1.
ELA 07S
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The ELA07 is a series of Spanish autogyros, designed and produced by ELA Aviación of Córdoba, Andalusia. The aircraft are supplied complete and ready to fly, the turbocharged 115 hp Rotax 914 powerplant is optional. The aircraft fuselage is made from TIG welded, CNC laser-cut stainless steel tubing for corrosion resistance, the cockpit fairing is non-structural carbon fibre and resin. Its 8.23 m diameter rotor has a chord of 22 cm and is mounted to a head made from a combination of stainless steel and 7075 T6 aluminium. The triple tail is made from carbon fibre and resin. Equipment fitted includes a pre-rotator, pneumatic pitch trim and mechanical roll trim, the Cougar version has an empty weight of 250 kg and a gross weight of 450 kg, giving a useful load of 200 kg. A forward baggage compartment with a volume of 60 litres is optional, by January 2013 two examples had been registered in the United Kingdom with the Civil Aviation Authority. ELA07 Agro Agricultural aircraft version with the rear seat replaced by a 130 litres tank that can be used to apply liquids or solids in ultra-low volumes, the aircraft fits an 8 m spray boom and an enlarged windshield. The Agro can be returned to two-seat configuration by removal of the spraying equipment. ELA07 Cougar Version for recreational touring use, with a windshield for the front cockpit
2.
Ancient Greek
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Ancient Greek includes the forms of Greek used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around the 9th century BC to the 6th century AD. It is often divided into the Archaic period, Classical period. It is antedated in the second millennium BC by Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Hellenistic phase is known as Koine. Koine is regarded as a historical stage of its own, although in its earliest form it closely resembled Attic Greek. Prior to the Koine period, Greek of the classic and earlier periods included several regional dialects, Ancient Greek was the language of Homer and of fifth-century Athenian historians, playwrights, and philosophers. It has contributed many words to English vocabulary and has been a subject of study in educational institutions of the Western world since the Renaissance. This article primarily contains information about the Epic and Classical phases of the language, Ancient Greek was a pluricentric language, divided into many dialects. The main dialect groups are Attic and Ionic, Aeolic, Arcadocypriot, some dialects are found in standardized literary forms used in literature, while others are attested only in inscriptions. There are also several historical forms, homeric Greek is a literary form of Archaic Greek used in the epic poems, the Iliad and Odyssey, and in later poems by other authors. Homeric Greek had significant differences in grammar and pronunciation from Classical Attic, the origins, early form and development of the Hellenic language family are not well understood because of a lack of contemporaneous evidence. Several theories exist about what Hellenic dialect groups may have existed between the divergence of early Greek-like speech from the common Proto-Indo-European language and the Classical period and they have the same general outline, but differ in some of the detail. The invasion would not be Dorian unless the invaders had some relationship to the historical Dorians. The invasion is known to have displaced population to the later Attic-Ionic regions, the Greeks of this period believed there were three major divisions of all Greek people—Dorians, Aeolians, and Ionians, each with their own defining and distinctive dialects. Often non-west is called East Greek, Arcadocypriot apparently descended more closely from the Mycenaean Greek of the Bronze Age. Boeotian had come under a strong Northwest Greek influence, and can in some respects be considered a transitional dialect, thessalian likewise had come under Northwest Greek influence, though to a lesser degree. Most of the dialect sub-groups listed above had further subdivisions, generally equivalent to a city-state and its surrounding territory, Doric notably had several intermediate divisions as well, into Island Doric, Southern Peloponnesus Doric, and Northern Peloponnesus Doric. The Lesbian dialect was Aeolic Greek and this dialect slowly replaced most of the older dialects, although Doric dialect has survived in the Tsakonian language, which is spoken in the region of modern Sparta. Doric has also passed down its aorist terminations into most verbs of Demotic Greek, by about the 6th century AD, the Koine had slowly metamorphosized into Medieval Greek
3.
Rotorcraft
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A rotorcraft or rotary-wing aircraft is a heavier-than-air flying machine that uses lift generated by wings, called rotary wings or rotor blades, that revolve around a mast. Several rotor blades mounted on a single mast are referred to as a rotor, the International Civil Aviation Organization defines a rotorcraft as supported in flight by the reactions of the air on one or more rotors. Rotorcraft generally include those aircraft where one or more rotors are required to provide lift throughout the flight, such as helicopters, cyclocopters, autogyros. Compound rotorcraft may also include additional thrust engines or propellers and static lifting surfaces, helicopters have several different configurations of one or more main rotors. A cyclocopter is a rotorcraft whose rotors are driven by the engine throughout the flight. At the present time flying model prototypes have been built in China, US, S. Korea, while similar to a helicopter rotor in appearance, the autogyros rotor must have air flowing up and through the rotor disk in order to generate rotation. Early autogyros resembled the fixed-wing aircraft of the day, with wings, late-model autogyros feature a rear-mounted engine and propeller in a pusher configuration. The autogyro was invented in 1920 by Juan de la Cierva, the autogyro with pusher propeller was first tested by Etienne Dormoy with his Buhl A-1 Autogyro. As power is increased to the propeller, less power is required by the rotor to provide forward thrust resulting in reduced pitch angles and rotor blade flapping. At cruise speeds with most or all of the thrust being provided by the propellers, a rotor kite or gyroglider is an unpowered rotary-wing aircraft. Like an autogyro or helicopter, it relies on lift created by one or more sets of rotors in order to fly, a rotary wing is characterised by the number of blades. Typically this is two and six per driveshaft. A rotorcraft may have one or more rotors, various rotor configurations have been used, One rotor. Powered rotors require compensation for the reaction causing yaw, except in the case of tipjet drive. These typically rotate in opposite directions cancelling the torque reaction so that no tail rotor or other yaw stabiliser is needed and these rotors can be laid out as Tandem – One in front of the other. Coaxial – One rotor disc above the other, with drive shafts. An uncommon configuration, the 1948 Cierva Air Horse had three rotors as it was not believed a single rotor of sufficient strength could be built for its size. All three rotors turned in the direction and yaw compensation was provided by inclining each rotor axis to generate rotor thrust components that opposed torque
4.
Autorotation
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The term autorotation dates to a period of early helicopter development between 1915 and 1920, and refers to the rotors turning without the engine. It is analogous to the flight of a fixed-wing aircraft. The most common use of autorotation in helicopters is to land the aircraft in the event of an engine failure or tail-rotor failure. It is an emergency procedure taught to helicopter pilots as part of their training. It is the means by which a helicopter can land safely in the event of engine failure. Consequently, all single-engine helicopters must demonstrate this capability to obtain a type certificate, the longest autorotation in history was performed by Jean Boulet in 1972 when he reached a record altitude of 12,440 m in an Aérospatiale Lama. Because of a −63 °C temperature at that altitude, as soon as he reduced power the engine flamed out, by using autorotation he was able to land the aircraft safely. The freewheeling unit is a clutch mechanism that disengages anytime the engine rotational speed is less than the rotor rotational speed. If the engine fails, the unit automatically disengages the engine from the main rotor allowing the main rotor to rotate freely. If altitude permits, autorotations may also be used to recover from vortex ring state, in all cases, a successful landing depends on the helicopters height and velocity at the commencement of autorotation. At the instant of failure, the main rotor blades are producing lift and thrust from their angle of attack. This upward flow of air through the rotor provides sufficient thrust to maintain rotor rotational speed throughout the descent, since the tail rotor is driven by the main rotor transmission during autorotation, heading control is maintained as in normal flight. Several factors affect the rate of descent in autorotation, density altitude, gross weight, rotor rotational speed, the pilots primary control of the rate of descent is airspeed. Higher or lower airspeeds are obtained with the pitch control just as in normal flight. Rate of descent is high at zero airspeed and decreases to a minimum at approximately 50 to 90 knots, depending upon the particular helicopter, as the airspeed increases beyond the speed that gives minimum rate of descent, the rate of descent increases again. Even at zero airspeed, the rotor is quite effective as it has nearly the drag coefficient of a parachute despite having much lower solidity. When landing from an autorotation, the energy stored in the rotating blades is used to decrease the rate of descent. A greater amount of energy is required to stop a helicopter with a high rate of descent than is required to stop a helicopter that is descending more slowly
5.
Lift (force)
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A fluid flowing past the surface of a body exerts a force on it. Lift is the component of force that is perpendicular to the oncoming flow direction. It contrasts with the force, which is the component of the surface force parallel to the flow direction. If the fluid is air, the force is called an aerodynamic force, in water, it is called a hydrodynamic force. Lift is also exploited in the world, and even in the plant world by the seeds of certain trees. When an aircraft is flying straight and level most of the lift opposes gravity, however, when an aircraft is climbing, descending, or banking in a turn the lift is tilted with respect to the vertical. Lift may also be entirely downwards in some aerobatic manoeuvres, or on the wing on a racing car, in this last case, the term downforce is often used. Lift may also be horizontal, for instance on a sail on a sailboat. Aerodynamic lift is distinguished from other kinds of lift in fluids, Aerodynamic lift requires relative motion of the fluid which distinguishes it from aerostatic lift or buoyancy lift as used by balloons, blimps, and dirigibles. An airfoil is a shape that is capable of generating significantly more lift than drag. A flat plate can generate lift, but not as much as a streamlined airfoil, there are several ways to explain how an airfoil generates lift. Some are more complicated or more rigorous than others, some have been shown to be incorrect. For example, there are based directly on Newton’s laws of motion. Either can be used to explain lift, an airfoil generates lift by exerting a downward force on the air as it flows past. According to Newtons third law, the air must exert an equal and opposite force on the airfoil, the air flow changes direction as it passes the airfoil and follows a path that is curved downward. According to Newtons second law, this change in flow direction requires a force applied to the air by the airfoil. Then, according to Newtons third law, the air must exert a force on the airfoil. The overall result is that a force, the lift, is generated opposite to the directional change
6.
Thrust
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Thrust is a reaction force described quantitatively by Isaac Newtons second and third laws. When a system expels or accelerates mass in one direction, the mass will cause a force of equal magnitude. The force applied on a surface in a direction perpendicular or normal to the surface is called thrust. Force, and thus thrust, is measured in the International System of Units as the newton, in mechanical engineering, force orthogonal to the main load is referred to as thrust. A fixed-wing aircraft generates forward thrust when air is pushed in the direction opposite to flight. This can be done in several ways including by the blades of a propeller, or a rotating fan pushing air out from the back of a jet engine. The forward thrust is proportional to the mass of the airstream multiplied by the difference in velocity of the airstream, reverse thrust can be generated to aid braking after landing by reversing the pitch of variable-pitch propeller blades, or using a thrust reverser on a jet engine. Rotary wing aircraft and thrust vectoring V/STOL aircraft use engine thrust to support the weight of the aircraft, a motorboat generates thrust when the propellers are turned to accelerate water backwards. The resulting thrust pushes the boat in the direction from the combustion chamber through the rocket engine nozzle. For vertical launch of a rocket the initial thrust at liftoff must be more than the weight. Each of the three Space Shuttle Main Engines could produce a thrust of 1.8 MN, and each of the Space Shuttles two Solid Rocket Boosters 14.7 MN, together 29.4 MN. By contrast, the simplified Aid For EVA Rescue has 24 thrusters of 3.56 N each, in the air-breathing category, the AMT-USA AT-180 jet engine developed for radio-controlled aircraft produce 90 N of thrust. The GE90-115B engine fitted on the Boeing 777-300ER, recognized by the Guinness Book of World Records as the Worlds Most Powerful Commercial Jet Engine, has a thrust of 569 kN. The power needed to generate thrust and the force of the thrust can be related in a non-linear way and this helps to explain why moving through water is easier and why aircraft have much larger propellers than watercraft do. A very common question is how to contrast the thrust rating of a jet engine with the rating of a piston engine. Such comparison is difficult, as quantities are not equivalent. A piston engine does not move the aircraft by itself, so piston engines are rated by how much power they deliver to the propeller. Except for changes in temperature and air pressure, this quantity depends basically on the throttle setting, a jet engine has no propeller, so the propulsive power of a jet engine is determined from its thrust as follows
7.
