva is called Medhpateshwar. Over time, the name Medhpath became Mewar, the northern part of Mewar is a gently sloping plain, drained by the Bedach and Banas River and its tributaries, which empty northwest into the Chambal River, a tributary of the Yamuna River. The region is part of the Kathiawar-Gir dry deciduous forests ecoregion, protected areas include the Jaisamand Wildlife Sanctuary, the Kumbhalgarh Wildlife Sanctuary, the Bassi Wildlife Sanctuary and the Sita Mata Wildlife Sanctuary. Rainfall averages 660 mm/year, and is higher in the southwest. Over 90% of the rain falls in the period June to September every year. The Udaipur State, also known as Mewar Kingdom, was a state in India at the time of the British Raj. The state of Mewar was founded around 530, later it would also, in 1568, Emperor Akbar conquered Chittorgarh, the capital of Mewar. It remained in Mughal hands for about 150 years, when Udaipur State joined the Indian Union in 1949 it had been ruled by the Chattari Rajputs of Mori, Guhilot and Sisodia dynasties for over 1,400 years. Chittaurgarh was the capital of Sisodia clans of Rajputs of Mewar, the economy of the Mewar region relies primarily on tourism, the marble and stone industry, mining, handicrafts, zinc smelters, cement and tyre factories, as well as agriculture. Major crops include maize, groundnut, soybean, wheat, opium is also grown in the adjoining regions of the southeast. Fishery also thrives in the various lakes, supported by a government fisheries department. The massive Chittorgarh hilltop fort is one of the main tourist attractions of Mewar, the fort is a depiction of Rajput culture and values. It stands on a 2.4 square kilometre site on an 180 m high hill that rises rapidly from the plains below, the fort was sacked thrice by a stronger enemy. The first sacking occurred in 1303 by Alauddin Khilji, in 1535 Bahadur Shah of Gujarat besieged the fort, causing the women to commit Jauhar. In 1568 Mughal emperor Akbar captured the fort. The war between the Mewar and mughal turned the fort to rubble but Akbars dream to conquer the whole of Mewar never fulfilled. The Lake Palace is a palace inaugurated in 1746, completely made of marble, in recent years Lake Pichola has experienced drought conditions
Mewar
–
Sita Mata Wildlife Sanctuary
Mewar
–
Map of the Mewar Region
Mewar
–
Chittorgarh Fort
Mewar
–
City Palace, Udaipur.
40.
Rajasthan
–
Rajasthan is Indias largest state by area. Elsewhere it is bordered by the other Indian states, Punjab to the north, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh to the northeast, Madhya Pradesh to the southeast, and Gujarat to the southwest. Rajasthan is also home to two national reserves, the Ranthambore National Park in Sawai Madhopur and Sariska Tiger Reserve in Alwar. The state was formed on 30 March 1949 when Rajputana – the name adopted by the British Raj for its dependencies in the region – was merged into the Dominion of India. Its capital and largest city is Jaipur, also known as Pink City, other important cities are Jodhpur, Udaipur, Bikaner, Kota and Ajmer. Parts of what is now Rajasthan were partly part of the Vedic Civilisation, kalibangan, in Hanumangarh district, was a major provincial capital of the Indus Valley Civilization. Matsya Kingdom of the Vedic civilisation of India, is said to roughly corresponded to the state of Jaipur in Rajasthan. The capital of Matsya was at Viratanagar, which is said to have named after its founder king Virata. Bhargava identifies the two districts of Jhunjhunu and Sikar and parts of Jaipur district along with Haryana districts of Mahendragarh, bhargava also locates the present day Sahibi River as the Vedic Drishadwati River, which along with Saraswati River formed the borders of the Vedic state of Brahmavarta. Manu and Bhrigu narrated the Manusmriti to a congregation of seers in this area only, the Indo-Scythians invaded the area of Ujjain and established the Saka era, marking the beginning of the long-lived Saka Western Satraps state. Gurjars ruled for many dynasties in this part of the country, up to the tenth century almost the whole of North India, acknowledged the supremacy of the Gurjars with their seat of power at Kannauj. The Gurjar Pratihar Empire acted as a barrier for Arab invaders from the 8th to the 11th century, the chief accomplishment of the Gurjara Pratihara empire lies in its successful resistance to foreign invasions from the west, starting in the days of Junaid. Majumdar says that this was acknowledged by the Arab writers. He further notes that historians of India have wondered at the progress of Muslim invaders in India. Traditionally the Rajputs, Jats, Meenas, REBARI, Gurjars, Bhils, Rajpurohit, Charans, Yadavs, Bishnois, Sermals, PhulMali, all these tribes suffered great difficulties in protecting their culture and the land. Millions of them were killed trying to protect their land, a number of Gurjars had been exterminated in Bhinmal and Ajmer areas fighting with the invaders. Meenas were rulers of Bundi, Hadoti and the Dhundhar region, hem Chandra Vikramaditya, the Hindu Emperor, was born in the village of Machheri in Alwar District in 1501. Hem Chandra was killed in the battlefield at Second Battle of Panipat fighting against Mughals on 5 November 1556, maharana Pratap of Mewar resisted Akbar in the famous Battle of Haldighati and later operated from hilly areas of his kingdom
Rajasthan
–
A portrait of
Hemu from the 1910s.
