1.
Newfoundland (island)
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Newfoundland is a large Canadian island off the east coast of the North American mainland, and the most populous part of the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador. It has 29 percent of the land area. The island is separated from the Labrador Peninsula by the Strait of Belle Isle and it blocks the mouth of the Saint Lawrence River, creating the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, the worlds largest estuary. Newfoundlands nearest neighbour is the French overseas community of Saint-Pierre and Miquelon, with an area of 108,860 square kilometres, Newfoundland is the worlds 16th-largest island, Canadas fourth-largest island, and the largest Canadian island outside the North. The provincial capital, St. Johns, is located on the southeastern coast of the island, Cape Spear, just south of the capital, is the easternmost point of North America, excluding Greenland. It is common to consider all directly neighbouring islands such as New World, Twillingate, Fogo, by that classification, Newfoundland and its associated small islands have a total area of 111,390 square kilometres. Additionally 6. 1% claimed at least one parent of French ancestry, the islands total population as of the 2006 census was 479,105. Long settled by peoples of the Dorset culture, the island was visited by the Icelandic Viking Leif Eriksson in the 11th century. The next European visitors to Newfoundland were Portuguese, Basque, Spanish, French, the island was visited by the Genoese navigator John Cabot, working under contract to King Henry VII of England on his expedition from Bristol in 1497. In 1501, Portuguese explorers Gaspar Corte-Real and his brother Miguel Corte-Real charted part of the coast of Newfoundland in a attempt to find the Northwest Passage. Newfoundland is considered Britains oldest colony, at the time of English settlement, the Beothuk inhabited the island. While there is evidence of ancient indigenous peoples on the island. LAnse aux Meadows was a Norse settlement near the northernmost tip of Newfoundland, the site is considered the only undisputed evidence of Pre-Columbian contact between the Old and New Worlds, if the Norse-Inuit contact on Greenland is not counted. There is a second suspected Norse site in Point Rosee, the island is a likely location of Vinland, mentioned in the Viking Chronicles, although this has been disputed. The indigenous people on the island at the time of European settlement were the Beothuk, later immigrants developed a variety of dialects associated with settlement on the island, Newfoundland English, Newfoundland French. In the 19th century, it also had a dialect of Irish known as Newfoundland Irish, Scottish Gaelic was spoken on the island during the 19th and early 20th centuries, particularly in the Codroy Valley area, chiefly by settlers from Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia. The Gaelic names reflected the association with fishing, in Scottish Gaelic, it was called Eilean a Trosg, or literally, similarly, the Irish Gaelic name Talamh an Éisc means Land of the Fish. The first inhabitants of Newfoundland were the Paleo-Eskimo, who have no link to other groups in Newfoundland history
2.
St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador
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St. Johns is the capital and largest city in Newfoundland and Labrador. It is on the tip of the Avalon Peninsula on the island of Newfoundland. St. Johns covers 446.04 square kilometres and is North Americas most easterly city, excluding those of Greenland. Its name has been attributed to the Nativity of John the Baptist, existing on maps as early as 1519, it is considered by some to be the oldest English-founded city in North America. It was officially incorporated as a city in 1888, the city has a rich history, having played a role in the Seven Years War, the French and Indian War, the American Revolutionary War, and the War of 1812. Italian inventor, Guglielmo Marconi received the first transatlantic wireless signal in St. Johns and its history and culture have made it one of the worlds top ocean-side tourist destinations. St. Johns is one of North Americas oldest settlements, with setting up seasonal camps in the early 16th century. Sebastian Cabot declares in a handwritten Latin text in his original 1545 map, that St. However, the earliest record of the location appears as São João on a Portuguese map by Pedro Reinel in 1519. When John Rut visited St. Johns in 1527 he found Norman, Breton, on 3 August 1527, Rut wrote a letter to King Henry on the findings of his voyage to North America, this was the first known letter sent from North America. St. Jehan is shown on Nicholas Desliens world map of 1541 and it was during this time that Water Street was first developed, making it the oldest street in North America. On 5 August 1583, an English Sea Dog, Sir Humphrey Gilbert claimed the area as Englands first overseas colony under Royal Charter of Queen Elizabeth I. There was no permanent population, however, and Gilbert was lost at sea during his return voyage, the Newfoundland National War Memorial is on the waterfront in St. Johns, at the purported site of Gilberts landing and proclamation. By 1620, the fishermen of Englands West Country controlled most of Newfoundlands east coast, in 1627, William Payne, called St. Johns the principal prime and chief lot in all the whole country. Sometime after 1630, the town of St. Johns was established as a permanent community, before this they were expressly forbidden by the British government, at the urging of the West Country fishing industry, from establishing permanent settlements along the English controlled coast. The population grew slowly in the 17th century, St. Johns was Newfoundlands largest settlement when English naval officers began to take censuses around 1675, the population grew in the summers with the arrival of migratory fishermen. In 1680, fishing ships set up fishing rooms at St. Johns, the towns first significant defenses were likely erected due to commercial interests, following the temporary seizure of St. Johns by the Dutch admiral Michiel de Ruyter in June 1665. The inhabitants fended off a second Dutch attack in 1673, when it was defended by Christopher Martin, Martin landed six cannons from his vessel, the Elias Andrews, and constructed an earthen breastwork and battery near Chain Rock commanding the Narrows leading into the harbour. With only 23 men, the valiant Martin beat off an attack by three Dutch warships, when 1500 English reinforcements arrived in late 1697, they found rubble where the town and fortifications had stood
3.
Grand Banks of Newfoundland
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The Grand Banks of Newfoundland are a group of underwater plateaus south-east of Newfoundland on the North American continental shelf. These areas are shallow, ranging from 50 to 300 feet in depth. The cold Labrador Current mixes with the waters of the Gulf Stream here. The mixing of waters and the shape of the ocean bottom lifts nutrients to the surface. These conditions helped to create one of the richest fishing grounds in the world, fish species include Atlantic cod, swordfish, haddock and capelin, shellfish include scallop and lobster. The area also supports colonies of seabirds such as northern gannets, shearwaters and sea ducks and various sea mammals such as seals, dolphins. In addition to the effects on nutrients, the mixing of the cold and it is also noted for its proximity to the sinking of the RMS Titanic and thus the launching point of Titanic shipwreck expeditions. The Grand Banks were extensively glaciated during the last glacial maximum, by approximately 13,000 years ago, the majority of the ice had melted, leaving the Grand Banks exposed as several islands extending for hundreds of kilometers. It is believed that sea levels submerged these around 8,000 years ago. Within a few years of Cabots voyage the existence of fishing grounds on the Grand Banks became generally known in Europe, ships from France and Portugal were first to fish there, followed by those from Spain while ships from England were scarce in the early years. This soon changed especially after Bernard Drakes devastating raid in 1585 which virtually wiped out the Spanish and these fish stocks thus became important for the early economies of eastern Canada and New England. Canadas EEZ currently occupies the majority of the Grand Banks except for the lucrative nose, the 1783 Treaty of Paris gave the United States shared rights to fish in these waters, but that section of the Treaty is no longer in force. Once this aspect of UNCLOS is ratified, Canada will presumably control these remaining parts of Grand Banks which are outside of its EEZ jurisdiction. Semi-fictional depictions of working on the Grand Banks can be found in Rudyard Kiplings novel Captains Courageous. The Grand Banks are also portrayed in the 1990 film The Hunt for Red October
4.
Trinity Bay (Newfoundland and Labrador)
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Trinity Bay is a large bay on the northeastern coast of Newfoundland in the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador. The Bay along with Placentia Bay to the southeast define the isthmus of Avalon from which the Avalon Peninsula lies to the east of the landmass of Newfoundland Island. Major fishing communities include Trinity and Hearts Content, the smaller communities in Newfoundland may often be referenced by the Bay in which they are located, eg, Brownsdale, TB. Trinity Bay is famous as the location of an intact specimen of giant squid found there on September 24,1877. In April 2003, thousands of northern cod, washed up on the shores of Smith Sound in a single weekend. Jellyfish harvesting communities include Smith Sound, Old Perlican, and Northwest and Southwest Arms
5.
Conception Bay
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Conception Bay is a bay on the southeast coast of Newfoundland, Canada. The population of people living in municipalities located along the coast of Conception Bay was 90,490 making it one of the most densely populated areas of the province. Conception Bay is adjacent to the St. Johns Metropolitan Area which contains 5 of the 10 largest settlements in the province and is home to over 100,000 people. The smaller communities in Newfoundland may often be referenced by the Bay in which they are located, e. g. Port de Grave, the bay indents the Avalon Peninsula, opening towards the Atlantic Ocean at its northeast. It is bounded by Cape St. Francis 47°48. 63′N 52°47. 15′W in the south and it has a maximum depth of 300 metres. Conception Bay covers an area of 1295 square kilometres and contains several islands, the Bay is fed by rivers from its east and west, which flow on into the Atlantic Ocean. The name Conception Bay comes from the Portuguese Baía da Conceição or Baia de Comceica and was given in honour of the Feast of the Immaculate Conception. The name first appears on the Oliveriana map of around 1504–1505, Conception Bay was the site of Britaniola Colony, established in 1610. It was the site of Sea-Forest Plantation founded in 1610 and Bristols Hope Plantation founded in 1619, there was trade between Newfoundland and Bilbao during the 17th century. From the late 1890s to the 1960s, Bell Island was home to an ore mine in Wabana, operated most recently by the Dominion Steel. The ore was shipped for processing to DOSCOs steel mill in Sydney, during World War II, anchored DOSCO cargo ships, along with the loading pier at Wabana, were the target of Nazi U-boats on at least two occasions. During one attack on anchored ore carriers, a torpedo missed its target and struck the pier, the wrecks of the four cargo ships sunk during these two attacks are visible at low tide, a memorial on shore is dedicated to the 69 merchant sailors who lost their lives. Since 2011 Memorial University of Newfoundland has been conducting excavations at Carbonear bordering the bay. The provincial government operates a ferry service from Bell Island to Portugal Cove. Humpback whales have been known to enter the bay while migrating, private vessels and tourist charters frequent the bays waters during the summer months. Property development in the St. Johns exurb of Conception Bay South in recent decades has led to increasing use of the bay. Workers who have come from Newfoundland to Bell Island for work, c1930 Picture of Carbonear, a view from the southside beach, looking west. C1910 Do You Remember-Old Conception Bay
6.
St. Mary's Bay (Newfoundland and Labrador)
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St. Marys Bay is one of many bays in Newfoundland, Canada, where bay is taken as a regional subdivision, somewhat along the lines of county divisions. It is the most southern and eastern of Newfoundlands major bays, like most Irish Newfoundlanders, area residents trace their ancestry to County Waterford, County Wexford, County Kilkenny, south County Tipperary and east County Cork. In addition to being Irish, the region is also overwhelmingly Roman Catholic, St. Marys Bay is an exceedingly rural area. The next bay to the west is Newfoundlands largest bay, Placentia Bay, to the east of St. Marys Bay is the much smaller Trepassey Bay. St. Marys Bay, while not hit as hard as neighboring Placentia Bay, was subject to the Resettlement Program spearheaded by Joey Smallwood, Newfoundland, people in rural communities deemed no longer viable were pressured by the government to relocate to growth centres. Thus, there are several ghost towns around St. Marys Bay, abandoned a generation ago
7.
Placentia Bay
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Placentia Bay is a body of water on the southeast coast of Newfoundland, Canada. It is formed by Burin Peninsula on the west and Avalon Peninsula on the east, fishing grounds in the bay were used by native people long before the first European fishermen arrived in the 16th century. For a time, the French controlled the bay and they built their capital at Placentia on the east coast. The British gained Placentia during the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, the town and nearby Castle Hill are national historic sites. English settlement followed in the bay and today the main communities are Burin, Marystown, and Placentia
8.
