1.
Buenos Aires
–
Buenos Aires is the capital and most populous city of Argentina. The city is located on the shore of the estuary of the Río de la Plata. The city of Buenos Aires is neither part of Buenos Aires Province nor the Provinces capital, rather, in 1880, after decades of political infighting, Buenos Aires was federalized and removed from Buenos Aires Province. The city limits were enlarged to include the towns of Belgrano and Flores, the 1994 constitutional amendment granted the city autonomy, hence its formal name, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires. Its citizens first elected a chief of government in 1996, previously, Buenos Aires is considered an alpha city by the study GaWC5. Buenos Aires quality of life was ranked 81st in the world and one of the best in Latin America in 2012 and it is the most visited city in South America, and the second-most visited city of Latin America. Buenos Aires is a top tourist destination, and is known for its preserved Spanish/European-style architecture, Buenos Aires held the 1st Pan American Games in 1951 as well as hosting two venues in the 1978 FIFA World Cup. Buenos Aires will host the 2018 Summer Youth Olympics and the 2018 G20 summit, Buenos Aires is a multicultural city, being home to multiple ethnic and religious groups. Several languages are spoken in the city in addition to Spanish, contributing to its culture, the hill was known to them as Buen Ayre, as it was free of the foul smell prevalent in the old city, which is adjacent to swampland. During the siege of Cagliari, the Aragonese built a sanctuary to the Virgin Mary on top of the hill, in 1335, King Alfonso the Gentle donated the church to the Mercedarians, who built an abbey that stands to this day. In the years after that, a story circulated, claiming that a statue of the Virgin Mary was retrieved from the sea after it miraculously helped to calm a storm in the Mediterranean Sea, the statue was placed in the abbey. Spanish sailors, especially Andalusians, venerated this image and frequently invoked the Fair Winds to aid them in their navigation, a sanctuary to the Virgin of Buen Ayre would be later erected in Seville. Pedro de Mendoza called the city Holy Mary of the Fair Winds, mendoza’s settlement soon came under attack by indigenous people, and was abandoned in 1541. For many years, the name was attributed to a Sancho del Campo, a second settlement was established in 1580 by Juan de Garay, who sailed down the Paraná River from Asunción. Garay preserved the name chosen by Mendoza, calling the city Ciudad de la Santísima Trinidad y Puerto de Santa María del Buen Aire. The short form Buenos Aires became the common usage during the 17th century, the usual abbreviation for Buenos Aires in Spanish is Bs. As. It is common as well to refer to it as B. A. or BA /ˌbiːˈeɪ/ bee-AY), while BA is used more by expats residing in the city, the locals more often use the abbreviation Baires, in one word. Seaman Juan Díaz de Solís, navigating in the name of Spain, was the first European to reach the Río de la Plata in 1516 and his expedition was cut short when he was killed during an attack by the native Charrúa tribe in what is now Uruguay
2.
Argentina
–
Argentina, officially the Argentine Republic, is a federal republic in the southern half of South America. With a mainland area of 2,780,400 km2, Argentina is the eighth-largest country in the world, the second largest in Latin America, and the largest Spanish-speaking one. The country is subdivided into provinces and one autonomous city, Buenos Aires. The provinces and the capital have their own constitutions, but exist under a federal system, Argentina claims sovereignty over part of Antarctica, the Falkland Islands, and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. The earliest recorded presence in the area of modern-day Argentina dates back to the Paleolithic period. The country has its roots in Spanish colonization of the region during the 16th century, Argentina rose as the successor state of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, a Spanish overseas viceroyalty founded in 1776. The country thereafter enjoyed relative peace and stability, with waves of European immigration radically reshaping its cultural. The almost-unparalleled increase in prosperity led to Argentina becoming the seventh wealthiest developed nation in the world by the early 20th century, Argentina retains its historic status as a middle power in international affairs, and is a prominent regional power in the Southern Cone and Latin America. Argentina has the second largest economy in South America, the third-largest in Latin America and is a member of the G-15 and it is the country with the second highest Human Development Index in Latin America with a rating of very high. Because of its stability, market size and growing high-tech sector, the description of the country by the word Argentina has to be found on a Venice map in 1536. In English the name Argentina probably comes from the Spanish language, however the naming itself is not Spanish, Argentina means in Italian of silver, silver coloured, probably borrowed from the Old French adjective argentine of silver > silver coloured already mentioned in the 12th century. The French word argentine is the form of argentin and derives of argent silver with the suffix -in. The Italian naming Argentina for the country implies Argentina Terra land of silver or Argentina costa coast of silver, in Italian, the adjective or the proper noun is often used in an autonomous way as a substantive and replaces it and it is said lArgentina. The name Argentina was probably first given by the Venitian and Genoese navigators, in Spanish and Portuguese, the words for silver are respectively plata and prata and of silver is said plateado and prateado. Argentina was first associated with the silver mountains legend, widespread among the first European explorers of the La Plata Basin. The first written use of the name in Spanish can be traced to La Argentina, a 1602 poem by Martín del Barco Centenera describing the region, the 1826 constitution included the first use of the name Argentine Republic in legal documents. The name Argentine Confederation was also used and was formalized in the Argentine Constitution of 1853. In 1860 a presidential decree settled the name as Argentine Republic
3.
Provinces of Argentina
–
Argentina is subdivided into twenty-three provinces and one autonomous city, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, which is the federal capital of the nation as decided by Congress. The provinces and the capital have their own constitutions, but exist under a federal system, during the War of Independence the main cities and their surrounding countrysides became provinces though the intervention of their cabildos. The Anarchy of the Year XX completed this process, shaping the original thirteen provinces, Jujuy seceded from Salta in 1834, and the thirteen provinces became fourteen. After seceding for a decade, Buenos Aires Province accepted the 1853 Constitution of Argentina in 1861, a law from 1862 designated as national territories those under federal control but outside the frontiers of the provinces. In 1884 they served as bases for the establishment of the governorates of Misiones, Formosa, Chaco, La Pampa, Neuquén, Río Negro, Chubut, Santa Cruz and Tierra del Fuego. The agreement about a dispute with Chile in 1900 created the National Territory of Los Andes, its lands were incorporated into Jujuy, Salta. La Pampa and Chaco became provinces in 1951, Misiones did so in 1953, and Formosa, Neuquén, Río Negro, Chubut and Santa Cruz, in 1955. The last national territory, Tierra del Fuego, became the Tierra del Fuego, Argentina is a federation of twenty-three provinces and one autonomous city, Buenos Aires. Provinces are divided for administration purposes into departments and municipalities, except for Buenos Aires Province, Buenos Aires City itself is divided into communes. Provinces hold all the power that they not to delegate to the federal government, they must be representative republics. Beyond this they are autonomous, they enact their own constitutions, freely organize their local governments. Since 1983 four provinces were intervened, namely Catamarca, Corrientes, Santiago del Estero, article 61 of the Constitution of the city of Buenos Aires states that Suffrage is free, equal, secret, universal, compulsory and not accumulative. The foreign residents enjoy this right, with the obligations, on equal terms with Argentine citizens registered in this district. Argentina is divided into seven geographical regions, many provinces having their territories across more than one. Source, Demographics of Argentina ISO 3166-2, AR, the ISO codes for the provinces of Argentina. com Argentine Provinces since 1973 at World Statesmen
4.
Puerto Madero
–
From its inception, the city of Buenos Aires had a problem accommodating large cargo ships, as per Puerto La Boca, because the shallow river did not allow for direct docking. Instead ships were moored away from the shore and passengers and merchandise were unloaded onto barges and ferries for transport to the pier, in 1882 the national government contracted the local businessman Eduardo Madero to take charge of the construction of a new port which would solve these problems. Construction began in 1887 and was completed in 1897, although the installed fittings had been partially operative some years before completion of the port. It was a project and an engineering landmark at the time. His plans resulted in the Puerto Nuevo, still operating today, the New Port of Buenos Aires was completed in 1926, making the existing Madero docks superfluous. Though these continued to serve in ancillary port functions, the zone gradually decayed, becoming one of the citys most degraded areas, having as objective the urbanization of the area, the federal and city governments participated as egalitarian partners. The 170 hectares of the place had overlapping jurisdictions, the General Administration of Ports, Argentine railroads, today one of the trendiest boroughs in Buenos Aires, it has become the preferred address for growing numbers of young professionals and retirees, alike. Increasing property prices have also generated interest in the area as a destination for foreign buyers, the neighborhoods road network has been entirely rebuilt, especially in the east side. The layout of the east side consists currently of three wide boulevards running east-west crossed by the east sides main street, Juana Manso Avenue, the layout is completed with some other avenues and minor streets, running both east-west and north-south, and by several pedestrianised streets. Every street in Puerto Madero is named after women, Puerto Madero currently represents the largest urban renewal project in the city of Buenos Aires. Having undergone a revival in merely a decade, it is one of the most successful recent waterfront renewal projects in the world. At Puerto Madero Dock 2 buildings belonging to the Universidad Católica Argentina stand successively to the west, here, there are some bars and coffee shops. Numerous new residential high-rises of up to 50 stories have been facing the Rio de la Plata since 2000. These include Alvear Tower, Renoir Towers, El Faro Towers, Chateau Tower of Puerto Madero, many other high-rises that have recently been inaugurated include the Le Parc Tower and Hilton and River View Towers. Additionally a St. Regis Starwood Hotel is being built in the first dique, where the famous nightclub Opera Bay was formerly located, a large Jumeirah Polo resort will also feature a hotel in Puerto Madero, working conjointly with polo fields outside Buenos Aires. The 2 kilometres Tranvía del Este, inaugurated in 2007 and closed in 2012, served the area running parallel to Alicia Moreau de Justo Avenue, the neighborhood is still not well-connected to the citys transit network. An expressway connecting the north and the south of the city through Puerto Madero has long been in the planning stage, placing the expressway between Puerto Madero and the Buenos Aires Ecological Reserve has also been considered, but has been strongly opposed by environmentalists
5.
Barrios of Buenos Aires
–
Buenos Aires, autonomous city and capital of Argentina, is composed of forty-eight neighbourhoods. The city is also divided into communes, each one including one or more barrios. Among the most visited and populated barrios are Palermo, Recoleta, Puerto Madero, Belgrano, San Telmo, La Boca, Monserrat, in alphabetical order, with the corresponding population and the commune they are grouped in. The name Barrio Norte refers to the area around Avenida Santa Fe, encompassing parts of Retiro, Recoleta, the name Barrio Sur was used in the past to encompass the southern neighborhoods. Abasto is sometimes used to refer to the zone around the Abasto market and it encompasses north-western Balvanera and north-eastern Almagro. Congreso is the area around Congress square, encompassing southeastern Balvanera, northern San Cristóbal, Catalinas Norte is the high-rise district next to Retiro transportation center and to the financial district, while Catalinas Sur is used for the lowlands south of San Telmo. Las Cañitas refers to a few blocks around the Campo Argentino de Polo, crowded with trendy bars, fancy restaurants, Palermo Queens is used sometimes to refer to the parts of Villa Crespo close to Palermo Viejo. Other than Palermo Viejo and Palermo Chico, these names are of recent vintage and are related to the process that Palermo. Parque Centenario is sometimes used to refer to the area around Centenario park, at the limit of Almagro, Caballito, the southern parts of Flores were reclaimed from swampland, and the names Bajo Flores and Bañado de Flores are used for these areas. Within Belgrano, there are Belgrano C and R and Bajo Belgrano, a tango song named Cien barrios porteños, sung by Alberto Castillo, is sometimes invoked to support the claim that there are indeed a hundred neighbourhoods in the city. This number may be reached by including some suburbs in the tally, barrios History Government of the Buenos Aires city
6.