Rajasthan
–
Location of Rajasthan in
India
Rajasthan
–
Maharana Pratap Singh, legendary sixteenth-century
Rajput ruler of
Mewar
Rajasthan
–
Chittorgarh Fort the largest fort in Asia.
41.
Charismatic authority
–
Charismatic authority involves a type of organization or a type of leadership in which authority derives from the charisma of the leader. This stands in contrast to two types of authority, legal authority and traditional authority. Each of the three types forms part of Max Webers tripartite classification of authority, Weber developed this definition in his essays Politics as a Vocation and Discipline and Charisma, as well as in other parts of his writings. The concept has acquired wide usage among sociologists, other terms used are charismatic domination and charismatic leadership. Charismatic authority is often the most lasting of regimes because the leader is seen as infallible, charismatic leaders eventually develop a cult of personality often not by their own doing. Ower legitimized on the basis of a leaders exceptional personal qualities or the demonstration of extraordinary insight and accomplishment, leadership is the power to diffuse a positive energy and a sense of greatness. As such, it rests almost entirely on the leader, the absence of that leader for any reason can lead to the authoritys power dissolving. For instance, a leader in a religious context might require an unchallenged belief that the leader has been touched by God. Should the strength of this belief fade, the power of the leader can fade quickly. The validity of charism is founded on its recognition by the leaders followers and his charisma risks disappearing if he is abandoned by God or if his government doesnt provide any prosperity to those whom he dominates. Charismatic authority almost always endangers the boundaries set by traditional or rational authority and it tends to challenge this authority, and is thus often seen as revolutionary. Usually this charismatic authority is incorporated into society, hereby the challenge that it presents to society will subside. The way in which this happens is called routinization, a religion which evolves its own priesthood and establishes a set of laws and rules is likely to lose its charismatic character and move towards another type of authority. For example, Muhammad, who had authority as The Prophet among his followers, was succeeded by the traditional authority and structure of Islam. In politics, charismatic rule is found in various authoritarian states, autocracies, dictatorships. To help to maintain their authority, such regimes will often establish a vast personality cult. When the leader of such a state dies or leaves office, because the authority is concentrated in one leader, the death of the charismatic leader would constitute the destruction of the government unless prior arrangements were made. According to Max Weber, the methods of succession are, search, revelation, designation by original leader, designation by qualified staff, hereditary charisma, and office charisma
Charismatic authority
–
Sociology
42.