Newfoundland and Labrador
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Newfoundland and Labrador is the most easterly province of Canada. Situated in the countrys Atlantic region, it comprises the island of Newfoundland and mainland Labrador to the northwest, in 2013, the provinces population was estimated at 526,702. About 92% of the population lives on the island of Newfoundland. The province is Canadas most linguistically homogeneous, with 97. 6% of residents reporting English as their mother tongue in the 2006 census, historically, Newfoundland was also home to unique varieties of French and Irish, as well as the extinct Beothuk language. In Labrador, local dialects of Innu-aimun and Inuktitut are also spoken, Newfoundland and Labradors capital and largest city, St. Johns, is Canadas 20th-largest census metropolitan area and is home to almost 40 percent of the provinces population. St. Johns is the seat of government, home to the House of Assembly of Newfoundland and Labrador and to the highest court in the jurisdiction and it became the tenth province to enter the Canadian Confederation on March 31,1949, as Newfoundland. On December 6,2001, an amendment was made to the Constitution of Canada to change the official name to Newfoundland. The name Newfoundland is a translation of the Portuguese Terra Nova, the influence of early Portuguese exploration is also reflected in the name of Labrador, which derives from the surname of the Portuguese navigator João Fernandes Lavrador. Newfoundland and Labrador is the most easterly province in Canada, and is located at the corner of North America. The Strait of Belle Isle separates the province into two divisions, Labrador, which is a large area of mainland Canada, and Newfoundland. The province also includes over 7,000 tiny islands, each side is about 400 km long, and its area is 108,860 km2. Newfoundland and its small islands have a total area of 111,390 km2. Newfoundland extends between latitudes 46°36′N and 51°38′N, Labrador is an irregular shape, the western part of its border with Quebec is the drainage divide of the Labrador Peninsula. Lands drained by rivers that flow into the Atlantic Ocean are part of Labrador, most of Labradors southern boundary with Quebec follows the 52nd parallel of latitude. Labradors extreme northern tip, at 60°22′N, shares a border with Nunavut. Together, Newfoundland and Labrador make up 4. 06% of Canadas area, Labrador is the easternmost part of the Canadian Shield, a vast area of ancient metamorphic rock comprising much of northeastern North America. Colliding tectonic plates have shaped much of the geology of Newfoundland, gros Morne National Park has a reputation as an outstanding example of tectonics at work, and as such has been designated a World Heritage Site. The Long Range Mountains on Newfoundlands west coast are the northeasternmost extension of the Appalachian Mountains, the north-south extent of the province, prevalent westerly winds, cold ocean currents and local factors such as mountains and coastline combine to create the various climates of the province
9.
Precambrian
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The Precambrian is the earliest period of Earths history, set before the current Phanerozoic Eon. The Precambrian is a supereon that is subdivided into three eons of the time scale. It spans from the formation of Earth about 4.6 billion years ago to the beginning of the Cambrian Period, about 541 million years ago, the Precambrian accounts for 89% of geologic time. Relatively little is known about the Precambrian, despite it making up roughly seven-eighths of the Earths history, the Precambrian fossil record is poorer than that of the succeeding Phanerozoic, and fossils from that time are of limited biostratigraphic use. This is because many Precambrian rocks have been metamorphosed, obscuring their origins, while others have been destroyed by erosion. A stable crust was apparently in place by 4,412 Ma, the term Precambrian is recognized by the International Commission on Stratigraphy as a general term including the Archean and Proterozoic eons. It is still used by geologists and paleontologists for general discussions not requiring the more specific eon names and it was briefly called the Cryptozoic eon. A specific date for the origin of life has not been determined, carbon found in 3.8 billion year old rocks from islands off western Greenland may be of organic origin. Well-preserved microscopic fossils of bacteria older than 3.46 billion years have found in Western Australia. Probable fossils 100 million years older have been found in the same area, there is a fairly solid record of bacterial life throughout the remainder of the Precambrian. The oldest fossil evidence from that era of such complex life comes from the Lantian formation of the Ediacarian period, a very diverse collection of soft-bodied forms is found in a variety of locations worldwide and date to between 635 and 542 Ma. These are referred to as Ediacaran or Vendian biota, hard-shelled creatures appeared toward the end of that time span, marking the beginning of the Phanerozoic era. By the middle of the following Cambrian period, a diverse fauna is recorded in the Burgess Shale. The explosion in diversity of lifeforms during the early Cambrian is called the Cambrian explosion of life, while land seems to have been devoid of plants and animals, cyanobacteria and other microbes formed prokaryotic mats that covered terrestrial areas. Evidence of the details of plate motions and other activity in the Precambrian has been poorly preserved. It is generally believed that small proto-continents existed prior to 4280 Ma, the supercontinent, known as Rodinia, broke up around 750 Ma. A number of glacial periods have been identified going as far back as the Huronian epoch, one of the best studied is the Sturtian-Varangian glaciation, around 850–635 Ma, which may have brought glacial conditions all the way to the equator, resulting in a Snowball Earth. The atmosphere of the early Earth is not well understood, most geologists believe it was composed primarily of nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and other relatively inert gases, and was lacking in free oxygen
10.
Fossil
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Fossils are the preserved remains or traces of animals, plants, and other organisms from the remote past. The totality of fossils, both discovered and undiscovered, and their placement in fossiliferous rock formations and sedimentary layers is known as the fossil record. The study of fossils across geological time, how they were formed, such a preserved specimen is called a fossil if it is older than some minimum age, most often the arbitrary date of 10,000 years. The observation that fossils were associated with certain rock strata led early geologists to recognize a geological timescale in the 19th century. The development of dating techniques in the early 20th century allowed geologists to determine the numerical or absolute age of the various strata. Like extant organisms, fossils vary in size from microscopic, even single bacterial cells one micrometer in diameter, to gigantic, such as dinosaurs, Fossils may also consist of the marks left behind by the organism while it was alive, such as animal tracks or feces. These types of fossil are called trace fossils, as opposed to body fossils, finally, past life leaves some markers that cannot be seen but can be detected in the form of biochemical signals, these are known as chemofossils or biosignatures. The process of fossilization varies according to type and external conditions. Permineralization is a process of fossilization that occurs when an organism is buried, the empty spaces within an organism become filled with mineral-rich groundwater. Minerals precipitate from the groundwater, occupying the empty spaces and this process can occur in very small spaces, such as within the cell wall of a plant cell. Small scale permineralization can produce very detailed fossils, for permineralization to occur, the organism must become covered by sediment soon after death or soon after the initial decay process. The degree to which the remains are decayed when covered determines the later details of the fossil, some fossils consist only of skeletal remains or teeth, other fossils contain traces of skin, feathers or even soft tissues. This is a form of diagenesis, in some cases the original remains of the organism completely dissolve or are otherwise destroyed. The remaining organism-shaped hole in the rock is called an external mold, if this hole is later filled with other minerals, it is a cast. An endocast or internal mold is formed when sediments or minerals fill the cavity of an organism. This is a form of cast and mold formation. If the chemistry is right, the organism can act as a nucleus for the precipitation of minerals such as siderite, if this happens rapidly before significant decay to the organic tissue, very fine three-dimensional morphological detail can be preserved. Nodules from the Carboniferous Mazon Creek fossil beds of Illinois, USA, are among the best documented examples of such mineralization, replacement occurs when the shell, bone or other tissue is replaced with another mineral
11.
Ediacaran biota
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The Ediacaran biota consisted of enigmatic tubular and frond-shaped, mostly sessile organisms that lived during the Ediacaran Period. Trace fossils of organisms have been found worldwide, and represent the earliest known complex multicellular organisms. The Ediacaran biota radiated in an event called the Avalon explosion,575 million years ago, the biota largely disappeared with the rapid increase in biodiversity known as the Cambrian explosion. Most of the existing body plans of animals first appeared in the fossil record of the Cambrian rather than the Ediacaran. For macroorganisms, the Cambrian biota appears to have replaced the organisms that dominated the Ediacaran fossil record. Multiple hypotheses exist to explain the disappearance of this biota, including bias, a changing environment. The morphology and habit of some taxa suggest relationships to Porifera or Cnidaria, Kimberella may show a similarity to molluscs, and other organisms have been thought to possess bilateral symmetry, although this is controversial. Most macroscopic fossils are morphologically distinct from later life-forms, they resemble discs, tubes, one palaeontologist proposed a separate kingdom level category Vendozoa in the Linnaean hierarchy for the Ediacaran biota. The concept of Ediacaran Biota is, of course, somewhat artificial as it can not be defined geographically, stratigraphically, taphonomically, the first Ediacaran fossils discovered were the disc-shaped Aspidella terranovica in 1868. Their discoverer, Scottish geologist Alexander Murray, found them useful aids for correlating the age of rocks around Newfoundland, instead, they were interpreted as gas escape structures or inorganic concretions. No similar structures elsewhere in the world were known and the one-sided debate soon fell into obscurity. It was not until the British discovery of the iconic Charnia in 1957 that the pre-Cambrian was seriously considered as containing life. This frond-shaped fossil was found in Englands Charnwood Forest, and due to the geological mapping of the British Geological Survey there was no doubt these fossils sat in Precambrian rocks. All specimens discovered until 1967 were in coarse-grained sandstone that prevented preservation of fine details, poor communication, combined with the difficulty in correlating globally distinct formations, led to a plethora of different names for the biota. Ediacaran and Ediacarian were subsequently applied to the epoch or period of geological time, in March 2004, the International Union of Geological Sciences ended the inconsistency by formally naming the terminal period of the Neoproterozoic after the Australian locality. The term Ediacaran biota and similar has, at times, been used in a geographic, stratigraphic, taphonomic, or biological sense. Microbial mats are areas of sediment stabilised by the presence of colonies of microbes that secrete sticky fluids or otherwise bind the sediment particles. They appear to migrate upwards when covered by a layer of sediment but this is an illusion caused by the colonys growth, individuals do not, themselves
12.
Mistaken Point, Newfoundland
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Mistaken Point is a small Canadian headland on the Avalon Peninsula of Newfoundland in the province of Newfoundland and Labrador. Mistaken Point takes its name from the results of mistaking it for Cape Race. Sailors who would make this mistake would turn north, thinking they had reached Cape Race Harbour and it is the site of the Mistaken Point Ecological Reserve, which contains one of the most diverse and well-preserved collections of Precambrian fossils known. The site was first discovered in 1967 by S. B, misra, a graduate student of Memorial University as a part of his thesis work. Misra discovered a fossil, Fractofusus misrai in the reserve in June 1967, the site became quickly recognized in the mid-1980s as an important find containing probably the oldest metazoan fossils in North America and the most ancient deep-water marine fossils in the world. In 1987, a 5 kilometer stretch of coastline was declared an ecological reserve, studies have shown that the Mistaken Point biota represents the oldest Ediacaran fossils known anywhere, in fact the oldest large and architecturally complex organisms in Earth history. On July 17,2016 it was announced as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, the fossil terrane of Mistaken Point is the named Avalonian terrane that is found in Western Europe. It formed in the early Cambrian when Pannotia broke from Gondwana-, prolific Canadian rock band The Tragically Hip include a reference to Mistaken Point in Fly, the fourth track on their 2006 album World Container. The same track also includes a reference to Moonbeam, Ontario, the wreck of the RMS Titanic was found on 1 September 1985, slightly more than 600 km from Mistaken Point. Queens University research Discovery of Mistaken Point fauna The Origin and Early Evolution of Animals Localities of the Vendian, Mistaken Point, Newfoundland
13.
Ediacaran
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The Ediacaran Period, spans 94 million years from the end of the Cryogenian Period 635 million years ago, to the beginning of the Cambrian Period 541 Mya. It marks the end of the Proterozoic Eon, and the beginning of the Phanerozoic Eon and it is named after the Ediacara Hills of South Australia. The Ediacaran Period overlaps, but is shorter than the Vendian Period, the Vendian concept was formed stratigraphically top-down, and the lower boundary of the Cambrian became the upper boundary of the Vendian. Paleontological substantiation of this boundary was worked out separately for the siliciclastic basin, the lower boundary of the Vendian was suggested to be defined at the base of the Varanger tillites. The Ediacaran Period represents the time from the end of global Marinoan glaciation to the first appearance worldwide of somewhat complicated trace fossils. Although the Ediacaran Period does contain soft-bodied fossils, it is unusual in comparison to later periods because its beginning is not defined by a change in the fossil record. Rather, the beginning is defined at the base of a chemically distinctive carbonate layer that is referred to as a cap carbonate and this bed is characterized by an unusual depletion of 13C that indicates a sudden climatic change at the end of the Marinoan ice age. The lower boundary GSSP of the Ediacaran is at the base of the cap carbonate, immediately above the Elatina diamictite in the Enorama Creek section, Brachina Gorge, Flinders Ranges, South Australia. In the history of stratigraphy it was the first case of usage of bioturbations for the System boundary definition, nevertheless, the definitions of the lower and upper boundaries of the Ediacaran on the basis of chemostratigraphy and ichnofossils are disputable. Also, the Shuram excursion is prolonged and is estimated to last for ~9.0 Myrs. pedum in Namibia, Spain and Newfoundland, the stratigraphic range of T. pedum overlaps the range of the Ediacaran fossils in Namibia, and probably in Spain. The dating of the type section of the Ediacaran Period in South Australia has proven uncertain. Therefore, the age range assigned those rocks from 635 to 542 million years, is based on more precice dating in other locations is possible, the base age of approximately 635 million years is based on U-Pb isochron dating from Namibia and China. The fossil record from the Ediacaran Period is sparse, as more easily fossilized hard-shelled animals had yet to evolve, the Ediacaran biota include the oldest definite multicellular organisms, the most common types of which resemble segmented worms, fronds, disks, or immobile bags. Ediacara biota bear little resemblance to modern lifeforms, and their relationship even with the immediately following lifeforms of the Cambrian explosion is rather difficult to interpret. More than 100 genera have been described, and well known forms include Arkarua, Charnia, Dickinsonia, Ediacaria, Marywadea, Onega, Pteridinium, there is evidence that Earths first mass extinction happened during this period when early animals changed the environment. The relative proximity of the Moon at this time meant that tides were stronger, the day was 21. 9±0.4 hours, and there were 13. 1±0.1 synodic months/year and 400±7 solar days/year. A few English language documentaries have featured the Ediacaran era and biota, the Geological History of Canada, as part of The Nature of Things series, CBC-SRC,2011, Eastern Canada. The first episode of a BBC documentary titled Life on Earth, with David Attenborough as narrator, another documentary narrated by David Attenborough titled First Life featuring Charnia, Dickinsonia, Spriggina, Funisia, and Kimberella animated in CGI
14.