Chacarita, Buenos Aires
–
Chacarita is a barrio or district in the north-central part of Buenos Aires, Argentina. Located between Colegiales, Palermo, Villa Crespo, La Paternal and Villa Ortúzar, this is a neighbourhood with tree-lined streets. Locally, its probably best known for the 95 hectare Chacarita Cemetery, the territories of this district belonged formerly to the Jesuits, who had small farms. Its name comes from the small farm or chácara in old Spanish. Following the Suppression of the Jesuits in 1767, they were expelled, one of the few and most important remaining residences from the era is that of the Comastri family, which at the moment is the Escuela Nacional de Educación Técnica N°34. The areas principal park is Los Andes, which was inaugurated in 1941, Chacarita is the namesake for both the Chacarita Cemetery and the Chacarita Juniors football club. The meeting place of the neighbourhood is the “Club Chacarita Juniors”, jorge Newbery Avenue is characterized for being the only way funeral cars are allowed to go towards the cemetery, the main entrance of which is on Avenida Guzmán. Federico Lacroze Station commuter rail terminal, which local and long-distance services, is also located in Chacarita
7.
Line B (Buenos Aires Underground)
–
Line B of the Buenos Aires Underground runs 11.75 kilometres from Leandro N. Alem to Juan Manuel de Rosas in Villa Urquiza. Line B opened to the public on 17 October 1930 and it was the first line in Buenos Aires whose stations had turnstiles and moving stairways. Its gauge of 4 ft 8 1⁄2 in is the same as the rest of the Buenos Aires underground system, the rolling stock currently used on the B line are former Tokyo Metro 300/500/900 stocks, which was used on Marunouchi Line and CAF5000 stock. These Japanese units were acquired in the early 1990s, and offer less sitting room than the previous setup, the Japanese trains are being phased out and replaced by newer CAF5000 and CAF6000 rolling stock acquired from the Madrid Metro.7 km tunnel. The Act provided that the works would clear in part the traffic in the area of the city. This will grant the concession of the line for passengers, parcels, the construction was done by the Argentine builder Dwight P. Robinson & Cía, and the line was called Ferrocarril Terminal Central de Buenos Aires. The first section between Federico Lacroze and Callao opened on 17 October 1930 and measured 7.021 km, the maiden voyage was made by President de facto José Félix Uriburu. On 22 June 1931, it was extended to Carlos Pellegrini station, finally, the line was completed on 1 December 1931 when the subway reached the station Leandro N. Alem. These three sections were carried out entirely below Corrientes Avenue, including 19 curves and 13 stations, according to the depth of the line, some sections were made by open ditch or gallery or tunnel. As so were performed mainly at open skies the stations Federico Lacroze, Dorrego, Canning, Río de Janeiro, when you reach the tunnel at Maipu Street the maximum depth reached 17 metres. Underneath the Rancagua park, in Chacarita, a workshop and a 10 track garage were built and this line had escalators and turnstiles for the payment of coin-operated service, initially manufactured in United States, formerly controlled by guards. It also was deeper than the Line A, and like it and this was lifted after the fire occurred on 27 November 1952. Line B was recently extended underground further west from Los Incas/Parque Chas to Echeverría, the new stations opened in July 26,2013. Each car had two 105 HP motors, the interiors had 47 wooden seats, the majority with reversible back and three slide doors on each side, at the platforms level, of opening and closure commanded by the guard. One year later,20 similar cars made by Osgood Bradley Car Company of the US were incorporated, the Japanese-built Eidan 300/400/500/900 sets, which ran on line B starting in 1996, were in service on the Marunouchi Line in Tokyo from 1959 through late 1995. In 2009, it was announced that the Madrid Metro has sold its oldest wide-profile trains to Buenos Aires. The 5000 series trains, which were in operation in Madrid since 1974, in July 2013, Madrid Metro sold 73 of its 6000 series cars to Buenos Aires for €32.6 million in exchange for the retirement of the rest of the Japanese-built trains. Until the privatization of subte in the 1990s, the B line was identified by the green color, florida and Carlos Pellegrini stations are the two busiest stations on the line, as most commuters alight there in the morning to work in the downtown financial district
8.
Buenos Aires Underground
–
The Buenos Aires Underground, locally known as Subte, is a mass transit metro system that serves the area of the city of Buenos Aires, Argentina. Currently, the underground networks six lines—A, B, C, D, E, the network is complemented by the 7.4 km long Premetro line, and the 26 km long Urquiza suburban line, with 17 more stations in total. As of 2015, the underground also has 4 closed stations, over a million passengers use the network, which also provides connections with the citys extensive commuter rail and bus rapid transport networks. The network expanded rapidly during the decades of the 20th century, by 1944 its main routes were completed. The pace of expansion fell sharply after the Second World War, in the late 1990s expansion resumed at a quicker pace, and four new lines were planned for the network. Despite this, the expansion has been largely exceeded by the transportation needs of the city and is said to be overcrowded. The entire network was nationalised in 1939, remaining in state hands, the Subte opened in 1913, becoming the 13th underground system in the world, as well as the first in Latin America, the Southern Hemisphere and the Hispanophone, followed by the Madrid Metro in 1919. The network was built and operated by three separate private companies and later nationalised in 1939. In 1952 it was absorbed by a state administration, in 1963 it became the property of a newly founded company. All the Underground lines, along with the Urquiza Line and Premetro were offered as 20-year concessions to interested private parties, by 1995, Metrovías took over the Subte under a $395 million plan. In this context, the first proposals for the building of a system were made, along with requests for government grants, first, in 1886. However, the Ministry of Interior denied the city administration the power to license building in the subsoil and for this reason. The first Underground line was opened on 1 December 1913 and was built by the Anglo-Argentine Tramways Company and that line was made up of one of the existing sections of Line A, linking the stations of Plaza de Mayo and Plaza Miserere. 170,000 passengers took part in the lines first trip, on 1 April 1914 the line was to expand to Río de Janeiro station and on 1 July was extended to Primera Junta Station. In 1912 the Lacroze Hermanos company won a concession to build another Underground line, the company was a competitor to the Anglo-Argentine company, operating tramways in Buenos Aires as well as the Buenos Aires Central Railway, which later became part of the Urquiza Line. Construction began in 1927 and this line became Line B when it was inaugurated on 17 October 1930, during 17–18 December 380,000 passengers travelled on the lines then 32 cars. By this point, the AATC had only built 48 metres of what is today Line C, in 1933 a third company, the Hispano-Argentina Company of Public Works and Finances began construction of the other Underground lines. Line Cs first section, Constitución railway station-Diagonal Norte, was inaugurated on 9 November 1934 by Agustín P. Justo, then President of Argentina
9.
Urban planning
–
Urban planning is also referred to as urban and regional planning, regional planning, town planning, city planning, rural planning or some combination in various areas worldwide. It takes many forms and it can share perspectives and practices with urban design, urban planning guides orderly development in urban, suburban and rural areas. Practitioners of urban planning are concerned with research and analysis, strategic thinking, architecture, urban design, public consultation, policy recommendations, implementation and management. Urban planners work with the fields of architecture, landscape architecture, civil engineering. Early urban planners were often members of these cognate fields, today urban planning is a separate, independent professional discipline. The discipline is the category that includes different sub-fields such as land-use planning, zoning, economic development, environmental planning. There is evidence of planning and designed communities dating back to the Mesopotamian, Indus Valley, Minoan. Archeologists studying the ruins of cities in these areas find paved streets that were out at right angles in a grid pattern. The idea of a planned out urban area evolved as different civilizations adopted it, beginning in the 8th century BCE, Greek city states were primarily centered on orthogonal plans. The ancient Romans, inspired by the Greeks, also used orthogonal plans for their cities, city planning in the Roman world was developed for military defense and public convenience. The spread of the Roman Empire subsequently spread the ideas of urban planning, as the Roman Empire declined, these ideas slowly disappeared. However, many cities in Europe still held onto the planned Roman city center, cities in Europe from the 9th to 14th centuries, often grew organically and sometimes chaotically. But many hundreds of new towns were built according to preconceived plans. Most of these were realized from the 12th to 14th centuries, from the 15th century on, much more is recorded of urban design and the people that were involved. In this period, theoretical treatises on architecture and urban planning start to appear in which questions are addressed and designs of towns. During the Enlightenment period, several European rulers ambitiously attempted to redesign capital cities, during the Second French Republic, Baron Georges-Eugène Haussmann, under the direction of Napoleon III, redesigned the city of Paris into a more modern capital, with long, straight, wide boulevards. Planning and architecture went through a shift at the turn of the 20th century. The industrialized cities of the 19th century grew at a tremendous rate, the pace and style of this industrial construction was largely dictated by the concerns of private business
10.
9 de Julio Avenue
–
July 9 Avenue, located in the city of Buenos Aires, Argentina, is the widest avenue in the world. Its name honors Argentinas Independence Day, July 9,1816, the avenue runs roughly 1 kilometre to the west of the Río de la Plata waterfront, from the Retiro district in the north to Constitución station in the south. The avenue has up to seven lanes in each direction and is flanked on either side by parallel streets of two lanes each, through the centre of the avenue runs one of the citys Metrobus corridors, which stretches 3 kilometres and was inaugurated in July 2013. There are two wide medians between the streets and the main road. The northern end of the avenue is connected to the Arturo Illia expressway, the southern end is connected to the 25 de Mayo tollway and the 9 de Julio elevated expressway which provides access to the two main southbound roads out of the city. The Republic Square is located on the intersection of this Avenue with the Corrientes Avenue, the idea of constructing July 9 Avenue was proposed during the time of Mayor Francisco Seeber. It was hoped to be like an artery that crossed through from the north to the south, later it was included in diverse plans and projects, but it wasn’t until 1912 that it passed the National Law 8.855 that authorized the municipality to carry it out. The sale would be part of the funds along with the loan issued by the local government of 25 million gold pesos. This money would come directly from the income of the local government, as soon as the respective law was sanctioned, Mayor Anchorena made a step toward completion by inaugurating it for the Centennial of Independence. The Municipality of the city of Buenos Aires started the acquisition of all the properties located particular track with an investment of 50,000,000 of the currency of that time. However, the municipality was not well-equipped enough with legal instruments and sufficient finances in order to further the ventures of construction of such a size in a sustainable and orderly way. The expropriations were carried out in a gradual and alternated way and this created a grave burden on the municipal treasury. This setback also had effects on the building developments in the central zone. With this, many buildings were degraded and were abandoned or demolished. The idea to construct the July 9th Avenue was maintained in the plan of 1925 where it was integrated into the North and South diagonals, forming at the ends two central monuments. The avenues unusual width is because it spans a city block. The distance between adjacent streets is roughly 110 m, greater than the distance between streets in Manhattan, the street flanking 9 de Julio to the east is called Carlos Pellegrini and Bernardo de Irigoyen. The street flanking 9 de Julio to the west is called Cerrito, the avenue was first planned in 1888, with the name of Ayohuma, but the road was long opposed by affected landlords and residents, so work did not start until 1935
11.