NT Rama Rao
–
Nandamuri Taraka Rama Rao, popularly known as NTR, was an Indian actor, filmmaker, director, editor and politician who served as Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh for seven years over three terms. He garnered the Nandi Award for Best Actor for Kodalu Diddina Kapuram in 1970, NTR made his debut as an actor in a Telugu social film Mana Desam, directed by L. V. Prasad in 1949. He gained popularity in the 1950s when he well known for his portrayals of Hindu deities, especially Krishna and Rama. He later became known for portraying antagonistic characters and Robin Hood-esque hero characters in films, in total he starred in 300 films, and has become one of the most prominent figures in the history of Telugu cinema. He was voted Greatest Indian Actor of All Time in a CNN-IBN national poll conducted in 2013 on the occasion of the Centenary of Indian Cinema, All the four films were included in CNN-IBNs list of hundred greatest Indian films of all time. He co-produced, Ummadi Kutumbam nominated by Film Federation of India as one of its entries to the 1968 Moscow Film Festival, besides Telugu, he has also acted in a few Tamil films. Widely recognised for his portrayal of characters, NTR was one of the leading method actors of Indian cinema. He was awarded the Padma Shri by the Government of India in 1968, after his career in films, NTR entered politics. He founded the Telugu Desam Party in 1982 and served three terms as Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh between 1983 and 1995. He was known as an advocate of Andhra Pradeshs distinct cultural identity, at the national level, he was instrumental in the formation of the National Front, a coalition of non-Congress parties which governed India from 1989 until 1990. N. T. Rama rao was born on 28 May 1923 in Nimmakuru, a village in Gudivada taluk of Krishna District. He was born to a couple, Nandamuri Lakshmaih and Venkata Ramamma. He attended school at first in his village, and later in Vijayawada, after his matriculation in 1940, he studied at SRR & CVR college in Vijayawada and at the Andhra-Christian College in Guntur. In 1947, he joined the Madras Service Commission as a sub-registrar and he developed a baritone singing voice as a young man. NTR started his career with a walk-on role as a policeman in Mana Desam. Following this, he appeared in Palletoori Pilla, directed by B. A. Subba Rao and his first mythological film was in 1957, where he portrayed Krishna in the blockbuster film Maya Bazaar. He essayed the role of Krishna in 17 films, including some landmark films like Sri Krishnarjuna Yudham and he was also Known for his portrayal of Lord Rama, essaying that role in films like Lava Kusha, and Shri Ramanjaneya Yuddham to name a few. He has also portrayed other characters from the Ramayana, such as Ravana in Bhookailas and he portrayed Lord Vishnu in films like Sri Venkateswara Mahatyam among others and Lord Shiva in Dakshayagnam
NT Rama Rao
–
Nandamuri Taraka Rama Rao
NT Rama Rao
–
Statue of NTR
NT Rama Rao
–
N.T.Rama Rao 's memorial at
NTR Gardens,
Hyderabad
43.
Andhra Pradesh
–
Andhra Pradesh is one of the 29 states of India, situated on the southeastern coast of the country. The state is the eighth largest state in India covering an area of 162,968 km2, as per 2011 Census of India, the state is tenth largest by population with 49,386,799 inhabitants. On 2 June 2014, the portion of the state was bifurcated to form a new state of Telangana. In accordance with the Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act,2014, Hyderabad will remain the de jure capital of both Andhra Pradesh and Telangana states for a period of not exceeding 10 years. The new riverfront proposed capital in Guntur district is Amaravati, which is under the jurisdiction of APCRDA, the Gross State Domestic Product of the state in the 2016–2017 financial year at current prices stood at ₹6,800.3 billion. The state has a coastline of 974 km with jurisdiction over nearly 15,000 km2 territorial waters, the second longest among all the states of India after Gujarat. It is bordered by Telangana in the north-west, Chhattisgarh in the north, Odisha in the north-east, Karnataka in the west, Tamil Nadu in the south and the water body of Bay of Bengal in the east. A small enclave of 30 km2 of Yanam, a district of Puducherry, Andhra Pradesh is composed of two regions, Coastal Andhra, located along the Bay of Bengal, and Rayalaseema, in the inland southwestern part of the state. These two regions comprise 13 districts, with 9 in Coastal Andhra and 4 in Rayalaseema, Andhra Pradesh hosted 121.8 million visitors in 2015, a 30% growth in tourist arrivals over the previous year. The Tirumala Venkateswara Temple in Tirupati is one of the worlds most visited religious sites, a tribe named Andhra has been mentioned in the Sanskrit texts such as Aitareya Brahmana. According to Aitareya Brahmana of the Rig Veda, the Andhras left north India, archaeological evidence from places such as Amaravati, Dharanikota and Vaddamanu suggests that the Andhra region was part of the Mauryan Empire. Amaravati might have been a centre for the Mauryan rule. After the death of emperor Ashoka, the Mauryan rule weakened around 200 BCE, the Satavahana dynasty dominated the Deccan region from the 1st century BCE to the 3rd century CE. The Satavahanas have been mentioned by the names Andhra, Andhrara-jatiya and Andhra-bhrtya in the Puranic literature, Dharanikota along with Amaravathi was the capital of the later Satavahanas. Amaravathi became a trade and pilgrimage centre during the Satavahana rule. According to the Buddhist tradition, Nagarjuna lived here, possibly in second, Andhra Ikshvakus were one of the earliest recorded ruling dynasties of the Guntur-Krishna regions of Andhra Pradesh. They ruled the eastern Andhra country along the Krishna river during the half of the second century CE. Puranas called Andhra Ikshvakus Shri Parvatiya Andhras, archaeological evidence has suggested that the Andhra Ikshvakus immediately succeeded the Satavahanas in the Krishna river valley
Andhra Pradesh
–
Montage of Andhra Pradesh Clockwise from top left:
Vijayawada city view,
Araku Valley,
Visakhapatnam Port view,
Godavari Arch Bridge (
Rajahmundry), Tirumala temple (
Tirupati), Dolphin's Nose mountain and the
Bay of Bengal at Visakhapatnam.