Aspidella
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Aspidella is also a synonym for the mushroom genus Saproamanita. Aspidella is an Ediacaran disk-shaped fossil and it was most likely the imprint of the holdfast of a stalked organism, such as an erniettomorph or rangeomorph. Aspidella consists of disk-shaped fossils, with concentric rings and/or centripetal rays, the diameter of circular Aspidella varies from 1 to 180 mm. Most individuals are between 4 and 10 mm, but smaller animals would presumably have decayed before they could fossilize, other Aspidella take the form of ellipses, 3–8 cm long and 1–4 cm wide. The rim of all specimens is made up by ridge-edged rays and/or concentric rings, the rarity of large individuals probably indicates that Aspidella were r-strategists, producing numerous offspring of which most died young. It is most common in sediments, but is a constituent of most Ediacaran fossil assemblages. The organisms can reach densities of 3000 m−2, just like Ediacaria, Aspidella has initially been considered a scyphozoan jellyfish. Peterson, et al. have proposed that Aspidella were analogous to fungi, the upper and lower surfaces of the fossils have a distinct elemental composition that resembles that of fossilized biofilms. The sediment within the fossils also has a composition, being enriched in certain elements with respect to the rock matrix. Since it is difficult to account for such a distribution of elements by post-mortem diagenetic processes, Aspidella terranovica was first discovered in 1868 by Scottish geologist Alexander Murray. In 1872, Elkanah Billings described Aspidella terranovica fossils from Duckworth Street, St. Johns and they are in a Precambrian outcrop of black shale. Billings was the head paleontologist with the Geological Survey of Canada at the time, even so, his findings were disputed by Charles Doolittle Walcott, who claimed that the shapes in the rocks were concretions formed inorganically. Other explanations offered at the time were that the circles were gas escape bubbles and they were the first Ediacaran fossils described by a scientist. For decades, Aspidella and its fossils were not considered to be Precambrian life forms. This lasted until the work of Reg Sprigg, who discovered the Ediacara Hills fossils, Fossils were found in many other parts of the world in rocks of about the same age and became accepted as genuine remains of life forms. Aspidella is derived from the Latin diminutive of Ancient Greek aspis, different morphological forms have been called Ediacaria or Spriggia. However, the differences between the small elliptical typical Aspidella, the flat, ringed Spriggia wadea and the large, pimpled, in this case, some presumed synonyms would remain valid. The type specimens were of the ellipsoid type, thus, if Aspidella in the loose sense turns out to be an assemblage of more or less related taxa, the genus name would apply only to the smallish ellipsoid specimens
15.
Species
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In biology, a species is the basic unit of biological classification and a taxonomic rank. A species is defined as the largest group of organisms in which two individuals can produce fertile offspring, typically by sexual reproduction. While this definition is often adequate, looked at more closely it is problematic, for example, with hybridisation, in a species complex of hundreds of similar microspecies, or in a ring species, the boundaries between closely related species become unclear. Other ways of defining species include similarity of DNA, morphology, all species are given a two-part name, a binomial. The first part of a binomial is the genus to which the species belongs, the second part is called the specific name or the specific epithet. For example, Boa constrictor is one of four species of the Boa genus, Species were seen from the time of Aristotle until the 18th century as fixed kinds that could be arranged in a hierarchy, the great chain of being. In the 19th century, biologists grasped that species could evolve given sufficient time, Charles Darwins 1859 book The Origin of Species explained how species could arise by natural selection. Genes can sometimes be exchanged between species by horizontal transfer, and species may become extinct for a variety of reasons. In his biology, Aristotle used the term γένος to mean a kind, such as a bird or fish, a kind was distinguished by its attributes, for instance, a bird has feathers, a beak, wings, a hard-shelled egg, and warm blood. A form was distinguished by being shared by all its members, Aristotle believed all kinds and forms to be distinct and unchanging. His approach remained influential until the Renaissance, when observers in the Early Modern period began to develop systems of organization for living things, they placed each kind of animal or plant into a context. Many of these early delineation schemes would now be considered whimsical, animals likewise that differ specifically preserve their distinct species permanently, one species never springs from the seed of another nor vice versa. In the 18th century, the Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus classified organisms according to shared physical characteristics and he established the idea of a taxonomic hierarchy of classification based upon observable characteristics and intended to reflect natural relationships. At the time, however, it was widely believed that there was no organic connection between species, no matter how similar they appeared. However, whether or not it was supposed to be fixed, by the 19th century, naturalists understood that species could change form over time, and that the history of the planet provided enough time for major changes. Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, in his 1809 Zoological Philosophy, described the transmutation of species, proposing that a species could change over time, in 1859, Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace provided a compelling account of evolution and the formation of new species. Darwin argued that it was populations that evolved, not individuals and this required a new definition of species. Darwin concluded that species are what appear to be, ideas
16.
Avalonia
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Avalonia was a microcontinent in the Paleozoic era. Crustal fragments of this former microcontinent underlie south-west Great Britain, and it is the source of many of the older rocks of Western Europe, Atlantic Canada, and parts of the coastal United States. Avalonia is named for the Avalon Peninsula in Newfoundland, Avalonia developed as a volcanic arc on the northern margin of Gondwana. It eventually rifted off, becoming a drifting microcontinent, the Rheic Ocean formed behind it, and the Iapetus Ocean shrank in front. It collided with the continents Baltica, then Laurentia, and finally with Gondwana, when Pangea broke up, Avalonias remains were divided by the rift which became the Atlantic Ocean. The early development of Avalonia is believed to have been in volcanic arcs near a subduction zone on the margin of Gondwana, some material may have accreted from volcanic island arcs which formed further out in the ocean and later collided with Gondwana as a result of plate tectonic movements. The igneous activity had started by 730 million years ago and continued until around 570 million years ago, in the early Cambrian, the supercontinent Pannotia broke up and Avalonia drifted off northwards from Gondwana. This independent movement of Avalonia started from a latitude of about 60° South, the eastern end of Avalonia collided with Baltica, a continental plate occupying the latitudes from about 30°S to 55°S, as Baltica slowly rotated counterclockwise towards it. This happened at the end of the Ordovician and during the early Silurian, the result of this was the formation of Euramerica. At the completion of stage, the site of Britain was at 30°S. This collision is represented by the Caledonian folding or in North America as a phase in the Acadian orogeny. This was followed up by the arrival of Gondwana, the effects of these collisions are seen in Europe as the Variscan folding. In North America it shows as later phases of the Acadian orogeny and this was happening at around the Equator during the later Carboniferous, forming Pangaea with Avalonia near its centre but partially flooded by shallow sea. In the Jurassic, Pangaea split into Laurasia and Gondwana, with Avalonia as part of Laurasia, in the Cretaceous, Laurasia broke up into North America and Eurasia with Avalonia split between them. Iberia was later rotated away again as the African part of Gondwana strike-slipped past it and this last movement caused the Alpine orogeny including the raising of the Pyrenees during the Miocene and Pliocene. As a result of this, part of Avalonia is now to be found on side of the Straits of Gibraltar. The Avalonian part of Great Britain almost exactly coincides with England, part of the British-Belgian section formed an island in the Carboniferous, affecting the disposition of coalfields, this is known by names such as the London-Brabant Island. Its bulk had an effect on the structure between the Ardennes and the English Midlands by influencing the subsequent crustal folding resulting from the Variscan collision
17.
Province of Avalon
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The Avalon Peninsula was one of the first European-inhabited areas in North America. In 1497 the Bristol Guild of Merchants financed a voyage by John Cabot to Newfoundland, breton, Basque, and Portuguese fishermen spoke of a land of codfish. They were familiar with the Avalon Peninsula where many would set up shelters to dry fish. In the early 17th century English merchants began to take an interest in the Newfoundland fishery, the Bristol Society of Merchant Venturers established the London and Bristol Company in 1608 and sent John Guy, to locate a favourable location for a colony. The first permanent English settlement was established at Cupers Cove in 1610, the company was granted a charter by James I on May 2,1610 giving it a monopoly in agriculture, mining, fishing and hunting on the Avalon Peninsula. They retained exclusive rights until 1616 when the Crown began to grant lands to others, Sir Sir George Calvert acquired a large land holding on the peninsula. And hired an agent Captain Edward Wynne to set up headquarters in Ferryland, the initial colony of grew to a population of 100, becoming the first successful permanent settlement on Newfoundland island. The charter created the province as a palatinate in which Calvert had absolute authority. Calvert wished to make the colony a refuge for Roman Catholics facing persecution in England, in 1625 Calvert was made the first Lord Baltimore. Calverts son, Cecilius Calvert, 2nd Baron Baltimore, fought against the new charter, and in 1660 gained official recognition of the old Charter of Avalon, but never attempted to retake the colony. The site of the colony was designated a National Historic Site of Canada in 1953 It was also designated a Municipal Heritage District in 1998, list of communities in Newfoundland and Labrador Cupers Cove Bristols Hope British colonization of the Americas William Vaughan Official Colony of Avalon website
18.
John Cabot
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To mark the celebration of the 500th anniversary of Cabots expedition, both the Canadian and British governments elected Cape Bonavista, Newfoundland, as Cabots first landing site. However, alternative theories have also been proposed, Giovanni Caboto was born in Italy, the son of Giulio Caboto and his wife, he had a brother Piero. He is known today as Giovanni Caboto in Italy, in English as John Cabot, in French as Jean Cabot, the non-Italian forms are derived from how his name was recorded in related 15th-century documents. In Venice he signed his names as Zuan Chabotto, Zuan being a form of John typical to Venice and he continued to use this form in England, at least among Italians. He was referred to by his Italian banker in London as Giovanni Chabbote, Gaeta and Castiglione Chiavarese have both been proposed as birthplaces. The main evidence for Gaeta are records of a Caboto family residing there until the mid-15th century, pedro de Ayala, the Spanish envoy and Cabots contemporary in London, described him in a letter to the Spanish Crown in 1498 as another Genoese like Columbus. John Cabots son, Sebastian, said his father came from Genoa. In 1476 Cabot was made a citizen of the Republic of Venice and he may have been born slightly earlier than 1450, which is the approximate date most commonly given for his birth. In 1471 Caboto was accepted into the confraternity of St John the Evangelist. Since this was one of the citys prestigious confraternities, his acceptance suggests that he was already a member of the community. He presumably entered this trade shortly thereafter, a 1483 document refers to his selling a slave in Crete whom he had acquired while in the territories of the Sultan of Egypt, which then comprised most of what is now Israel, Syria and Lebanon. This is not sufficient to prove Cabots later assertion that he had visited Mecca, in this Mediterranean trade, he may have acquired better knowledge of the origins of the oriental merchandise he would have been dealing in than most Europeans at that time. Zuan Cabotto is mentioned in a variety of Venetian records of the 1480s and these indicate that by 1484 he was married to Mattea and already had at least two sons. Cabots sons are Ludovico, Sebastian, and Sancto, the Venetian sources contain references to Cabots being involved in house building in the city. He may have relied on this experience when seeking work later in Spain as a civil engineer, Cabot appears to have got into financial trouble in the late 1480s and left Venice as an insolvent debtor by 5 November 1488. He moved to Valencia, Spain, where his creditors attempted to have him arrested by sending a lettera di raccomandazione a giustizia to the authorities, while in Valencia, John Cabot Montecalunya proposed plans for improvements to the harbour. Early in 1494 he moved on to Seville, where he proposed, was contracted to build and, for five months and this project was abandoned following a decision of the City Council on 24 December 1494. After this Cabot appears to have support in Seville and Lisbon for an Atlantic expedition, before moving to London to seek funding
19.