Roberto Arlt
–
Roberto Arlt was an Argentine writer. He was born Roberto Godofredo Christophersen Arlt in Buenos Aires on April 2,1900 and his parents were both immigrants, his father Karl Arlt was a Prussian from Posen and his mother was Ekatherine Iobstraibitzer, a native of Trieste and Italian speaking. German was the commonly used at their home. His relationship with his father was stressful, as Karl Arlt was a severe and austere man. The memory of his father would appear in several of his writings. For example, Remo Erdosain often recalls his father and how little if any support he would give him. His first novel, El juguete rabioso, was the story of Silvio. Narrated by Silvios older self, the novel reflects the energy, the narrators literary and sometimes poetic language contrasts sharply with the street-level slang of Mad Toys many colorful characters. Arlts second novel, the popular Los siete locos was rough, brutal, colloquial and surreal, Los lanzallamas was the sequel, and these two novels together are thought by many to be his greatest work. What followed were a series of stories and plays in which Arlt pursued his vision of bizarre, half-mad. In 1932 he published El amor brujo, during his lifetime, however, Arlt was best known for his Aguafuertes, the result of his contributions as a columnist - between 1928 and 1942 - to the Buenos Aires daily El Mundo. Arlt used these columns to comment, in his characteristically forthright and unpretentious style, on the peculiarities, hypocrisies, strangeness and these articles included occasional exposés of public institutions, such as the juvenile justice system or the Public Health System. Some of the Aguafuertes were collected in two volumes under the titles Secretos femeninos, Aguafuertes inéditas and Tratado de delincuencia. Aguafuertes inéditas which were edited by Sergio Olguín and published by Ediciones 12 and Página/12 in 1996, between March and May 1930, Arlt wrote a series of Aguafuertes as a correspondent to El Mundo in Rio de Janeiro. In 1935 he spent nearly a year writing as he traveled throughout Spain and North Africa, at the time of his death, Arlt was hoping to be sent to the United States as a correspondent. Worn out and exhausted after a lifetime of hardships, he died from a stroke on July 26,1942 and his coffin was lowered from his apartment by an operated crane, an ironic end, considering his bizarre stories. Arlt has been influential on Latin American literature, including the 1960s Boom generation of writers such as Gabriel García Márquez. Lets say, modestly, that Arlt is Jesus Christ, propounded Roberto Bolaño, analogues in English literature are those who avoid literary respectability by writing about the poor, the criminal and the mad, writers like William Burroughs, Iceberg Slim, and Irvine Welsh
12.
Obelisco de Buenos Aires
–
The Obelisco de Buenos Aires is a national historic monument and icon of Buenos Aires. Located in the Plaza de la República in the intersection of avenues Corrientes and 9 de Julio, construction began on March 20,1936, and it was inaugurated on May 23 of the same year. It was designed by architect Alberto Prebisch at the request of the mayor Mariano de Vedia y Mitre, for its construction, which cost 200,000 pesos moneda nacional,680 cubic meters of concrete and 1,360 square meters of Olaen white stone from Córdoba were used. The obelisk was built by the German company G. E. O. P. E, - Siemens Bauunion - Grün & Bilfinger, which completed its work in a record time of 31 days, with 157 workers. The rapid hardening Incor cement was used and was built in sections of 2 meters to facilitate the dumping of concrete. Its height is 67.5 m, and 63 m of these are up to the initiation of the apex, which is 3.5 by 3.5 meters. The tip is blunt, measuring 40 centimeters and ends in a rod that can not be seen because of the height. It has only one entrance and on its top there are four windows, on February 20,1938, Roberto María Ortiz succeeded Justo and appointed Arturo Goyenche as the new mayor of the city. In June 1939 the City Council sanctioned the demolition of the Obelisco, where the Obelisco stands, a church dedicated to St. Nicholas of Bari was previously demolished. In that church the Argentine flag was hoisted for the first time in Buenos Aires,1812. That fact is noted in one of the inscriptions on the side of the monument. When the slabs were removed, a legend that said Its architect was Alberto Prebisch was also removed, in 1973, it was decorated as a Christmas tree. In 1975, during the Peronist government of Isabel Martínez de Perón, although it was allegedly geared against motorists creating excessive noise, it was widely interpreted as a statement calling Argentines to refrain from expressing their political views. Throughout its history, the monument has suffered vandalism, especially politically oriented graffiti, in the 1980s, an activist group broke in and spilled paint from the top windows, causing the city government to erect a fence around its base in 1987. This move stirred controversy, but eventually proved effective in reducing the number of defacing incidents, on 1 November 2005 it was announced that a comprehensive restoration, financed by the Argentine painting and restoration industry association, was finished. The monument was painted with 90-micrometre acrylic paint to a Paris stone hue, on December 1,2005, the obelisk was covered by a giant pink condom to commemorate the World AIDS Day. To commemorate the 30th anniversary of the La Noche de los Lápices, lines B, C, and D of the Buenos Aires Metro have stations near the monument, and are connected by a number of underground passages with commercial galleries. Ahora puede lanzarse la mirada harta de andar rastrera y penitente piedra arriba hacia el Sol omnipotente y descender espiritualizada, rayo de luna o desgarrón de viento en símbolo cuajado y monumento índice, surtidor, llama, palmera
13.
Roundabout
–
A roundabout is a type of circular intersection or junction in which road traffic flows almost continuously in one direction around a central island. So-called modern roundabouts require entering traffic to give way to traffic already in the circle, variations on the basic concept include integration with tram and/or train lines, two-way flow, higher speeds and many others. Traffic exiting the roundabout comes from one direction, rather than three, simplifying the pedestrians visual environment, Traffic moves slowly enough to allow visual engagement with pedestrians, encouraging deference towards them. Other benefits include reduced driver confusion associated with perpendicular junctions and reduced queuing associated with traffic lights and they allow U-turns within the normal flow of traffic, which often are not possible at other forms of junction. Moreover, since vehicles on average spend less time idling at roundabouts than at signalled intersections, also, when entering vehicles only need to give way, they do not always perform a full stop. As a result, by keeping a part of their momentum, additionally, slow moving traffic in roundabouts makes less noise than traffic that must stop and start, speed up and brake. Modern roundabouts are commonplace throughout the world, half of the worlds roundabouts are in France, although the United Kingdom has more as a proportion of the road than any other country. C. The operating and entry characteristics of these circles differ considerably from modern roundabouts, in 1907 architect John McLaren designed one of the first American roundabouts for both autos and street cars in the Hanchett Residence Park in what is now San Jose, California. The first British circular junction was built in Letchworth Garden City in 1909 and its centre originally was intended partly as a traffic island for pedestrians. It was featured in the film The Worlds End, in the early 20th century, numerous traffic circles were constructed in the United States, particularly in the northeast. Examples include a circle in Atherton, California, widespread use of the modern roundabout began when the UKs Transport Research Laboratory engineers re-engineered circular intersections during the 1960s. Frank Blackmore led the development of the offside priority rule and subsequently invented the mini-roundabout to overcome capacity and safety limitations, the design became mandatory in the United Kingdom for all new roundabouts in November 1966. This give-way requirement has been the law in New York state since the 1920s, in the United States modern roundabouts emerged in the 1990s. Municipalities introducing new roundabouts often are met with some degree of public resistance, surveys show that negative public opinion reverses as drivers gain experience with roundabouts. American confusion at how to enter and especially how to exit a roundabout was the subject of such as featured in the film European Vacation. By 2011, however, some 3,000 roundabouts had been established, a 1998 survey of municipalities found public opinion 68% opposed prior to construction, changing thereafter to 73% in favour. A2007 survey found public support ranging from 22% to 44% prior to construction, the first modern roundabout in the United States was constructed in Summerlin, Nevada in 1990. This roundabout occasioned dismay from residents, and a news program said about it, Even police agree
14.
Florida Street
–
Florida Street is an elegant shopping street in Downtown Buenos Aires, Argentina. A pedestrian street since 1971, some stretches have been pedestrianized since 1913, the pedestrian section as such starts at the intersection of Perú Street and Avenida de Mayo, a block north of the Plaza de Mayo, Perú Street crosses Rivadavia Avenue, and becomes Florida Street. Florida Street runs northwards for approximately one kilometer to Plaza San Martín and it intersects Buenos Airess other pedestrian street, Lavalle, at the heart of the former cinema district. Florida is one of the leading tourist attractions. Florida Street bustles with shoppers, vendors, and office workers alike because of its proximity to the financial district, by evening, the pace relaxes as street performers flock to the area, including tango singers and dancers, living statues, and comedy acts. Its variety of stores, shopping arcades, and restaurants is of great interest to foreign tourists. The beginnings of Florida Street date back to the founding of Buenos Aires in 1580 and its first official name was San José, enacted by Governor Miguel de Salcedo in 1734. In the late eighteenth and early centuries, the street was known popularly as Calle del Correo in reference to the post office located on what later became Perú Street. It was also known as Empedrado. Improved with boulders brought from Montevideo beginning in 1789, it became the first paved street in the city, the street was first named Florida in 1821. The name was designated in honor of the battle fought in 1814 in Upper Peru against the royalists during the Argentine War of Independence, Governor Juan Manuel de Rosas renamed the street Perú in 1837, and in 1857, the name was returned to the present one. The Argentine National Anthem was first performed in 1813 at the Florida Street home of Mariquita Sánchez de Thompson, Argentine elites began to leave the central and southern wards of the city mainly due to epidemics, especially the 1871 yellow fever outbreak. They decided to move to ground in the city and chose the area known as Retiro. Numerous private mansions were built along Florida Street in the 1880s and 1890s. The Civic Youth Union, was organized in 1889 at the intersection with the Avenida Córdoba and this organization would foment the Revolution of the Park in 1890, and from its ranks the Radical Civic Union would be established in 1891. A tram was installed along Florida Street in the 1890s, vehicular traffic was barred during business hours in 1911 by request of the growing number of shop owners along Florida, and in 1913 the tram was dismantled to pedestrianize a section of the street. The 1914 inaugural of the Gath & Chaves department store coincided with the inaugural of Harrods Buenos Aires, the overseas branch of Harrods. The merger of Gath & Chaves and Harrods in 1922 created two of the most ornate institutions of their kind in the Americas
15.