Propeller
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A propeller is a type of fan that transmits power by converting rotational motion into thrust. A pressure difference is produced between the forward and rear surfaces of the blade, and a fluid is accelerated behind the blade. Their disadvantages are higher mechanical complexity and higher cost, the principle employed in using a screw propeller is used in sculling. It is part of the skill of propelling a Venetian gondola but was used in a less refined way in parts of Europe. For example, propelling a canoe with a paddle using a pitch stroke or side slipping a canoe with a scull involves a similar technique. In China, sculling, called lu, was used by the 3rd century AD. In sculling, a blade is moved through an arc. The innovation introduced with the propeller was the extension of that arc through more than 360° by attaching the blade to a rotating shaft. Propellers can have a blade, but in practice there are nearly always more than one so as to balance the forces involved. The origin of the screw propeller starts with Archimedes, who used a screw to lift water for irrigation and bailing boats and it was probably an application of spiral movement in space to a hollow segmented water-wheel used for irrigation by Egyptians for centuries. Leonardo da Vinci adopted the principle to drive his theoretical helicopter, in 1784, J. P. Paucton proposed a gyrocopter-like aircraft using similar screws for both lift and propulsion. At about the time, James Watt proposed using screws to propel boats. This was not his own invention, though, Toogood and Hays had patented it a century earlier, by 1827, Czech-Austrian inventor Josef Ressel had invented a screw propeller which had multiple blades fastened around a conical base. He had tested his propeller in February 1826 on a ship that was manually driven. He was successful in using his bronze screw propeller on an adapted steamboat and his ship Civetta with 48 gross register tons, reached a speed of about six knots. This was the first ship successfully driven by an Archimedes screw-type propeller, after a new steam engine had an accident his experiments were banned by the Austro-Hungarian police as dangerous. Josef Ressel was at the time a forestry inspector for the Austrian Empire, but before this he received an Austro-Hungarian patent for his propeller. This new method of propulsion was an improvement over the paddlewheel as it was not so affected by either ship motions or changes in draft as the burned coal
8.
Helicopter rotor
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The blade pitch is typically controlled by a swashplate connected to the helicopter flight controls. Helicopters are one example of rotary-wing aircraft, the name is derived from the Greek words helix, helik-, meaning spiral, and pteron meaning wing. The use of a rotor for vertical flight has existed since 400 BC in the form of the bamboo-copter, the bamboo-copter is spun by rolling a stick attached to a rotor. The spinning creates lift, and the toy flies when released, leonardo da Vinci designed a machine known as an aerial screw with a rotor based on a water screw. The Russian polymath Mikhail Lomonosov developed a rotor based on the Chinese toy, the French naturalist Christian de Launoy constructed his rotor out of turkey feathers. Sir George Cayley, inspired by the Chinese toy in his childhood, alphonse Pénaud would later develop the coaxial rotor model helicopter toys in 1870, powered by rubber bands. One of these toys, given as a gift by their father, before development of powered helicopters in the mid 20th century, autogyro pioneer Juan de la Cierva researched and developed many of the fundamentals of the rotor. De la Cierva is credited with development of multi-bladed, fully articulated rotor systems. This system, in its various modified forms, is the basis of most multi-bladed helicopter rotor systems and their TsAGI 1-EA helicopter was able to fly in low altitude testing in 1931-32, with Cheremukhin flying it as high as 605 meters by mid-August 1932. In the 1930s, Arthur Young improved the stability of two-bladed rotor systems with the introduction of a stabilizer bar and this system was used in several Bell and Hiller helicopter models. In the late 1940s, the making of helicopter blades was a job that inspired John T. Parsons to be a pioneer of numerical control. NC and CNC turned out to be an important new technology that affected all machining industries. The helicopter rotor is powered by the engine, through the transmission, the mast is a cylindrical metal shaft that extends upward from—and is driven by—the transmission. At the top of the mast is the attachment point for the rotor blades called the hub, the rotor blades are then attached to the hub, and the hub can have 10-20 times the drag of the blade. Main rotor systems are classified according to how the rotor blades are attached. There are three classifications, hingeless, teetering, and fully articulated, although some modern rotor systems use a combination of these classifications. A rotor is a finely tuned rotating mass, and different subtle adjustments reduce vibrations at different airspeeds, the rotors are designed to operate at a fixed RPM, but a few experimental aircraft used variable speed rotors. Unlike the small diameter fans used in jet engines, the main rotor on a helicopter has a large diameter that lets it accelerate a large volume of air
9.
Juan de la Cierva
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Juan de la Cierva y Codorníu, 1st Count of De La Cierva was a Spanish civil engineer, pilot and aeronautical engineer. His most famous accomplishment was the invention in 1920 of the Autogiro, De la Cierva was born in Murcia, Spain to a wealthy family. After several successful experiments with aviation as a boy, he earned a civil engineering degree. He moved to the United Kingdom in 1925 where, with the support of Scottish industrialist James G. Weir and his brother was killed by the Republican army in Paracuellos del Jarama. De la Cierva started building the aircraft as early as 1912, and in 1919 he started to consider the use of a rotor to generate lift at low airspeed, and eliminate the risk of stall. This phenomenon was known, and was available as a safety feature to allow controlled descent of a helicopter in the event of engine failure. This major difficulty was resolved by the introduction of the flapping hinge, in 1923, De la Ciervas first successful autogyro was flown in Spain by Lt. Gomez Spencer. This pioneering work was carried out in De la Ciervas native Spain, in 1925 he brought his C.6 to Britain and demonstrated it to the Air Ministry at Farnborough, Hampshire. This machine had a four blade rotor with flapping hinges but relied upon conventional airplane controls for pitch, roll and yaw. It was based upon an Avro 504K fuselage, initial rotation of the rotor was achieved by the uncoiling of a rope passed around stops on the undersides of the blades. The Farnborough demonstration was a success, and resulted in an invitation to continue the work in the UK. As a direct result, and with the assistance of the Scottish industrialist James G Weir, from the outset De la Cierva concentrated upon the design and the manufacture of rotor systems, relying on other established aircraft manufacturers to produce the airframes, predominantly the A. V. The Avro built C.8 was a refinement of the C.6, with the more powerful 180hp Lynx radial engine, and several C. 8s were built. The resolution of these fundamental rotor problems opened the way to progress, confidence built up rapidly, although forced to withdraw, the C. 8L4 subsequently completed a 4,800 km tour of the British Isles. Later that year it flew from London to Paris thus becoming the first rotating wing aircraft to cross the English Channel, the tour was subsequently extended to include Berlin, Brussels and Amsterdam. A predominant problem with the autogyro was driving the rotor prior to takeoff, another approach was to tilt the tail stabiliser to deflect engine slipstream up through the rotor. The system was then declutched prior to executing the take-off run, as De la Ciervas autogyros achieved success and acceptance, others began to follow and with them came further innovation. The first production direct control autogyro was the C.30, produced in quantity by Avro, Liore et Olivier, the introduction of jump take-off was another major improvement in capability
10.
Cuatro Vientos Airport
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The airport is located 8 km southwest of the city centre. The name Cuatro Vientos translates into English as Four Winds, Cuatro Vientos was originally an air base, which later became also a civil airport. Thus, there is a section located on a separate apron of the airport. It is also used as Madrid base for the Spanish Police helicopters and turbo-prop airplanes and this airport is mainly operated by general aviation aircraft, Flight Training Organizations and flying clubs. Due to the length and surrounding buildings it is only possible to operate helicopters, piston engine aircraft, medium size turbo-props. Also, due to the lack of IFR facilities, but an old NDB, nevertheless, it is the headquarters airport of several FTOs, including some of the major Spanish ones as Gestair Flying Academy, Aerotec, Aerofan and others. In the sector A-1, on the side of the field, sits the Museo del Aire. In September 1976, Douglas C-53 T. 3-57 of the Ejército del Aire was involved in an accident at Cuatro Vientos AFB, in May 2013, Hispano HA-200D Saeta of the Fundación Infante de Orleans crashed during an aerobatic show at Cuatro Vientos Airport. Pilot died and caused several injured people on the ground, in July 2016, Cirrus SR22 crashed and burst into flames while training some touch-and-go. Madrid–Cuatro Vientos Airport Airport information for LECU at World Aero Data, Data current as of October 2006
11.
Madrid
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Madrid is the capital city of the Kingdom of Spain and the largest municipality in both the Community of Madrid and Spain as a whole. The city has a population of almost 3.2 million with an area population of approximately 6.5 million. It is the third-largest city in the European Union after London and Berlin, the municipality itself covers an area of 604.3 km2. Madrid lies on the River Manzanares in the centre of both the country and the Community of Madrid, this community is bordered by the communities of Castile and León. As the capital city of Spain, seat of government, and residence of the Spanish monarch, Madrid is also the political, economic, the current mayor is Manuela Carmena from Ahora Madrid. Madrid is home to two football clubs, Real Madrid and Atlético de Madrid. Madrid is the 17th most liveable city in the according to Monocle magazine. Madrid organises fairs such as FITUR, ARCO, SIMO TCI, while Madrid possesses modern infrastructure, it has preserved the look and feel of many of its historic neighbourhoods and streets. Cibeles Palace and Fountain have become one of the monument symbols of the city, the first documented reference of the city originates in Andalusan times as the Arabic مجريط Majrīṭ, which was retained in Medieval Spanish as Magerit. A wider number of theories have been formulated on possible earlier origins, according to legend, Madrid was founded by Ocno Bianor and was named Metragirta or Mantua Carpetana. The most ancient recorded name of the city Magerit comes from the name of a built on the Manzanares River in the 9th century AD. Nevertheless, it is speculated that the origin of the current name of the city comes from the 2nd century BC. The Roman Empire established a settlement on the banks of the Manzanares river, the name of this first village was Matrice. In the 8th century, the Islamic conquest of the Iberian Peninsula saw the changed to Mayrit, from the Arabic term ميرا Mayra. The modern Madrid evolved from the Mozarabic Matrit, which is still in the Madrilenian gentilic, after the disintegration of the Caliphate of Córdoba, Madrid was integrated in the Taifa of Toledo. With the surrender of Toledo to Alfonso VI of León and Castile, the city was conquered by Christians in 1085, Christians replaced Muslims in the occupation of the centre of the city, while Muslims and Jews settled in the suburbs. The city was thriving and was given the title of Villa, since 1188, Madrid won the right to be a city with representation in the courts of Castile. In 1202, King Alfonso VIII of Castile gave Madrid its first charter to regulate the municipal council, which was expanded in 1222 by Ferdinand III of Castile
12.