Maluku Islands
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The Maluku Islands or the Moluccas are an archipelago within Indonesia. Tectonically they are located on the Halmahera Plate within the Molucca Sea Collision Zone, geographically they are located east of Sulawesi, west of New Guinea, and north and east of Timor. The islands were also the core of the Spice Islands known to the Chinese and Europeans. The name was due to the nutmeg, mace and cloves that were originally found there. The Maluku Islands formed a province from Indonesian independence until 1999. A new province, North Maluku, incorporates the area between Morotai and Sula, with the arc of islands from Buru and Seram to Wetar remaining within the existing Maluku Province, North Maluku is predominantly Muslim, and its capital is Sofifi on Halmahera island. Maluku province has a larger Christian population, and its capital is Ambon, though originally Melanesian, many island populations, especially in the Banda Islands, were exterminated in the 17th century during the spice wars. A second influx of Austronesian immigrants began in the twentieth century under the Dutch. Between 1999 and 2002, conflict between Muslims and Christians killed thousands and displaced half a million people, the name Maluku is thought to have been derived from the term used by Arab traders for the region, Jazirat al-Muluk. The Maluku Islands were a single province from Indonesian independence until 1999 when they were split into North Maluku and Maluku, North Maluku province includes Ternate, Tidore, Bacan, Halmahera Morotai, the Obi Islands, and the Sula Islands. Evidence of increasingly long-distance trading relationships and of more frequent occupation of many islands, onyx beads and segments of silver plate used as currency on the Indian subcontinent around 200BC have been unearthed on some of the islands. Arab merchants began to arrive in the 14th century, bringing Islam, peaceful conversion to Islam occurred in many islands, especially in the centres of trade, while aboriginal animism persisted in the hinterlands and more isolated islands. Archaeological evidence here relies largely on the occurrence of pigs teeth, the Portuguese had conquered the city state of Malacca in the early 16th century and their influence was most strongly felt in Maluku and other parts of eastern Indonesia. On the return trip, Francisco Serrão was shipwrecked at Hitu island in 1512, there he established ties with the local ruler who was impressed with his martial skills. The spice trade soon revived but the Portuguese would not be able to fully monopolize nor disrupt this trade, both Serrão and Ferdinand Magellan, however, perished before they could meet one another. The Portuguese first landed in Ambon in 1513, but it became the new centre for their activities in Maluku following the expulsion from Ternate. European power in the region was weak and Ternate became an expanding, fiercely Islamic and anti-European state under the rule of Sultan Baab Ullah and his son Sultan Said. By the 1560s there were 10,000 Catholics in the area, mostly on Ambon, the Pela Gandong community relationship system is between various Christian and Muslim villages throughout the regions
20.
East Indies
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The East Indies or Indies are the lands of South and Southeast Asia. In a more restricted sense, the Indies can be used to refer to the islands of Southeast Asia, the name Indies is derived from the river Indus and is used to connote parts of Asia that came under Indian cultural influence. The East Indies may also include the former French-held Indochina, former British territories Brunei and Singapore and it does not, however, include the former Dutch New Guinea western New Guinea, which is geographically considered to be part of Melanesia. In colonial times they were just natives, however, the peoples of the East Indies comprise a wide variety of cultural diversity, and the inhabitants do not consider themselves as belonging to a single ethnic group. The major languages in this area draw from a variety of language families, and should not be confused with the term Indic. The extensive East Indies are subdivided into two sections, archaically called Hither India and Further India, the first is the former British India, the second is Southeast Asia. Historically, the king of Abyssinia was identified with Prester John of the Indies, exploration of these regions by European powers first began in the late 15th century and early 16th century led by the Portuguese explorers. The Portuguese described the region they discovered as the Indies. Eventually, the region would be broken up into a series of Indies, the East Indies, which was also called Old Indies or Great Indies, consisting of India, and the West Indies, also called New Indies or Little Indies, consisting of the Americas. The New World was initially thought to be the easternmost part of the Indies by explorer Christopher Columbus, later, to avoid confusion, the New World came to be called the West Indies, while the original Indies came to be called the East Indies. Greater India History of the Americas Indian Spanish West Indies
21.
Bonavista Peninsula
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The Bonavista Peninsula is a large peninsula on the east coast of the island of Newfoundland in the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador. The peninsula runs 85 km northeast from a 19 km wide isthmus and it separates Bonavista Bay in the north from Trinity Bay to the south. Starting at the Trinity Bay side it commences at the part of the bay at Shoal Harbour. Continuing east the peninsulas south shore includes the communities of Trinity, the north shore of the peninsula includes the communities of Bonavista, Summerville and Musgravetown to Port Blandford. The highways servicing the Bonavista Peninsula are Route 230, Route 233, Route 235, Route 237, Route 238, the Newfoundland Railway also had a branch built from Clarenville to Bonavista, later called the Bonavista Subdivision by CN Rails Terra Transport division. It was abandoned in 1984, four years before the mainline was abandoned across the island. This peninsula contains some of the oldest settlements on the island of Newfoundland, particularly the towns of Bonavista, english explorer John Cabot is reported to have landed at Cape Bonavista in 1497 claiming this part of the New World for the King of England. The communities and towns on the Bonavista Peninsula are in a decline as the importance of the fishing industry decreases. The following is a list of the towns on the Bonavista Peninsula by population in the 2011 Canadian Census
22.
Cuper's Cove, Newfoundland and Labrador
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Most of the settlers left in the 1620s, but apparently a few stayed on and the site was continuously inhabited. The community is known as Cupids. In the early sixteenth century the island of Newfoundland was frequented by seasonal fisherman from many European countries, the competition was tough to be the first to sail to the rich fishing grounds around the island and indeed the rest of North America. The island had some advantages over the rest of North America as a site to establish an English colony. The island was very familiar to fisherman and explorers, especially the bays, time was ripe for a permanent settlement in Newfoundland. In 1607 Bristols Society of Merchant Venturers which included Sir Francis Bacon, Sir Percival Willoughby, the Newfoundland Company had then petitioned the King James I, seeking approval to establish a colony in Newfoundland. John Guy visited the island in 1608 to scout locations for a settlement. The Privy Council accepted his petition on 2 May 1610 issuing a charter to the Earl of Northampton, in 1610 John Guy, his brother Phillip, his brother-in-law William Colston and 39 colonists had set sail from Bristol aboard three ships. In August 1610 they made landfall in the area Guy had visited two years earlier to set about building a settlement, the charter had stipulated that the settlers of Cuper’s Cove were not to interfere with the operation of the migratory fishery in any way. Within the confines of the settlement were two saw pits and a wooden defense works upon which three cannons were mounted, the dwellings were made of cobble and flagstone floors with some areas covered by wooden timbers and floor boards. The end of the first winter, a winter, the report back to England was very optimistic where Guy notes that the months of October and November are both warmer and drier than in England. The livestock they had brought from England had thrived and had added to their numbers, the colonists built, along with the dwellings and support structures, six fishing vessels and a twelve tonne bark, Endeavour. Fortifications were by means of a wall of local cut poles sixteen feet long set upright all around the perimeter of the settlement. The fortress was completed by the summer of 1612 to defend the plantation against the pirate Peter Easton, the plantation continued development and by 8 September 1612 a dwelling for Henry Crout and his ward Thomas Willoughby had begun. By the spring of 1613 at least sixteen structures were built on the site, much of the land had been cleared for the planting of crops and to allow livestock to pasture. John Guy had stayed at the colony during the winter of 1610 to 1611 and had returned to England in the autumn of 1611, four of the colonists had died during the winter of 1610 to 1611. In the spring of 1612, Guy had returned, this time with more adventurers, Guy, an alderman and sound churchman, had also brought with him a clergyman, Rev. Erasmus Stourton. During the winter of 1612 to 1613 sixty-two people were known to be at the plantation and that winter eight deaths were recorded, all apparently from scurvy
23.
George Calvert, 1st Baron Baltimore
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George Calvert, 1st Baron Baltimore was an English politician and coloniser. He achieved domestic success as a Member of Parliament and later Secretary of State under King James I. He lost much of his power after his support for a failed marriage alliance between Prince Charles and the Spanish House of Habsburg royal family. Rather than continue in politics, he resigned all of his offices in 1625 except for his position on the Privy Council. He was created Baron Baltimore in the Irish peerage upon his resignation, Baltimore Manor was located in County Longford, Ireland. The name Baltimore is an Anglicisation of the Irish Baile an Tí Mhóir, Calvert took an interest in the British colonization of the Americas, at first for commercial reasons and later to create a refuge for English Catholics. He became the proprietor of Avalon, the first sustained English settlement on the peninsula on the island of Newfoundland. Calvert died five weeks before the new Charter was sealed, leaving the settlement of the Maryland colony to his son Cecil and his second son Leonard Calvert, was the first colonial governor of the Province of Maryland. Little is known of the ancestry of the Yorkshire branch of the Calverts, at George Calverts knighting, it was claimed that his family originally came from Flanders. He established his family on the estate of the later-built Kiplin Hall, near Catterick in Richmondshire, George Calvert was born at Kiplin in late 1579. His mother Alicia/Alice died on 28 November 1587, when he was fifteen years old and his father then married Grace Crossland, Alicias first cousin. Acts mandating compulsory religious uniformity were enacted by Parliament and enforced through penal laws, the Acts of Supremacy and the Uniformity Act of 1559 also included an oath of allegiance to the Queen and an implicit denial of the Popes authority over the English Church. This oath was required of any subject, who wished to hold high office, attend university. The Calvert household suffered the intrusion of the Elizabethan-era religious laws, as a result, the boys were sent to a Protestant tutor called Mr. Fowberry at Bilton. George Calvert went up to Trinity College, at Oxford University matriculating in 1593/94, as the oath of allegiance was compulsory after the age of sixteen, he would almost certainly have pledged conformity while at Oxford. The same pattern of conformity, whether pretended or sincere, continued through Calverts early life, after Oxford, he moved to London in 1598, where he studied municipal law at Lincolns Inn for three years. In November 1604, he married Anne Mynne in a Protestant, Church of England ceremony at St Peters, Cornhill and his children, including his eldest son and heir, Cecil, who was born in the winter of 1605–06, were all baptised as Christian Protestants. When Anne died on 8 August 1622, she was buried at Calverts local Protestant parish church, St Martin in the Fields
24.
Ferryland
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Ferryland is a town in Newfoundland and Labrador on the Avalon Peninsula. According to the 2011 Statistics Canada census, its population is 465, Ferryland was originally established as a station for migratory fishermen in the late 16th century but had earlier been used by the French, Spanish, and Portuguese. By the 1590s it was one of the most popular fishing harbours in Newfoundland, Ferryland was called Farilham by the Portuguese fishermen and Forillon by the French—it later became anglicized to its current name Ferryland. In 1620 the territory was granted to George Calvert, 1st Baron Baltimore who had obtained the holdings from William Vaughan, Calvert appointed Edward Wynne to establish a colony which became the first successful permanent colony in Newfoundland growing to a population of 100 by 1625. In 1623, Calverts grant was confirmed and expanded, the Charter of Avalon was granted to Lord Baltimore by James I. Dated 7 April 1623 it created the Province of Avalon on the island of Newfoundland and that same year Baltimore chose Ferryland as the principal area of settlement. In the 1660s, the colony was attacked by Dutchmen, the town was destroyed by New France in the Avalon Peninsula Campaign. Virtually forgotten for centuries, excavations of the settlement began in earnest in the late 1980s. The site of the 17th-century Colony of Avalon was designated a National Historic Site of Canada in 1953 and it was also designated a Municipal Heritage District in 1998. The Historic Ferryland Museum was designated a Municipal Heritage Site in 2006
25.
Royal charter
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A royal charter is a formal document issued by a monarch as letters patent, granting a right or power to an individual or a body corporate. They were, and are still, used to establish significant organisations such as cities or universities, Charters should be distinguished from warrants and letters of appointment, as they have perpetual effect. Typically, a Royal Charter is produced as a high-quality work of calligraphy on vellum, the British monarchy has issued over 980 royal charters. Of these about 750 remain in existence, the earliest was to the town of Tain in 1066, making it the oldest Royal Burgh in Scotland, followed by the University of Cambridge in 1231. Charters continue to be issued by the British Crown, a recent example being that awarded to the Chartered Institute for the Management of Sport and Physical Activity, Charters have been used in Europe since medieval times to create cities. The date that such a charter is granted is considered to be when a city is founded, at one time, a royal charter was the sole means by which an incorporated body could be formed, but other means are generally used nowadays instead. In the period before 1958,32 higher education institutes had been created by royal charter and these were typically engineering or technical institutions rather than universities. Royal decrees can therefore no longer grant higher education status or university status. A Royal Charter is granted by Order in Council, either creating an incorporated body and this is an exercise of the Royal Prerogative, and, in Canada, there are hundreds of organisations under Royal Charters. Such organisations include charities, businesses, colleges, universities, today, it is mostly charities and professional institutions who receive Royal Charters. Application for a charter is a petition to the Queen-in-Council, however, meeting these benchmarks does not guarantee the issuance of a Royal Charter. Companies, corporations, and societies in Canada founded under or augmented by a Royal Charter include, Royal Charter was issued in August 1826 to purchase and develop lands. Purchased the Crown Reserve of 1,384,413 acres, cities under Royal Charter are not subject to municipal Acts of Parliament applied generally to other municipalities, and instead are governed by legislation applicable to each city individually. The Royal Charter codifies the laws applied to the particular city, the Universitys Pontifical Charter was granted by Pope Leo XIII in 1889. Several Canadian private schools were founded or reconstituted under Royal Charter, the Royal Gibraltar Post Office was granted Royal Charter in 2005. The Royal Hong Kong Jockey Club obtained Royal Charter in 1959 and it is one of the three banknote-issuing banks in Hong Kong. The Royal Asiatic Society Hong Kong Branch Chartered originally in 1847, disbanded 1859, the Institution of Engineers was incorporated by royal charter in 1935. A number of Irish institutions retain the Royal prefix, even though Republic of Ireland severed all remaining connections between the state and the British monarch in 1949, the University of South Africa received a Royal Charter in 1877
26.