Andhra Pradesh
–
Logo
Andhra Pradesh
–
తెలుగు తల్లి - Telugu Thalli
Andhra Pradesh
–
Early
Satakarni issue,
Maharashtra –
Vidarbha type.
44.
Social movement
–
Social movements are a type of group action. They are large, sometimes informal, groupings of individuals or organizations which focus on political or social issues. In other words, they carry out, resist, or undo a social change, modern Western social movements became possible through education and increased mobility of labor due to the industrialization and urbanization of 19th century societies. However, others point out many of the social movements of the last hundred years grew up, like the Mau Mau in Kenya. Either way, social movements have been and continued to be connected with democratic political systems. Occasionally, social movements have been involved in democratizing nations, over the past 200 years, they have become part of a popular and global expression of dissent. Modern movements often utilize technology and the internet to people globally. Adapting to communication trends is a theme among successful movements. Research is beginning to explore how advocacy organizations linked to social movements in the U. S. and Canada use social media to facilitate civic engagement, the systematic literature review of Buettner & Buettner analyzed the role of Twitter during a wide range of social movements. Political science and sociology have developed a variety of theories and empirical research on social movements, there is no single consensus definition of a social movement. For Tilly, social movements are a vehicle for ordinary peoples participation in public politics. Sidney Tarrow defines a social movement as collective challenges by people with common purposes and solidarity in sustained interactions with elites, opponents and he specifically distinguishes social movements from political parties and advocacy groups. The first mass social movement catalyzed around the political figure. Charged with seditious libel, Wilkes was arrested after the issue of a general warrant, as a result of this episode, Wilkes became a figurehead to the growing movement for popular sovereignty among the middle classes - people began chanting, Wilkes and Liberty in the streets. After a later period of exile, brought about by further charges of libel and obscenity, Wilkes stood for the Parliamentary seat at Middlesex, where most of his support was located. When Wilkes was imprisoned in the Kings Bench Prison on 10 May 1768 and this was the first ever sustained social movement, -it involved public meetings, demonstrations, the distribution of pamphlets on an unprecedented scale and the mass petition march. The force and influence of social movement on the streets of London compelled the authorities to concede to the movements demands. Wilkes was returned to Parliament, general warrants were declared as unconstitutional, the Association had the support of leading Calvinist religious figures, including Rowland Hill, Erasmus Middleton, and John Rippon
Social movement
–
The Gordon Riots, depicted in a painting by
John Seymour Lucas
Social movement
–
Satirical engraving of Wilkes by
William Hogarth. Wilkes is holding two editions of
The North Briton.
Social movement
–
The Great Chartist Meeting on
Kennington Common, London in 1848.
Social movement
–
Martin Luther King led the
American Civil Rights Movement, one of the most famous social movements of the 20th century.
45.