Fixed-wing aircraft
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A fixed-wing aircraft is an aircraft, such as an aeroplane, which is capable of flight using wings that generate lift caused by the vehicles forward airspeed and the shape of the wings. Fixed-wing aircraft are distinct from rotary-wing aircraft, in which the form a rotor mounted on a spinning shaft. Glider fixed-wing aircraft, including free-flying gliders of various kinds and tethered kites, powered fixed-wing aircraft that gain forward thrust from an engine include powered paragliders, powered hang gliders and some ground effect vehicles. The wings of an aircraft are not necessarily rigid, kites, hang-gliders, variable-sweep wing aircraft. Most fixed-wing aircraft are flown by a pilot on board the aircraft, kites were used approximately 2,800 years ago in China, where materials ideal for kite building were readily available. Some authors hold that leaf kites were being flown much earlier in what is now Indonesia, by at least 549 AD paper kites were being flown, as it was recorded in that year a paper kite was used as a message for a rescue mission. Ancient and medieval Chinese sources list other uses of kites for measuring distances, testing the wind, lifting men, signaling, and communication for military operations. Stories of kites were brought to Europe by Marco Polo towards the end of the 13th century, although they were initially regarded as mere curiosities, by the 18th and 19th centuries kites were being used as vehicles for scientific research. This machine may have been suspended for its flight, some of the earliest recorded attempts with gliders were those by the 9th-century poet Abbas Ibn Firnas and the 11th-century monk Eilmer of Malmesbury, both experiments injured their pilots. In 1799, Sir George Cayley set forth the concept of the aeroplane as a fixed-wing flying machine with separate systems for lift, propulsion. Cayley was building and flying models of fixed-wing aircraft as early as 1803, in 1856, Frenchman Jean-Marie Le Bris made the first powered flight, by having his glider LAlbatros artificiel pulled by a horse on a beach. In 1884, the American John J. Montgomery made controlled flights in a glider as a part of a series of gliders built between 1883-1886, other aviators who made similar flights at that time were Otto Lilienthal, Percy Pilcher, and Octave Chanute. In the 1890s, Lawrence Hargrave conducted research on wing structures and his box kite designs were widely adopted. Although he also developed a type of aircraft engine, he did not create. Sir Hiram Maxim built a craft that weighed 3.5 tons, in 1894, his machine was tested with overhead rails to prevent it from rising. The test showed that it had enough lift to take off, the craft was uncontrollable, which Maxim, it is presumed, realized, because he subsequently abandoned work on it. By 1905, the Wright Flyer III was capable of fully controllable, stable flight for substantial periods, the flight was certified by the FAI. This was the first controlled flight, to be officially recognised, the Bleriot VIII design of 1908 was an early aircraft design that had the modern monoplane tractor configuration
13.
Etienne Dormoy
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Étienne Dormoy was an aeronautical engineer and a designer of aircraft. Etienne Dormoy graduated in 1906 as an engineer from Institut industriel du Nord. He worked as a designer for Deperdussin in France. He met Harold D. Kantner in France in 1913 and he was then seconded to Maximilian Schmitt Aeroplane & Motor Works, wherein he designed the first monocoque fuselage aircraft produced in USA. With this monoplane, Harold D. Kantner won the NY Times race on 4 April 1914, the aircraft was re-engineered as a biplane with a 100 hp engine and tested for military applications at San Diego, CA. Dormoy returned to France at the beginning of World War I, in 1917, he joined the French industry delegation in the United States for SPAD technology transfer to Curtiss Aeroplane and Motor Company at Elmwood. After the war, Dormoy worked for the Engineering Division of the United States Army Air Service at McCook Field from 1919 to 1925, there, he tested aerial applications, including a United States Army Air Service Curtiss JN-4 modified for aerial crop dusting in 1921. At McCook Field, he designed the ultra-light Dormoy Bathtub in 1924, Dormoy earned the Dayton Daily News Light Airplane Race and Rickenbacker Trophy in 1924. Dormoy joined Buhl Aircraft Company in Detroit, MI, from 1925 to 1932, wherein he designed several types of sport, Dormoy contributed to the first type-approval of a US aircraft. Acting as Buhls chief engineer, Dormoy designed the Buhl Airsedan in 1928, Buhl Airsedan Spokane Sun God was used to make the first nonstop roundtrip flight across the United States in August 1929. Dormoy also prototyped the Buhl A-1 Autogyro, world first autogyro with rear propulsion motor in 1931
14.
Igor Bensen
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Bensen was the founder of the Bensen Aircraft, which produced a successful line of gyrogliders and autogyros. He was born in Rostov-on-Don, Russia, and eventually reached the United States in 1937, Bensen flew his first towed gyroglider in 1954. Dr. Bensen earned a Doctor of Divinity degree from Indiana University in 1968 and he died from Parkinsons disease at age 82
15.
Pusher configuration
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In a craft with a pusher configuration, the propeller are mounted behind their respective engine. According to British aviation author Bill Gunston, a propeller is one mounted behind the engine. Pusher configuration describes this specific thrust device attached to a craft, either aerostat or aerodyne or others such as hovercraft, airboat. Pusher configuration also describes the layout of an aircraft in which the thrust device has a pusher configuration. This kind of aircraft is called a pusher. Pushers have been designed and built in different layouts, some of them quite radical. The rubber-powered Planophore, designed by Alphonse Pénaud in 1871, was a successful model aircraft with a pusher propeller. Many early aircraft were pushers, including the Wright Flyer, the Santos-Dumont 14-bis, the Voisin-Farman I, Henri Farmans pusher Farman III and its successors were so influential in Britain that pushers in general became known as the Farman type. Other early pusher configurations were minor variations on this theme, the earliest examples of pushers relied on a canard but this has serious aerodynamic implications that the early designers were unable to resolve. Typically, mounting the tail was done with a complex wire-braced framework that created a lot of drag, however, new pusher designs continued to be designed right up to the armistice, such as the Vickers Vampire, although few new ones entered service after 1916. Both the British and French continued to use pusher configured bombers, possibly the last fighter to use the Farman pusher configuration was the 1931 Vickers Type 161 COW gun fighter. During the long eclipse of the configuration the use of pusher propellers continued in aircraft which derived a small benefit from the installation, during World War II, experiments were conducted with pusher fighters by most of the major powers. Difficulties remained, particularly that a pilot having to bail out of a pusher was liable to pass through the propeller arc and this meant that of all the types concerned, only the relatively conventional Swedish SAAB21 of 1943 went into series production. Other problems related to the aerodynamics of canard layouts, which had used on most of the pushers. One of the worlds first ejection seats was designed for this aircraft, the largest pusher aircraft to fly was the Convair B-36 Peacemaker of 1946, which was also the largest bomber ever operated by the United States. It had six 3,800 hp Pratt & Whitney Wasp Major radial engines mounted in the wing, the configuration is also often used for unmanned aerial vehicles, due to requirements for a forward fuselage free of any engine interference. In a pusher configuration, the force provided by the propeller is pushing towards the engine, assuming the engine cannot be run in the reverse direction, the handedness of the propeller must be reversed. The loads on the thrust race are also reversed, because the propeller is pushing into the engine rather than pulling away from it as in a tractor
16.
Trademark
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The trademark owner can be an individual, business organization, or any legal entity. A trademark may be located on a package, a label, for the sake of corporate identity, trademarks are often displayed on company buildings. A trademark identifies the owner of a particular product or service. The unauthorized usage of trademarks by producing and trading counterfeit consumer goods is known as brand piracy, the owner of a trademark may pursue legal action against trademark infringement. Most countries require formal registration of a trademark as a precondition for pursuing this type of action, the United States, Canada and other countries also recognize common law trademark rights, which means action can be taken to protect an unregistered trademark if it is in use. Still, common law trademarks offer the holder in general less legal protection than registered trademarks. A trademark may be designated by the symbols, ™ ℠ ® A trademark is typically a name, word, phrase, logo, symbol, design, image. There is also a range of non-conventional trademarks comprising marks which do not fall into these categories, such as those based on colour, smell. Trademarks which are considered offensive are often rejected according to a nations trademark law, the term trademark is also used informally to refer to any distinguishing attribute by which an individual is readily identified, such as the well-known characteristics of celebrities. When a trademark is used in relation to services rather than products, it may sometimes be called a service mark, in other words, trademarks serve to identify a particular business as the source of goods or services. The use of a trademark in this way is known as trademark use, certain exclusive rights attach to a registered mark. Different goods and services have been classified by the International Classification of Goods, in trademark treatises it is usually reported that blacksmiths who made swords in the Roman Empire are thought of as being the first users of trademarks. Other notable trademarks that have used for a long time include Löwenbräu. The first trademark legislation was passed by the Parliament of England under the reign of King Henry III in 1266, the first modern trademark laws emerged in the late 19th century. In France the first comprehensive system in the world was passed into law in 1857 with the Manufacture. In Britain, the Merchandise Marks Act 1862 made it an offense to imitate anothers trade mark with intent to defraud or to enable another to defraud. In 1875 the Trade Marks Registration Act was passed which allowed formal registration of marks at the UK Patent Office for the first time. Registration was considered to comprise prima facie evidence of ownership of a trade mark, in the United States, Congress first attempted to establish a federal trademark regime in 1870
17.
Bensen Aircraft
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The most successful product was the Bensen B-8 that first flew in 1955 and remained in production until the company closed down in 1987. Bensen B-5 Bensen B-6 Bensen B-7 Bensen B-8 Bensen B-9 Bensen B-10 Bensen B-11 Bensen B-12 Bensen B-13 Bensen Mid-Jet Bensen X-25 Gyrocopter Gyroglider Gunston, Bill
18.
