1.
Pope
–
The pope is the Bishop of Rome and, therefore, the leader of the worldwide Catholic Church. The current pope is Francis, who was elected on 13 March 2013, the office of the pope is the papacy. The pope is considered one of the worlds most powerful people because of his diplomatic and he is also head of state of Vatican City, a sovereign city-state entirely enclaved within the Italian capital city of Rome. The papacy is one of the most enduring institutions in the world and has had a prominent part in world history, the popes in ancient times helped in the spread of Christianity and the resolution of various doctrinal disputes. In the Middle Ages, they played a role of importance in Western Europe. Currently, in addition to the expansion of the Christian faith and doctrine, the popes are involved in ecumenism and interfaith dialogue, charitable work, Popes, who originally had no temporal powers, in some periods of history accrued wide powers similar to those of temporal rulers. In recent centuries, popes were gradually forced to give up temporal power, the word pope derives from Greek πάππας meaning father. The earliest record of the use of title was in regard to the by then deceased Patriarch of Alexandria. Some historians have argued that the notion that Peter was the first bishop of Rome, the writings of the Church Father Irenaeus who wrote around AD180 reflect a belief that Peter founded and organised the Church at Rome. Moreover, Irenaeus was not the first to write of Peters presence in the early Roman Church, Clement of Rome wrote in a letter to the Corinthians, c. 96, about the persecution of Christians in Rome as the struggles in our time and presented to the Corinthians its heroes, first, the greatest and most just columns, the good apostles Peter and Paul. St. Ignatius of Antioch wrote shortly after Clement and in his letter from the city of Smyrna to the Romans he said he would not command them as Peter and Paul did. Given this and other evidence, many agree that Peter was martyred in Rome under Nero. Protestants contend that the New Testament offers no proof that Jesus established the papacy nor even that he established Peter as the first bishop of Rome, others, using Peters own words, argue that Christ intended himself as the foundation of the church and not Peter. First-century Christian communities would have had a group of presbyter-bishops functioning as leaders of their local churches, gradually, episcopacies were established in metropolitan areas. Antioch may have developed such a structure before Rome, some writers claim that the emergence of a single bishop in Rome probably did not occur until the middle of the 2nd century. In their view, Linus, Cletus and Clement were possibly prominent presbyter-bishops, documents of the 1st century and early 2nd century indicate that the Holy See had some kind of pre-eminence and prominence in the Church as a whole, though the detail of what this meant is unclear. It seems that at first the terms episcopos and presbyter were used interchangeably, the consensus among scholars has been that, at the turn of the 1st and 2nd centuries, local congregations were led by bishops and presbyters whose offices were overlapping or indistinguishable
Pope
Pope
–
Bishop of
Rome
Pope
–
Saint Peter
Pope
–
St. Peter's Basilica,
Vatican City
2.
Avignon
–
Avignon is a commune in south-eastern France in the department of Vaucluse on the left bank of the Rhône river. Of the 90,194 inhabitants of the city, about 12,000 live in the ancient town centre enclosed by its medieval ramparts. Between 1309 and 1377, during the Avignon Papacy, seven popes resided in Avignon. Papal control persisted until 1791 when, during the French Revolution, the town is now the capital of the Vaucluse department and one of the few French cities to have preserved its ramparts. The historic centre, which includes the Palais des Papes, the cathedral, the medieval monuments and the annual Festival dAvignon have helped to make the town a major centre for tourism. The commune has been awarded one flower by the National Council of Towns, the earliest forms of the name were reported by the Greeks, Аὐενιὼν = Auenion Άουεννίων = Aouennion. The Roman name Avennĭo Cavarum, i. e. Avignon of Cavares accurately shows that Avignon was one of the three cities of the Celtic-Ligurian tribe of Cavares, along with Cavaillon and Orange. The current name dates to a pre-Indo-European or pre-Latin theme ab-ên with the suffix -i-ōn This theme would be a hydronym - i. e. a name linked to the river, but perhaps also an oronym of terrain. The site of Avignon has been occupied since the Neolithic period as shown by excavations at Rocher des Doms and the Balance district. In 1960 and 1961 excavations in the part of the Rocher des Doms directed by Sylvain Gagnière uncovered a small anthropomorphic stele. Carved in Burdigalian sandstone, it has the shape of a tombstone with its face engraved with a stylized human figure with no mouth. On the bottom, shifted slightly to the right is an indentation with eight radiating lines forming a solar representation - a unique discovery for this type of stele. There were also some Chalcolithic objects for adornment and an abundance of Hallstatt pottery shards which could have been native or imported, the name of the city dates back to around the 6th century BC. The first citation of Avignon was made by Artemidorus of Ephesus, although his book, The Journey, is lost it is known from the abstract by Marcian of Heraclea and The Ethnics, a dictionary of names of cities by Stephanus of Byzantium based on that book. He said, The City of Massalia, near the Rhone and this name has two interpretations, city of violent wind or, more likely, lord of the river. Other sources trace its origin to the Gallic mignon and the Celtic definitive article, Avignon was a simple Greek Emporium founded by Phocaeans from Marseille around 539 BC. It was in the 4th century BC that the Massaliotes began to sign treaties of alliance with some cities in the Rhone valley including Avignon and Cavaillon, a century later Avignon was part of the region of Massaliotes or country of Massalia. Fortified on its rock, the city later became and long remained the capital of the Cavares, with the arrival of the Roman legions in 120 BC. the Cavares, allies with the Massaliotes, became Roman
Avignon
–
Palace of the Popes
Avignon
–
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Avignon
–
A small anthropomorphic stele discovered during an archaeological excavation on the Rocher des Doms
Avignon
–
Greek stele from Avignon, at the Lapidary Museum.
3.