Buenos Aires Central Business District
–
The Buenos Aires Central Business District is the main commercial centre of Buenos Aires, Argentina, though not an official city ward. The Microcentro has a concentration of offices, service companies and banks. The area was the site of the first European settlement in what later became Buenos Aires, the district is the financial, corporate, and cultural hub of Buenos Aires, and of Argentina. The Buenos Aires Human Development Index is likewise high by international standards, the Port of Buenos Aires is one of the busiest in South America, navigable rivers by way of the Río de la Plata connect the port to northeastern Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay and Paraguay. As a result, it serves as the hub for a vast area of the south-eastern region of the South American continent. Tax collection related to the port has caused political problems in the past. These latter were all built on reclaimed land along the coast of the Rio de la Plata, the region was formerly crossed by different creeks and lagoons, some of which were refilled and other tubed. Among the most important creeks are, Maldonado, Vega, Medrano, Cildañez, in 1908 many creeks were channeled and rectified, as floods were damaging the citys infrastructure. Starting in 1919, most creeks were enclosed, notably, the Maldonado was tubed in 1954, and currently runs below Juan B. Facing the Río de la Plata estuary, the frontage remained flood-prone, italian and French influences increased after the overthrow of strongman Juan Manuel de Rosas in 1852, and particularly upon the advent of the modernizing Generation of 1880. Later significant additions include those by Alejandro Christophersen, Alejandro Bustillo, Andrés Kalnay, Eduardo Le Monnier, some of the more notable commercial developments completed since then have included the Catalinas Norte office park, Torre Bouchard, Bouchard Plaza, Galicia Tower, the Repsol-YPF Tower. San Nicolás is one of the districts that shares most of the city and national government structure with neighboring Montserrat and its seldom referred to as San Nicolás, but usually as The Center, and the part east of the 9 de Julio Avenue is called Microcentro. The growing importance of the area as a center was highlighted by the 1854 establishment of the Buenos Aires Stock Exchange. San Nicolás remains the center of Argentina, something underscored by the presence of the Central Bank. The construction of Corrientes and Nueve de Julio Avenues in the 1930s further modernized San Nicolás, florida Street, most of which is in San Nicolás, is the citys best-known pedestrianized street. Its most discernible landmark is the Galerías Pacífico shopping arcade, Retiro is one of the largest hubs of transportation services in Argentina. Local and long distance rail service heading to the north originate from Estación Retiro, subte line C of the Buenos Aires Metro system and numerous local public bus services serve Retiro, and this area is always teeming with commuters and traffic on weekdays. The most important avenue linking Retiro and the CBD to commuters living in areas to the north is Avenida del Libertador
16.
Avenida Callao
–
Avenida Callao is one of the principal thoroughfares in Buenos Aires, Argentina. Mayor Torcuato de Alvear, inspired by the redevelopment works in Paris at the direction of Baron Haussmann, drew up master plans for major boulevards, running east to west. Named in honor of the decisive Battle of Callao, the avenue was included in the plan, a one-way thoroughfare following a 1967 ordinance, the avenue travels northwards from its outset at Rivadavia Avenue, along the northwest corner of Congressional Plaza. That intersection is known for both the Argentine Congress and the El Molino Café, both of whose domes are Buenos Aires landmarks, at the corner of Callao and Bartolemo Mitre is Residencia Azul, a student residence for college students and foreign travelers. Three blocks north, the passes by the Bauen Hotel. The hotel, which maintains its 1970s interiors, is one of Argentinas most successful recovered workplaces. Two blocks on, Callao is graced by the Church of the Savior, a block on, Rodríguez Peña Plaza provides needed parkland space along one of the citys most-densely populated areas. The plaza is notable for the Pizzurno Palace facing it and Luisa Isella de Motteaus Thirst, a distinctly rounded Art Deco apartment building designed by Francisco Salamone stands on the southwest corner of the avenue and Pacheco de Melo Street. Callao Avenue ends at Avenida del Libertador, one of the citys most important boulevards, an amusement park, Italpark, stood at this site between 1960 and 1990, after which the lot was converted to Thays Park. The twenty-block avenue is not only a commuter artery, it features a concentration of belle époque architecture. The City Legislature is considering assigning a Historical Protection designation on the avenue, a measure protecting 85 significant buildings along Callao
17.
Art Deco
–
Art Deco, sometimes simply referred to as Deco, is a style of visual arts, architecture and design that first appeared in France just before World War I. It took its name, short for Arts Decorators, from the Exposition Internationale des Arts Décoratifs et Industriels Modernes held in Paris in 1925 and it combined modernist styles with fine craftsmanship and rich materials. During its heyday, Art Deco represented luxury, glamour, exuberance, Art Deco was a pastiche of many different styles, sometimes contradictory, united by a desire to be modern. It featured rare and expensive materials such as ebony and ivory, the Chrysler Building and other skyscrapers of New York were the most visible monuments of the new style. In the 1930s, during the Great Depression, the became more subdued. New materials arrived, including chrome plating, stainless steel and plastic, a more sleek form of the style, called Streamline Moderne, appeared in the 1930s, it featured curving forms and smooth, polished surfaces. Art Deco became one of the first truly international architectural styles, with examples found in European cities, the style came to an end with the beginning of World War II. Deco was replaced as the dominant global style by the functional and unadorned styles of modernism. The term arts décoratifs was first used in France in 1858, in 1868, Le Figaro newspaper used the term art décoratifs with respect to objects for stage scenery created for the Théâtre de lOpéra. In 1875, furniture designers, textile, jewelry and glass designers and it took its present name of ENSAD in 1927. The term Art déco was then used in a 1966 newspaper article by Hillary Gelson in the Times, describing the different styles at the exhibit. Art Deco gained currency as a broadly applied stylistic label in 1968 when historian Bevis Hillier published the first major book on the style. Hillier noted that the term was already being used by art dealers and cites The Times, in 1971, Hillier organized an exhibition at the Minneapolis Institute of Arts, which he details in his book about it, The World of Art Deco. The emergence of Art Deco was closely connected with the rise in status of decorative artists, the term arts décoratifs had been invented in 1875, giving the designers of furniture, textiles, and other decoration official status. The Société des artistes décorateurs, or SAD, was founded in 1901, a similar movement developed in Italy. The first international exhibition devoted entirely to the arts, the Esposizione international dArte decorative moderna, was held in Turin in 1902. Several new magazines devoted to decorative arts were founded in Paris, including Arts et décoration, Decorative arts sections were introduced into the annual salons of the Sociéte des artistes français, and later in the Salon dautomne. French nationalism also played a part in the resurgence of decorative arts, in 1911 the SAD proposed the holding of a major new international exposition of decorative arts in 1912
18.
Teatro Gran Rex
–
The Teatro Gran Rex is an Art Deco style theatre in Buenos Aires, Argentina which opened on July 8,1937, as the largest cinema in South America. Today, the theatre has 3,300 seats and, together with the Teatro Opera on the side of the street, is one of the citys most important venues for the staging of international shows. Chiquititas was the event in the history of the theater. Based on the soap of the same name and with the complete cast of the show. Over 1 million tickets were sold, with the 1998 season being the season ever,240,000 tickets sold. Argentine Architecture of the Thirties, J. Decorative & Propaganda Arts, Buenos Aires Art Deco y Racionalismo. Ediciones Xavier Verstraeten, Buenos Aires,2008
19.
Teatro Opera
–
The Teatro Opera is a prominent cinema and theatre house in Buenos Aires, Argentina. The massive widening of Corrientes Street led to the demolition in 1935, however, following which the establishment was sold to Clemente Lococo. The theatre also hosted bandoneonist Ástor Piazzollas last, live performance in Argentina, economic instability and changing public tastes led to the theatres decline during the 1990s and in 1996, its proprietors considered selling the building to parking structure developers. The Opera Theatre was remodeled in 1998 and currently seats 1,852 spectators, sources Mimi Bohm, Buenos Aires Art Deco y Racionalismo, Ediciones Xavier Verstraeten, Buenos Aires,2008. Postcards depicting the original Opera Theatre Notes Official site Media related to Teatro Opera at Wikimedia Commons
20.
Revue
–
A revue is a type of multi-act popular theatrical entertainment that combines music, dance and sketches. The revue has its roots in 19th century popular entertainment and melodrama, though most famous for their visual spectacle, revues frequently satirized contemporary figures, news or literature. Similar to the related subforms of operetta and musical theatre, the art form brings together music, dance. In contrast to these, however, revue does not have an overarching storyline, rather, a general theme serves as the motto for a loosely-related series of acts that alternate between solo performances and dance ensembles. George Lederers The Passing Show is usually held to be the first successful American review, the English spelling was used until 1907 when Florenz Ziegfeld popularized the French spelling. Follies is now employed as an analog for revue, though the term was proprietary to Ziegfeld until his death in 1932. Other popular proprietary revue names included George Whites Scandals and Earl Carrolls Vanities, Revues are most properly understood as having amalgamated several theatrical traditions within the corpus of a single entertainment. Minstrelsys olio section provided a map of popular variety presentation. Theatrical extravaganzas, in particular, moving panoramas, demonstrated a vocabulary of the spectacular, burlesque, itself a bawdy hybrid of various theatrical forms, lent to classic revue an open interest in female sexuality and the masculine gaze. Revues enjoyed great success on Broadway from the World War I years until the Great Depression, the high ticket prices of many revues helped ensure audiences distinct from other live popular entertainments during their height of popularity. In 1914, the Follies charged $5.00 for an opening night ticket, at time, many cinema houses charged from $0.10 to 0.25. Among the many producers of revues, Florenz Ziegfeld played the greatest role in developing the classical revue through his glorification of a new theatrical type. Revues took advantage of their revenue stream to lure away performers from other media. Performers such as Eddie Cantor, Anna Held, W. C, fields, Bert Williams, the Marx Brothers and the Fairbanks Twins found great success on the revue stage. One of Cole Porters early shows was Raymond Hitchcocks revue Hitchy-Koo, composers or lyricists such as Richard Rodgers, Lorenz Hart, Irving Berlin, and George M. Cohan also enjoyed a tremendous reception on the part of audiences. Sometimes, an appearance in a revue provided a key early entry into entertainment, largely due to their centralization in New York City and adroit use of publicity, revues proved particularly adept at introducing new talents to the American theatre. Rodgers and Hart, one of the great composer/lyricist teams of the American musical theatre, comedian Fanny Brice, following a brief period in burlesque and amateur variety, bowed to revue audiences in Ziegfelds Follies of 1910. Specialist writers and composers of revues have included Sandy Wilson, Noël Coward, John Stromberg, George Gershwin, Earl Carroll, in Britain predominantly, Tom Arnold also specialised in promoting series of revues and his acts extended to the European continent and South Africa
21.