Subaru
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Subaru is the automobile manufacturing division of Japanese transportation conglomerate Subaru Corporation, the twenty-second largest automaker by production worldwide in 2012. Subaru cars are known for the use of a boxer engine layout in most vehicles above 1500 cc, most Subaru models have used the Symmetrical All Wheel Drive drive-train layout since 1972. The lone exception is the BRZ, introduced in 2012, which uses the boxer engine, Subaru also offers turbocharged versions of their passenger cars, such as the Impreza WRX and the Legacy 2. 5GT. The 2. 5XT trims of the Outback and Forester also include a turbocharged engine, in Western markets, the Subaru brand has traditionally been popular among a dedicated core of buyers. Marketing is targeted towards specific niches centered on those who desire the companys signature drive train, in particular the outdoors enthusiast and affordable sports car markets. Subaru is the Japanese name for the Pleiades star cluster M45, or The Seven Sisters, Fuji Heavy Industries started out as The Aircraft Research Laboratory in 1915, headed by Chikuhei Nakajima. In 1932, the company was reorganized as Nakajima Aircraft Company, Ltd, at the end of the Second World War Nakajima Aircraft was again reorganized, this time as Fuji Sangyo Co, Ltd. In 1946, the created the Fuji Rabbit motor scooter with spare aircraft parts from the war. In 1950, Fuji Sangyo was divided into 12 smaller corporations according to the Japanese Governments 1950 Corporate Credit Rearrangement Act, between 1953 and 1955, four of these corporations and a newly formed corporation decided to merge to form Fuji Heavy Industries. Kenji Kita, CEO of Fuji Heavy Industries at the time, wanted the new company to be involved in car manufacturing, mr. Kita canvassed the company for suggestions about naming the P1, but none of the proposals was appealing enough. In the end he gave the company a Japanese name that he had been cherishing in his heart, Subaru, the first Subaru car was named the Subaru 1500. Only twenty were manufactured owing to supply issues. Subsequently, the designed and manufactured dozens of vehicles including the 1500, the tiny air-cooled 360, the Sambar. Nissan would utilize FHIs bus manufacturing capability and expertise for their Nissan Diesel line of buses, in turn many Subaru vehicles, even today, use parts from the Nissan manufacturing keiretsu. The Subaru automatic transmission, known as the 4EAT, is used in the first generation Nissan Pathfinder. While under this arrangement with Nissan, Subaru introduced the R-2, the Rex and the Leone, the BRAT, Alcyone, the Legacy, the Impreza, upon Nissans acquisition by Renault, its stake in FHI was sold to General Motors in 1999. Troy Clarke, of General Motors served as representative to Fuji Heavy Industries on their corporate board, during that time, Subaru introduced the Baja, and the Tribeca. The Subaru Forester was sold as a Chevrolet Forester in India in exchange for the Opel Zafira being sold as a Subaru Traviq in Japan, also, the Chevrolet Borrego concept was presented in 2002, a crossover coupe/pickup truck being derived from the Japanese-market Legacy Turbo platform
19.
Glider (aircraft)
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A glider is a heavier-than-air aircraft that is supported in flight by the dynamic reaction of the air against its lifting surfaces, and whose free flight does not depend on an engine. Most gliders do not have an engine, although motor-gliders have small engines for extending their flight when necessary, there is a wide variety of types differing in the construction of their wings, aerodynamic efficiency, location of the pilot, controls and intended purpose. Most exploit meteorological phenomena to maintain or even gain height, gliders are principally used for the air sports of gliding, hang gliding and paragliding. However some spacecraft have been designed to descend as gliders and in the past military gliders have been used in warfare, perhaps the simplest and most familiar types are toys such as the paper plane and balsa wood glider. Glider is the agent noun form of the verb to glide and it derives from Middle English gliden, which in turn derived from Old English glīdan. The oldest meaning of glide may have denoted a precipitous running or jumping, scholars are uncertain as to its original derivation, with possible connections to slide, and light having been advanced. Early pre-modern accounts of flight are in most cases difficult to verify and it is whether each craft was a glider, kite or parachute. Often the event is recorded a long time after it allegedly took place. A 17th-century account reports an attempt at flight by the 9th-century poet Abbas Ibn Firnas near Cordoba, according to these reports, both used a set of wings, and both blamed their crash on the lack of a tail. Hezârfen Ahmed Çelebi is alleged to have flown a glider with eagle-like wings over the Bosphorus strait from the Galata Tower to Üsküdar district in Istanbul around 1630–1632. The first heavier-than-air man-carrying aircraft that were based on published scientific principles were Sir George Cayleys series of gliders which achieved brief wing-borne hops from around 1849. Thereafter gliders were built by such as Jean Marie Le Bris, John J. Montgomery, Otto Lilienthal, Percy Pilcher, Octave Chanute. Lilienthal was the first to make repeated successful flights and was the first to use rising air to prolong his flight, using a Montgomery tandem-wing glider, Daniel Maloney was the first to demonstrate high-altitude controlled flight using a balloon-launched glider launched from 4,000 feet in 1905. The Wright Brothers developed a series of three manned gliders after preliminary tests with a kite as they worked towards achieving powered flight and they returned to glider testing in 1911 by removing the motor from one of their later designs. In the inter-war years, recreational gliding flourished in Germany under the auspices of Rhön-Rossitten, in the United States, the Schweizer brothers of Elmira, New York, manufactured sport sailplanes to meet the new demand. Sailplanes continued to evolve in the 1930s, and sport gliding has become the main application of gliders, as their performance improved, gliders began to be used to fly cross-country and now regularly fly hundreds or even thousands of kilometers in a day, if the weather is suitable. Military gliders were developed during World War II by a number of countries for landing troops, a glider – the Colditz Cock – was even built secretly by POWs as a potential escape method at Oflag IV-C near the end of the war in 1944. Foot-launched aircraft had flown by Lilienthal and at the meetings at Wasserkuppe in the 1920s
20.
YouTube
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YouTube is an American video-sharing website headquartered in San Bruno, California. The service was created by three former PayPal employees—Chad Hurley, Steve Chen, and Jawed Karim—in February 2005, Google bought the site in November 2006 for US$1.65 billion, YouTube now operates as one of Googles subsidiaries. Unregistered users can watch videos on the site, while registered users are permitted to upload an unlimited number of videos. Videos deemed potentially offensive are available only to registered users affirming themselves to be at least 18 years old, YouTube earns advertising revenue from Google AdSense, a program which targets ads according to site content and audience. YouTube was founded by Chad Hurley, Steve Chen, and Jawed Karim, Hurley had studied design at Indiana University of Pennsylvania, and Chen and Karim studied computer science together at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Karim could not easily find video clips of either event online, Hurley and Chen said that the original idea for YouTube was a video version of an online dating service, and had been influenced by the website Hot or Not. YouTube began as a venture capital-funded technology startup, primarily from an $11.5 million investment by Sequoia Capital between November 2005 and April 2006, YouTubes early headquarters were situated above a pizzeria and Japanese restaurant in San Mateo, California. The domain name www. youtube. com was activated on February 14,2005, the first YouTube video, titled Me at the zoo, shows co-founder Jawed Karim at the San Diego Zoo. The video was uploaded on April 23,2005, and can still be viewed on the site, YouTube offered the public a beta test of the site in May 2005. The first video to reach one million views was a Nike advertisement featuring Ronaldinho in November 2005. Following a $3.5 million investment from Sequoia Capital in November, the site grew rapidly, and in July 2006 the company announced that more than 65,000 new videos were being uploaded every day, and that the site was receiving 100 million video views per day. The site has 800 million unique users a month and it is estimated that in 2007 YouTube consumed as much bandwidth as the entire Internet in 2000. The choice of the name www. youtube. com led to problems for a similarly named website, the sites owner, Universal Tube & Rollform Equipment, filed a lawsuit against YouTube in November 2006 after being regularly overloaded by people looking for YouTube. Universal Tube has since changed the name of its website to www. utubeonline. com, in October 2006, Google Inc. announced that it had acquired YouTube for $1.65 billion in Google stock, and the deal was finalized on November 13,2006. In March 2010, YouTube began free streaming of certain content, according to YouTube, this was the first worldwide free online broadcast of a major sporting event. On March 31,2010, the YouTube website launched a new design, with the aim of simplifying the interface, Google product manager Shiva Rajaraman commented, We really felt like we needed to step back and remove the clutter. In May 2010, YouTube videos were watched more than two times per day. This increased to three billion in May 2011, and four billion in January 2012, in February 2017, one billion hours of YouTube was watched every day
21.
Groen Hawk 4
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The Groen Hawk 4 was a single engine, pusher configuration, four seat autogyro built in the United States in the late 1990s. Three prototypes, two piston engined and one powered, were flown but the Hawk did not go into production. Design work on the Hawk utility/passenger autogyro began in 1996 and the first prototype and it was later modified to include a third seat and renamed the Hawk III. Changes between the Hawk III and 4, apart from cabin revisions to accommodate the seat, included a new constant chord, aluminium rotor in place of the earlier tapered. The rotor was also lowered and the control levers enclosed within a shallower fairing. Successive engine changes increased the power by almost a factor of two, the Hawk 4 had a steel rotor mast and engine mountings but was mostly aluminium elsewhere, including the rotor, rotor head and propeller. The fuselage was an aluminium semi-monocoque, some components, such as the nosecone, engine cowling and cabin door were formed from composite materials. The rotor was a semi-rigid or teetering design with a swash plate, yaw was jointly controlled by the balanced rudders on the endplate fins and the all-moving inboard rudders. It had a fixed, tricycle undercarriage with mainwheels mounted at the tips of the stub wings, two rows of seats accommodated the pilot and up to three passengers, alternatively, the rear seats could be folded to provide baggage space. The Hawk 4 first flew on 29 September 1999 and had logged 120 hours by the following April, a second aircraft, initially designated Hawk 4T and powered by a 313 kW Rolls-Royce 250-B17C turboprop driving a three blade propeller first flew on 12 July 2000. It was redesignated Hawk 4 when development of the engine version was dropped. It had an undercarriage, high set tailplane, endplate fins with rounded extensions below the tailbooms. The Hawk 5 was a five seat development. Despite optimistic sales predictions before the 2000 recession, the Hawk did not reach production, in 2002, the Winter Olympic Games contracted with GBA to provide aerial security over Salt Lake International Airport. The Hawk 4 second prototype bearing the acronym UOPSC was used for this assignment.02 lb/sq ft maximum Take-off to 15 m,46 m Landing from 15 m,46 m
22.