Avalon
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Avalon is a legendary island featured in the Arthurian legend. Avalon was associated from a date with mystical practices and people such as Morgan le Fay. Geoffrey of Monmouth referred to it in Latin as Insula Avallonis in the Historia, in the later Vita Merlini he called it Insula Pomorum the isle of fruit trees. The name is considered to be of Welsh origin, derived from Old Welsh, Old Cornish, or Old Breton aball or avallen, apple tree. Welsh, Cornish and Breton tradition claimed that Arthur had never really died, the Historia also states that Avalon is where his sword Excalibur was forged. Geoffrey dealt with Avalon in more detail in Vita Merlini, in which he describes for the first time in Arthurian legend the enchantress Morgan le Fay as the chief of nine sisters who live on Avalon. Geoffreys description of the island indicates a sea voyage was needed to get there, of its own accord it produces grain and grapes, and apple trees grow in its woods from the close-clipped grass. The ground of its own accord produces everything instead of merely grass, there nine sisters rule by a pleasing set of laws those who come to them from our country. Hence the mistake of pagans and the poems by worldly poets and they are situated in the Ocean, against the left side of Mauretania, closest to where the sun sets, and they are separated from each other by the intervening sea. In medieval geographies, Isidores Fortunate Islands were identified with the Canaries, around 1190, Avalon became associated with Glastonbury, when monks at Glastonbury Abbey claimed to have discovered the bones of Arthur and his queen. The works of Gerald of Wales make the first known connection, What is now known as Glastonbury was, in ancient times and it is virtually an island, for it is completely surrounded by marshlands. In Welsh it is called Ynys Afallach, which means the Island of Apples, years ago the district had also been called Ynys Gutrin in Welsh, that is the Island of Glass, and from these words the invading Saxons later coined the place-name Glastingebury. Though no longer an island in the century, the high conical bulk of Glastonbury Tor had been surrounded by marsh before the surrounding fenland in the Somerset Levels was drained. In ancient times, Ponters Ball Dyke would have guarded the entrance to the island. The Romans eventually built another road to the island, Gerald wrote that Glastonburys earliest name in Welsh was Ineswitrin, the Isle of glass, a name noted by earlier historians which suggests that the location was at one point seen as an island. At a depth of 5 m the monks were said to have discovered a massive treetrunk coffin, accounts of the exact inscription vary, with five different versions existing. The earliest is by Gerald in Liber de Principis instructione c,1193, who wrote that he viewed the cross in person and traced the lettering. His transcript reads, Here lies buried the famous King Arthur with Guinevere his second wife in the isle of Avalon, inside the coffin were two bodies, who Giraldus refers to as Arthur and his queen, the bones of the male body were described as being gigantic
27.
Somerset
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Somerset is a county in South West England which borders Gloucestershire and Bristol to the north, Wiltshire to the east, Dorset to the south-east and Devon to the south-west. It is bounded to the north and west by the Severn Estuary and its traditional border with Gloucestershire is the River Avon. Somerset is a county of rolling hills such as the Blackdown Hills, Mendip Hills, Quantock Hills and Exmoor National Park. There is evidence of occupation from Paleolithic times, and of subsequent settlement in the Roman. The county played a significant part in the consolidation of power and rise of King Alfred the Great, and later in the English Civil War, the city of Bath is famous for its substantial Georgian architecture and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Somersets name derives from Old English Sumorsǣte, short for Sumortūnsǣte, an alternative suggestion is the name derives from Seo-mere-saetan meaning settlers by the sea lakes. The Old English name is used in the motto of the county, Sumorsǣte ealle, adopted as the motto in 1911, the phrase is taken from the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. Somerset settlement names are mostly Anglo-Saxon in origin, but some hill names include Brittonic Celtic elements, for example, an Anglo-Saxon charter of 682 refers to Creechborough Hill as the hill the British call Cructan and we call Crychbeorh. Some modern names are Brythonic in origin, such as Tarnock, the caves of the Mendip Hills were settled during the Palaeolithic period, and contain extensive archaeological sites such as those at Cheddar Gorge. Bones from Goughs Cave have been dated to 12,000 BC, examples of cave art have been found in Avelines Hole. Some caves continued to be occupied until modern times, including Wookey Hole, the Somerset Levels—specifically dry points at Glastonbury and Brent Knoll— also have a long history of settlement, and are known to have been settled by Mesolithic hunters. Travel in the area was facilitated by the construction of one of the worlds oldest known engineered roadways, the Sweet Track, the exact age of the henge monument at Stanton Drew stone circles is unknown, but it is believed to be Neolithic. There are numerous Iron Age hill forts, some of which, like Cadbury Castle, on the authority of the future emperor Vespasian, as part of the ongoing expansion of the Roman presence in Britain, the Second Legion Augusta invaded Somerset from the south-east in AD47. The county remained part of the Roman Empire until around AD409, a variety of Roman remains have been found, including Pagans Hill Roman temple in Chew Stoke, Low Ham Roman Villa and the Roman Baths that gave their name to the city of Bath. After the Romans left, Britain was invaded by Anglo-Saxon peoples, by AD600 they had established control over much of what is now England, but Somerset was still in native British hands. The Saxon royal palace in Cheddar was used several times in the 10th century to host the Witenagemot. After the Norman Conquest, the county was divided into 700 fiefs, Somerset contains HM Prison Shepton Mallet, which was Englands oldest prison still in use prior to its closure in 2013, having opened in 1610. In the English Civil War Somerset was largely Parliamentarian, with key engagements being the Sieges of Taunton, in 1685 the Monmouth Rebellion was played out in Somerset and neighbouring Dorset
28.
Glastonbury
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Glastonbury /ˈɡlæstənbri/ is a town and civil parish in Somerset, England, situated at a dry point on the low-lying Somerset Levels,23 miles south of Bristol. The town, which is in the Mendip district, had a population of 8,932 in the 2011 census, Glastonbury is less than 1 mile across the River Brue from Street, which is now larger than Glastonbury. Evidence from timber trackways such as the Sweet Track show that the town has been inhabited since Neolithic times. Glastonbury Lake Village was an Iron Age village, close to the old course of the River Brue and Sharpham Park approximately 2 miles west of Glastonbury, centwine was the first Saxon patron of Glastonbury Abbey, which dominated the town for the next 700 years. One of the most important abbeys in England, it was the site of Edmund Ironsides coronation as King of England in 1016, the Church of St John the Baptist dates from the 15th century. The Brue Valley Living Landscape is a project managed by the Somerset Wildlife Trust. Joseph is said to have arrived in Glastonbury and stuck his staff into the ground, the presence of a landscape zodiac around the town has been suggested but no evidence has been discovered. The Glastonbury Festival, held in the village of Pilton. The Neolithic people continued to exploit the reedswamps for their natural resources, tree-ring dating of the timbers has enabled very precise dating of the track, showing it was built in 3807 or 3806 BC. It has been claimed to be the oldest road in the world, the track was discovered in the course of peat digging in 1970, and is named after its discoverer, Ray Sweet. It extended across the marsh between what was then an island at Westhay, and a ridge of ground at Shapwick. The track is one of a network of tracks that crossed the Somerset Levels. Since the discovery of the Sweet Track, it has determined that it was built along the route of an even earlier track. Glastonbury Lake Village was an Iron Age village, close to the old course of the River Brue, on the Somerset Levels near Godney, some 3 miles north west of Glastonbury. The village was built in about 300 BC and occupied into the early Roman period when it was abandoned and it was built on a morass on an artificial foundation of timber filled with brushwood, bracken, rubble and clay. Sharpham Park is a 300-acre historic park,2 miles west of Glastonbury, the origin of the name Glastonbury is unclear but when the settlement is first recorded in the 7th and the early 8th century, it was called Glestingaburg. It may derive from a person or kindred group named Glast, upon arrival there he beholds a hovering mansion inhabited by handsomely dressed courtiers and King Gwyn on a throne of gold, holy water disperses the apparition. This is from Druid mythology, in which the mansion is made of glass so as to receive the spirits of the dead, accordingly, Williamson posits that the Tor was named after the glassy mansion of the dead
29.
Kingdom of Great Britain
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The Kingdom of Great Britain, officially Great Britain, was a sovereign state in western Europe from 1 May 1707 to 31 December 1800. It did not include Ireland, which remained a separate realm, the unitary state was governed by a single parliament and government that was based in Westminster. Also after the accession of George I to the throne of Great Britain in 1714, the early years of the unified kingdom were marked by Jacobite risings which ended in defeat for the Stuart cause at Culloden in 1746. On 1 January 1801, the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland were merged to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922, five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the United Kingdom, the name Britain descends from the Latin name for the island of Great Britain, Britannia or Brittānia, the land of the Britons via the Old French Bretaigne and Middle English Bretayne, Breteyne. The term Great Britain was first used officially in 1474, in the instrument drawing up the proposal for a marriage between Edward IV of Englands daughter Cecily and James III of Scotlands son James. The Treaty of Union and the subsequent Acts of Union state that England and Scotland were to be United into one Kingdom by the Name of Great Britain. However, both the Acts and the Treaty also refer numerous times to the United Kingdom and the longer form, other publications refer to the country as the United Kingdom after 1707 as well. The websites of the UK parliament, the Scottish Parliament, the BBC, additionally, the term United Kingdom was found in informal use during the 18th century to describe the state. The new state created in 1707 included the island of Great Britain, the kingdoms of England and Scotland, both in existence from the 9th century, were separate states until 1707. However, they had come into a union in 1603. Each of the three kingdoms maintained its own parliament and laws and this disposition changed dramatically when the Acts of Union 1707 came into force, with a single unified Crown of Great Britain and a single unified parliament. Ireland remained formally separate, with its own parliament, until the Acts of Union 1800, legislative power was vested in the Parliament of Great Britain, which replaced both the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland. In practice it was a continuation of the English parliament, sitting at the location in Westminster. Newly created peers in the Peerage of Great Britain were given the right to sit in the Lords. Despite the end of a parliament for Scotland, it retained its own laws. As a result of Poynings Law of 1495, the Parliament of Ireland was subordinate to the Parliament of England, the Act was repealed by the Repeal of Act for Securing Dependence of Ireland Act 1782. The same year, the Irish constitution of 1782 produced a period of legislative freedom, the 18th century saw England, and after 1707 Great Britain, rise to become the worlds dominant colonial power, with France its main rival on the imperial stage
30.
Baron Baltimore
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Baron Baltimore, of Baltimore Manor in County Longford, was a title in the Peerage of Ireland. It was created in 1624 for George Calvert and became extinct on the death of the sixth Baron in 1771, the title was held by several members of the Calvert family who were proprietors of the palatinates Avalon in Newfoundland and Maryland. In the context of United States history, the name Lord Baltimore usually refers to Cecil Calvert, 2nd Baron Baltimore after whom the city of Baltimore and his younger brother Leonard Calvert was the first Governor of Maryland. As members of the Irish peerage, the Lords Baltimore were able to sit in the British House of Commons. Irish peerages were often used as a way of creating peerages which did not grant a seat in the British House of Lords, as a consequence, many Irish peers had little or no connection to Ireland. Though the barony is extinct, the Barons Baltimore left a number of descendants, including, Leonard Calvert, phillip Calvert, proprietary/colonial Governor of Maryland during a brief period in 1660 or 1661. Captain Charles Calvert, provincial/colonial Governor of Maryland in 1720, at a time when the Calvert family had recently regained control of their proprietary colony and he was appointed Governor by his cousin Charles Calvert, 5th Baron Baltimore. Benedict Leonard Calvert, the proprietary/colonial Governor of Maryland from 1727 through 1731, appointed by his brother, Charles Calvert, Benedict Swingate Calvert, the illegitimate son of Charles Calvert, 5th Baron Baltimore, the third Proprietor/Colonial Governor of Maryland. Loyalist and Judge of the Land Office prior to the American Revolution, eleanor Calvert, daughter-in-law of Martha Dandridge Washington and the stepdaughter-in-law of the General of the Continental Army and first President of the United States, George Washington. Henry Harford, 5th and last Proprietor of Maryland and he was the illegitimate son of Frederick Calvert, 6th Baron Baltimore. There are several locations in Maryland named after the Barons Baltimore, including Baltimore County, Calvert County, Cecil County, Charles County, Frederick County, Leonardtown, St. Leonard and Calvert Cliffs. There is also Charles Street and Calvert Street in Baltimore, wife of Cecilius Calvert, Anne Arundells namesake Queen survives in that of Anne Arundel County, Maryland. C. Harford County is named for Henry Harford, the son of Frederick Calvert. Leonardtown, Maryland, now county seat of St. Marys City, the Baltimore Road, which runs through the town of Bladensburg was made famous due to its role in the Battle of Bladensburg and the subsequent Burning of Washington during the War of 1812. On the Avalon Peninsula in the Province of Newfoundland and Labrador of the northeastern Dominion of Canada, there is a settlement named Calvert, there are also several other towns and villages across North America in the several states with the name of Baltimore, New Baltimore or Old Baltimore. Before the American Revolution, a flag used by military units of the colonial militia of the Province of Maryland was known as the Calvert Arms Flag. This Union Jack canton in the corner of the banner over the black and gold chevrons depicted on the Calvert familys shield. Today, this historical flag is often displayed throughout the state, especially at historical, heritage
31.