Revolution
–
Aristotle described two types of political revolution, Complete change from one constitution to another Modification of an existing constitution. Revolutions have occurred through history and vary widely in terms of methods, duration. Their results include major changes in culture, economy, and socio-political institutions, scholarly debates about what does and does not constitute a revolution center on several issues. Several generations of scholarly thought on revolutions have generated many competing theories, the word revolucion is known in French from the 13th century, and revolution in English by the late fourteenth century, with regards to the revolving motion of celestial bodies. Revolution in the sense of representing abrupt change in an order is attested by at least 1450. Political usage of the term had been established by 1688 in the description of the replacement of James II with William III. The process was termed The Glorious Revolution, there are many different typologies of revolutions in social science and literature. One of several different Marxist typologies divides revolutions into pre-capitalist, early bourgeois, bourgeois, bourgeois-democratic, early proletarian, Charles Tilly, a modern scholar of revolutions, differentiated between a coup, a top-down seizure of power, a civil war, a revolt and a great revolution. Other types of revolution, created for other typologies, include the social revolutions, proletarian or communist revolutions, failed or abortive revolutions, the term revolution has also been used to denote great changes outside the political sphere. Such revolutions are usually recognized as having transformed in society, culture, philosophy and technology much more than political systems, some can be global, while others are limited to single countries. One of the examples of the usage of the word revolution in such context is the Industrial Revolution. Note that such revolutions also fit the slow revolution definition of Tocqueville, a similar example is the Digital Revolution. Perhaps most often, the revolution is employed to denote a change in socio-political institutions. Jeff Goodwin gives two definitions of a revolution, political and socioeconomic revolutions have been studied in many social sciences, particularly sociology, political sciences and history. Scholars of revolutions, like Jack Goldstone, differentiate four current generations of scholarly research dealing with revolutions, the scholars of the first generation such as Gustave Le Bon, Charles A. Second generation theorists sought to develop detailed theories of why and when revolutions arise and they can be divided into three major approaches, psychological, sociological and political. The works of Ted Robert Gurr, Ivo K. Feierbrand, Rosalind L. Feierbrand, James A. Geschwender, David C. Schwartz, the second group, composed of academics such as Chalmers Johnson, Neil Smelser, Bob Jessop, Mark Hart, Edward A. As in the school, they differed in their definitions of what causes disequilibrium
Revolution
–
A
Watt steam engine in
Madrid. The development of the
steam engine propelled the
Industrial Revolution in Britain and the world. The steam engine was created to
pump water from
coal mines, enabling them to be deepened beyond
groundwater levels.
Revolution
–
The
storming of the Bastille, 14 July 1789 during the
French Revolution.
Revolution
–
Vladimir Lenin, leader of the
Bolshevik Revolution of 1917.
46.
Persuasion
–
Persuasion is an umbrella term of influence. Persuasion can attempt to influence a persons beliefs, attitudes, intentions, motivations, Persuasion is also an often used tool in the pursuit of personal gain, such as election campaigning, giving a sales pitch, or in trial advocacy. Persuasion can also be interpreted as using ones personal or positional resources to change behaviors or attitudes. Systematic persuasion is the process through which attitudes or beliefs are leveraged by appeals to logic, heuristic persuasion on the other hand is the process through which attitudes or beliefs are leveraged by appeals to habit or emotion. Persuasion began with the Greeks, who emphasized rhetoric and elocution as the highest standard for a successful politician, all trials were held in front of the Assembly, and both the prosecution and the defense rested, as they often do today, on the persuasiveness of the speaker. Rhetoric was the ability to find the means of persuasion in any instance. Aristotles rhetorical proofs, ethos logos pathos Humans attempt to explain the actions of others through either dispositional attribution or situational attribution. Dispositional attribution, also referred to as attribution, attempts to point to a person’s traits, abilities, motives. A citizen claiming that a lack of progress is not a fault of the president. Fundamental attribution error occurs when people wrongly attribute either a shortcoming or accomplishment to internal factors, in general, people tend to make dispositional attributions more often than situational attributions when trying to explain or understand a person’s behavior. This happens when we are more focused on the individual because we do not know much about their situation or context. Conditioning plays a part in the concept of persuasion. It is more often about leading someone into taking certain actions of their own, in advertisements for example, this is done by attempting to connect a positive emotion to a brand/product logo. This is often done by creating commercials that make people laugh, using a sexual undertone, inserting uplifting images and/or music etc. great examples of this are professional athletes. The important thing for the advertiser is to establish a connection to the consumer and this conditioning is thought to affect how people view certain products, knowing that most purchases are made on the basis of emotion. Just like you sometimes recall a memory from a certain smell or sound, stefano DellaVigna and Matthew Gentzkow did a comprehensive study on the effects of persuasion in different domains. They discovered that persuasion has little or no effect on advertisement, however, leon Festinger originally proposed the theory of cognitive dissonance in 1957. He theorized that human beings strive for mental consistency
Persuasion
–
Persuasion, novel by
Jane Austen. Illustrated by
C. E. Brock For Sir Walter Elliot, baronet, the hints of Mr Shepherd, his agent, were quite unwelcome
Persuasion
–
The art of persuasion'--returning from a ball in India from "The Graphic", 1890
47.