Pitcairn Aircraft Company
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The Pitcairn Aircraft Company was an American aircraft manufacturer of light utility aircraft. An early proponent of the autogyro, the company, later known as the Autogiro Company of America among other names, Harold Frederick Pitcairn, the youngest son of PPG Industries founder, John Pitcairn, Jr. founded Pitcairn Aircraft Company. The business started with the formation of Pitcairn Flying School and Passenger Service on 2 November 1924 which later became Eastern Airlines, in 1926, Pitcairn started Pitcairn Aircraft Company initially to build aircraft for his growing airmail service. He purchased a field in Horsham Township, Montgomery County, Pennsylvania, the first aircraft, a Pitcairn PA-1 Fleetwing was built at the Bryn Athyn field. In 1927, Pitcairn brought aboard a friend and designer from his days at Curtiss Aeroplane and Motor Company. Larsen left the Thomas-Morse Aircraft company to join Pitcairn, in June 1927, the state of the art Wright Whirlwind powered Pitcairn PA-5 Mailwing was introduced for airmail service. The plane proved popular and was bought by thirteen other companies, in 1928, Pitcairn purchased a Cierva C. 8W and the American manufacturing rights from Juan de la Cierva for his autogiro designs for $300,000. In 1929, Pitcairn formed a patent holding company to build autogiros, the Pitcairn-Cierva Autogiro Company. Kellett autogyros competed with, and eventually licensed production rights from Pitcairn-Cierva Autogiro Company for $300,000, in 1929, three prototypes were built with one being demonstrated in the 1929 Cleveland Air Races. Following a fire in November 1929, The first PCA-1 was built, from this point on, Pitcairn focused on autogiros. In 1931 the company was renamed to the Autogiro Company of America and this PCA-2 was the ancestor of todays news helicopters. Also in 1931, pilot James G. Ray landed an autogiro on the South lawn of the White House, Harold F. Pitcairn, the pilot and three other company members of the Pitcairn-Cierva Autogiro Company were present to receive the Collier Trophy for their development of the autogyro. In 1932, autogyro inventor Cierva was greeted by U. S. President Herbert Hoover, amelia Earhart borrowed a company Pitcairn PCA-2 model. She arranged for the National Aeronautics Association to monitor the flight, members of the New York press and Movietone News were invited to watch. On her second flight, she remained airborne for three hours and set a womans autogiro altitude record of 18,415 feet. Later she toured the country for Beech-Nut Packing Company in a bright green autogiro, on the return trip she crash landed in Abilene, Texas earning her a reprimand from the United States Department of Commerce. A second crash at the Michigan state fair, caused an injury of her husbands ankle as he ran to the scene. On December 9,1936, Juan de la Cierva died in a crash of a KLM DC-2, Pitcairns engineering staff utilized a different and more practical means of providing jump-takeoff performance which was applied to the PA-36, PA-39, and XO-60 Autogiros
23.
Air & Space 18A
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The Air & Space 18A is a gyroplane that was manufactured in the central United States between 1965 and 2000. The Air & Space 18A is one of the last three gyroplanes issued a Standard Airworthiness Certificate by the United States Federal Aviation Administration. Raymond E. Gilbert Devore commenced the design of Umbaughs tandem two-seat jump-takeoff gyroplane in 1958, the prototype Umbaugh U-17, built by Fairchild Engine and Airplane Corporation of Hagerstown, Maryland, flew in August 1959. Further test flights were conducted by chief pilot Ken Hayden and former Pitcairn Autogiro Company pilot Slim Soule, the majority of the testing of the aircraft was done at Bartow Air Base in Bartow, Fl. The prototype exhibited stability problems due to its rudder and minimal T-tail horizontal stabilizer positioned on a boom behind the pusher propeller. The second prototype, named Umbaugh U-18, was fitted with a V-tail which also proved inadequate, the third empennage tested, also unsuccessfully, was a T-tail with two large vertical end plates on the horizontal tail plane. Sufficient stability was achieved by the use of two fixed vertical fins with a centrally mounted all-flying rudder, all mounted on a horizontal stabilizer. Umbaugh had by this time concluded an agreement for Fairchild Engine and Airplane Corporation to undertake development and mass production of the U-18 as the “Flymobil. ”Fairchild built five development gyroplanes during 1960. Under pressure from the dealers, Umbaugh Aircraft Corporation ceased operations in 1962, about one hundred Umbaugh dealers took over the assets of Umbaugh Aircraft Corporation and in 1964 established Air and Space Manufacturing, Inc. of Muncie, Indiana, to commence production. In early 1965, the FAA awarded the corporation a production certificate for the Air & Space Model 18A gyroplane, by late 1965 sixty-eight gyroplanes had been completed and delivered,14 more were near completion, some were later stolen when Air and Space Manufacturing was in receivership. Air and Space Manufacturing, Inc. was again faced with dealer pressure for aircraft, the assets of Air and Space Manufacturing went into storage, and were eventually acquired by one of the dealers, retired Pan Am pilot Don Farrington of Paducah, Kentucky. John Potter went into partnership with Don Farrington until the year 2000 when Don died of a heart attack, robert Kelsall of Euroa, Australia, was engaged to design a four-place version of the 18A termed 28A. Potter died of cancer in 2006, Heliplane Aircraft International Corp. currently resides in Summerville, SC outside Charleston. Gene Ferrel owns the FAA Type II certificate for this aircraft, as of November 2011, no progress has been made placing the 18A back into production. In 1991, Farrington obtained the Air & Space 18A Type Certificate, work was also under way in 1996 to certify a Model 20A, fitted with a Lycoming IO-360200 horsepower fuel-injected engine. Farrington suffered an attack while flying an Air and Space 18A at an airshow in April 2000. Farrington Aircraft Corporation ceased operations shortly after, and the assets were sold at auction. At some point the type certificate along with aircraft were moved to Fort Pierce, Florida
24.
Swashplate (aeronautics)
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A swashplate is a device that translates input via the helicopter flight controls into motion of the main rotor blades. Because the main rotor blades are spinning, the swashplate is used to three of the pilots commands from the non-rotating fuselage to the rotating rotor hub and mainblades. The swashplate consists of two parts, a stationary swashplate and a rotating swashplate. The stationary swashplate is mounted on the rotor mast and is connected to the cyclic. It is able to tilt in all directions and move vertically, the rotating swashplate is mounted to the stationary swashplate by means of a bearing and is allowed to rotate with the main rotor mast. An anti-rotation link prevents the inner swash from rotating independently of the blades, the outer swashplate typically has an anti-rotation slider as well to prevent it from rotating. Both swashplates tilt up and down as one unit, the rotating swashplate is connected to the pitch horns by the pitch links. Alternative mechanics to the stationary swashplate are the hexapod and the universal joint, swashplates for helicopters having two rotors mounted on the same shaft are much more complex than the single rotor helicopters. Cyclic controls are used to change a helicopters roll and pitch, push rods or hydraulic actuators tilt the outer swashplate in response to the pilots commands. The swashplate moves in the expected direction, tilting forwards to respond to a forward input. However pitch links on the blades transmit the pitch information way ahead of the actual position. To control the pitch of the main rotor blades, the entire swashplate must be moved up or down along its axis without changing the orientation of the cyclic controls. Conventionally, the swashplate is moved along the mainshaft by a separate actuator. However, some newer model helicopters remove this mechanically complex separation of functionalities by using three interdependent actuators that can move the entire swashplate. This is called cyclic/collective pitch mixing, the swashplate was originally proposed by Russian Boris Yuryev in 1911, though he did not use it on his first helicopter of 1912. Pescara helicopters are coaxial rotors helicopters, each rotor being controlled by a swashplate driven by the first control stick for helicopter. French engineer and helicopter precursor Etienne Oehmichen filed an application to patent a swashplate device on June 18,1926 in France and this reduces rotor hub drag since there are no exposed linkages. Other swashplate and control design have been used, for instance, Kaman Aircraft helicopters do not use a traditional swashplate and instead operate servo flaps on the rotor blades to adjust the angle of attack of the blades
25.
Rudder
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A rudder is a primary control surface used to steer a ship, boat, submarine, hovercraft, aircraft, or other conveyance that moves through a fluid medium. On an aircraft the rudder is used primarily to counter adverse yaw, a rudder operates by redirecting the fluid past the hull or fuselage, thus imparting a turning or yawing motion to the craft. In basic form, a rudder is a plane or sheet of material attached with hinges to the crafts stern, tail. Often rudders are shaped so as to minimize hydrodynamic or aerodynamic drag, on simple watercraft, a tiller—essentially, a stick or pole acting as a lever arm—may be attached to the top of the rudder to allow it to be turned by a helmsman. In larger vessels, cables, pushrods, or hydraulics may be used to link rudders to steering wheels, in typical aircraft, the rudder is operated by pedals via mechanical linkages or hydraulics. Generally, a rudder is part of the apparatus of a boat or ship that is fastened outside the hull, that is denoting all different types of oars, paddles. More specifically, the gear of ancient vessels can be classified into side-rudders and stern-mounted rudders. A third term, steering oar, can denote both types, in a Mediterranean context, side-rudders are more specifically called quarter-rudders as the later term designates more exactly the place where the rudder was mounted. Stern-mounted rudders are uniformly suspended at the back of the ship in a central position. S, a steering oar was used at this time because the rudder had not yet been invented. With a single sail, a frequent movement of the oar was required to steer a straight course. The steering oar or steering board is an oar or board to control the direction of a ship or other watercraft prior to the invention of the rudder. It is normally attached to the side in larger vessels, though in smaller ones it is rarely, if ever. Rowing oars set aside for steering appeared on large Egyptian vessels long before the time of Menes, in the Old Kingdom as much as five steering oars are found on each side of passenger boats. The tiller, at first a small pin run through the stock of the steering oar, both the tiller and the introduction of an upright steering post abaft reduced the usual number of necessary steering oars to one each side. In Iran, oars mounted on the side of ships for steering are documented from the 3rd millennium BCE in artwork, wooden models, the strength of the steering oar lay in its combination of effectiveness, adaptability and simpleness. Roman quarter steering oar mounting systems survived mostly intact through the medieval period, by the first half of the 1st century AD, steering gear mounted on the stern were also quite common in Roman river and harbour craft as proved from reliefs and archaeological finds. A tomb plaque of Hadrianic age shows a harbour tug boat in Ostia with a long stern-mounted oar for better leverage, interestingly, the boat already featured a spritsail, adding to the mobility of the harbour vessel. Further attested Roman uses of stern-mounted steering oars includes barges under tow, transport ships for wine casks, also, the well-known Zwammerdam find, a large river barge at the mouth of the Rhine, featured a large steering gear mounted on the stern
26.
Euler angles
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The Euler angles are three angles introduced by Leonhard Euler to describe the orientation of a rigid body with respect to a fixed coordinate system. They can also represent the orientation of a frame of reference in physics or the orientation of a general basis in 3-dimensional linear algebra. Any orientation can be achieved by composing three elemental rotations, i. e. rotations about the axes of a coordinate system, Euler angles can be defined by three of these rotations. They can also be defined by geometry and the geometrical definition demonstrates that three rotations are always sufficient to reach any frame. The three elemental rotations may be extrinsic, or intrinsic, Euler angles are typically denoted as α, β, γ, or φ, θ, ψ. Different authors may use different sets of rotation axes to define Euler angles, therefore, any discussion employing Euler angles should always be preceded by their definition. Tait–Bryan angles are also called Cardan angles, nautical angles, heading, elevation, and bank, or yaw, pitch, sometimes, both kinds of sequences are called Euler angles. In that case, the sequences of the first group are called proper or classic Euler angles, the axes of the original frame are denoted as x, y, z and the axes of the rotated frame are denoted as X, Y, Z. The geometrical definition begins defining the line of nodes as the intersection of the planes xy, using it, the three Euler angles can be defined as follows, α is the angle between the x axis and the N axis. β is the angle between the z axis and the Z axis, γ is the angle between the N axis and the X axis. Euler angles between two frames are defined only if both frames have the same handedness. Intrinsic rotations are elemental rotations occur about the axes of a coordinate system XYZ attached to a moving body. Therefore, they change their orientation after each elemental rotation, the XYZ system rotates, while xyz is fixed. Starting with XYZ overlapping xyz, a composition of three intrinsic rotations can be used to any target orientation for XYZ. Euler angles can be defined by intrinsic rotations, the rotated frame XYZ may be imagined to be initially aligned with xyz, before undergoing the three elemental rotations represented by Euler angles. Hence, N can be simply denoted x’, moreover, since the third elemental rotation occurs about Z, it does not change the orientation of Z. Extrinsic rotations are elemental rotations occur about the axes of the fixed coordinate system xyz. The XYZ system rotates, while xyz is fixed, starting with XYZ overlapping xyz, a composition of three extrinsic rotations can be used to reach any target orientation for XYZ
27.