Kingdom of Arles
–
The new kingdom was named after the Lower Burgundian residence at Arles. It was ruled by independent kings until 1032, after which it was incorporated into the Holy Roman Empire, since the conquest of the First Burgundian kingdom by the Franks in 534, its territory had been ruled within the Frankish and Carolingian Empire. King Louis the German received East Francia, comprising the territory east of the Rhine River, shortly before his death in 855, Emperor Lothair I in turn divided his realm between his three sons in accordance with the Treaty of Prüm. His Burgundian heritage would pass to his younger son Charles of Provence, by 875 all sons of Lothair I had died without heirs and the other Burgundian territories were held by Charles the Bald. In the confusion after the death of Charles son Louis the Stammerer in 879, in 933, Hugh of Arles ceded Lower Burgundy to Rudolph II of Upper Burgundy in return for Rudolphs relinquishing claims to the Italian throne. Rudolph merged both Upper and Lower Burgundy to form the Kingdom of Arles, in 937, Rudolph was succeeded by his son Conrad the Peaceful. Inheritance claims by Hugh of Arles were rejected, with the support of Emperor Otto I, in 993 Conrad was succeeded by his son Rudolph III, who in 1006 was forced to sign a succession treaty in favor of the future Emperor Henry II. Rudolph attempted to renounce the treaty in 1016 without success, though from that time the Emperors held the title King of Arles, few went to be crowned in the cathedral of Arles. An exception was Emperor Frederick Barbarossa who in 1178 was crowned King of Burgundy by the Archbishop of Arles, the Free County of Burgundy was acquired by the Imperial House of Hohenstaufen in 1190 and the eastern parts of Upper Burgundy fell to the House of Zähringen. Later, when the Zähringen line died out, these lands were inherited by the Habsburgs, in 1361, Emperor Charles IV of Luxembourg detached the County of Savoy from the Burgundian kingdom. In 1365, Charles was the last emperor to be crowned King of Arles, despite the titles permanent union with that of King of the Romans, the Arelat was considered for reconstitution as a separate state several times. The most serious occasion was under Pope Nicholas III and sponsored by Charles of Anjou, rudolf agreed that his daughter Clemence of Austria would marry Charless grandson Charles Martel of Anjou, with the whole Arelat as her dowry. In exchange, Charles would support the crown being made hereditary in the House of Habsburg. Pope Nicholas expected Northern Italy to become a kingdom carved out of the Imperial territory and be given to his family, the Orsini. In 1282, Charles was ready to send the couple to reclaim the old royal title of Kings of Arles. Kings of Burgundy France in the Middle Ages Marie-Luise Heckmann, Das Reichsvikariat des Dauphins im Arelat 1378
Kingdom of Arles
–
Kingdom of Arles
4.
Holy Roman Empire
–
The Holy Roman Empire was a multi-ethnic complex of territories in central Europe that developed during the Early Middle Ages and continued until its dissolution in 1806. On 25 December 800, Pope Leo III crowned the Frankish king Charlemagne as Emperor, reviving the title in Western Europe, more than three centuries after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. The title was revived in 962 when Otto I was crowned emperor, fashioning himself as the successor of Charlemagne, some historians refer to the coronation of Charlemagne as the origin of the empire, while others prefer the coronation of Otto I as its beginning. Scholars generally concur, however, in relating an evolution of the institutions and principles constituting the empire, the office of Holy Roman Emperor was traditionally elective, although frequently controlled by dynasties. Emperor Francis II dissolved the empire on 6 August 1806, after the creation of the Confederation of the Rhine by Napoleon, before 1157, the realm was merely referred to as the Roman Empire. In a decree following the 1512 Diet of Cologne, the name was changed to Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation, by the end of the 18th century, the term Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation had fallen out of official use. As Roman power in Gaul declined during the 5th century, local Germanic tribes assumed control, by the middle of the 8th century, however, the Merovingians had been reduced to figureheads, and the Carolingians, led by Charles Martel, had become the de facto rulers. In 751, Martel’s son Pepin became King of the Franks, the Carolingians would maintain a close alliance with the Papacy. In 768 Pepin’s son Charlemagne became King of the Franks and began an expansion of the realm. He eventually incorporated the territories of present-day France, Germany, northern Italy, on Christmas Day of 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne emperor, restoring the title in the west for the first time in over three centuries. After the death of Charles the Fat in 888, however, the Carolingian Empire broke apart, according to Regino of Prüm, the parts of the realm spewed forth kinglets, and each part elected a kinglet from its own bowels. After the death of Charles the Fat, those crowned emperor by the pope controlled only territories in Italy, the last such emperor was Berengar I of Italy, who died in 924. Around 900, autonomous stem duchies reemerged in East Francia, on his deathbed, Conrad yielded the crown to his main rival, Henry the Fowler of Saxony, who was elected king at the Diet of Fritzlar in 919. Henry reached a truce with the raiding Magyars, and in 933 he won a first victory against them in the Battle of Riade, Henry died in 936, but his descendants, the Liudolfing dynasty, would continue to rule the Eastern kingdom for roughly a century. Upon Henry the Fowlers death, Otto, his son and designated successor, was elected King in Aachen in 936 and he overcame a series of revolts from an elder brother and from several dukes. After that, the managed to control the appointment of dukes. In 951, Otto came to the aid of Adelaide, the queen of Italy, defeating her enemies, marrying her. In 955, Otto won a victory over the Magyars in the Battle of Lechfeld
Holy Roman Empire
–
The Holy Roman Empire at its maximal extent, in the 13th century
Holy Roman Empire
–
Imperial Banner
Holy Roman Empire
–
An illustration from
Schedelsche Weltchronik depicting the structure of the Reich: The Holy Roman Emperor is sitting; on his left are three ecclesiastics; on his right are four secular electors.
Holy Roman Empire
–
Double-headed eagle with coats of arms of individual states, symbol of the Holy Roman Empire (painting from 1510)
5.
France
–
France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
France
–
One of the
Lascaux paintings: a horse –
Dordogne, approximately 18,000 BC
France
–
Flag
France
–
The
Maison Carrée was a temple of the
Gallo-Roman city of Nemausus (present-day
Nîmes) and is one of the best preserved vestiges of the
Roman Empire.
France
–
With
Clovis ' conversion to Catholicism in 498, the
Frankish monarchy,
elective and
secular until then, became
hereditary and of
divine right.
6.
Rome
–
Rome is a special comune and the capital of Italy. Rome also serves as the capital of the Lazio region, with 2,873,598 residents in 1,285 km2, it is also the countrys largest and most populated comune and fourth-most populous city in the European Union by population within city limits. It is the center of the Metropolitan City of Rome, which has a population of 4.3 million residents, the city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, within Lazio, along the shores of the Tiber. Romes history spans more than 2,500 years, while Roman mythology dates the founding of Rome at only around 753 BC, the site has been inhabited for much longer, making it one of the oldest continuously occupied sites in Europe. The citys early population originated from a mix of Latins, Etruscans and it was first called The Eternal City by the Roman poet Tibullus in the 1st century BC, and the expression was also taken up by Ovid, Virgil, and Livy. Rome is also called the Caput Mundi, due to that, Rome became first one of the major centres of the Italian Renaissance, and then the birthplace of both the Baroque style and Neoclassicism. Famous artists, painters, sculptors and architects made Rome the centre of their activity, in 1871 Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, and in 1946 that of the Italian Republic. Rome has the status of a global city, Rome ranked in 2014 as the 14th-most-visited city in the world, 3rd most visited in the European Union, and the most popular tourist attraction in Italy. Its historic centre is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, monuments and museums such as the Vatican Museums and the Colosseum are among the worlds most visited tourist destinations with both locations receiving millions of tourists a year. Rome hosted the 1960 Summer Olympics and is the seat of United Nations Food, however, it is a possibility that the name Romulus was actually derived from Rome itself. As early as the 4th century, there have been alternate theories proposed on the origin of the name Roma. There is archaeological evidence of occupation of the Rome area from approximately 14,000 years ago. Evidence of stone tools, pottery and stone weapons attest to about 10,000 years of human presence, several excavations support the view that Rome grew from pastoral settlements on the Palatine Hill built above the area of the future Roman Forum. Between the end of the age and the beginning of the Iron age. However, none of them had yet an urban quality, nowadays, there is a wide consensus that the city was gradually born through the aggregation of several villages around the largest one, placed above the Palatine. All these happenings, which according to the excavations took place more or less around the mid of the 8th century BC. Despite recent excavations at the Palatine hill, the view that Rome has been indeed founded with an act of will as the legend suggests in the middle of the 8th century BC remains a fringe hypothesis. Traditional stories handed down by the ancient Romans themselves explain the earliest history of their city in terms of legend and myth
Rome
Rome
Rome
Rome
7.