Province of Maryland
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Its first settlement and capital was St. Marys City, in the southern end of St. Marys County, which is a peninsula in the Chesapeake Bay and is also bordered by four tidal rivers. The province began as a colony of the English Lord Baltimore. In 1689, the following the Glorious Revolution, John Coode led a rebellion that removed Lord Baltimore from power in Maryland. Power in the colony was restored to the Baltimore family in 1715 when Charles Calvert, 5th Baron Baltimore, insisted in public that he was a Protestant. Despite early competition with the colony of Virginia to its south, and the Dutch colony of New Netherland to its north, Maryland received a larger felon quota than any other province. By 1776 the old order had been overthrown, as Maryland citizens signed the Declaration of Independence, the Catholic George Calvert, 1st Baron Baltimore, former Secretary of State to His Majesty, King Charles I, wished to create a haven for English Catholics in the New World. Upon Baltimores death in 1632 the grant was transferred to his eldest son Cecil, on June 20,1632 Charles I of England granted the original charter for Maryland, a proprietary colony of about twelve million acres, to Cecil Calvert, 2nd Baron Baltimore. Some historians view this grant as a form of compensation for Calverts fathers having been stripped of his title of Secretary of State upon announcing his Roman Catholicism in 1625. The charter offered no guidelines on religion, although it was assumed that Catholics would not be molested in the new colony. The charter had originally granted to Calverts father, George Calvert, 1st Baron Baltimore. Whatever the reason for granting the colony specifically to Baltimore, however, the colony of New Netherland begun by Englands great imperial rival in this era, the United Provinces specifically claimed the Delaware River valley and was vague about its border with Virginia. Charles rejected all the Dutch claims on the Atlantic seaboard, but was anxious to bolster English claims by formally occupying the territory, the new colony was named after the devoutly Catholic Henrietta Maria of France, the Queen Consort. Colonial Maryland was considerably larger than the state of Maryland. The original charter granted the Calverts an imprecisely defined territory north of Virginia and south of the 40th parallel, like other aristocratic proprietors, he also hoped to turn a profit on the new colony. The Calvert family recruited Catholic aristocrats and Protestant settlers for Maryland, luring them with land grants. To try to gain settlers, Maryland used what is known as the headright system, settlers were given 50 acres of land for each person they brought into the colony, whether as settler, indentured servant or slave. Of the 200 or so initial settlers who traveled to Maryland on the ships Ark and Dove, Clements Island, off the northern shore of the Potomac River, upstream from its confluence with the Chesapeake Bay and Point Lookout. The new settlers were led by Lord Baltimores younger brother Leonard Calvert and he knew of white men from communication with native tribes to the South and West in Virginia and he was eager to gain technology, such as guns and gunpowder, from the Maryland settlers
32.
David Kirke
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Sir David Kirke was an adventurer, colonizer and governor for the king of England. He is best known for his capture of New France in 1629 during the Thirty Years War. A favourite of Charles I of England, the fall of the Crown during the English Civil War led to Kirkes downfall and it is believed he died in prison. David Kirke was the son of Gervase Kirke, a wealthy London-based merchant, and Elizabeth Goudon and he was raised in Dieppe, in Normandy. David was the eldest of five sons, followed by Lewis, Thomas, John and James. A second English invasion fleet, of six ships and three pinnaces, left Gravesend in March 1629 with Jacques Michel, a deserter from Champlain, to act as pilot on the St. Lawrence River. Champlain sent a party from Quebec, whose residents were on the point of starvation, unknown to Champlain, de Caën was also bringing word that peace had been declared in April in Europe by the Treaty of Susa. Although Champlains party met de Caën in the Gulf, they were captured by the English on their way upriver to Quebec, Kirke, now aware of the desperate conditions at Quebec, sent his brothers Lewis and Thomas to demand surrender. Having no alternative, Champlain surrendered on 19 July 1629, as a consolation, Kirke was knighted in 1633. Kirke is believed to have visited Ferryland, as he published a report on the island of Newfoundland in 1635, Kirke was impressed by the islands fisheries, and in 1637 he asked King Charles for a land grant. In November 1637 Kirke and his partners were granted a charter for co-proprietorship of the entire island. A portion of Newfoundland, the Avalon Peninsula, had already granted to George Calvert, but he was accused of abandoning his colony. Kirke was installed as the Proprietary Governor, and arrived in 1638 with 100 colonists, the original governorship of the Avalon Peninsula had passed to Baltimores son, Cecilius Calvert, who had installed William Hill as governor. Kirke seized the governors mansion, then occupied by Hill. ”In 1639, over the next several years, Kirke erected forts at Ferryland, St. John’s, and Bay de Verde. He collected tolls from all fishing vessels, Kirke was granted the rights to the sole trade of the Newfoundland, the Fishing excepted. The latter clause resulted in considerable trouble, at the time the Grand Banks of Newfoundland were being fished by many European nations, and Kirkes 5% tax gave the advantage to the English. A number of West Country merchants thrived on the fish trade, represented in London by Kirke, Barkeley and Company, Kirke used his land rights to support the fish trade, in conflict with the charter terms. By 1638 strong ties between Ferryland and Dartmouth, Devon had already set up
33.
James Hamilton, 1st Duke of Hamilton
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James Hamilton, 1st Duke of Hamilton KG PC was a Scottish nobleman and influential political and military leader during the Thirty Years War and the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. James was born in 1606 at Hamilton Palace in Lanarkshire, the son of James, Marquis of Hamilton, following the death of his insane great-uncle James, Earl of Arran in 1609, the infant was styled Earl of Arran. The young Earl of Arrans close ancestor was the Princess Mary, daughter to James II of Scotland and Mary of Gueldres. After the death in 1612 of Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales, James became third in line to the throne of Scotland, after Charles, Duke of Rothesay, and his sister Elizabeth. James VIs first visit to Scotland since the Union of the Crowns occurred in early 1617, whilst in Scotland, he was charmed by the Marquis. The Marquis duly arrived in London in August of that year, although like most Noblemens sons of the time he had a private tutor, James Bale, Arrans time spent at court in the ensuing years did not consist of much formal education. To remedy this, Arran was sent to Exeter College, Oxford, the Duke was interested in art from a young age and collected Venetian paintings through his agent Viscount Basil Feilding. A good portion of this later came into the hands of the Archduke Leopold Wilhelm in Brussels. The Marquis meanwhile had been intriguing with George, Duke of Buckingham, like all ambitious upstarts at court, Buckingham was keen to consolidate his new-found fortunes by allying himself and his family with established and wealthy families. Buckingham proposed to wed Arran to his niece Mary, daughter to William, Viscount Feilding, Hamilton, despite his misgivings regarding Buckinghams lowly origins was impressed enough by his influence with the King, to accept his suggestion. On 16 June 1622 the fifteen-year-old Arran married 9-year old Mary Feilding in the presence of the King, Arran was not consulted and later came to bitterly resent it. In 1625 the 2nd Marquis died at Whitehall of a seizure and his death was blamed on fever, although the speed of his death and his age, thirty-six, made many suspect poison. King James died three weeks later, the new Marquis received all his fathers titles, and also the same annuity his father had received from the court of £2500 sterling. At the coronation of King Charles I, Hamilton bore the Sword of State at Westminster Abbey and he represented the King of Bohemia at the baptism of the infant Prince Charles. In 1631 Hamilton took over an army to assist Gustavus Adolphus in the Thirty Years War in Germany and he raised these based on warrants to levy 6,000 men in England and a further 6,000 in Scotland. There has been much debate as to how many men landed initially, how many served in total. Having no military training, Hamilton was assigned Major General Alexander Leslie as his mentor, the command structure of the Hamilton Army was largely Scottish and was drawn from a mix of existing Scottish commanders in Swedish service. Major General Alexander Leslie and Dear Sandy Alexander Hamilton were to be supported by Lieutenant General Archibald Douglas, despite being under-resourced, Hamiltons forces did greater service than they are usually given credit for
34.
Quidi Vidi
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Quidi Vidi is a neighbourhood in St. Johns, Newfoundland and Labrador. The neighbourhood is named for both Quidi Vidi Lake and Quidi Vidi Harbour - known locally as The Gut, located in Quidi Vidi is the Quidi Vidi Battery Provincial Historic Site, which had significance as a battery during the War of 1812. The village is home to Newfoundlands largest microbrewery, the Quidi Vidi Brewing Company. It has many different types of plants and animals, there are numerous scenic places to visit. Quidi Vidi was known for once being a fishing village. It was active after World War II for the construction of Pepperrell Air Force Base, field work near Quidi Vidi Lake began on October 15,1940. During April and May,1941 the Newfoundland Base Contractors personnel began arriving, the Quidi Vidi Brewery is a main attraction to the neighbourhood. Since being founded in 1996 by David Fond and David Rees, currently,8 different beers are brewed, including one of the most well known, Iceberg Beer. Characteristic to this brand of beer is the use of iceberg water, the brewery sits just at the mouth of the harbour, surrounded by cliffs and looking out at the picturesque harbour scene many associate Quidi Vidi with. Beer tasting and brewery tours routinely occur throughout the week, creating a friendly, Beer tastings are about 45 minutes and involve tasting of all beers as well as a first-hand experience of how Iceberg Beer is made. Mallard Cottage is an 18th Century, Irish-Newfoundland style cottage, known as one of the oldest wooden buildings in North America, the cottage is also recognized as a National Historic Site of Canada. The cottage originally housed a family by the name of Mallard from the 18th century until the 1980s. In 1985, the cottage was re-done into an antique shop, in 2011, the cottage was purchased by a team who set out to restore the cottage to its original state alongside guidelines set out by the Heritage Foundation of Newfoundland and Labrador. In 2013, the work put into restoring the cottage was recognized for excellence, the same year, the newly restored cottage was established as unique venue with means to celebrate local traditions and food. The venue offers daily meals and a house on Sundays that features local and traditional music. There are also opportunities for such as weddings and other celebrations to be hosted there. In the heart of the Quidi Vidi neighbourhood, is the Quidi Vidi Plantation, the Plantation consists of various artisan studios selling out unique handmade crafts and items. In 1930, Varick Frissell filmed most of The Viking in Quidi Vidi, for realistic footage, Frissell then took his crew to the Grand Banks and Labrador to collect exciting action sequences
35.
King William's War
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King Williams War was the North American theater of the Nine Years War. For King Williams War, neither England nor France thought of weakening their position in Europe to support the war effort in North America. New France and the Wabanaki Confederacy were able to thwart New England expansion into Acadia, according to the terms of the Treaty of Ryswick, the boundaries and outposts of New France, New England, and New York remained substantially unchanged. The English settlers were more than 154,000 at the beginning of the war, in addition, the English lacked military leadership and had a difficult relationship with their Iroquois allies. The French population amounted to 14,000 in 1689, although the French were vastly outnumbered, they were more politically unified and contained a disproportionate number of adult males with military backgrounds. Realizing their numerical inferiority, they developed good relationships with the Indigenous people in order to multiply their forces, englands Catholic King James II was deposed at the end of 1688 in the Glorious Revolution, after which Protestants William and Mary took the throne. William joined the League of Augsburg in its war against France, in North America, there was significant tension between New France and the northern English colonies, which had in 1686 been united in the Dominion of New England. New England and the Iroquois Confederacy fought New France and the Wabanaki Confederacy, the Iroquois dominated the economically important Great Lakes fur trade and had been in conflict with New France since 1680. At the urging of New England, the Iroquois interrupted the trade between New France and the western tribes, in retaliation, New France raided Seneca lands of western New York. In turn, New England supported the Iroquois in attacking New France, there were similar tensions on the border between New England and Acadia, which New France defined as the Kennebec River in southern Maine. English settlers from Massachusetts had expanded their settlements into Acadia, the New England, Acadia and Newfoundland Theatre of the war is also known as Castins War and Father Jean Baudoins War. In April 1688, Governor Andros plundered Castines home and village on Penobscot Bay, later in August, the English raided the French village of Chedabouctou. In response, Castin and the Wabanaki Confederacy engaged in the Northeast Coast Campaign of 1688 along the New England/Acadia border and they began August 13,1688 at New Dartmouth, killing a few settlers. A few days later killed two people at Yarmouth in the first battle. At Kennebunk, in the fall of 1688, members of the Confederacy killed two families, in June, they killed four men at Saco. In response to raids, a company of 24 men were raised to search for the bodies. They were forced to return after they lost a quarter of their men in conflicts with the natives, in August 1689, Jean-Vincent dAbbadie de Saint-Castin and Father Louis-Pierre Thury led an Abenaki war party that captured and destroyed the fort at Pemaquid. The fall of Pemaquid was a significant set back to the English and it pushed the frontier back to Casco, Maine
36.