Vedette (cabaret)
–
Vedette is a French word that is currently used to designate the main female artist of a show derived from the Cabaret and its different genres. The purpose of the vedette in the show of cabaret or nightclub is to entertain the public, the Vedette has to know how to sing, dance and act on stage. Depending on the quality of its show, career or mastery of one or more stage talents, generally a vedette has to be a woman with a physical or a personality and charisma outstanding to be able to catch the attention of the public. In addition to singing, dancing and acting, the vedettes also often include in their shows important groups of dancers, flashy costumes, magicians, comedians, jugglers, the Vedettes who specialize in burlesque shows also perform nude and striptease routines on stage. The Vedette shows were successful in cabarets, theaters and nightclubs in the 20th century in countries like Spain, France, Argentina. The cities of Paris, France and Las Vegas, in the United States, are considered as the cradle of the vedettes. Vedette is a French word originally used to designate an artist of great fame, the term experiment changes over the years. From the twentieth century, it began to be used to designate the main artists of the shows of a cabaret such as Burlesque, vaudeville. The zenith of fame and popularity of these coincide with various historical moments of sexual liberation of the twentieth century. The vedettes began their boom and popularity in France at the beginning of the century, after France, they have gained greater popularity in Latin countries, both European and American, where they have caused a furor in the nightlife at different times. France has been considered the cradle of vedettes worldwide and this is because in its capital, Paris, there are some of the most famous cabarets in the world. Among these are the Moulin Rouge and the Folies Bergère de Paris, both, the Moulin Rouge and the Folies Bergère, were the pioneers to show night shows in which the vedettes appeared on the scene half naked and doing Tableau vivant. Other famous venues are the Le Lido and Bataclan, also famous for their vaudeville, in more recent times, this group of entertainment centers would be joined by Crazy Horse. Among the main vedettes of France, are Émilienne dAlençon, Liane de Pougy and La Bella Otero, another outstanding figure was Gina Palerme At the beginning of the century, the novelist Colette, also distinguished by acting in shows of magazine. Another prominent figure who stood out as vedette at that time is the world-famous Dutch spy Mata Hari, the legendary Cléo de Mérode was another of the great stars of the Parisian nightlife of the twentieth century. She was one of the stars of the Folies Bergère. Joséphine Baker, of American origin, is remembered as one of the most important vedettes of the twentieth century and her Revue Nègre, which included a jazz orchestra, caused a sensation in the Parisian cabarets. Her exotic dance form, her sexuality and her minimal dress were more attractive to Europeans than to Americans
22.
Estadio Luna Park
–
Luna Park Stadium is a multi-purpose arena located in the heart of Buenos Aires. Located at the corner of Avenida Corrientes and Avenida Bouchard, in the San Nicolás neighborhood, initially, the arena primarily hosted boxing and other sporting events. In the 1950s, it was expanded to host stage shows, the arena also hosted the Six Days of Buenos Aires cycle race. At the beginning of the century, Buenos Aires was inhabited by thousands of immigrants from Europe. Additionally, there was an abundance of tourist from the Americas, in 1910, Italian merchant Domingo Pace built Luna Park, an open street fair in the heart of the city. By the 1920s, the amusement park became the playground of the aristocrats, with the change of scenery, the park began to decline and by 1929, many of the rides were abandoned. In 1931, Ismael Pace and boxing legend Jose Pepe Lectoure purchased land from the city, with the decline of Luna Park, Pace envisioned creating a sports arena in the likes of Madison Square Garden and the Berliner Sportpalast. Before opening in 1932, the arena went through three names, Estadio de Corrientes y Bouchard, Catedral del Boxeo then Palacio de los Deportes before settling on Estadio Luna Park, opening February 1932 as an opening air venue and carnival. The arena hosted a match every Saturday, with first match being held on 5 March 1932. At this time, the arena could sit 22,000 spectators, during the off season, the arena ran rampant with the homeless, causing the venue to become an enclosed space in 1934. During the Second World War, the became the site of many Nazi. In 1944, during a charity event, Eva Duarte and Juan Perón met for the first time, in the 1950s, the arena began to decline. Lectoure and Pace were pressured by the city to seek better revenue, in 1951, renovations began for the arena in the style of Art Deco, substantially, the capacity of the arena was reduced. Before construction ended, Pace and Lectoure died, ownership of the venue was given to Lectoures son, Juan Carlos Lectoure. Known as Tito, he convert the arena into the site for concerts, in 2007, the arena was declared a Monumento Histórico Nacional. After 80 years, the Lectoure family no longer owned the historic venue, after the death of Titos wife, Ernestina Devecchi de Lectoure, ownership of the arena was transferred to Sociedad Salesiana de San Juan Bosco y a Cáritas Argentina. On March 4,2008, the American progressive metal band Dream Theater recorded a version of Panic Attack for their 3 CD/2 DVD album Chaos in Motion 2007–2008. They returned to the venue in 2012 to record a live album
23.
Argentine tango
–
Argentine tango is a musical genre of simple quadruple metre and binary musical form, and the social dance that accompanies it. Its lyrics and music are marked by nostalgia, expressed through melodic instruments including the bandoneon, originating at the ending of the 19th century in the suburbs of Buenos Aires, and Montevideo, Uruguay, it quickly grew in popularity and spread internationally. Among its leading figures are the singer and songwriter Carlos Gardel and composers/performers Francisco Canaro, Juan DArienzo, Carlos Di Sarli, Osvaldo Pugliese, the origins of tango are unclear because historical documentation from that era hardly exists. However, in recent years a few tango aficionados have undertaken a thorough research of that history, Argentine tango music is much more varied than ballroom tango music. A large amount of music has been composed by a variety of different orchestras over the last century. The four representative schools of the Argentine tango music are Di Sarli, dArienzo, Troilo and Pugliese and they are dance orchestras, playing music for dancing. When the spirit of the music is characterized by counterpoint marking and it has a clear, repetitive pulse or beat, a strong tango-rhythm which is based on the 2x4,2 strong beats on 4. Ástor Piazzolla stretched the classical harmony and counterpoint and moved the tango from the floor to the concert stage. His compositions tell us something of our life and dancing it relates much to modern dance. Tango nuevo dance is associated with alternative music, see nuevo tango. Even though the present forms developed in Argentina and Uruguay, they were exposed to influences re-imported from Europe. There are records of 18th and early 19th century tango styles in Cuba and Spain, consequently, there is a good deal of confusion and overlap between the styles as they are now danced - and fusions continue to evolve. Tango dance is essentially walking with a partner and the music, dancing appropriately to the emotion and speed of a tango is extremely important to dancing tango. A good dancer is one who transmits a feeling of the music to the partner, also, dancers generally keep their feet close to the floor as they walk, the ankles and knees brushing as one leg passes the other. One of the few constants across all Argentine tango dance styles is that the follower will usually be led to alternate feet, another is that the follower rarely has his or her weight on both feet at the same time. In many modern variations of Argentine Tango, particularly in Europe, teachers of Tango may establish a basic step in order to help students to learn and pick up the feel of the dance. Argentine tango is danced counterclockwise around the outside of the floor and dance traffic often segregates into a number of lanes. In general, the middle of the floor is where one finds either beginners who lack floor navigation skills or people who are performing showy figures or patterns that take up more floor space
24.
X rating
–
In some countries, X or XXX is or has been a motion picture rating reserved for the most explicit films. Films rated X are intended only for viewing by adults, usually defined as people over the age of 18 or 21. The Australian Classification Board, a government institution, issues ratings for all movies and television shows exhibited, televised, material showing explicit, non-simulated consensual sex that is pornographic in nature is rated X18+. People under 18 may not buy, rent, exhibit or view these films, the exhibition or sale of these films to people under the age of 18 years is a criminal offence carrying a maximum fine of $5,500. Films classified as X18+ are banned from being sold or rented in most Australian states and they are legally available to be sold or hired in the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory. Importing X18+ material from these territories to any of the Australian states is legal, the X18+ rating does not exist for video games. Films may be shown in theaters in France only after classification by a commission of the ministry of Culture. In 1975, the X classification was created for pornographic movies, the commission has some leeway in classification, it may for instance take into account the artistic qualities of a movie not to count it pornographic. Movies with an X rating may only be shown in theaters, they bear special taxes and tax rates. In 2000, some conservative associations sued the government for granting the movie Baise-moi, which contained graphic, realistic scenes of sex and violence, the Conseil dÉtat at litigation ruled that the movie should have been rated X. The decision was controversial, and some suggested changing the law under which it was rated 18. The original X certificate, replacing the H certificate, was issued between 1951 and 1982 by the British Board of Film Censors in the United Kingdom and it was introduced as a result of the Wheare Report on film censorship. From 1951 to 1970, it meant Suitable for those aged 16 and over, the X certificate was replaced in November 1982 by the 18 certificate. Sometimes the rating of a film has changed significantly over time, for example, the French film Jules and Jim received an X rating in 1962 that was changed to a PG rating in 1991. In some early cases, films politically motivated received an X rating, the Battleship Potemkin was rejected for inflammatory subtitles and Bolshevik propaganda in 1926, rated X in 1954, and finally rated PG in 1987. In the United States, the X rating was applied to a film that contained content judged unsuitable for children, such as violence, strongly implied sex. The threat of an X rating also encouraged filmmakers to re-edit their films to achieve an R rating, certain films, such as Cruising, received an R rating that some theatre owners felt should have been an X. Because the X rating was not trademarked, anybody could apply it to their films, including pornographers, as pornography began to become chic and more legally tolerated, pornographers placed an X rating on their films to emphasize the adult content
25.
Multiplex (movie theater)
–
A multiplex is a movie theater complex with multiple screens within a single complex. They are usually housed in a designed building. Sometimes, an existing venue undergoes a renovation where the existing auditoriums are split into smaller ones, the largest of these complexes can sit thousands of people and are sometimes referred to as a megaplex. Megaplex theaters always have stadium seating, and may have other amenities not found at smaller movie theaters. Multiplex theatres often feature regular seating, in about 1915 two adjacent theatres in Moncton, New Brunswick, under the same ownership were converted to share a single entrance on Main Street. There were separate ticket booths once patrons entered the door and different programs were shown, the arrangement was so unusual that it was featured by Robert Ripley in his Believe It or Not. In 1937 James Edwards twinned his Alhambra Theater in the Los Angeles area by converting an adjacent storefront into a second annex screen, while both screens would show the same feature movie, one would also offer a double bill. It did not convert to showing different movies on both screens until some time after Taylor, the main screen remained the Patricia Theatre and the Patricia Annex became known as the Little Patricia. In December 1947 Nat Taylor, the operator of the Elgin Theatre in Ottawa, Canada, opened a smaller second theater next door to his first theater. It was not until 1957, however, that Taylor decided to run different movies in each theater, Taylor opened dual-screen theaters in 1962 in Place Ville Marie in Montreal, Quebec, and at Yorkdale Plaza in Toronto, Ontario, in 1964. The programming was coordinated, so one of them showed documentary. While the other was showing feature films and they were in use at least until the 1990s. AMC followed up on the Parkway Twin with a theater in 1966. Durwoods insight was that one box office and one stand could easily serve two attached auditoriums. In 1965 Martins Westgate Cinemas became one of the first indoor two-screen theaters in Atlanta, located in East Point, Georgia, it was later converted into a three-screen venue after a fire partially destroyed one of the theaters. The Disney family film Those Calloways had its premier at the Westgate. Opening in April 1979, the 18-screen Cineplex, co-founded by Nat Taylor in Torontos Eaton Centre and it was expanded to 21 screens by at least 1981. In November 1988, Kinepolis Brussels opened with 25 screens, and is credited as being the first megaplex
26.