List of French monarchs
–
The monarchs of the Kingdom of France and its predecessors ruled from the establishment of the Kingdom of the Franks in 486 till the fall of the Second French Empire in 1870. Sometimes included as kings of France are the kings of the Franks of the Merovingian dynasty, which ruled from 486 until 751, and of the Carolingians, who ruled until 987. The Capetian dynasty, the descendants of Hugh Capet, included the first rulers to adopt the title of king of France for the first time with Philip II. The Capetians ruled continuously from 987 to 1792 and again from 1814 to 1848, the branches of the dynasty which ruled after 1328, however, are generally given the specific branch names of Valois and Bourbon. During the brief period when the French Constitution of 1791 was in effect and after the July Revolution in 1830 and it was a constitutional innovation known as popular monarchy which linked the monarchs title to the French people rather than to the possession of the territory of France. With the House of Bonaparte Emperors of the French ruled in 19th century France and it was used on coins up to the eighteenth century. During the brief period when the French Constitution of 1791 was in effect and after the July Revolution in 1830 and it was a constitutional innovation known as popular monarchy which linked the monarchs title to the French people rather than to the possession of the territory of France. They used the title Emperor of the French and this article lists all rulers to have held the title King of the Franks, King of France, King of the French or Emperor of the French. For other Frankish monarchs, see List of Frankish kings, in addition to the monarchs listed below, the Kings of England and Great Britain from 1340–60, 1369-1420, and 1422–1801 also claimed the title of King of France. For a short time, this had some basis in fact – under the terms of the 1420 Treaty of Troyes, Charles VI had recognized his son-in-law Henry V of England as regent and heir. Henry V predeceased Charles VI and so Henry Vs son, Henry VI, most of Northern France was under English control until 1435, but by 1453, the English had been expelled from all of France save Calais, and Calais itself fell in 1558. Nevertheless, English and then British monarchs continued to claim the title for themselves until the creation of the United Kingdom in 1801. The Merovingians were a Salian Frankish dynasty that ruled the Franks for nearly 300 years in a known as Francia in Latin. Their territory largely corresponded to ancient Gaul as well as the Roman provinces of Raetia, Germania Superior, the Carolingian dynasty was a Frankish noble family with origins in the Arnulfing and Pippinid clans of the 7th century AD. In 751, a Carolingian, Pepin the Younger, dethroned the Merovingians and with the consent of the Papacy, the Robertians were Frankish noblemen owing fealty to the Carolingians, and ancestors of the subsequent Capetian dynasty. Odo, Count of Paris, was chosen by the western Franks to be their king following the removal of emperor Charles the Fat, the Bosonids were a noble family descended from Boso the Elder, their member, Rudolph, was elected King of the Franks in 923. After the death of Louis V, the son of Hugh the Great and grandson of Robert I, the Capetian Dynasty, the male-line descendants of Hugh Capet, ruled France continuously from 987 to 1792 and again from 1814 to 1848. They were direct descendants of the Robertian kings, the cadet branches of the dynasty which ruled after 1328, however, are generally given the specific branch names of Valois and Bourbon
List of French monarchs
–
Clovis I (Clovis Ier)
List of French monarchs
–
Royal Coat of arms
List of French monarchs
–
Theuderic I (Thierry Ier)
List of French monarchs
–
Theudebert I (Thibert Ier)
8.
Philip IV of France
–
Philip IV, called the Fair or the Iron King, was King of France from 1285 until his death. By virtue of his marriage with Joan I of Navarre, he was also Philip I, Philip relied on skillful civil servants, such as Guillaume de Nogaret and Enguerrand de Marigny, to govern the kingdom rather than on his barons. Philip and his advisors were instrumental in the transformation of France from a country to a centralized state. Philip, who sought an uncontested monarchy, compelled his vassals by wars and his ambitions made him highly influential in European affairs. His goal was to place his relatives on foreign thrones, princes from his house ruled in Naples and Hungary. He tried and failed to make relative the Holy Roman Emperor. He began the advance of France eastward by taking control of scattered fiefs. To further strengthen the monarchy, he tried to control the French clergy and this conflict led to the transfer of the papal court to the enclave of Avignon in 1309. In 1306, Philip the Fair expelled the Jews from France and, in 1307, Friday 13th, Philip was in debt to both groups and saw them as a state within the state. His final year saw a scandal amongst the family, known as the Tour de Nesle Affair. His three sons were kings of France, Louis X, Philip V, and Charles IV. A member of the House of Capet, Philip was born in the fortress of Fontainebleau to the future Philip III. He was the second of four born to the couple. His father was the heir apparent of France at that time, in August 1270, when Philip was two years old, his grandfather died while on Crusade, his father became king, and his elder brother Louis became heir apparent. Only five months later, in January 1271, Philips mother died after falling from a horse, a few months later, one of Philips younger brothers, Robert, also died. Philips father was crowned king at Rhiems on 15 August 1271. Six days later, he married again, Philips step-mother was Marie, in May 1276, Philips elder brother Louis died, and the eight year old Philip became crown prince. It was suspected that Louis had been poisoned, and that his stepmother, one reason for these rumours was the fact that the queen gave birth to her own eldest son in the same month as the death of the crown prince
Philip IV of France
–
Homage of Edward I (kneeling) to Philip IV (seated). As
Duke of Aquitaine, Edward was a vassal to the French king.
Philip IV of France
–
Sledgehammer denier during Philip the Fair
Philip IV of France
–
Templars burned at the stake
Philip IV of France
–
Tomb of Philip IV in the
Basilica of St Denis.
9.