Slipstream
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A slipstream is a region behind a moving object in which a wake of fluid is moving at velocities comparable to the moving object, relative to the ambient fluid through which the object is moving. The term slipstream also applies to the region adjacent to an object with a fluid moving around it. Slipstreaming or drafting works because of the motion of the fluid in the slipstream. A slipstream created by turbulent flow has a lower pressure than the ambient fluid around the object. When the flow is laminar, the pressure behind the object is higher than the surrounding fluid, the shape of an object determines how strong the effect is. In general, the more aerodynamic an object is, the smaller and weaker its slipstream will be, for example, a box-like front will collide with the mediums particles at a high rate, transferring more momentum from the object to the fluid than a more aerodynamic object. A bullet-like profile will cause turbulence and create a more laminar flow. A tapered rear will permit the particles of the medium to rejoin more easily and quickly than a truncated rear and this reduces lower-pressure effect in the slipstream, but also increases skin friction. The term slipstreaming describes an object traveling inside the slipstream of another object, if an object is inside the slipstream behind another object, moving at the same speed, the rear object will require less power to maintain its speed than if it were moving independently. In addition, the object will be able to move faster than it could independently. In recreational cycling, on the hand, members of a group can take turns at the leading position. On inclines, however, the benefit of drafting is relatively less, as speeds are slower, the flat or hilly nature of a route has consequences for both racing and recreational cycling, with different types of routes favouring different types of cyclists. Following in the slipstream of another vehicle, or drafting. Truck convoys are an example, travelling highways in a single-file queue several vehicles long. In tests, this has shown to produce significant fuel savings. A related effect used for rather than drag reduction is vortex surfing for airborne objects. The extended formations or skeins in which many migratory birds fly enable the birds to use vortex surfing to take advantage of one anothers vortices, other birds that typically fly in close formation, even on short journeys, are probably also exploiting this effect. Using wingtip vortices has been tested for aircraft, and could save 10%-29% fuel, spiral slipstream is a spiral-shaped slipstream formed behind a rotating propeller on an aircraft
28.
McCulloch J-2
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The McCulloch J-2 was a small, two-seat autogyro with an enclosed cabin, one of only three designs of this type of aircraft to receive a type certificate in the United States. It was built by McCulloch Aircraft Corporation and it was designed by Drago Jovanovich and first flew in June 1962. McCulloch acquired the design in 1969 and put it into production and they were reported to sell for US$15,900. The design featured a belt clutch and a transmission which could be engaged to spin the blades to high speed before take-off to produce short takeoff runs. A lever on the cockpit wall would select the drive position for the transmission. The rotor could be spun to over 500 rpm before takeoff, release of the spin-up lever would disengage both the clutch and the transmission, while placing the blades into flight pitch. After a very brief takeoff run adequate flight airspeed would be attained, the rotor was not engine-driven in flight. A strong spring resisted accidental depressing of the lever while airborne. Dual controls were provided for all functions except the spin-up lever, the aircraft enjoyed nimble handling with light control forces, but suffered from a shallow climb gradient. Early versions were equipped with a two-bladed wooden Sensenich propeller, a later Super J-2 variant employed a three-bladed Hartzell controllable-pitch propeller, accompanied by an increase in allowable gross weight. Baggage of up to 95 pounds, to the extent permitted by gross weight considerations, fuel was carried in tanks in the stub wings. A total of 24 U. S. gallons could be carried,12 on each side, at a typical fuel burn rate of about eight gallons per hour and economy cruise at about 85 mph, with a need for a safety reserve, this limited the aircrafts range. The rotor system is similar to that found on the early versions of the Hughes 269 / Schweizer 300 series helicopters. The primary difference is in the twist of the blades, optimized for autorotation in the case of the J-2, most examples of the J-2 were sold to pilot owners in the United States but at least one example was exported to the United Kingdom. In 1974, the rights were bought by Aero Resources, who planned to return the Super J-2 to production, Jovanovich Jov-2 The initial prototype as designed by Drago Jovanovich. McCulloch J-2 and Super J-2 Production versions built by McCulloch from 1971 to 1974, Aero Resources Super J-2 Further planned production by Aero resources, powered by a 180 hp Lycoming O-360-A2D. Data from General characteristics Crew, one pilot Capacity, one passenger Length,15 ft 9 in Empty weight,1,109 lb Max takeoff weight,1,598 lb Powerplant,1 × Lycoming O-360-A2D 4-cyl, McCulloch Approved Rotorcraft Flight Manual, Report No. Gardena, CA, Aero Resources, Inc.1972, type Certificate Data Sheet H6WE, Rev.1
29.
Throttle
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A throttle is the mechanism by which fluid flow is managed by constriction or obstruction. An engines power can be increased or decreased by the restriction of inlet gases, the term throttle has come to refer, informally and incorrectly, to any mechanism by which the power or speed of an engine is regulated. What is often termed a throttle is more correctly called a thrust lever, for a steam engine, the steam valve that sets the engine speed/power is often known as a regulator. A diesel engine does not have a throttle except there is a valve on the newer diesel engines which is generally referred to as air management valves. Air management valves can be with or without integrated control electronics, the throttle is typically a butterfly valve. In a fuel-injected engine, the valve is placed on the entrance of the intake manifold. In a carbureted engine, it is found in the carburetor, when a throttle is wide open, the intake manifold is usually at ambient atmospheric pressure. When the throttle is closed, a manifold vacuum develops as the intake drops below ambient pressure. Usually, the valve is controlled with a throttle pedal or lever via a direct mechanical linkage. In vehicles with electronic control, the manual throttle control sends a signal to the Engine Control Unit. This means that the operator does not have control over the throttle valve. In a reciprocating-engine aircraft, the control is usually a hand-operated lever or knob. It controls the power output, which may or may not reflect in a change of RPM. The power output of an engine is controlled by regulating the quantity of fuel that is injected into the cylinder. Because the engines do not need to control air volumes, they lack a butterfly valve in the intake tract. In fuel injected engines, the body is the part of the air intake system that controls the amount of air flowing into the engine. The throttle body is located between the air filter box and the intake manifold, and it is usually attached to, or near. The largest piece inside the body is the throttle plate
30.
Helicopter flight controls
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A helicopter pilot manipulates the helicopter flight controls to achieve and maintain controlled aerodynamic flight. Changes to the flight control system transmit mechanically to the rotor. A typical helicopter has three flight control inputs—the cyclic stick, the lever, and the anti-torque pedals. The manual throttle may also be considered a flight control because it is needed to maintain speed on smaller helicopters without governors. The governors also help the control the collective pitch on the helicopters main rotors, to keep a stable. The cyclic control is located between the pilots legs and is commonly called the cyclic stick or just cyclic. On most helicopters, the cyclic is similar in appearance to a joystick in a conventional aircraft, but on the Robinson R22, the cyclic is a central pillar that either pilot can manipulate. The control is called the cyclic because it changes the angle of the rotor blades cyclically. The change in cyclic pitch has the effect of changing the angle of attack and this in turn causes the blades to fly up or down in sequence, depending on the changes in lift affecting each individual blade. The result is to tilt the rotor disk in a particular direction, if the pilot pushes the cyclic forward, the rotor disk tilts forward, and the rotor produces a thrust vector in the forward direction. Any rotor system has a delay between the point in rotation where the controls introduce a change in pitch and the point where the change in the rotor blades flight occurs. This difference is caused by lag, often confused with gyroscopic precession. A rotor is a system that obeys the laws that govern vibration—which, depending on the rotor system. The collective pitch control, or collective lever, is located on the left side of the pilots seat with an adjustable friction control to prevent inadvertent movement. The collective changes the angle of all the main rotor blades collectively. Therefore, if an input is made, all the blades change equally, and as a result. In level flight this would cause a climb or descent, while with the helicopter pitched forward an increase in total lift would produce an acceleration together with an amount of ascent. The collective pitch control in a Boeing CH-47 Chinook is called a thrust control, the anti-torque pedals are located in the same place as the rudder pedals in an airplane, and serve a similar purpose—they control the direction that the nose of the aircraft points
31.
VTOL
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A vertical take-off and landing aircraft is one that can hover, take off, and land vertically. This classification includes fixed-wing aircraft as well as helicopters and other aircraft with powered rotors, some VTOL aircraft can operate in other modes as well, such as CTOL, STOL, and/or STOVL. Others, such as helicopters, can only operate by VTOL. VTOL is a subset of V/STOL, generally speaking, VTOL aircraft capable of STOVL use it wherever possible, since it typically significantly increases takeoff weight, range or payload compared to pure VTOL. The helicopters form of VTOL allows it to take off and land vertically, to hover, and to fly forwards, backwards and these attributes allow helicopters to be used in congested or isolated areas where fixed-wing aircraft would usually not be able to take off or land. On the other hand, the rotor blades restrict the maximum speed to about 250 miles per hour of at least conventional helicopters. Autogyros are also known as gyroplanes or gyrocopters, the rotor is unpowered and rotates freely in the airflow as the craft travels forward, so the craft needs a conventional powerplant to provide thrust. An autogyro is not intrinsically capable of VTOL, for VTO the rotor must be spun up to speed by an auxiliary drive, gyrodynes are also known as compound helicopters or compound gyroplanes. A gyrodyne has the rotor of a helicopter with a separate forward thrust system of an autogyro. Apart from take-off and landing the rotor may be unpowered and autorotate, designs may also include stub wings for added lift. A cyclogyro or cyclocopter has a wing whose axis and surfaces remain sideways across the airflow. A convertiplane takes off under rotor lift like a helicopter, then transitions to fixed-wing lift in forward flight, a tiltrotor or proprotor tilts its propellers or rotors vertically for VTOL and then tilts them forwards for horizontal wing-borne flight, while the main wing remains fixed in place. Similar to tiltrotor concept, but with turbojet or turbofan engines intead of ones with propellers, a tiltwing has its propellers or rotors fixed to a conventional wing and tilts the whole assembly to transition between vertical and horizontal flight. A tail-sitter sits vertically on its tail for takeoff and landing, Thrust vectoring is a technique used for jet and rocket engines, where the direction of the engine exhaust is varied. In VTOL, the exhaust can be varied between vertical and horizontal thrust, a lift jet is an auxiliary jet engine used to provide lift for VTOL operation, but may be shut down for normal wing-borne flight. Lift fan is a configuration in which lifting fans are located in large holes in an otherwise conventional fixed wing or fuselage. It is used for V/STOL operation, the aircraft takes off using the fans to provide lift, then transitions to fixed-wing lift in forward flight. Several experimental craft have flown, but only the F-35 Lightning II entered into production
32.