Authoritarianism
–
Authoritarianism is a form of government characterized by strong central power and limited political freedoms. Individual freedoms are subordinate to the state and there is no constitutional accountability under an authoritarian regime, modern dictatorships use an authoritarian concept to form a government. Linz distinguished new forms of authoritarianism from personalistic dictatorships and totalitarian states, several subtypes of authoritarian regimes have been identified by Linz and others. Bureaucratic-military authoritarian regimes are those governed by a coalition of military officers, mark J. Linz also has identified three other subtypes of authoritarian regime, corporatist or organic-statistic, racial and ethnic democracy and post-totalitarian. Examples include the Soviet Eastern bloc states in the mid-1980s, authoritarian regimes are also sometimes subcategorized by whether they are personalistic or populist. Personalistic authoritarian regimes are characterized by arbitrary rule and authority exercised mainly through patronage networks and coercion rather than through institutitions, personalistic authoritarian regimes have been seen in post-colonial Africa. By contrast, populist authoritarian regimes are mobilizational regimes in which a strong, charismatic, examples include Argentina under Perón, Egypt under Nasser, and Venezuela under Chávez and Maduro. Authoritarianism is characterized by highly concentrated and centralized power maintained by political repression and it uses political parties and mass organizations to mobilize people around the goals of the regime. Adam Przeworski has theorized that authoritarian equilibrium rests mainly on lies, fear, authoritarian political systems may be weakened through inadequate performance to demands of the people. Because the legitimacy of the state is dependent on performance, authoritarian states that fail to adapt may collapse, authoritarianism is marked by indefinite political tenure of the ruler or ruling party or other authority. The transition from a system to a more democratic form of government is referred to as democratization. John Duckitt suggests a link between authoritarianism and collectivism, asserting that both stand in opposition to individualism, Duckitt writes that both authoritarianism and collectivism submerge individual rights and goals to group goals, expectations and conformities. Totalitarianism is a version of authoritarianism. Authoritarianism primarily differs from totalitarianism in that social and economic institutions exist that are not under governmental control, building on the work of Yale political scientist Juan Linz, Paul C. Concomitant role conceptions differentiate totalitarians from authoritarians, authoritarians view themselves as individual beings largely content to control, and often maintain, the status quo. The tyrant is less a person than a function to guide. Consequently, the utilisation of power for personal aggrandizement is more evident among authoritarians than totalitarians, lacking the binding appeal of ideology, authoritarians support their rule by a mixture of instilling fear and granting rewards to loyal collaborators, engendering a kleptocracy. Compared to totalitarianism, the state still maintains a certain distinction between state and society
Authoritarianism
–
Salman, King of
Saudi Arabia.
Authoritarianism
–
Engelbert Dollfuss 's chancellorship in Austria contained many authoritarian elements.
Authoritarianism
–
Robert Mugabe, President of
Zimbabwe.
Authoritarianism
–
Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, President of
Turkey.
48.