Shopping mall
–
A shopping arcade is a specific form serving the same purpose. Many early shopping arcades such as the Burlington Arcade in London, the Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II in Milan, however, many smaller arcades have been demolished, replaced with large centers or malls, often accessible by vehicle. Technical innovations such as lighting and escalators were introduced from the late 19th century. From the late 20th century, entertainment venues such as movie theaters, as a single built structure, early shopping centers were often architecturally significant constructions, enabling wealthier patrons to buy goods in spaces protected from the weather. In places around the world, the shopping centre is used, especially in Europe, Australia. Mall is a term used predominantly in North America, outside of North America, shopping precinct and shopping arcade are also used. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, malls are commonly referred to as shopping centres, the majority of British shopping centres are located in city centres, usually found in old and historic shopping districts and surrounded by subsidiary open air shopping streets. Large examples include West Quay in Southampton, Manchester Arndale, Bullring Birmingham, Liverpool One, Trinity Leeds, Buchanan Galleries in Glasgow and these centres were built in the 1980s and 1990s, but planning regulations prohibit the construction of any more. Out-of-town shopping developments in the UK are now focused on retail parks, planning policy prioritizes the development of existing town centres, although with patchy success. Bullring, Birmingham is the busiest shopping centre in the UK welcoming over 36.5 million shoppers in its opening year, there are a reported 222 malls in Europe. In 2014, these malls had combined sales of $12.47 billion and this represented a 10% bump in revenues from the prior year. One of the earliest examples of public shopping areas comes from ancient Rome, One of the earliest public shopping centers is Trajans Market in Rome located in Trajans Forum. Trajans Market was probably built around 100-110 CE by Apollodorus of Damascus, the Grand Bazaar of Istanbul was built in the 15th century and is still one of the largest covered shopping centers in the world, with more than 58 streets and 4,000 shops. Numerous other covered shopping arcades, such as the 19th-century Al-Hamidiyah Souq in Damascus, Syria, isfahans Grand Bazaar, which is largely covered, dates from the 10th century. The 10-kilometer-long, covered Tehrans Grand Bazaar also has a lengthy history, the oldest continuously occupied shopping mall in the world is likely to be the Chester Rows. Dating back at least to the 13th century, these covered walkways housed shops, with storage, different rows specialized in different goods, such as Bakers Row or Fleshmongers Row. The Marché des Enfants Rouges in Paris opened in 1628 and still runs today, the Oxford Covered Market in Oxford, England opened in 1774 and still runs today. The Passage du Caire was opened in Paris in 1798, the Burlington Arcade in London was opened in 1819
27.
Musical theatre
–
Musical theatre is a form of theatrical performance that combines songs, spoken dialogue, acting, and dance. The story and emotional content of a musical – humor, pathos, love, anger – are communicated through the words, music, movement, since the early 20th century, musical theatre stage works have generally been called, simply, musicals. These were followed by the numerous Edwardian musical comedies and the theatre works of American creators like George M. Cohan. Musicals are performed around the world and they may be presented in large venues, such as big-budget Broadway or West End productions in New York City or London. Alternatively, musicals may be staged in smaller fringe theatre, Off-Broadway or regional theatre productions, musicals are often presented by amateur and school groups in churches, schools and other performance spaces. In addition to the United States and Britain, there are vibrant musical theatre scenes in continental Europe, Asia, Australasia, Canada, the three main components of a book musical are its music, lyrics and book. The interpretation of a musical is the responsibility of its team, which includes a director. A musicals production is also characterized by technical aspects, such as set design, costumes, stage properties, lighting. The creative team, designs and interpretations generally change from the production to succeeding productions. Some production elements, however, may be retained from the production, for example. There is no fixed length for a musical, while it can range from a short one-act entertainment to several acts and several hours in length, most musicals range from one and a half to three hours. Musicals are usually presented in two acts, with one intermission, and the first act is frequently longer than the second. A book musical is usually built four to six main theme tunes that are reprised later in the show. Several shorter musicals on Broadway and in the West End have been presented in one act in recent decades, moments of greatest dramatic intensity in a book musical are often performed in song. Proverbially, when the emotion becomes too strong for speech, you sing, typically, many fewer words are sung in a five-minute song than are spoken in a five-minute block of dialogue. Therefore, there is time to develop drama in a musical than in a straight play of equivalent length. Within the compressed nature of a musical, the writers must develop the characters, the material presented in a musical may be original, or it may be adapted from novels, plays, classic legends, historical events or films. On the other hand, many musical theatre works have been adapted for musical films, such as West Side Story, My Fair Lady, The Sound of Music, Oliver
28.
Avant-garde
–
The avant-garde are people or works that are experimental, radical, or unorthodox, with respect to art, culture, and society. It may be characterized by nontraditional, aesthetic innovation and initial unacceptability, the avant-garde pushes the boundaries of what is accepted as the norm or the status quo, primarily in the cultural realm. The avant-garde is considered by some to be a hallmark of modernism, the avant-garde also promotes radical social reforms. Several writers have attempted, with limited success, to map the parameters of avant-garde activity, the Italian essayist Renato Poggioli provides one of the best-known analyses of vanguardism as a cultural phenomenon in his 1962 book Teoria dellarte davanguardia. Other authors have attempted both to clarify and to extend Poggiolis study, bürgers essay also greatly influenced the work of contemporary American art-historians such as the German Benjamin H. D. Buchloh. Buchloh, in the collection of essays Neo-avantgarde and Culture Industry critically argues for an approach to these positions. Subsequent criticism theorized the limitations of these approaches, noting their circumscribed areas of analysis, including Eurocentric, chauvinist, and genre-specific definitions. The concept of avant-garde refers primarily to artists, writers, composers and thinkers whose work is opposed to cultural values. For Greenberg, these forms were therefore kitsch, phony, faked or mechanical culture, for instance, during the 1930s the advertising industry was quick to take visual mannerisms from surrealism, but this does not mean that 1930s advertising photographs are truly surreal. In this way the autonomous artistic merit so dear to the vanguardist was abandoned and sales became the measure. It has become common to describe successful rock musicians and celebrated film-makers as avant-garde, nevertheless, an incisive critique of vanguardism as against the views of mainstream society was offered by the New York critic Harold Rosenberg in the late 1960s. Since then it has been flanked by what he called avant-garde ghosts to the one side, and this has seen culture become, in his words, a profession one of whose aspects is the pretense of overthrowing it. Avant-garde in music can refer to any form of working within traditional structures while seeking to breach boundaries in some manner. The term is used loosely to describe the work of any musicians who radically depart from tradition altogether, although most avant-garde composers have been men, this is not exclusively the case. Women avant-gardists include Pauline Oliveros, Diamanda Galás, Meredith Monk, there are movements in theatre history that are characterized by their contributions to the avant-garde traditions in both the United States and Europe. Among these are Fluxus, Happenings, and Neo-Dada, Avant-garde – Wikipedia book Barron, Stephanie, and Maurice Tuchman. The Avant-garde in Russia, 1910–1930, New Perspectives, Los Angeles County Museum of Art Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. Los Angeles, CA, Los Angeles County Museum of Art ISBN 0-87587-095-3, Cambridge, MA, ISBN 0-671-20422-X Berg, Hubert van den, and Walter Fähnders
29.
Mauricio Macri
–
Mauricio Macri is the current President of Argentina, in office since 2015. A former civil engineer, Macri won the first presidential runoff ballotage in Argentinas history and is the first democratically elected non-Radical or Peronist President since 1916, figuring prominently in Macris agenda is the objective to reintegrate Argentina in the international community. Son of Francesco Macri, a prominent Italian businessman in the industrial and construction sectors and he gained recognition when in 1995 he became President of Boca Juniors, one of the two most popular football clubs in the country. In 2005 he created the electoral front Republican Proposal, also known as PRO. He was considered a candidate for the 2011 general elections. He got nearly 47% of the vote in the election, leading to a runoff vote on 31 July 2011 against candidate Daniel Filmus. On 22 November 2015, after a tie in the first round of elections on 25 October, he obtained 51. 34% of the votes. He was inaugurated on 10 December 2015 in the National Congress of Argentina, in 2016, Macri was named one of the Worlds 100 Most Influential People and the Most Powerful President in Latin America by U. S. news magazine Time. Mauricio Macri was born in Tandil, in the province of Buenos Aires, as the son of the Italian-born tycoon Francisco Macri and Alicia Blanco Villegas, the family moved to Buenos Aires a short time later, and kept the houses in Tandil as vacation properties. His father influenced him to be a businessman, as well as his uncle Jorge Blanco Villegas, Franco expected Mauricio to eventually succeed him as leaders of his firms. Macri preferred the company of his uncle, to avoid the constant scrutiny of his father, Macri was educated at Colegio Cardenal Newman and studied at the Catholic University of Argentina, where he received a degree in civil engineering. During this time he became interested in neoliberalism, and joined a tank led by the former minister Álvaro Alsogaray. As a result, he affiliated to the now defunct Union of the Democratic Centre party, in 1985, he also attended short courses at Columbia Business School, Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania and the local Universidad del CEMA. In 1984, he worked in the department of Citibank Argentina. He joined Socma the same year, and from 1985 onward he served as general manager, in 1992 he became the vice president of Sevel Argentina, climbing to the presidency in 1994. In 1991, he was kidnapped for 12 days by officers of the Argentine Federal Police and he was kept inside a very small room, with a chemical bathroom and a hole in the roof to receive food. He was freed after his family paid a multimillion-dollar ransom. He has since said that the ordeal led him to decide to enter politics and his first wife was Ivonne Bordeu, daughter of the racecar driver Juan Manuel Bordeu
30.
Avenida Leandro N. Alem
–
Avenida Leandro N. Alem is one of the principal thoroughfares in Buenos Aires, Argentina, and a commercial nerve center of the citys San Nicolás and Retiro districts. By way of an effort, Viceroy Juan José de Vértiz y Salcedo had a two-lane street built along what was then the shores of the Río de la Plata. Marking the eastern end of the city, the throroughfare was landscaped with cottonwood trees, the paseo became a popular weekend promenade, and its contiguous shores an unofficial riverfront park popular with bathers until an 1809 edict banned the practice for reasons of moral terpitude. The frontage remained flood-prone, and in 1846, Governor Juan Manuel de Rosas had a contention wall six blocks built along the paseo. Inaugurated in March 1848 as the Paseo Encarnación Ezcurra, Rosas had it renamed the Paseo de Julio that October in honor of the Ninth of July, date of the Argentine Declaration of Independence. These improvements were capped by the installation of a fountain on the median, for which an Argentine student of Auguste Rodins. Unveiled in 1903, the Font of the Nereids sparked moralist outrage over its nude Venus, the improved boulevard saw the replacement of clapboard structures for upscale office buildings, mostly influenced by French architecture, and all distinguished by their archways. Among the most notable were the offices of the Nicolás Mihanovich Shipping Company and Bunge y Born. The UCR government completed the avenues best-known landmark, the Buenos Aires Central Post Office, in 1928, the avenues eclectic architectural selection was added to by rationalist buildings such as the Comega and the 42-story Alas, which remained the tallest in Argentina until 1995. Zoning changes encted in 1966 allowed the development of the Catalinas Norte business park at the northern end
31.