Pope Boniface VIII
–
Pope Boniface VIII, born Benedetto Caetani, was Pope from 24 December 1294 to his death in 1303. Today, he is probably best remembered for his feuds with King Philip IV of France and Dante Alighieri, Benedetto was born in ca.1235 in Anagni, some thirty-one miles southeast of Rome. He was a son of Roffredo Caetani, a member of a baronial family of the Papal States. Through his mother, Emilia Patrasso di Guarcino, a niece of Pope Alexander IV, he was not far distant from the seat of ecclesiastical power and his fathers younger brother, Atenolfo, was Podestà di Orvieto. He took his first steps in the life when he was sent to the monastery of the Friars Minor in Velletri. In 1252, when his paternal uncle Pietro Caetani became Bishop of Todi, in Umbria, Benedetto followed him to Todi and he was granted a canonry of the cathedral in the familys stronghold of Anagni, with the permission of Pope Alexander. His uncle Pietro Caetani granted him a canonry in the Cathedral of Todi in 1260 and he also came into possession of the small nearby castello of Sismano, a place with twenty-one fires. Later in life he expressed his gratitude to Anagni, Todi. In 1264 Benedetto entered the Roman Curia, perhaps with the office of Advocatus and he served as secretary to Cardinal Simon de Brion, the future Pope Martin IV, on a mission to France. Cardinal Simon had been appointed by Pope Urban IV, between 25 and 27 April 1264, to engage in negotiations with Charles of Anjou, Comte de Provence, over the crown of Naples and Sicily. On 1 May 1264 he was given permission to appoint two or three tabelliones for his mission, one of whom was Benedetto. On 20 March 1265, in order to expedite the business with Charles of Anjou and this may have been the occasion on which Benedetto Caetani acquired at least some of his French benefices. On 9 April 1265, on the petition of Cardinal Simon de Brion, there would have been no point in making such a ruling if Cardinal Simon had already ceased to be Legate. Benedetto also accompanied Cardinal Ottobono Fieschi, the future Pope Adrian V, another member of Cardinal Ottobonos suite was Theobaldus of Piacenza, Archdeacon of Liège, who became a friend of Prince Edward, and went on Crusade with him, he was later elected Pope Gregory X. On 29 August 1265 the Cardinal was received at the French Court by King Louis IX, there he learned that Simon de Montfort and his son Henry had been killed at the Battle of Evesham earlier that month. Cardinal Ottobono did not reach Boulogne until October 1265 and he was in England until July 1268, working to suppress the remnants of Simon de Montforts barons who were still in arms against King Henry III of England. This drawback was a concern of Cardinal Ottobono and his entourage. While in England Benedetto Caetani became rector of St. Lawrences church in Towcester, upon Benedettos return from England, there is an eight-year period in which nothing is known about his life
Pope Boniface VIII
–
Pope Boniface VIII
Pope Boniface VIII
–
Philip IV receiving the homage of Edward I for Aquitaine.
Pope Boniface VIII
–
Pope Boniface VIII, fresco by
Giotto di Bondone in the
Basilica of St. John Lateran, Rome
Pope Boniface VIII
–
Depiction of the death of Boniface in a 15th-century manuscript of Boccaccio's
De Casibus.
10.
Pope Benedict XI
–
Pope Benedict XI, born Nicola Boccasini, was Pope from 22 October 1303 to his death on 7 July,1304. He was also a member of the Order of Preachers, among the events of his brief pontificate was his revocation of Pope Boniface VIIIs papal bull, Unam Sanctam, on papal supremacy. He was beatified with his cultus confirmed by Pope Clement XII in 1736 and he is a patron of Treviso. Niccolò Boccasini was born in Treviso to Boccasio, a notary, whose brother was a priest, and Berarda. The family lived outside the walls of Treviso, in a suburb called S. Bartolommeo, in 1246, a Dominican friar left a sum of money in his will to Bernarda and her children, recently orphaned. A condition was that if Niccolò were to enter the Dominican Order he would receive half of the entire legacy, from the age of six, it seems, Niccolò was destined for the monkish life. His first teacher was his uncle, the priest of S. Andrea and he entered the Order of Preachers in 1254, at the age of fourteen, taking the habit of a novice in his native Treviso. He was taken to Venice by his Prior and presented to the Provincial, for the next seven years or so, Niccolò pursued his basic education in Venice. Toward the end of period, he served as tutor to the young sons of Romeo Quirini of Venice. In 1262, Niccolò was transferred to Milan, to the new studium of S. Eustorgio and he spent the next six years at S. Eustorgio. By the end of his term at S. Eustorgio he must have become a member of the Order of Preachers. As a professed brother he served in the position as a Lecturer in the studium in Venice. He served as lector for fourteen years, from 1268 to 1282, in 1276 he is attested as being lector at the Dominican convent in his native Treviso, a post he was still holding in 1280. In February,1282, he is found at Genoa, again as lector and he was not a professor, since he had never taken a university degree. In 1286, at the meeting of the Provincial Chapter, which took place that year in Brescia, Niccolò was elected Provincial Prior of Lombardy. Instead of being attached to a single convent for years, he would instead become peripatetic, moving from one convent to another on visits of inspection, encouragement. In Lombardy at the time there were some fifty-one convents and he also had responsibility as an Inquisitor, a task for which popes considered Franciscans and Dominicans especially suited. He also had the responsibility of convening the Provincial Chapters, in 1287, the Chapter was at Venice, in 1288, it was at Rimini, in 1289 at the General Chapter, which was held at Trier, Fr
Pope Benedict XI
–
Blessed Pope Benedict XI
Pope Benedict XI
–
Cardinal Boccasini.
Pope Benedict XI
–
Tomb of Benedict XI.
11.
Pope Clement V
–
Pope Clement V, born Raymond Bertrand de Got, was Pope from 5 June 1305 to his death in 1314. Bertrand was elected Pope Clement V in June 1305 and consecrated on 14 November, Bertrand was neither Italian nor a cardinal, and his election might have been considered a gesture towards neutrality. The contemporary chronicler Giovanni Villani reports gossip that he had himself to King Philip IV of France by a formal agreement before his elevation. Whether this was true or not, it is likely that the pope had conditions laid down for him by the conclave of cardinals. Among his first acts was the creation of nine French cardinals, at Clements coronation the Duke of Brittany, John II, was leading the Popes horse through the crowd during the celebrations. So many spectators had piled atop the walls one of the walls crumbled and collapsed on top of the Duke. Clement V had to yield to pressures for this trial, begun on 2 February 1309 at Avignon. In the document that called for the witnesses, Clement V expressed both his conviction of the innocence of Boniface VIII and his resolution to satisfy the king. Finally, in February 1311, Philip IV wrote to Clement V abandoning the process to the council of Vienne. For his part, Clement V absolved all the participants in the abduction of Boniface at Anagni, in pursuance of the kings wishes, Clement V in 1311 summoned the Council of Vienne, which refused to convict the Templars of heresy. The Pope abolished the order anyway, as the Templars seemed to be in bad repute and had outlived their usefulness as papal bankers and protectors of pilgrims in the East. Their French estates were granted to the Knights Hospitallers, but Philip IV held them until his death and expropriated the Templars bank outright. In March 1309, the papal court moved from Poitiers to the Comtat Venaissin, around the city of Avignon, which was not then part of France. Clement Vs pontificate was also a time for Italy. The Papal States were entrusted to a team of three cardinals, but Rome, the battleground of the Colonna and Orsini factions, was ungovernable. In 1310, the Holy Roman Emperor Henry VII entered Italy, established the Visconti as vicars in Milan, in Ferrara, which was taken into the Papal states to the exclusion of the Este family, papal armies clashed with Venice and their populace. Clement died on 20 April 1314, according to one story, while his body was lying in state, a thunderstorm developed during the night and lightning struck the church where his body lay, igniting the building. The fire was so intense that when it was extinguished, the body of Pope Clement V was almost destroyed and he was buried at the collegiate church in Uzeste close to his birthplace in Villandraut as put down in his will
Pope Clement V
–
Pope Clement V
Pope Clement V
–
Coinage of Pope Clement V.