Milgram experiment
–
The Milgram experiment on obedience to authority figures was a series of social psychology experiments conducted by Yale University psychologist Stanley Milgram. The experiments began in July 1961, in the basement of Linsly-Chittenden Hall at Yale University, Milgram devised his psychological study to answer the popular question at that particular time, Could it be that Eichmann and his million accomplices in the Holocaust were just following orders. Could we call them all accomplices, the experiments have been repeated many times in the following years with consistent results within differing societies, although not with the same percentages around the globe. Three individuals were involved, the one running the experiment, the subject of the experiment, and these three people fill three distinct roles, the Experimenter, the Teacher, and the Learner. The subject and the actor both drew slips of paper to determine their roles, but unknown to the subject, both slips said teacher, the actor would always claim to have drawn the slip that read learner, thus guaranteeing that the subject would always be the teacher. Next, the teacher and learner were taken into an adjacent room where the learner was strapped into what appeared to be an electric chair, the experimenter told the participants this was to ensure that the learner would not escape. The teacher and learner were then separated into different rooms where they could communicate, in one version of the experiment, the confederate was sure to mention to the participant that he had a heart condition. The teacher was given a list of word pairs that he was to teach the learner. The teacher began by reading the list of pairs to the learner. The teacher would read the first word of each pair. The learner would press a button to indicate his response, if the answer was incorrect, the teacher would administer a shock to the learner, with the voltage increasing in 15-volt increments for each wrong answer. If correct, the teacher would read the word pair. The subjects believed that for each answer, the learner was receiving actual shocks. In reality, there were no shocks, after the confederate was separated from the subject, the confederate set up a tape recorder integrated with the electroshock generator, which played prerecorded sounds for each shock level. After a number of voltage-level increases, the actor started to bang on the wall that separated him from the subject, after several times banging on the wall and complaining about his heart condition, all responses by the learner would cease. At this point, many people indicated their desire to stop the experiment, some test subjects paused at 135 volts and began to question the purpose of the experiment. Most continued after being assured that they would not be held responsible, a few subjects began to laugh nervously or exhibit other signs of extreme stress once they heard the screams of pain coming from the learner. If at any time the subject indicated his desire to halt the experiment, he was given a succession of verbal prods by the experimenter, in this order, the experiment requires that you continue
Milgram experiment
49.
Religious authority
–
Theocracy is a form of government in which a deity is the source from which all authority derives. The Oxford English Dictionary has this definition,1, a system of government in which priests rule in the name of God or a god. The commonwealth of Israel from the time of Moses until the election of Saul as King, an ecclesiocracy is a situation where the religious leaders assume a leading role in the state, but do not claim that they are instruments of divine revelation. For example, the prince-bishops of the European Middle Ages, where the bishop was also the temporal ruler, religiously endorsed monarchies fall between theocracy and ecclesiocracy, according to the relative strengths of the religious and political organs. Most forms of theocracy are oligarchic in nature, involving rule of the many by the few, some of whom so anointed under claim of divine commission. In some religions, the ruler, usually a king, was regarded as the favorite of God who could not be questioned, sometimes even being the descendant of. Today, there is also a form of government where clerics have the power, taken literally or strictly, theocracy means rule by God or gods and refers primarily to an internal rule of the heart, especially in its biblical application. The common, generic use of the term, as defined above in terms of rule by a church or analogous religious leadership, in a pure theocracy, the civil leader is believed to have a personal connection with the civilizations religion or belief. For example, Moses led the Israelites, and Muhammad led the early Muslims, there is a fine line between the tendency of appointing religious characters to run the state and having a religious-based government. According to the Holy Books, Prophet Joseph was offered an essential governmental role just because he was trustworthy, wise and knowledgeable. As a result of the Prophet Josephs knowledge and also due to his ethical and genuine efforts during a critical economic situation, when religions have a holy book, it is used as a direct message from God. Law proclaimed by the ruler is also considered a divine revelation, as to the Prophet Muhammad ruling, The first thirteen of the Prophets twenty-three year career went on totally apolitical and non-violent. Yet, interestingly, the Prophet did not establish a theocracy in Medina, instead of a polity defined solely by Islam, he founded a territorial polity based on religious pluralism. This is evident in a document called the ’Charter of Medina’, according to the Quran, Prophets were not after power or material resources. ”While, in theocracy many aspects of the holy book are overshadowed by material powers. Due to be considered divine, the regime entitles itself to interpret verses to its own benefit and abuse them out of the context for its political aims. An ecclesiocracy, on the hand, is a situation where the religious leaders assume a leading role in the state. For example, the prince-bishops of the European Middle Ages, where the bishop was also the temporal ruler, religiously endorsed monarchies fall between these two poles, according to the relative strengths of the religious and political organs. Theocracy is distinguished from other, secular forms of government that have a religion, or are influenced by theological or moral concepts
Religious authority
–
Caesar Augustus as Jove incarnate. The Roman Empire was, before
Constantine, a quasi-theocracy. Opinion in both late antiquity and later history, however, regards negatively
Emperors, such as
Caligula and
Domitian, who assumed that dignity in life. [
citation needed] By contrast, each
Pharaoh of Egypt, as
Horus incarnate, son of Amun-Ra, Osiris in death, etc. (as in other cultures) was held to be a living god.