Boxing
–
Boxing is a combat sport in which two people wearing protective gloves throw punches at each other for a predetermined set of time in a boxing ring. Amateur boxing is both an Olympic and Commonwealth Games sport and is a fixture in most international games—it also has its own World Championships. Boxing is supervised by a referee over a series of one- to three-minute intervals called rounds, in the event that both fighters gain equal scores from the judges, the fight is considered a draw. In Olympic boxing, due to the fact that a winner must be declared, in the case of a draw - the judges use technical criteria to choose the most deserving winner of the bout. While people have fought in combat since before the dawn of history. The earliest evidence for fist fighting with any kind of gloves can be found on Minoan Crete, in Ancient Greece boxing was a well developed sport and enjoyed consistent popularity. In Olympic terms, it was first introduced in the 23rd Olympiad,688 B. C, the boxers would wind leather thongs around their hands in order to protect them. There were no rounds and boxers fought until one of them acknowledged defeat or could not continue, weight categories were not used, which meant heavyweights had a tendency to dominate. It was the head of the opponent which was primarily targeted, Boxing was a popular spectator sport in Ancient Rome. In order for the fighters to protect themselves against their opponents they wrapped leather thongs around their fists, eventually harder leather was used and the thong soon became a weapon. The Romans even introduced metal studs to the thongs to make the cestus which then led to a more sinister weapon called the myrmex, Fighting events were held at Roman Amphitheatres. The Roman form of boxing was often a fight until death to please the spectators who gathered at such events, however, especially in later times, purchased slaves and trained combat performers were valuable commodities, and their lives were not given up without due consideration. Often slaves were used against one another in a circle marked on the floor and this is where the term ring came from. In AD393, during the Roman gladiator period, boxing was abolished due to excessive brutality and it was not until the late 17th century that boxing re-surfaced in London. Records of Classical boxing activity disappeared after the fall of the Western Roman Empire when the wearing of weapons became common once again, however, there are detailed records of various fist-fighting sports that were maintained in different cities and provinces of Italy between the 12th and 17th centuries. There was also a sport in ancient Rus called Kulachniy Boy or Fist Fighting, as the wearing of swords became less common, there was renewed interest in fencing with the fists. The sport would later resurface in England during the early 16th century in the form of bare-knuckle boxing sometimes referred to as prizefighting. The first documented account of a fight in England appeared in 1681 in the London Protestant Mercury
32.
Buenos Aires Central Post Office
–
The Buenos Aires Central Post Office building, now the Néstor Kirchner Cultural Centre, was the seat of the Correo Argentino until 2005. It is located in the San Nicolás, Buenos Aires neighborhood of Buenos Aires, the building was designed in the Neoclassical Beaux-Arts style and with Second Empire style elements by French architect Norbert Maillart. Construction started in 1899, and after several long pauses and changes to Maillarts original design, was opened in 1928. The Palacio de Correos was declared National Heritage in 1997 due to its style, historical relevance. The first name chosen was Centro Cultural del Bicentenario, changing to Néstor Kirchner Cultural Centre in 2012, the Central Post Office building, after extensive renovations, construction, and restoration, now houses the Néstor Kirchner Cultural Centre, which opened in May 2015. It is the largest cultural center in Latin America, and 4th largest in the world, due to the increasing demand for post services in Argentina, in 1888 the Post Office director, Ramón Cárcano, proposed a specific building as seat for the Postal Service. The Ministry of Public Works hired French architect Norbert-Auguste Maillart to design the building, Maillarts concept building was based on the City Hall Post Office of New York City. Works were interrupted in 1890 because of the crash that caused the fall of president Juárez Celman. It was not until 1905 when the National government released funds to finish the building, many years had passed and the original project by Maillart involved a smaller building became obsolete due to the increasing demand for postal services. Therefore, the post director Ernesto Bosch, proposed a new design for the building, unlike the previous project, the new building would have an entrance on Sarmiento street. Besides, inclined planes would be placed to connect those streets with Leandro N. Alem avenue, some surrounding buildings, such as the Stock Exchange of Buenos Aires and the Calvet Building were constructed according to that project that finally was never carried out. In 1911 Maillart retired from the project in disagreement with the authorities, the National Direction of Architecture appointed Maillarts main collaborator, Russian Jacques Spolsky to continue the project. Spolsky had already designed the Palacio de Correos of Tucumán and its homonym of Rosario, after Spolsky was designated the original project was significantly modified. Some of the changes included a structure and the use of materials such as cement. Due to the land having been reclaimed from the Río de la Plata, as a result, some concepts of the palace had to be changed. Funds ran out in 1923 so a new law as promulgated to grant new funds, the building was finally inaugurated on September 28,1928, two weeks before then president of Argentina Marcelo T. de Alvear finished his term. During the first terms of president Juan Perón, he and his wife Eva Perón had their offices at the Buenos Aires Central Post Office, the Eva Perón Foundation also used the building as its headquarters. In 1997, the Palacio de Correos was declared National Heritage by Law 12,665, considering its architectural style, in 2002 the building ceased operations as seat of Correo Argentino
33.
Comega Building
–
The Comega Building is located on 222 Avenida Corrientes in the corner of Alem Avenue, in the city of Buenos Aires, Argentina. The Comega Building was the first reinforced concrete built in Argentina. It was built, in rationalist style, between 1931 and 1934 on a project by architects Enrique and Alfredo Joselevich Douillet, when first built it rivaled another architectural giant, the SAFICO Building, also built in rationalist style just 200 meters to its west on Avenida Corrientes. However, in 1936 the Kavanagh building greatly surpassed both buildings in height and it was built for Compañía Mercantil y Ganadera S. A. in a privileged area which previously had occupied the residence of Francisco Madero, then transformed into Grand National Hotel. At the time of its opening the 19th floor was planned for use and assembly, but the place was soon allocated for the renowned confitería-restaurante Comega Club. A new restaurant opened on the site in 2000, followed by the Restaurant-Café A222 from 2004 until its closure in early 2012. A notable feature of the building was its five elevators, these being the first high-speed lifts of Buenos Aires, there was also a hair salon in one of its levels, for the use of its office occupants. A declared architectural heritage of the city, the building has recently renovated with much of its original features restored. Its exterior has straight edges and is devoid of ornaments and it consists of two wings and a higher multi-storey central tower of 21 floors and 88 meters high. Together they surround an open courtyard, facing Avenida Leandro N. Alem. It also has two levels of underground garage and its interior features granite cladding and stainless steel counters, extremely novel and expensive features for its time
34.
Argentine cuisine
–
Argentine annual consumption of beef has averaged 100 kg per capita, approaching 180 kg per capita during the 19th century, consumption averaged 67.7 kg in 2007. Beyond asado, no other dish more genuinely matches the national identity, nevertheless, the countrys vast area, and its cultural diversity, have led to a local cuisine of various dishes. Argentine people have a reputation for their love of eating, social gatherings are commonly centered on sharing a meal. Invitations to have dinner at home is viewed as a symbol of friendship, warmth. Sunday family lunch is considered the most significant meal of the week, another feature of Argentine cuisine is the preparation of homemade food such as french fries, patties, and pasta to celebrate a special occasion, to meet friends, or to honor someone. The tradition of preparing food is passed down from generation to generation. Argentine restaurants include a variety of cuisines, prices. Large cities tend to host everything from high-end international cuisine, to bodegones, less stylish restaurants, native Americans lived in Argentina thousands of years before the European explorers arrived. Members of an Indian tribe in the part of Argentina were farmers who grew squash, melons. Spanish settlers came to Argentina in 1536, most of the immigrants were from Italy and Spain. The Italians introduced pizza, as well as a variety of dishes, including spaghetti. British, German, Jewish, and other immigrants settled in Argentina, all bringing their styles of cooking. The British brought tea, starting the tradition of teatime, all of these cultures influenced the dishes of Argentina. Most regions of Argentina are known for their beef-oriented diet, in Argentina the Spanish term, Carne, which means meat, is assumed to be beef in Argentina. In other Spanish-speaking countries—such as Spain—the term is qualified with the type of animal, such as carne de vaca, carne de cordero. Grilled meat from the asado is a staple, with steak, the term asado itself refers to long strips of flank-cut beef ribs. Popular items such as Chorizo, morcilla, chinchulines, mollejas, in Patagonia, however, lamb and chivito are eaten more frequently than beef. Whole lambs and goats are cooked over an open fire in a technique known as asado a la estaca
35.
Spanish cuisine
–
Spanish cuisine is heavily influenced by regional cuisines and the particular historical processes that shaped culture and society in those territories. Geography and climate, had influence on cooking methods and available ingredients. Spanish cuisine derives from a history, where invasions of the country and conquests of new territories modified traditions. Authors such as Strabo, however, write about aboriginal people using nuts, the Romans introduced the custom of collecting and eating mushrooms, which is still preserved in many parts of Spain, especially in the north. The Romans along with the Greeks introduced viticulture, it appears that the extension of the vine along the Mediterranean seems to be due to colonization of the Greeks. The change came in 711 AD, when Muslim troops composed of Arabs and Berbers crossed the Strait of Gibraltar, invading the Iberian Peninsula. The discovery of America, in 1492, initiated the advent of new elements, such as tomatoes, cucumbers, potatoes, corn, bell peppers, spicy peppers, paprika, vanilla. The latter caused a furor in the Spanish society in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, other ingredients traveled to the Americas, such as rice, grapes, olives and many types of cereals. A continental-style breakfast may be taken just after waking up, or before entering the workplace, due to the large time span between breakfast and lunch, it is not uncommon to halt the working schedule to take a mid-morning snack. Lunch, the midday meal in Spain, contains several courses. It usually starts between 2,00 pm or 2,30 pm finishing around 3,00 pm to 3,30 pm, and is followed by Sobremesa. Menus are organized according to these courses and include five or six choices in each course. At home, Spanish meals wouldnt be too fancy, and would contain soup or a dish, salad, a meat or a fish dish. Green salad with the meat or fish courses, in some regions of Spain, the word almuerzo refers to the mid-morning snack, instead of lunch. La cena, meaning both dinner or supper, is taken between 8, 30pm and 10pm and it is lighter than lunch, consisting of one course and dessert. Due to the time span between lunch and dinner, an afternoon snack, la merienda, equivalent to afternoon tea. Appetizers before lunch or dinner are common in the form of tapas, in the last years, the Spanish government is starting to take action to shorten the lunch break, in order to end the working day earlier. Most businesses shut down for two or three hours for lunch, then resume the working day until dinner time in the evening, the following is a list of traditional Spanish meals, Andalusian cuisine is twofold, rural and coastal
36.