Autogyro
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While similar to a helicopter rotor in appearance, the autogyros rotor must have air flowing through the rotor disc to generate rotation. Invented by the Spanish engineer Juan de la Cierva to create an aircraft that could fly safely at low speeds, De la Ciervas aircraft resembled the fixed-wing aircraft of the day, with a front-mounted engine and propeller in a tractor configuration to pull the aircraft through the air. Under license from Cierva in the 1920s and 1930s, the Pitcairn & Kellett companies made further innovations, late-model autogyros patterned after Etienne Dormoys Buhl A-1 Autogyro and Igor Bensens designs feature a rear-mounted engine and propeller in a pusher configuration. The latter term was adopted as a trademark by Bensen Aircraft. An autogyro is characterized by a rotor that turns because of the passage of air through the rotor from below. The vertical component of the total aerodynamic reaction of the rotor gives lift for the vehicle, because the craft must be moving forward in order to force air through the overhead rotor, autogyros are generally not capable of vertical takeoff or landing. A few types have short takeoff or landing. Pitch control is achieved by tilting the rotor fore and aft, three designs to affect the tilt of the rotor are a tilting hub, swashplate, or servo-flaps. On pusher configuration autogyros, the rudder is placed in the propeller slipstream to maximize yaw control at low airspeed. There are three primary flight controls, control stick, rudder pedals, and throttle, typically, the control stick is termed the cyclic and tilts the rotor in the desired direction to provide pitch and roll control. The rudder pedals provide yaw control, and the throttle controls engine power, collective pitch controls are not usually fitted to autogyros, but can be found on the Air & Space 18A and McCulloch J-2 and the Westermayr Tragschrauber and are capable of near VTOL performance. Unlike a helicopter, autogyros without collective pitch or another jump start facility need a runway to take off, however, like helicopters, each autogyro has a specific height–velocity diagram for safest operation, although the dangerous area is usually smaller than for helicopters. So-called tipjets, actually hydrogen peroxide rockets, are placed at the tips of the rotor, the rockets are used only during takeoff and emergency landing, so they do not consume much propellant. Furthermore, the weight and engine power may be reduced by half because a smaller engine is needed for takeoff. The Fairey Jet Gyrodyne and Fairey Rotodyne had true tipjets instead of the rockets and they were technically successful but were not mass-produced due to concerns about tipjet noise. Modern autogyros typically follow one of two basic configurations, the most common design is the pusher configuration, where the engine and propeller are located behind the pilot and rotor mast, such as in the Bensen Gyrocopter. It was developed by Igor Bensen in the decades following World War II, less common today is the tractor configuration. In this version, the engine and propeller are located at the front of the aircraft, ahead of the pilot and this was the primary configuration in early autogyros, but became less common after the advent of the helicopter
33.
Engineer
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Engineers design materials, structures, and systems while considering the limitations imposed by practicality, regulation, safety, and cost. The word engineer is derived from the Latin words ingeniare and ingenium, the work of engineers forms the link between scientific discoveries and their subsequent applications to human and business needs and quality of life. His/her work is predominantly intellectual and varied and not of a mental or physical character. It requires the exercise of original thought and judgement and the ability to supervise the technical, he/she is thus placed in a position to make contributions to the development of engineering science or its applications. In due time he/she will be able to give authoritative technical advice, much of an engineers time is spent on researching, locating, applying, and transferring information. Indeed, research suggests engineers spend 56% of their time engaged in various information behaviours, Engineers must weigh different design choices on their merits and choose the solution that best matches the requirements. Their crucial and unique task is to identify, understand, Engineers apply techniques of engineering analysis in testing, production, or maintenance. Analytical engineers may supervise production in factories and elsewhere, determine the causes of a process failure and they also estimate the time and cost required to complete projects. Supervisory engineers are responsible for major components or entire projects, Engineering analysis involves the application of scientific analytic principles and processes to reveal the properties and state of the system, device or mechanism under study. Most engineers specialize in one or more engineering disciplines, numerous specialties are recognized by professional societies, and each of the major branches of engineering has numerous subdivisions. Civil engineering, for example, includes structural and transportation engineering and materials engineering include ceramic, metallurgical, mechanical engineering cuts across just about every discipline since its core essence is applied physics. Engineers also may specialize in one industry, such as vehicles, or in one type of technology. Several recent studies have investigated how engineers spend their time, that is, research suggests that there are several key themes present in engineers’ work, technical work, social work, computer-based work, information behaviours. Amongst other more detailed findings, a recent work sampling study found that engineers spend 62. 92% of their time engaged in work,40. 37% in social work. The time engineers spend engaged in activities is also reflected in the competencies required in engineering roles. There are many branches of engineering, each of which specializes in specific technologies, typically engineers will have deep knowledge in one area and basic knowledge in related areas. When developing a product, engineers work in interdisciplinary teams. For example, when building robots an engineering team will typically have at least three types of engineers, a mechanical engineer would design the body and actuators
34.
Dissymmetry of lift
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Dissymmetry of lift in rotorcraft aerodynamics refers to an uneven amount of lift on opposite sides of the rotor disc. It is a phenomenon that affects single-rotor helicopters in forward flight, a rotor blade that is moving in the same direction as the aircraft is called the advancing blade and the blade moving in the opposite direction is called the retreating blade. Balancing lift across the disc is important to a helicopters stability. The amount of lift generated by an airfoil is proportional to the square of its airspeed, in a zero airspeed hover the rotor blades, regardless of their position in rotation, have equal airspeeds and therefore equal lift. In forward flight the advancing blade has a higher airspeed than the retreating blade, when dissymmetry causes the retreating blade to experience less airflow than required to maintain lift, a condition called retreating blade stall can occur. This causes the helicopter to roll to the side and pitch up. This situation, when not immediately recognized can cause a loss of aircraft controllability. Envisage a viewpoint above a single-rotor helicopter in still air, for a stationary helicopter, whose blades of length of r metres are rotating at ω radians per second, the blade tip is moving at a speed rω meters per second. At all points around the disc mapped out by the blade-tips, now imagine the helicopter in forward flight at, say, v meters per second. The speed of the blade-tip at point A in the relative to the air is the sum of the blade-tip speed. But the blade-tip speed at point B, relative to the air, is the difference of its rotational speed and the forward-flight speed, rω-v. Since the lift generated by an aerofoil increases as its relative airspeed increases, so the rotor disc produces more lift on the right hand side than on the left hand side. This imbalance is the dissymetry of lift, conversely, the retreating blade flaps down, develops a higher angle of attack, and generates more lift. This upper speed limit is known as VNE, the never-exceed speed, entry of the rotor tip into either of these aerodynamic régimes is catastrophic from the point of view of the pilot, and the maintenance of stable forward flight. Cierva C.4 Article by Paul Cantrell
35.
Cierva C.6
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The Cierva C.6 was the sixth autogyro designed by engineer Juan de la Cierva, and the first one to travel a major distance. Cierva, the responsible for the invention of the autogyro, had spent all his funds on the research. After several wind tunnel tests, Military Aviation built a Cierva C.6 autogyro in an Avro 504 frame and this machine, piloted by Captain Joaquín Loriga Taboada, made three flights, all of them in March 1924. One of those flights, the trip from Cuatro Vientos airfield to Getafe airfield, was considered a giant step for Ciervas autogyros. The Cierva C.6 prototype was fitted with ailerons mounted on two wings, also with elevators and a rudder. This complete three-axis control scheme was needed because the pilot had only limited control over the rotor, only the front propeller was powered, so this aircraft could not hover, and could lose control at low speed. The vertical axis rotor spun freely, the faster the autogyro flew, the faster the rotor would spin, a replica of the Cierva C.6 was built to be shown in Murcia pavilion in Seville Expo 92 Worlds Fair. That replica can be now be seen in Museo del Aire, Cuatro Vientos, Madrid, Cierva C. 6A Powered by an 82-kW Le Rhône 9Ja rotary piston engine. Cierva C. 6B Cierva C. 6C Powered by a 97-kW Clerget 9B rotary piston engine, built in the United Kingdom as Avro Type 574. Cierva C. 6D Powered by a 97-kW Clerget 9B rotary piston engine, built in the United Kingdom as the Avro Type 575. General characteristics Crew, one or two Length,29 ft 6 in Max takeoff weight,1,984 lb Powerplant,1 × Le Rhône 9Ja 9-cyl, air-cooled rotary piston engine,110 hp Main rotor diameter,32 ft 10 in Main rotor area,845
36.
Getafe
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Getafe is a city in the south of the Madrid metropolitan area, Spain, and one of the most populated and industrialised cities in the area. It is home to one of the oldest Spanish military air bases, within the city is the Cerro de los Ángeles, or Hill of the Angels, a site considered the geographical center of the Iberian Peninsula. Getafe is located 13 km south of Madrids city centre, within an area of Spains Meseta Central in the Manzanares River basin. Getafes proximity to Madrid fostered industrial development during the 20th and 21st centuries, the citys industrialisation led to an increase in population, reaching 170,115 in 2011. Due to its industrial and social networks, the majority of work or study within the city. The increase in population led to the construction of access roads, an increase in available public services. During the Middle Ages, a number of villages were located in the area of Getafe. One of the villages was Alarnes, which was very close to the current urban center. In 1326, the villagers united themselves into one town, situated on the road that linked Madrid with Toledo. This new town was called Xatafi, a name came from the Arab word jata. It is assumed that the name Xatafi referred to the royal road, the towns name evolved over time, from Xetafe to Jetafee to Jetaphe to Jetafe to Getafe. The history of Getafe can be split into three clearly defined eras, in the first era, which lasted from Prehistory until 1326, there existed distinct villages in the area, though Getafe itself did not exist as a municipality. The second era lasted from the 14th century until the 20th century, during which Getafe was established as a town, the presence of humans in the area of Getafe dates back to the Lower Paleolithic period. Various stone tools, pots, and bracelets from this period have been excavated from the banks of the Manzanares River, the Romans dominated the Iberian Peninsula from the 2nd century BCE until the 5th century AD. In the 3rd century AD, the Romans constructed a villa called La Torecilla, the area was subsequently overrun by a series of Germanic tribes, including Suebi, Vandals and Visigoths, and the Indoeuropean Alans. The area currently encompassed by the Getafe municipal district was invaded by the Moors in the 8th century, King Alfonso VI conquered the villages of the area in 1085. In 1326, the inhabitants of the villages moved closer to the road connecting Madrid and Toledo, in effect creating a new town. In that same century, the hermitage of La Magdalena was built
37.