Pope Clement V
–
Hayton of Corycus remitting his report on the Mongols La Flor des Estoires d'Orient, to Pope Clement V in 1307.
Pope Clement V
–
Cameo of Pope Clement V.
12.
Babylonian Captivity
–
The Babylonian captivity or Babylonian exile is the period in Jewish history during which a number of Judahites of the ancient Kingdom of Judah were captives in Babylonia. After the Battle of Carchemish in 605 BCE, Nebuchadnezzar, the king of Babylon, besieged Jerusalem, the dates, numbers of deportations, and numbers of deportees given in the biblical accounts vary. These deportations are dated to 597 BCE for the first, with others dated at 587/586 BCE, after the fall of Babylon to the Persian king Cyrus the Great in 539 BCE, exiled Judeans were permitted to return to Judah. According to the book of Ezra, construction of the second temple in Jerusalem began around 537 BCE. All these events are considered significant in Jewish history and culture, the return of the exiles was a gradual process rather than a single event, and many of the deportees or their descendants did not return. In the late 7th century BCE, the kingdom of Judah was a client state of the Assyrian empire, in the last decades of the century, Assyria was overthrown by Babylon, an Assyrian province. Egypt, fearing the rise of the Neo-Babylonian empire, seized control of Assyrian territory up to the Euphrates river in Syria. In the process Josiah, the king of Judah, was killed in a battle with the Egyptians at the Battle of Megiddo, after the defeat of Pharaoh Nechos army by the Babylonians at Carchemish in 605 BCE, Jehoiakim began paying tribute to Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon. Some of the nobility of Judah were taken to Babylon. In the following years, the court of Jerusalem was divided into two parties, in support of Egypt and Babylon, after Nebuchadnezzar was defeated in battle in 601 BCE by Egypt, Judah revolted against Babylon, culminating in a three-month siege of Jerusalem beginning in late 598 BCE. Jehoiakim, the king of Judah, died during the siege and was succeeded by his son Jehoiachin at the age of eighteen. The city fell on 2 Adar 597 BCE, and Nebuchadnezzar pillaged Jerusalem and its Temple and took Jeconiah, his court, jehoiakims uncle Zedekiah was appointed king in his place, but the exiles in Babylon continued to consider Jeconiah as their Exilarch, or rightful ruler. Despite warnings by Jeremiah and others of the party, Zedekiah revolted against Babylon. Nebuchadnezzar returned, defeated the Egyptians, and again besieged Jerusalem, Nebuchadnezzar destroyed the city wall and the Temple, together with the houses of the most important citizens. Zedekiah and his sons were captured, the sons were executed in front of Zedekiah, Judah became a Babylonian province, called Yehud, putting an end to the independent Kingdom of Judah. Some time later, a member of the royal family assassinated Gedaliah and his Babylonian advisors. According to the book of Ezra, the Persian Cyrus the Great ended the exile in 538 BCE, the exile ended with the return under Zerubbabel the Prince and Joshua the Priest and their construction of the Second Temple in the period 521–516 BCE. He appointed there a king of his own choice and taking heavy tribute brought it back to Babylon, one of the tablets refers to food rations for Ya’u-kīnu, king of the land of Yahudu and five royal princes, his sons
Babylonian Captivity
–
James Tissot, The Flight of the Prisoners.
Babylonian Captivity
–
Illustration from the
Nuremberg Chronicle of the destruction of Jerusalem under the Babylonian rule
13.
Pope Gregory XI
–
Pope Gregory XI was pope from 30 December 1370 to his death in 1378. He was the seventh and last Avignon pope and the most recent French pope, in 1377, Gregory XI returned the Papal court to Rome, ending nearly 70 years of papal residency in Avignon, France. His death shortly after was followed by the Western Schism and he was born Pierre Roger de Beaufort in Maumont in the modern commune of Rosiers-dÉgletons, Limousin, around 1330. The nephew of Pope Clement VI, he succeeded Pope Urban V at the conclave of 1370 and was the seventh. During his pontificate, vigorous measures were taken against proponents of Lollardy, which had found acceptance in Germany, England, and other parts of Europe. Efforts were made to corrupt practices in the various monastic orders, such as collecting fees from persons visiting holy sites. Gregory confirmed a treaty between Sicily and Naples at Villeneuve-lès-Avignon on 20 August 1372, which brought about a permanent settlement between the kingdoms, which were both papal fiefs. The Decadicon was submitted to Pope Gregory XI in the part of the 1370s by French canonist. Gregory formally condemned fourteen articles of the Sachsenspiegel in 1374 and nineteen propositions of Wycliffes On Civil Dominion in 1377 and his decision to return to Rome is supposedly attributed in part to the incessant pleas, demands, and threats of Catherine of Siena. A return had been attempted by Gregorys predecessor, Urban V, but the demands of the Hundred Years War brought him north of the Alps again, and Avignon was still the seat of the Bishop of Rome. The project of returning again to Rome was delayed by a conflict between the pope and Florence, known as the War of the Eight Saints, the pope put Florence under interdict during 1376. The return of the Curia to Rome began on 13 September 1376 and was concluded with the arrival of Gregory XI on 17 January 1377, Gregory XI did not long survive this trip, dying in Rome on 27 March 1378. He was buried the day in the church of Santa Maria Nuova. After his death the College of Cardinals was pressured by a Roman mob that broke into the chamber to force an Italian pope into the papacy. The Italian chosen was Urban VI, soon after being elected, Urban gained the Cardinals enmity. The cardinals withdrew from Rome to Fondi, where they annulled their election of Urban and elected a French pope, Clement VII, subsequently, the Western Schism created by the selection of rival popes forced the people of Europe into a dilemma of papal allegiance. This schism was not resolved fully until the Council of Constance was called by a group of cardinals, boldly, the council deposed both current popes and, in 1417, elected Martin V as their successor. The chaos of the Western Schism thus brought about reforming councils and gave them the power over who was elected, le voyage de Grégoire XI ramenant la Papauté dAvignon à Rome, 1376-1377 suivi du texte latin et de la traduction franç. de lItinerarium Gragerii XI de Pierre Ameilh
Pope Gregory XI
–
Pope Gregory XI
Pope Gregory XI
–
A
bolognino of Gregory XI.
14.