Italian cuisine
–
Italian cuisine is the culinary typical or originating from Italy. It has developed through centuries of social and political changes, with roots stretching to antiquity, Italian cuisine is characterized by its simplicity, with many dishes having only four to eight ingredients. Italian cooks rely chiefly on the quality of the rather than on elaborate preparation. Ingredients and dishes vary by region, many dishes that were once regional, however, have proliferated with variations throughout the country. Cheese and wine are a part of the cuisine, with many variations. Coffee, specifically espresso, has become important in Italian cuisine, Italian cuisine has developed over the centuries. Although the country known as Italy did not unite until the 19th century, Italian food started to form after the fall of the Roman Empire, when different cities began to separate and form their own traditions. Many different types of bread and pasta were made, and there was a variation in cooking techniques and preparation. For example, the north of Italy is known for its risottos, the central/middle of the country is known for its tortellini, the first known Italian food writer was a Greek Sicilian named Archestratus from Syracuse in the 4th century BCE. He wrote a poem that spoke of using top quality and seasonal ingredients and he said that flavors should not be masked by spices, herbs or other seasonings. He placed importance on simple preparation of fish, simplicity was abandoned and replaced by a culture of gastronomy as the Roman Empire developed. By the time De re coquinaria was published in the 1st century CE, it contained 470 recipes calling for heavy use of spices, the Romans employed Greek bakers to produce breads and imported cheeses from Sicily as the Sicilians had a reputation as the best cheesemakers. The Romans reared goats for butchering, and grew artichokes and leeks, with culinary traditions from Rome and Athens, a cuisine developed in Sicily that some consider the first real Italian cuisine. Arabs invaded Sicily in the 9th century, introducing spinach, almonds, Normans also introduced casseroles, salt cod and stockfish, which remain popular. Food preservation was either chemical or physical, as refrigeration did not exist, meats and fish would be smoked, dried or kept on ice. Brine and salt were used to pickle items such as herring, root vegetables were preserved in brine after they had been parboiled. Other means of preservation included oil, vinegar or immersing meat in congealed, rendered fat, for preserving fruits, liquor, honey and sugar were used. The northern Italian regions show a mix of Germanic and Roman culture while the south reflects Arab influence, the oldest Italian book on cuisine is the 13th century Liber de coquina written in Naples
37.
Left-wing politics
–
Left-wing politics supports social equality and egalitarianism, often in opposition to social hierarchy and social inequality. The term left wing can also refer to the radical, reforming, use of the term Left became more prominent after the restoration of the French monarchy in 1815 when it was applied to the Independents. The word wing was appended to Left and Right in the late 19th century, usually with disparaging intent, throughout the 19th century in France, the main line dividing left and right was between supporters of the French Republic and those of the Monarchy. The June Days Uprising during the Second Republic was an attempt by the Left to assert itself after the 1848 Revolution, in the mid-19th century, nationalism, socialism, democracy, and anti-clericalism became features of the French Left. After Napoleon IIIs 1851 coup and the subsequent establishment of the Second Empire, Marxism began to rival radical republicanism, the influential Communist Manifesto by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, published in 1848, asserted that all human history is the history of class struggle. They predicted that a revolution would eventually overthrow bourgeois capitalism and create a classless, stateless. It was in period that the word wing was appended to both Left and Right. Following a split between supporters of Marx and Mikhail Bakunin, anarchists formed the International Workers Association, the Second International became divided over the issue of World War I. Those who opposed the war, such as Vladimir Lenin and Rosa Luxemburg, in the United States after Reconstruction, the phrase the Left was used to describe those who supported trade unions, the civil rights movement and the anti-war movement. More recently in the United States, left-wing and right-wing have often used as synonyms for Democratic and Republican. Since the Right was populist, both in the Western and the Eastern Bloc, anything viewed as art was called leftist in all Europe. The following positions are typically associated with left-wing politics, during the industrial revolution, leftists supported trade unions. At the beginning of the 20th century, many leftists advocated strong government intervention in the economy, leftists continue to criticize what they perceive as the exploitative nature of globalization, the race to the bottom, and unjust lay-offs. Other leftists believe in Marxian economics, which are based on the theories of Karl Marx. Marxian economics does not exclusively rely upon Marx, it draws from a range of Marxist and non-Marxist sources, the political relevance of farmers has divided the left. In Das Kapital, Marx scarcely mentioned the subject, Mao Zedong believed that it would be rural peasants, not urban workers, who would bring about the proletarian revolution. Both Karl Marx and the early socialist William Morris arguably had a concern for environmental matters, according to Marx, Even an entire society, a nation, or all simultaneously existing societies taken together. Are not owners of the earth and they are simply its possessors, its beneficiaries, and have to bequeath it in an improved state to succeeding generations
38.
Hot chocolate
–
Hot chocolate, also known as hot cocoa, drinking chocolate or just cocoa is a heated beverage consisting of shaved chocolate, melted chocolate or cocoa powder, heated milk or water, and often sugar. Hot chocolate may be topped with whipped cream, hot chocolate made with melted chocolate is sometimes called drinking chocolate, characterized by less sweetness and a thicker consistency. The first chocolate beverage is believed to have created by the Maya around 2,000 years ago. The beverage became popular in Europe after being introduced from Mexico in the New World and has undergone multiple changes since then, until the 19th century, hot chocolate was even used medicinally to treat ailments such as liver and stomach diseases. Prepared hot chocolate can be purchased from a range of establishments, including cafeterias, fast food restaurants, powdered hot chocolate mixes, which can be added to boiling water or hot milk to make the drink at home, are sold at grocery stores. An early Classic period Mayan tomb from the site of Rio Azul, to make the chocolate drink, which was served cold, the Maya ground cocoa seeds into a paste and mixed it with water, cornmeal, chili peppers, and other ingredients. They then poured the drink back and forth from a cup to a pot until a thick foam developed, Chocolate was available to Maya of all social classes, although the wealthy drank chocolate from elaborately decorated vessels. What the Spaniards then called chocolatl was said to be a beverage consisting of a chocolate flavored with vanilla. Because sugar was yet to come to the Americas, xocolatl was said to be an acquired taste, the drink tasted spicy and bitter as opposed to sweetened modern hot chocolate. As to when xocolatl was first served hot, sources conflict on when, yet it is a drink very much esteemed among the Indians, where with they feast noble men who pass through their country. The Spaniards, both men and women, that are accustomed to the country, are very greedy of this Chocolate, at this time, chocolate still only existed in the bitter drink invented by the Mayas. Sweet hot chocolate and bar chocolate were yet to be invented, after its introduction to Europe, the drink slowly gained popularity. The court of King Charles V soon adopted the drink, additionally, cocoa was given as a dowry when members of the Spanish Royal Family married other European aristocrats. At the time, chocolate was very expensive in Europe because the cocoa beans only grew in South America, sweet-tasting hot chocolate was then invented, leading hot chocolate to become a luxury item among the European nobility by the 17th century. Even when the first Chocolate House opened in 1657, chocolate was very expensive. In the late 17th century, Hans Sloane, president of the Royal College of Physicians, there, he tried chocolate and considered it nauseous, but found it became more palatable when mixed with milk. When he returned to England, he brought the recipe with him, in 1828, Coenraad Johannes van Houten developed the first cocoa powder producing machine in the Netherlands. The press separated the greasy cocoa butter from cacao seeds, leaving a purer chocolate powder behind and this powder, much like instant cocoa powder used today, was easier to stir into milk and water
39.
Churro
–
A churro is a fried-dough pastry—predominantly choux—based snack. Churros are popular in Spain, Portugal, France, the Philippines, Ibero-America, in Spain, churros can either be thin or long and thick. They are normally eaten for breakfast dipped in champurrado, hot chocolate, the origin of churros is unclear. One theory suggests they were brought to Europe from China by the Portuguese, the new pastry soon crossed the border into Spain, where it was modified to have the dough extruded through a star-shaped die rather than pulled. Another theory is that the churro was made by Spanish shepherds, churro paste was easy to make and fry in an open fire in the mountains, where shepherds spend most of their time. Churros are fried until they become crunchy, and may be sprinkled with sugar, the surface of a churro is ridged due to having been piped from a churrera, a syringe-like tool with a star-shaped nozzle. Churros are generally prisms in shape, and may be straight, like pretzels, churros are sold by street vendors, who may fry them freshly on the street stand and sell them hot. In Spain and much of Latin America, churros are available in cafes for breakfast, specialized churrerías can be found in the form of a shop or a trailer during the holiday period. In addition, countries like Peru, Venezuela and Colombia have churrerías throughout their streets, in Portugal, they are commonly eaten at carnivals, fairs and other celebrations, where they are made freshly at street stands. The dough is a mixture of flour, water and salt, some versions are made of potato dough. In Seville, the name calientes or calentitos de rueda is sometimes used instead of the word churro and these tend to refer to the thicker variant, called porra in northern Spain, the Basque Country and other regions. Calientes are usually fried in the shape of a continuous spiral, the center of the spiral is thicker and softer, and for many a delicacy in itself. The standard churro is also sold under the name calentitos de papas, in parts of Eastern Andalusia, a much thinner dough is used, which does not allow for the typical ridges to be formed on the surface of the churro. The final result therefore has a surface, and is more pliable. Another difference is that sugar is never sprinkled on them, because the flavour is not considered suitable, filled, straight churros are found in Cuba, Brazil, and in Argentina, Bolivia, Peru, Chile and Mexico. In Colombia and Venezuela, churros are glazed with arequipe and sweetened condensed milk, in Spain, a considerably wider diameter is used to accommodate the filling. In Uruguay, churros can also come in a savoury version, Churros in American theme parks and street fairs are most often rolled in cinnamon sugar or other flavored sugars. Food portal Media related to Churros at Wikimedia Commons
40.
Broadway Theatre (Buenos Aires)
–
The Teatro Broadway is an Art Deco style theatre in Buenos Aires, Argentina which opened on October 11,1930. Located near the centre of the city at 1155 Corrientes Avenue, the film premiered that day was The Underwater Tragedy Seal 20th. Born as Broadway movie theater, but currently is only theater, until 1939, under the direction of Alvarez was living the Broadway premiere of the major American labels, including the MGM, 20th. Century Fox, Paramount and Columbia until 1935 and film produced domestically, the roof of the original single room was so paraboloid, helping to provide excellent acoustics, without echoes or reverberations, and helping to improve the air circulation space. He had an overhang of 12 meters above the audience, innovative central air conditioning, the October 19,1931, Carlos Gardel sang this season theatre. In 1942, the hall was dedicated exclusively to Argentine films, the sound system was modernized in 1954, while the new system was inaugurated with Cinemascope movie The mantle sagrado. Like many theaters, the room was divided in two. The top eight floors were intended for rental housing and a small confectionery, and beams were used Vierendel 18 meter span to support the roof of the theater space. In 1999, the show businessman Alejandro Romay took over the Broadway Theatre, the upper floors were converted into a hotel complex called Broadway Hotel & Suites
.jpg)
.JPG)
Media related to Avenida Corrientes at Wikimedia Commons