Avalon Peninsula Campaign
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They destroyed almost every English settlement in Newfoundland, over 100 English were killed, many times that number captured, and almost 500 deported to England or France. During this time period, the only French settlement on Newfoundland was Plaisance, in 1694, Nesmond set sail from Plaisance to lay siege St. Johns. Two years later, however, the French made a second attempt, on September 12,1696, Quebecs Governor Frontenac sent Pierre Le Moyne Sieur dIberville to Newfoundland. The previous August, dIberville had just been victorious in the Siege of Pemaquid, the Newfoundland campaign involved a novel strategy, both a land and sea assault of the villages. DIberville attacked by land while Sieur de Brouillan attacked by sea, dIbervilles strategy of attacking the settlement by land was the first recorded in Newfoundland and, as a result, the port villages were only prepared for an assault by sea. DIberville left Placentia on All Saints Day with his detachment of 124 men, soldiers, Acadians and it was an 80 kilometres, nine-day march across the Avalon Peninsula. On the morning of September 9th, the residents of Ferryland awoke to a frightening sight, on the horizon, emerging from deep within a wall of fog was a small armada of French Men of War. When within range, the French began a bombardment of the settlement through continuous broadside cannon volleys, Sieur de Brouillan had begun the Siege of Ferryland. DIberville arrived on November 10, and the troops sacked Ferryland, meanwhile, the 110 people of Ferryland fled to Bay Bulls and set about fortifying it. DIberville set out against Bay Bulls using the boats he had taken in Ferryland. On his way Cape Broyle was captured on November 12 and he then captured Bay Bulls on November 24, including a 100-ton merchant ship. On November 24, after a march from Bay Bulls. Two days later, he encountered a detachment of 30 English soldiers posted on a hilltop near Petty Harbour, on November 26, dIberville charged and the enemy surrendered immediately. DIberville and his men were in command of the port just eight kilometres south of St. Johns. However, some colonists from Petty Harbour escaped to St. Johns, as dIberville marched into St. Johns from Petty Harbour, English residents marched out the Waterford Valley to meet and repel the French. A pitched battle occurred in the Waterford Valley and on the Heights of Kilbride, of the 88 English defenders,34 died in the battle. The English broke ranks and hastily retreated to St. Johns, as dIberville approached St. Johns, the English settlers scattered. Many sailed away, others escaped to the forests, a number of settlers and soldiers took refuge in Fort William
37.
Queen Anne's War
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The War of the Spanish Succession was primarily fought in Europe. In addition to the two combatants, the war also involved numerous Native American tribes allied with each nation, and Spain. It was also known as the Third Indian War or in French as the Second Intercolonial War, the English colonies of New England fought with French and Native American forces based in Acadia and Canada. Quebec City was repeatedly targeted by British expeditions, and the Acadian capital Port Royal was taken in 1710, the French and Wabanaki Confederacy sought to thwart New England expansion into Acadia, whose border New France defined as the Kennebec River in southern Maine. Toward this end, they executed raids against targets in Massachusetts, on Newfoundland, English colonists based at St. Johns disputed control of the island with the French based at Plaisance. Most of the conflict consisted of destructive raids against the other sides settlements. The French successfully captured St. Johns in 1709, but the British quickly reoccupied it after the French abandoned it, following a preliminary peace in 1712, the Treaty of Utrecht ended the war in 1713. It resulted in the French cession of claims to the territories of Hudson Bay, Acadia, some of its terms were ambiguous, and concerns of various Native American tribes were not included in the treaty, setting the stage for future conflicts. In 1701, following the death in late 1700 of King Charles II, although the war was at first restricted to a few powers in Europe, in May 1702 it widened when England declared war on Spain and France. The hostilities in North America were further encouraged by existing frictions along the frontier areas separating the colonies of these powers, the total population of the English colonies at the time has been estimated at 250,000, with Virginia and New England dominating. The population centers of these colonies were concentrated along the coast, with small settlements inland, most European colonists knew very little of the interior of the continent, to the west of the Appalachians and south of the Great Lakes. This area was dominated by tribes, although French and English traders had penetrated the area. Spanish missionaries in La Florida had established a network of missions to convert the inhabitants to Roman Catholicism. The Spanish population was small, and the native population they ministered to has been estimated to number 20,000. French explorers had located the mouth of the Mississippi River, near which they established a colonial presence in 1699 at Fort Maurepas. From there they began to trade routes into the interior, establishing friendly relations with the Choctaw. All of these populations had suffered to some degree from the introduction of Eurasian infectious diseases like smallpox by early explorers and traders, France and Spain, allies in this conflict, had been on opposite sides of the recently ended Nine Years War. To the north, the conflict held a strong component in addition to territorial disputes
38.
Rear admiral
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Rear admiral is a naval commissioned officer rank above that of a commodore and captain, and below that of a vice admiral. It is generally regarded as the lowest of the admiral ranks, in many navies it is referred to as a two-star rank. It originated from the days of naval sailing squadrons and can trace its origins to the Royal Navy, each naval squadron would be assigned an admiral as its head, who would command from the centre vessel and direct the activities of the squadron. The admiral would in turn be assisted by a vice admiral and this has survived into the modern age, with the rank of rear admiral the most-junior of the admiralty ranks of many navies. In some European navies, and in the Canadian Forces French rank translations, in the German Navy the rank is known as Konteradmiral, superior to the flotilla admiral. In the Royal Netherlands Navy, this rank is known as schout-bij-nacht, denoting the role junior to the squadron admiral, the Royal Australian Navy maintains a rank of rear admiral, refer to Australian Defence Force ranks and insignia. Since the mid-1990s, the insignia of a Royal Australian Navy rear admiral is the Crown of St. Edward above a crossed sword and baton, like the Royal Navy version, the sword is a traditional naval cutlass. The stars have eight points, unlike the four pointed Order of the Bath stars used by the army, prior to 1995, the RAN shoulder board was identical to the Royal Navy shoulder board. The Royal Navy shoulder board changed again in 2001 and the Australian, rear Admiral Robyn Walker AM, RAN became the first female admiral in the Royal Australian Navy when she was appointed Surgeon-General of the Australian Defence Force on 16 December 2011. In the Royal Canadian Navy, the rank of rear-admiral is the Navy rank equivalent to major-general of the Army, a rear-admiral is a flag officer, the naval equivalent of a general officer. A rear-admiral is senior to a commodore and brigadier-general, and junior to a vice-admiral and lieutenant-general, the service dress features a wide strip of gold braid around the cuff and, since June 2010, above it a narrower strip of gold braid embellished with the executive curl. On the visor of the cap are two rows of gold oak leaves. Konteradmiral is an OF-7 two-star rank equivalent to the Generalmajor in the German Army, see also The Guyana Defence Force Coast Guard is the naval component of the Military of Guyana. As such, the ranks of the Coast Guard are naval ranks similar to the practice in the respective Coast Guards of Jamaica and Trinidad, the rank of rear admiral was first awarded to chief of staff commodore Gary Best on August 19,2013. The rank insignia consists of two silver pips with green highlights, beneath a crossed sword and baton, all surmounted by the gold-colored Caciques crown with red, the Indian Navy also maintains a rear admiral rank senior to commodore and captain ranks and junior to vice admiral ranks. The rank insignia for a rear-admiral is two stars beneath crossed sword and baton, all surmounted by Emblem of India, worn on shoulder boards, before Islamic Revolution The Iranian Imperial Navy. After Islamic Revolution The Islamic Republic of Iran Navy, also known as the Iranian Navy, a rear admiral in the Pakistani Navy is a senior and two-star rank naval officer, appointed in higher naval commands. Like most Commonwealth navies, the rear admiral rank is superior to commodore, however, the rank is junior to the three-star rank vice-admiral and four-star rank admiral, who is generally a Chief of Naval Staff of the Navy
39.
John Leake
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Admiral of the Fleet Sir John Leake was a Royal Navy officer and politician. As a junior officer he saw action at the Battle of Texel during the Third Anglo-Dutch War and he then distinguished himself when he led the convoy that broke the barricading boom at Culmore Fort thereby lifting the Siege of Derry during the Williamite War in Ireland. He later returned to Gibraltar with a combined English, Dutch and Portuguese force of 35 ships, Leake also served under Sir Cloudesley Shovell and the Earl of Peterborough at the Siege of Barcelona and was present at the capitulation of the city by French and Spanish forces. A further siege took place between when a Franco-Spanish army led by Philip V of Spain laid siege to Barcelona in an attempt to recapture it, the Franco-Spanish army abandoned the siege when Leake arrived. Leake later captured Sardinia and landed the Earl of Stanhope with forces that took the harbour of Port Mahon on Minorca. Leake served as Member of Parliament for Rochester from 1708 to 1715, born the son of Richard Leake, a master gunner, and Elizabeth Leake, Leake joined the Royal Navy in early 1673. He was assigned to the first-rate HMS Royal Prince, flagship of Admiral Sir Edward Spragge and he left the Royal Navy when the War ended in 1674 and served in merchant vessels but rejoined in 1766 and became master gunner in the second-rate HMS Neptune in 1683. Promoted to commander on 24 September 1688, he was given command of the bomb vessel HMS Firedrake, Leake also commanded HMS Eagle, by then flagship of Vice-Admiral George Rooke, in a successful attack on the French ships at the Battle of La Hogue later that month. He transferred to the command of the third-rate HMS Plymouth on convoy duties in December 1692. Leake was given command of the third-rate HMS Kent on a mission to transport troops to Ireland in May 1699, promoted to commodore on 24 June 1702, Leake became Commander-in-Chief, Newfoundland, with his broad pennant in the fourth-rate HMS Exeter. He sailed with eight ships with orders to attack the French fishing harbours, in this expedition 51 enemy ships were taken or destroyed. While in Newfoundland Leake also reported on the failure of the people to observe legislation prohibiting trade with New England. Promoted to rear admiral on 9 December 1702, Leake became Commander-in-Chief, although his ship was caught in the great storm of December 1703, it suffered no serious damage. In October 1704 Field Marshal Prince George of Hesse-Darmstadt sent a message to Leake at Lisbon requesting his urgent assistance after the appearance of French ships in the Bay of Gibraltar. Leake set sail at once, bringing supplies for the defenders who were caught in what became known as the Twelfth Siege of Gibraltar. Leake arrived with twenty ships and, in the subsequent naval engagement, with Gibraltar safe for the moment, Leake left for Lisbon in January 1705 with the sick and wounded members of the garrison aboard his ships. The combined French and Spanish Fleet under Marshal Tessé gave up the siege as hopeless following an order from King Louis XIV of France in April 1705. Leake served under Sir Cloudesley Shovell and the Earl of Peterborough at the Siege of Barcelona and was present at the capitulation of the city by French and Spanish forces in October 1705
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Royal Navy
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The Royal Navy is the United Kingdoms naval warfare force. Although warships were used by the English kings from the medieval period. The modern Royal Navy traces its origins to the early 16th century, from the middle decades of the 17th century and through the 18th century, the Royal Navy vied with the Dutch Navy and later with the French Navy for maritime supremacy. From the mid 18th century it was the worlds most powerful navy until surpassed by the United States Navy during the Second World War. The Royal Navy played a key part in establishing the British Empire as the world power during the 19th. Due to this historical prominence, it is common, even among non-Britons, following World War I, the Royal Navy was significantly reduced in size, although at the onset of the Second World War it was still the worlds largest. By the end of the war, however, the United States Navy had emerged as the worlds largest, during the Cold War, the Royal Navy transformed into a primarily anti-submarine force, hunting for Soviet submarines, mostly active in the GIUK gap. The Royal Navy is part of Her Majestys Naval Service, which includes the Royal Marines. The professional head of the Naval Service is the First Sea Lord, the Defence Council delegates management of the Naval Service to the Admiralty Board, chaired by the Secretary of State for Defence. The strength of the fleet of the Kingdom of England was an important element in the power in the 10th century. English naval power declined as a result of the Norman conquest. Medieval fleets, in England as elsewhere, were almost entirely composed of merchant ships enlisted into service in time of war. Englands naval organisation was haphazard and the mobilisation of fleets when war broke out was slow, early in the war French plans for an invasion of England failed when Edward III of England destroyed the French fleet in the Battle of Sluys in 1340. Major fighting was confined to French soil and Englands naval capabilities sufficed to transport armies and supplies safely to their continental destinations. Such raids halted finally only with the occupation of northern France by Henry V. Henry VII deserves a large share of credit in the establishment of a standing navy and he embarked on a program of building ships larger than heretofore. He also invested in dockyards, and commissioned the oldest surviving dry dock in 1495 at Portsmouth, a standing Navy Royal, with its own secretariat, dockyards and a permanent core of purpose-built warships, emerged during the reign of Henry VIII. Under Elizabeth I England became involved in a war with Spain, the new regimes introduction of Navigation Acts, providing that all merchant shipping to and from England or her colonies should be carried out by English ships, led to war with the Dutch Republic. In the early stages of this First Anglo-Dutch War, the superiority of the large, heavily armed English ships was offset by superior Dutch tactical organisation and the fighting was inconclusive
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Newfoundland expedition (1702)