Pope Urban VI
–
Urban VI, born Bartolomeo Prignano, was pope from 8 April 1378 to his death in 1389. He is so far the last pope to be elected from outside the College of Cardinals and his reign, which began shortly after the end of the Avignon Papacy, was marked by immense conflict between rival factions as part of the Western Schism. Born in Itri, Prignano was a monk and learned casuist. On 21 March 1364 he was consecrated Archbishop of Acerenza in the Kingdom of Naples and he became Archbishop of Bari in 1377. Prignano had developed a reputation for simplicity and frugality and a head for business when acting Vice-Chancellor and his great faults undid his virtues, Ludwig Pastor summed up his character, He lacked Christian gentleness and charity. He was naturally arbitrary and extremely violent and imprudent, and when he came to deal with the ecclesiastical question of the day, that of reform. On the death of Pope Gregory XI, a Roman mob surrounded the papal conclave to demand a Roman pope, not being a Cardinal, he was not well known. Immediately following the conclave, most of the cardinals fled Rome before the mob could learn that not a Roman, Urban VI did himself no favors, whereas the cardinals had expected him pliant, he was considered arrogant and angry by many of his contemporaries. Nor would he remove again to Avignon, thus alienating King Charles V of France, five months after his election, the French cardinals met at Anagni, inviting Urban, who realized that he would be seized and perhaps slain. In his absence they issued a manifesto of grievances on 9 August that declared his election invalid since they had been cowed by the mob into electing an Italian, letters to the missing Italian cardinals followed on 20 August declaring the papal throne vacant. Then at Fondi, secretly supported by the king of France, Robert, a militant cleric who had succeeded Albornoz as commander of the papal troops, took the name Clement VII, beginning the Western Schism, which divided Catholic Christendom until 1417. Urban was declared excommunicated by the French antipope and was called the Antichrist, while Catherine of Siena, defending Pope Urban, called the cardinals devils in human form. Events overtook the rhetoric, however,26 new cardinals were created in a single day, at the end of May 1379 Clement went to Avignon, where he was more than ever at the mercy of the king of France. Louis I, Duke of Anjou, was granted a phantom kingdom of Adria to be carved out of papal Emilia and Romagna, if he could unseat the pope at Rome. Urbans erstwhile patroness, Queen Joan I of Naples, deserted him in the summer of 1378. Urban now lost sight of the issues and began to commit a series of errors. He turned upon his powerful neighbor Joan, excommunicated her as a partisan of Clement. Joans authority was declared forfeit, and Charles murdered her in 1382, in return for these favours, Charles had to promise to hand over Capua, Caserta, Aversa, Nocera, and Amalfi to the popes nephew, a thoroughly worthless and immoral man
Pope Urban VI
–
Pope Urban VI
Pope Urban VI
–
Urbano VI at Nocera's Castel, from Croniche of
Giovanni Sercambi
15.
Western Schism
–
The Western Schism or Papal Schism was a split within the Catholic Church which lasted from 1378 to 1417. Three men simultaneously claimed to be the true pope, driven by politics rather than any theological disagreement, the schism was ended by the Council of Constance. For a time these claims to the papal throne damaged the reputation of the office. This reputation can be attributed to perceptions of predominant French influence and to the papal efforts to extend its powers of patronage. After Pope Gregory XI died in 1378, the Romans rioted to ensure the election of a Roman for pope, on April 8,1378 the cardinals elected a Neapolitan when no viable Roman candidates presented themselves. Urban VI, born Bartolomeo Prignano, the Archbishop of Bari, was elected, urban had been a respected administrator in the papal chancery at Avignon, but as pope he proved suspicious, reformist, and prone to violent outbursts of temper. Robert took the name Clement VII and reestablished a papal court in Avignon, the second election threw the Church into turmoil. The conflicts quickly escalated from a problem to a diplomatic crisis that divided Europe. In the Iberian Peninsula there were the Fernandine Wars and the 1383–1385 Crisis in Portugal, efforts were made to end the Schism through force or diplomacy. The French crown even tried to coerce antipope Benedict XIII, whom it nominally supported, the suggestion that a church council should resolve the Schism, first made in 1378, was not adopted at first because canon law required that a pope call a council. Eventually the cardinals of both factions secured an agreement that Benedict and Pope Gregory XII would meet at Savona and they balked at the last moment, and both groups of cardinals abandoned their preferred leaders. A church council was held at Pisa in 1409 under the auspices of the cardinals to try solving the dispute, at the fifteenth session,5 June 1409, the Council of Pisa attempted to depose both Pope and antipope as schismatical, heretical, perjured, and scandalous. But it then added to the problem by electing a second antipope and he reigned briefly from June 26,1409, to his death in 1410, when he was succeeded by antipope John XXIII, who won some but not universal support. Finally, a council was convened by Pisan antipope John XXIII in 1414 at Constance to resolve the issue and this was endorsed by Pope Gregory XII, Innocent VIIs successor in Rome, thus ensuring the legitimacy of any election. The Council elected Pope Martin V in 1417, essentially ending the schism, nonetheless, the Crown of Aragon did not recognize Pope Martin V and continued to recognize Benedict XIII. Archbishops loyal to Benedict XIII subsequently elected Antipope Benedict XIV and three followers simultaneously elected Antipope Clement VIII, but the Western Schism was by then practically over, Clement VIII resigned in 1429 and apparently recognized Martin V. The line of Roman popes is now recognized as the legitimate line, Pope Pius II decreed that no appeal could be made from pope to council, to avoid any future attempts to undo a papal election by anyone but the elected pope. No such crisis has arisen since the 15th century, and so there has no need to revisit this decision
Western Schism
–
Habemus Papam at the Council of Constance
Western Schism
–
Map showing support for Avignon (red) and Rome (blue) during the Western Schism; this breakdown is accurate until the
Council of Pisa (1409), which created a third line of claimants. Caution: this map is highly inaccurate in some regions and borders, see
Talk page and
here.
Western Schism
–
Ministry of Jesus &
Apostolic Age
16.