Air Ministry
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The Air Ministry was a department of the Government of the United Kingdom with the responsibility of managing the affairs of the Royal Air Force, that existed from 1918 to 1964. It was under the authority of the Secretary of State for Air. The new Air Committee was composed of representatives of the two war ministries, and although it could make recommendations, it lacked executive authority. The recommendations of the Air Committee had to be ratified by the Admiralty Board and the Imperial General Staff and, in consequence, the Committee was not particularly effective. The increasing separation of army and naval aviation from 1912 to 1914 only exacerbated the Air Committees ineffectiveness and it was the supply problems to which an attempt at rectification was first made. This committee was titled the Joint War Air Committee, and its chairman was Lord Derby and it was also at the meeting on 15 February that Curzon proposed the creation of an Air Ministry. As with the pre-war Air Committee, the Joint War Air Committee lacked any executive powers, after only eight sittings, Lord Derby resigned from the Committee, stating that It appears to me quite impossible to bring the two wings closer together. Unless and until the system of the Air Service is changed. The next attempt to establish effective co-ordination between the two air services was the creation of an Air Board, the first Air Board came into being on 15 May 1916 with Lord Curzon as its chairman. The inclusion of Curzon, a Cabinet Minister, and other political figures was intended to give the Air Board greater status than the Joint War Air Committee, in October 1916 the Air Board published its first report which was highly critical of the arrangements within the British air services. In January 1917 the Prime Minister David Lloyd George replaced the chairman Lord Curzon with Lord Cowdray. Godfrey Paine, who served in the newly created post of Fifth Sea Lord and Director of Naval Aviation, sat on the board, despite attempts at reorganization of the Air Board, the earlier problems failed to be completely resolved. In addition, the number of German air raids against Great Britain led to public disquiet. Towards the end of the First World War, on 17 August 1917, Lord Rothermere was appointed the first Air Minister. Later, in 1919, it moved to Adastral House on Kingsway, the creation of the Air Ministry resulted in the disestablishment of the Army Councils post of Director-General of Military Aeronautics. In April 1921 David Lloyd George appointed Frederick Guest as Secretary of State for Air, more importantly in the long term he was also responsible for the appointment of Sir Sefton Brancker to develop civil aviation. With the fall of Lloyd George in October 1922 Sir Samuel Hoare became the Secretary of State for Air. He was the first Secretary to have a seat in the Cabinet, and remained in the post until January 1924, a supporter of airships, Thomson was responsible for the Imperial Airship Scheme, which involved the construction of R101 at the Royal Airship Works at Cardington
38.
RAE Farnborough
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The first site was at Farnborough Airfield in Hampshire to which was added a second site RAE Bedford in 1946. In 1988 it was renamed the Royal Aerospace Establishment before merging with other entities to become part of the new Defence Research Agency in 1991. Templers place was taken by Colonel John Capper and Templer himself retired in 1908, besides balloons and airships, the factory also experimented with Samuel Franklin Codys war kites and aeroplanes designed both by Cody and J. W. Dunne. In October 1908 Cody made the first aeroplane flight in Britain at Farnborough, in 1909 Army work on aeroplanes ceased and the Factory was brought under civilian control. Capper was replaced as Superintendent by Mervyn OGorman, in 1912 the Balloon Factory was renamed the Royal Aircraft Factory. Its first new designer was Geoffrey de Havilland who later founded his own company, one of the designers in the engine department was Samuel Heron, who later went on to invent the sodium-filled poppet valve, instrumental in achieving greater powers from piston engines. Heron later moved to the United States where he worked on the design of the Wright Whirlwind, green, G. S. Wilkinson, James E. Jimmy Ellor, Prof. A. H. Gibson, and A. A. Griffith. Both Ellor and Griffith would later go on to work for Rolls-Royce Limited, during WWII the Marine Aircraft Experimental Establishment, then based at Helensburgh in Scotland, was under the control of the RAE. In 1946 work began to convert RAF Thurleigh into RAE Bedford, engineers at the Royal Aircraft Establishment invented high strength carbon fibre in 1963. In 1961, the worlds first grooved runway for reduced aquaplaning was constructed, in 1965, a US delegation visited to view the new surfacing practice and initiated a study by the FAA and NASA. On 1 May 1988 the RAE was renamed the Royal Aerospace Establishment, on 1 April 1991 the RAE was merged into the Defence Research Agency, the MODs new research organisation. Then, on 1 April 1995 the DRA and other MOD organisations merged to form the Defence Evaluation, the Bedford site was largely shut down in 1994. In 2001 DERA was part-privatised by the MOD, resulting in two separate organisations, the state-owned Defence Science and Technology Laboratory, and the privatised company QinetiQ, ฿ Between 1911 and 1918 the Royal Aircraft Factory produced a number of aircraft designs. Most of these were essentially research aircraft, but a few went into mass production. Some orders were met by the factory itself, but the bulk of production was by private British companies, up to about 1913 the designation letters referred to the general layout of the aircraft, derived from a French manufacturer or designer famous for that type, S. E. = Blériot Experimental F. E. = Farman Experimental From 1913/4 onwards this was changed to a designation based on the role for which the aircraft was designed, = Armed or Armoured Experimental C. E. = Scout experimental fast single-seat aircraft, the B. S.1 of 1913 was a one-off anomaly, combining both systems, Blériot Scout. & T. E. were also used for one off prototypes
39.
English Channel
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The English Channel, also called simply the Channel, is the body of water that separates southern England from northern France, and links the southern part of the North Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. It is about 560 km long and varies in width from 240 km at its widest to 33.3 km in the Strait of Dover and it is the smallest of the shallow seas around the continental shelf of Europe, covering an area of some 75,000 km2. The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the English Channel as follows, a line joining Isle Vierge to Lands End. The southwestern limit of the North Sea, the IHO defines the southwestern limit of the North Sea as a line joining the Walde Lighthouse and Leathercoat Point. The Walde Lighthouse is 6 km east of Calais, and Leathercoat Point is at the end of St Margarets Bay. The Strait of Dover, at the Channels eastern end, is its narrowest point and it is relatively shallow, with an average depth of about 120 m at its widest part, reducing to a depth of about 45 m between Dover and Calais. Eastwards from there the adjoining North Sea reduces to about 26 m in the Broad Fourteens where it lies over the watershed of the land bridge between East Anglia and the Low Countries. It reaches a depth of 180 m in the submerged valley of Hurds Deep,48 km west-northwest of Guernsey. The eastern region along the French coast between Cherbourg and the mouth of the Seine river at Le Havre is frequently referred to as the Bay of the Seine. There are several islands in the Channel, the most notable being the Isle of Wight off the English coast. The coastline, particularly on the French shore, is indented, several small islands close to the coastline, including Chausey. The Cotentin Peninsula in France juts out into the Channel, whilst on the English side there is a parallel channel known as the Solent between the Isle of Wight and the mainland. The Celtic Sea is to the west of the Channel, the time difference of about six hours between high water at the eastern and western limits of the Channel is indicative of the tidal range being amplified further by resonance. It was never defined as a border and the names were more or less descriptive. It was not considered as the property of a nation, strangely, before the development of the modern nations, British scholars very often referred to it as Gaulish and the French one as British or English. The name English Channel has been used since the early 18th century. In modern Dutch, however, it is known as Het Kanaal, later, it has also been known as the British Channel or the British Sea having been called the Oceanus Britannicus by the 2nd-century geographer Ptolemy. The same name is used on an Italian map of about 1450, the Anglo-Saxon texts often call it Sūð-sǣ as opposed to Norð-sǣ
40.
Harold Frederick Pitcairn
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Harold Frederick Pitcairn was an American aviation inventor and pioneer. He played a key role in the development of the autogyro and he patented a number of innovations relating to rotary wing aircraft. He was born on June 20,1897 in Bryn Athyn, pitcairns start in aviation was as an apprentice at Curtiss Aeroplane and Motor Company He attended the Curtiss Flying School in Newport News in 1916. Pitcairn founded Pitcairn Aviation, and Pitcairn Aircraft Company which manufactured efficient airmail biplanes and he bought the right to license Juan de la Ciervas patents for the United States for $300,000 in 1929. He was awarded the Collier Trophy in 1930 for development of the autogyro, USA President Hoover awarded the trophy on the lawn of the White House in 1931, where a Pitcairn PCA-2 landed as the first aircraft ever. On April 24,1960 he committed suicide at his home in Philadelphia shortly after a party celebrating his brothers birthday, more sympathetic sources and the police report said the death was accidental and was caused by a faulty Savage Model 19070.32 automatic pistol. Pitcairn was enshrined in the National Aviation Hall of Fame in 1995, in 1977,17 years after his death, the Supreme Court of the United States awarded Pitcairn $32 million from the US government for rotorcraft control surfaces patents used by military rotorcraft. Biographical article of Harold Pitcairn, with photographs Harold Pitcairn flies his Autogiro Windmill from Pennsylvania to Washington D. C, may 14,1929 Video documentary on YouTube
41.
Cierva C.8
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The Cierva C.8 was an experimental autogyro built by Juan de la Cierva in England in 1926 in association with Avro. Like Ciervas earlier autogyros, the C. 8s were based on existing fixed-wing aircraft fuselages - in this case, the first example, the C. 8R was a rebuild of the C. 6D, fitted with stub wings and paddle-shaped main rotor blades. This was followed by the new-built C. 8V that was converted back into an Avro 552 after testing. The next model was the definitive C. 8L prototype, the Mark II was based on the Lynx-engined Avro 504N 2-seat trainer. By now, Ciervas efforts were attracting the attention of buyers, the first customer was the British Air Ministry, which placed an order for a machine in 1927. The next example was purchased by Air Commodore James G. Weir, chairman of Cierva, and flown in the 1928 Kings Cup Air Race before being used to make demonstration flights around continental Europe. The two final C. 8s were sold in 1928, one to the Italian government, and one to American Harold Pitcairn, who would go on to purchase manufacturing rights for the United States. The C. 8W bought by Pitcairn would make the first autogyro flight in the United States at Willow Grove, Pennsylvania, the C. 8W is the oldest autogyro in the US. As of 2007, two examples are extant, Weirs machine preserved at the Musée de lAir et de lEspace in Paris, C. 8R C. 6D fitted with new wings and rotor blades, powered by a 97-kW Clerget engine. C. 8V Two-seat model, powered by a 134-kW Wolseley Viper piston engine, C. 8L C. 8L Mk II Fitted with short-span wings, powered by an Armstrong Siddeley Lynx IV radial piston engine. The aircraft took part in 1928 Kings Cup Air Race, built in the United Kingdom as the Avro Type 617. C. 8L Mk III Two aircraft built for the Italian government in 1928, C. 8W Powered by a 168-kW Wright Whirlwind radial piston engine. This version was built for Harold Frederick Pitcairn, original designation C. 8L Mk IV. H. Janes Encyclopedia of Aviation. NASM website britishaircraft. co. uk THE CIERVA AUTOGIRO C.8, flight 1928 Media related to Cierva C.8 at Wikimedia Commons
Takeoffs and Landings on YouTube of Groen Hawk 4