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The expedition occurred in the early days of Queen Annes War, as the North American theater of the War of the Spanish Succession is sometimes known. Leakes fleet descended on French settlements on the shore of Newfoundland, destroying fishing stages. They captured fishing and trade ships, and destroyed most of the settlement at Saint Pierre, in a final flurry of activity before returning to England, Leake captured several ships from the French merchant convoy as it headed for Europe. More than 50 ships were taken in total, and six seasonal settlements were destroyed, the strongly fortified French base at Plaisance was not attacked. Hostilities in the War of the Spanish Succession had begun in 1701, leakes commission, issued on 24 June, came with instructions to investigate the military strength of the French in Newfoundland, and to annoy them there in their fishing harbours and at sea. He was also to convoy merchant ships in both directions, report on the conditions of the English settlements and fisheries, and act as governor of the territory while he was there, to accomplish this he was given command of HMS Exeter and a small fleet of ships. On 22 July 1702, he departed from Plymouth with a fleet of nine ships and his ships included the fourth rates HMS Assistance, HMS Montagu, HMS Lichfield, HMS Medway, and HMS Reserve. Newfoundland had been the site of conflict during King Williams War. The most ambitious expedition had been conducted by French and Indian forces led by Pierre Le Moyne dIberville in 1696 and his raiding expedition was highly destructive, it completely destroyed almost all of the English settlements on the island. Many of these were shortly afterwards, and the chief English port at St. Johns was strongly fortified. Permanent French settlements on Newfoundland were relatively few, most of their settlements, such as those in Trepassey Bay and St. Marys, were only used in the summertime by fishermen who returned to Europe at the end of the season. The principal town of Plaisance was permanently settled, and its fortifications housed a small garrison, the permanent French population of Newfoundland was fairly small—only 180 French settlers left Newfoundland when the colony was abandoned in 1713. The French also had a settlement on the island of Saint Pierre. Its governor, Sébastien Le Gouès, Sieur de Sourdeval, had arrived in July 1702. Leakes fleet arrived in late August at Bay Bulls, from the inhabitants they learned that two French fishing ships were loading at Trepassey Bay, and that two French warships were at anchor near the French capital at Plaisance. He also learned that the French routinely posted spies to observe activities at Bay Bulls, Leake consequently moved with speed, heading south and west toward the French settlements. The next day Leake captured another French ship in St. Marys Bay, and was rejoined by Montagu, which had taken three prizes the day before. Ordering Montagu, Lichfield, and Charles Galley to make for Colinet, Leake took the rest of the fleet to St. Marys, where he chased a ship aground, and then sent out boats to refloat her
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Siege of St. John's
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The Siege of St. Johns was a failed attempt by French forces led by Daniel dAuger de Subercase to take the fort at St. Johns, Newfoundland during the winter months of 1705, in Queen Annes War. Leading a mixed force of regulars, militia, and Indians, Subercase burned much of the town, Subercase lifted the siege after running out of provisions and gunpowder. The siege was part of an expedition that was an attempt to repeat the highly destructive expedition led by Pierre Le Moyne dIberville in 1696. Many outlying English communities were destroyed by Subercases men, leading to raids by the English. Fishing activities on both sides suffered for the duration of the war, which ended with the French cession of its claims to Newfoundland, the island of Newfoundland had been contested territory between France and England for some time before Queen Annes War broke out in 1702. However, an English squadron led by Sir John Gibson and Sir John Morris persuaded the displaced fishermen to return, the Treaty of Ryswick signed in September 1697 led to the English receiving Newfoundland and the French retaining Acadia. However, the terms of the treaty became void when the French re-established their capital in Plaisance, in 1702, English Captain John Leake raided a number of French settlements in Newfoundland, but avoided Plaisance due to the presence of French warships in the harbour. In 1703, Daniel dAuger de Subercase arrived in Plaisance as the new governor and took command of a 150-man garrison, after raiding Ferryland, he learned of a planned English attack on Plaisance, and prepared for the assault. It never came, as Admiral John Graydon, in what was seen in England as a cowardly move. Graydon was subsequently court martialed and dismissed from the service over his conduct in the entire campaign, in late 1704, Subercase began planning an attack against the English settlements. In addition to his garrison, he recruited Canadiens and Abenakis from the mainland, in all, his force numbered about 450 when it set out across the peninsula on 8 January 1705. While most of the company went overland, a brigantine was sent around the peninsula with some heavy guns, St. Johns was under the command of Lieutenant John Moody, with Lieutenant Robert Latham, a military engineer and mason, as his second in command. Moody had put Latham in command of South Castle, while he commanded at Fort William, the combined defense force numbered between 50 and 60 men, with about a dozen under Lathams command. The progress of the French was quite slow, due to the winter cold. They first captured Bay Bulls and Ferryland without opposition, and then moved on to St. Johns, Subercase had wanted to surprise the English, but the opportunity was lost when his advance guard approached within sight of the English defences, and was driven off by cannon fire. Most of the community fled to the protection of Fort William. While he did take prisoners, he released the women and children to the fort in order to increase the burden on the English supplies, the women ended performing valuable assistance in helping with the forts defence. After about two weeks siege, Subercase attempted to use the divisions between Moody and Latham to diminish English morale and possibly achieve a negotiated surrender or gain control of Lathams post
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Battle of St. John's
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The Battle of St. Johns was the French capture of St. Johns, the capital of the British Colony of Newfoundland, on 1 January 1709, during Queen Annes War. Johns, and took about 500 prisoners, Costebelle, whose resources were too limited to hold St. Johns, destroyed its fortifications and abandoned it in April 1709. It was later reoccupied by the British, the island of Newfoundland had been contested territory between France and England for some time before Queen Annes War broke out in 1702. French raids during King Williams War in the 1690s had completely destroyed English settlements, the English rebuilt, occupying permanent and seasonal sites on the eastern side of the Avalon Peninsula, while the French occupied the western side, with their capital at Plaisance. In 1702, English Captain John Leake raided a number of French settlements in Newfoundland, but avoided Plaisance because of the presence of French warships in the harbour. In the winter of 1704–5 Daniel dAuger de Subercase, the French governor at Plaisance, led a siege of St. Johns in which much of the town was destroyed, but Fort William was not taken. Saint-Ovide recruited a force of 164 from the ships, the local settlers, and the Mikmaq. Major Thomas Lloyd returned to the command of St. Johns in the winter of 1705-6, after having been maneuvered out of the post by John Moody, who had defended the fort during the 1705 siege. On his return to London he had various accusations against himself cleared, from 1705 to 1708 he ran the colony without significant incident, and participated in a raiding expedition in 1707 against French fishing settlements. He organised militia companies and constructed new fortifications large enough to hold most of the population and he persuaded most of the people to spend the winter within the fortifications in 1708 because of the ongoing French and Indian raids. Saint-Ovide led the attack on the unprepared British garrison early on 1 January 1709, Fort William was under the command of Major Lloyd with the support of Lt. Timothy Gullye and Lt. Thomoas Phillips, with surgeon William Chalmers also in residence. Launching their attack on Fort William, the older of two fortifications, at 4 to 5 am, equipped with ladders, the force was spotted. Lloyd was roused from his bed on the alarm but the fort was quickly overwhelmed, the 160 French, Canadian and Indian force had overrun the 85 or so guarding and occupying the fort. A sally port connecting the old and new fortifications was locked, after a brief resistance, George Vane, leading the defence of the new fort, surrendered. Did, I believe, amuse ye soldiers in bedd, with ye thoughts of some house in ye new Fort to bee on fire, as had often happened. If they had gott to their armes, they would have given a good acct. of their enemyes, but one of our most immedyat misfortunes was yt. of those 19 inhabts. Then on guard in Fort Wm. so few would meet ye enemy on ye walls, on his account, the entire battle lasted about three minutes. He reported that South Castle was taken two days later, the French occupied St. Johns until April
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King George's War
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King Georges War is the name given to the military operations in North America that formed part of the War of the Austrian Succession. It was the third of the four French and Indian Wars and it took place primarily in the British provinces of New York, Massachusetts Bay, New Hampshire, and Nova Scotia. In French, it is known as the Third Intercolonial War, the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ended the war in 1748 and restored Louisbourg to France, but failed to resolve any outstanding territorial issues. The War of Jenkins Ear broke out in 1739 between Spain and Great Britain, but was confined to the Caribbean Sea and conflict between Spanish Florida and the neighboring British Province of Georgia, Massachusetts did not declare war until June 2. News of war reached the French fortress at Louisbourg first, on May 3,1744. Concerned about their overland supply lines to Quebec, they first raided the British fishing port of Canso on May 23, and then organized an attack on Annapolis Royal, then the capital of Nova Scotia. However, French forces were delayed in departing Louisbourg, and their Mikmaq and Maliseet allies in conjunction with Father Jean-Louis Le Loutre, Annapolis had received news of the war declaration, and was somewhat prepared when the Indians began besieging Fort Anne. Lacking heavy weapons, the Indians withdrew after a few days, in 1745, British colonial forces captured Fortress Louisbourg after a siege of six weeks. In retaliation, the Wabanaki Confederacy of Acadia launched the Northeast Coast Campaign against the British settlements on the border of Acadia in Maine, France launched a major expedition to recover Louisbourg in 1746. Beset by storms, disease, and finally the death of its commander, the war was also fought on the frontiers between the northern British colonies and New France. On November 28,1745, the French with their Indian allies raided and destroyed the village of Saratoga, New York, all of the British settlements north of Albany were accordingly abandoned. In July 1746 an Iroquois and intercolonial force assembled in northern New York for an attack against Canada. British regulars expected to participate never arrived, and the attack was called off, in 1748, Indian allies of the French attacked Schenectady, New York. The war took a toll, especially in the northern British colonies. The losses of Massachusetts men alone in 1745–46 have been estimated as 8% of that colonys adult male population. According to the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, Louisbourg was returned to France three years later, in exchange for the city of Madras in India, captured by the French from the British and this decision outraged New Englanders, particularly Massachusetts colonists who had contributed the most to the expedition. The British government eventually acknowledged their effort with a payment of £180,000 after the war, in Acadia and Nova Scotia, the fighting continued in Father Le Loutres War. The Enduring Vision, A History of the American People Drake, a Particular History of the Five Years French and Indian War in New England Kingsford, William
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Man-of-war
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The man-of-war was a British Royal Navy expression for a powerful warship or frigate from the 16th to the 19th century. The term often refers to an armed with cannon and propelled primarily by sails. The man-of-war was developed in England in the early 16th century from earlier roundships with the addition of a second mast to form the carrack, the 16th century saw the carrack evolve into the galleon and then the ship of the line. The evolution of the term has been given thus, Man-of-war, a phrase applied to a line of battle ship, contrary to the usual rule in the English language by which all ships are feminine. It probably arose in the manner, Men of war were heavily armed soldiers. A ship full of them would be called a man-of-war ship, in process of time the word ship was discarded as unnecessary and there remained the phrase a man-of-war. The man-of-war design developed by Sir John Hawkins, had three masts, each three to four sails. The ship could be up to 60 metres long and could have up to 124 guns, four at the bow, eight at the stern, all these cannons required three gun decks to hold them, one more than any earlier ship. It had a maximum sailing speed of eight or nine knots
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Cape Race, Newfoundland
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Cape Race is a point of land located at the southeastern tip of the Avalon Peninsula on the island of Newfoundland, in Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada. Its name is thought to come from the original Portuguese name for this cape, Raso, the Cape appeared on early sixteenth century maps as Cabo Raso and its name may derive from a cape of the same name at the mouth of the Tagus River in Portugal. The cape was the location of the Cape Race LORAN-C transmitter until the system was decommissioned in 2010 and it is also home to the Cape Race Lighthouse, notable for having received the distress call from Titanic. Dense fog, rocky coasts, and its proximity to shipping routes have resulted in many shipwrecks near Cape Race over the years. One of the most famous was the SS Arctic, Cape Race is a flat barren point of land jutting out into the Atlantic Ocean, its cliffs rising nearly vertically to 30.5 metres above sea level. On average it is shrouded in fog on 158 days of the year, unfortunately, neither Gilbert nor the Squirrel were ever seen again. Although at the time Golden Hind was off Cape Race, she was captained by Edward Hayes. According to legend, as one of the French ships crossed paths with one of the British ships, to which the British responded by crying At peace. Before unexpectedly hitting the French ship with a devastating broadside cannon volley, from 1859 to 1866, the New York City Associated Press kept a newsboat at Cape Race to meet ocean liners passing by on their way from Europe so that news could be telegraphed to New York. These news items carried the byline via Cape Race, in 1904, the first wireless station in Newfoundland was built at Cape Race. On the night Titanic sank, wireless operator Jack Phillips was sending telegraphs to Cape Race for relay to New York City. ”This would become a famous incident, as the bored Evans soon went to sleep, and Titanic hit an iceberg only fifteen minutes later. After Titanics distress call, Cape Race played a role in relaying news of the sinking to other ships. Marconi’s station was rebuilt on the site and opened as a wireless interpretation centre to commemorate the 100th anniversary of Titanic in 2012. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, http, //commons. wikimedia. org/wiki/File, Amerika14April1912. JPG Cape Race Wireless log at sinking of Titanic preserved at the Maritime Museum of the Atlantic, Halifax