Antipope
–
At times between the 3rd and mid-15th century, antipopes were supported by a fairly significant faction of religious cardinals and secular monarchs and kingdoms. Persons who claim to be pope, but have few followers, hippolytus of Rome is commonly considered to be the earliest antipope, as he headed a separate group within the Church in Rome against Pope Callixtus I. Hippolytus was reconciled to Callixtuss second successor, Pope Pontian, eusebius quotes from an unnamed earlier writer the story of Natalius, a 3rd-century priest who accepted the bishopric of a heretical group in Rome. Natalius soon repented and tearfully begged Pope Zephyrinus to receive him into communion, the period in which antipopes were most numerous was during the struggles between the popes and the Holy Roman Emperors of the 11th and 12th centuries. The emperors frequently imposed their own nominees to further their own causes, the popes, likewise, sometimes sponsored rival imperial claimants in Germany to overcome a particular emperor. The Pisan line was named after the town of Pisa, Italy, to end the schism, in May 1415, the Council of Constance deposed antipope John XXIII of the Pisan line. Pope Gregory XII of the Roman line resigned in July 1415, in 1417, the Council also formally deposed antipope Benedict XIII of Avignon, but he refused to resign. Afterwards, Pope Martin V was elected and was accepted everywhere except in the small, the scandal of the Western Schism created anti-papal sentiment and fed into the Protestant Reformation at the turn of the 16th century. The following table gives the names of the antipopes included in the list of popes and antipopes in the Annuario Pontificio, with the addition of the names of Natalius, an asterisk marks those who were included in the conventional numbering of later Popes who took the same name. More commonly, the antipope is ignored in later papal regnal numbers, for example, there was an Antipope John XXIII, for the additional confusion regarding Popes named John, see Pope John. The uncertainty that in some cases results has made it advisable to abandon the assignation of successive numbers in the list of the popes, the Catholic Encyclopedia places him in its List of Popes, but with the annotation, Considered by some to be an antipope. Other sources classify him as an antipope and those with asterisks were counted in subsequent Papal numbering. Many antipopes created cardinals, known as quasi-cardinals, and a few created cardinal-nephews, in modern times various people claim to be pope and, though they do not fit the technical definition of antipope, are sometimes referred to as such. They are usually leaders of sedevacantist groups who view the See of Rome as vacant, a significant number of these have taken the name Peter II, owing to its special significance. From the point of view of the Roman Catholic Church, they are schismatics, the following were elected by allegedly faithful Catholics, none of whom was a cardinal, Popes of the Legio Maria, based in western Kenya, Timothy Joseph Blasio Atila. David Bawden, elected in Kansas, USA, another conclave, this time held in Assisi, Italy, elected the South African Victor von Pentz, an ex-seminarian of the Society of St Pius X, as Pope Linus II in 1994. Linus took up residence in Hertfordshire, England, Pope of the True Catholic Church, Lucian Pulvermacher, elected in Montana, USA. Mirko Fabris, elected in Zagreb, Croatia, joaquín Llorens, elected in Elx, Spain
Antipope
–
The coat of arms of Benedict XIII displayed the papal tiara and cross. During this period, papal heraldry varied greatly and the crossed keys had not yet fully developed as a symbol of the papacy.
17.
Antipope Benedict XIII
–
Benedict XIII, born Pedro Martínez de Luna y Pérez de Gotor, known as el Papa Luna in Spanish, was an Aragonese nobleman and Avignon Pope during the Western Schism. He is considered by the Catholic Church to be an antipope, Pedro Martínez de Luna was born at Illueca, Kingdom of Aragon in 1328. He belonged to the de Luna family, who were part of the Aragonese nobility and he studied law at the University of Montpellier, where he obtained his doctorate and later taught Canon law. In 1377 Pedro de Luna and the other returned to Rome with Pope Gregory. After Gregorys death on 27 March 1378, the people of Rome feared that the cardinals would elect a French Pope, consequently, they rioted and laid siege to the cardinals, insisting on an Italian Pope. The conclave duly elected Bartolomeo Prignano, Archbishop of Bari, as Urban VI on 9 April, some of them reconvened at Fondi in September 1378, declared the earlier election invalid and elected Robert of Geneva as their new Pope, initiating the Western Schism. Robert assumed the name Clement VII and moved back to Avignon, Clement VII sent him as legate to Spain for the Kingdoms of Castile, Aragon, Navarre, and Portugal, in order to win them over to the obedience of the Avignon pope. Owing to his relations, his influence in the Province of Aragon was very great. In 1393 Clement VII appointed him legate to France, Brabant, Flanders, Scotland, England, as such he stayed principally in Paris, but he did not confine his activities to those countries that belonged to the Avignon obedience. Following Clements death on 16 September 1394, the cardinals met at Avignon, the conclave consisted of 11 French cardinals, eight Italians, four Spaniards, and one from Savoy, all proclaiming the ardent wish to reunite the church. On the death of Urban VI in 1389 the Roman College of Cardinals had chosen Boniface IX, at the start of his term of office, de Luna was recognised as Pope by France, Scotland, Sicily, Castile, Aragon, Navarre, and Portugal. In 1396 Benedict sent Sanchez Muñoz, one of the most loyal members of the Avignon curia, in 1398 the Kingdom of France withdrew its recognition of the Avignon papacy. Benedict was abandoned by 17 of his cardinals, with five remaining faithful to him. Benedicts rationale for continuing the rivalry lay in the fact that he was the last living cardinal created by Gregory XI, the last undoubted Supreme Pontiff. As the only unquestioned cardinal, Benedict argued, he was, by right and by canon law, following the Council of Constance Benedicts logic was completely disregarded. When these talks ended in stalemate in 1408, the French king, Charles VI, Charles helped to organise the Council of Pisa in 1409. This council was supposed to arrange for both Gregory and Benedict to resign, so that a new universally recognised Pope could be elected, to oppose this, Benedict convoked the Council of Perpignan but with little success. The Bishop of St Andrews, Henry Wardlaw, then successfully petitioned Benedict to grant the university status by issuing a series of papal bulls
Antipope Benedict XIII
–
Antipope Benedict XIII
Antipope Benedict XIII
–
The consecration of Benedict XIII
18.
Perpignan
–
Perpignan is a city, a commune, and the capital of the Pyrénées-Orientales department in southern France. Perpignan was the capital of the province and County of Roussillon. In 2013 Perpignan had 118,238 inhabitants in the city proper, the metropolitan area had a total population of 305,837 in 2010. Perpignan is located in the center of the Roussillon plain,13 km west of the Mediterranean coast and it is the southern most of the cities of metropolitan France. Perpignan is crossed by the largest river in Roussillon, the Têt, and by one of its tributaries, floods often occur, as in 1892 when the rising of the Têt in Perpignan destroyed 39 houses, leaving more than 60 families homeless. Perpignan experiences a Mediterranean climate similar to much of the Mediterranean coastline of France, roads The motorway A9 connects Perpignan with Barcelona and Montpellier. Trains Perpignan is served by the Gare de Perpignan railway station, which offers connections to Paris, Barcelona, Toulouse, salvador Dalí proclaimed it to be the Center of the Universe after experiencing a vision of cosmogonic ecstasy there in 1963. Airport The nearest airport is Perpignan–Rivesaltes Airport, attested forms The name of Perpignan appears in 927 as Perpinianum, followed in 959 by Villa Perpiniano, Pirpinianum in the 11th century, Perpiniani in 1176. Perpenyà, which appears in the 13th century, is the most common form until the 15th century, though settlement in the area goes back to Roman times, the medieval town of Perpignan seems to have been founded around the beginning of the 10th century. Soon Perpignan became the capital of the counts of Roussillon, historically, it was part of the region known as Septimania. In 1172 Count Girard II bequeathed his lands to the Counts of Barcelona, Perpignan acquired the institutions of a partly self-governing commune in 1197. French feudal rights over Roussillon were given up by Louis IX in the Treaty of Corbeil, when James I the Conqueror, king of Aragon and count of Barcelona, founded the Kingdom of Majorca in 1276, Perpignan became the capital of the mainland territories of the new state. The succeeding decades are considered the age in the history of the city. It prospered as a centre of manufacture, leather work, goldsmiths work. King Philippe III of France died there in 1285, as he was returning from his crusade against the Aragonese Crown. In 1344 Peter IV of Aragon annexed the Kingdom of Majorca, a few years later it lost approximately half of its population to the Black Death. Perpignan is one of the houses of Lancaster Girls Grammar School, the festival has a broad mainstream focus with pop-related music as well as traditional acoustic guitar music and alternative music. The festival has attracted international guests like Caetano Veloso, Rumberos Catalans, Pedro Soler, Bernardo Sandoval, Peter Finger, in 2008, Perpignan became Capital of Catalan Culture
Perpignan
–
Perpignan seen from the Palace of the Kings of Majorca
Perpignan
–
Flag
Perpignan
–
The famous "
Sanch Procession " folklore, once forbidden by the
Church, is still celebrated in Perpignan,
Arles-sur-Tech and
Collioure.
Perpignan
–
Perpignan street name sign in French and Catalan.
19.
Council of Constance
–
The Council of Constance is the 15th century ecumenical council recognized by the Roman Catholic Church, held from 1414 to 1418. The council ended the Western Schism, by deposing or accepting the resignation of the remaining papal claimants, the Council also condemned Jan Hus as a heretic and facilitated his execution by the civil authority. It also ruled on issues of sovereignty, the rights of pagans. The Council is important for its relationship to ecclesial Conciliarism and Papal supremacy, the councils main purpose was to end the Papal schism which had resulted from the confusion following the Avignon Papacy. After thirty years of schism, the Council of Pisa had sought to resolve the situation by deposing the two claimant popes and elected a new pope, Alexander V. The council claimed that in such a situation, a council of bishops had greater authority than just one bishop, therefore, many voices, including Sigismund, King of the Romans and of Hungary, pressed for another council to resolve the issue. That council was called by John XXIII and was held from 16 November 1414 to 22 April 1418 in Constance, according to Joseph McCabe, the council was attended by roughly 29 cardinals,100 learned doctors of law and divinity,134 abbots, and 183 bishops and archbishops. Sigismund arrived on Christmas Eve 1414 and exercised a profound and continuous influence on the course of the council in his capacity of imperial protector of the Church, an innovation at the Council was that instead of voting as individuals, the bishops voted in national blocs. The vote by nations was in great measure the work of the English, German, the four nations consisted of England, France, Italy, and Germany, with Poles, Hungarians, Danes, and Scandinavians counted with the Germans. While the Italian representatives made up half of those in attendance, they were equal in influence to the English, many members of the new assembly strongly favored the voluntary abdication of all three popes, as did King Sigismund. Although the Italian bishops who had accompanied John XXIII in large numbers supported his legitimacy, partly in response to a fierce anonymous attack on his character from an Italian source, on 2 March 1415 he promised to resign. However, on 20 March he secretly fled the city and took refuge at Schaffhausen in territory of his friend Frederick, haec Sancta Synodus marks the high-water mark of the Conciliar movement of reform. The Church declared the first sessions of the Council of Constance an invalid and illicit assembly of bishops, the acts of the Council were not made public until 1442, at the behest of the Council of Basel, they were printed in 1500. The creation of a book on how to die was ordered by the council, in part because of the constant presence of the King, other rulers demanded that they have a say in who would be pope. This would pave the way for the end of the Western Schism, on 4 July 1415 the Bull of Gregory XII which appointed Malatesta and Cardinal Dominici of Ragusa as his proxies at the council was formally read before the assembled Bishops. The cardinal then read a decree of Gregory XII which convoked the council, thereupon, the Bishops voted to accept the summons. Prince Malatesta immediately informed the Council that he was empowered by a commission from Pope Gregory XII to resign the Papal Throne on the Pontiffs behalf and he asked the Council whether they would prefer to receive the abdication at that point or at a later date. The Bishops voted to receive the Papal abdication immediately, former Pope Gregory XII was then created titular Cardinal Bishop of Porto and Santa Ruffina by the Council, with rank immediately below the Pope
Council of Constance
–
Emperor Sigismund, his second wife,
Barbara of Celje, and their daughter,
Elizabeth of Luxembourg, at the Council of Constance
Council of Constance
–
Bishops debating with the pope at the Council of Constance
Council of Constance
–
Imperia, a 1993-erected statue commemorating the Council
20.
Palais des Papes
–
The Palais des Papes is a historical palace in Avignon, southern France, one of the largest and most important medieval Gothic buildings in Europe. Once a fortress and palace, the residence was the seat of Western Christianity during the 14th century. The Palais is actually two joined buildings, the old palais of Benedict XII, which sits on the rock of Doms, and the new palais of Clement VI. Together they form the largest Gothic building of the Middle Ages, in addition, the papal library housed in the Palais, attracted a group of clerics passionate in the study of belle-lettres, amongst them the founder of Humanism, Petrarch. At the same time, composers, singers and musicians were drawn to the Great Chapel of the Palais, due to its immense size, the Palais was also the place where the general organisation of the Church began to change. It facilitated the centralisation of services and the adaption of operations in order to suit the needs of the papacy, creating a truly central administration for the Church. The manpower of the Curia, while 200 at the end of the 13th century, surpassed 300 at the beginning of the 14th century, to this were added over 1,000 lay officials working within the Palais. Despite this, the Palais became obsolete when the papacy found it necessary to return to Rome, the hope of reuniting Latin and Orthodox Christians, along with the achievement of peace in the Papal States in Italy, made the case of returning stronger. Added to that was the conviction of both Urban V and Gregory XI that the seat of the papacy could only be the tomb of St Peter. Despite strong opposition from the Court of France and the College of Cardinals, both found the means to return to Rome, the first, on 30 April 1362. This time, the return was absolute, in the following centuries, the Palais lost all of its former glory, despite it serving as the seat of two anti-popes and many cardinals. Since 1995, the Palais des Papes has been classified, along with the center of Avignon, as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, under cultural criteria i, ii. The Palais construction began in AD1252, the site, on a natural rocky outcrop at the northern edge of Avignon, overlooking the river Rhône, was that of the old episcopal palace of the bishops of Avignon. The Palais was built in two phases with two distinct segments, known as the Palais Vieux and Palais Neuf. By the time of its completion, it occupied an area of 11,000 m2, the building was enormously expensive, consuming much of the papacys income during its construction. The Palais Vieux was constructed by the architect Pierre Poisson of Mirepoix at the instruction of Pope Benedict XII, the austere Benedict had the original episcopal palace razed and replaced with a much larger building centred on a cloister, heavily fortified against attackers. Its four wings are flanked with high towers, under Popes Clement VI, Innocent VI and Urban V, the building was expanded to form what is now known as the Palais Neuf. An architect, Jean de Louvres, was commissioned by Clement VI to build a new tower and adjoining buildings, two more towers were built under Innocent VI
Palais des Papes
–
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Palais des Papes
–
The façade of the palais neuf
Palais des Papes
–
Cour d'honneur
Palais des Papes
–
Plan of the palace in 1914.
21.
Pope John XXII
–
Pope John XXII, born Jacques Duèze, was Pope from 7 August 1316 to his death in 1334. Like his predecessor, Clement V, Pope John centralized power and income in the Papacy, the son of a shoemaker in Cahors, Jacques Duèze studied medicine in Montpellier and law in Paris, yet could not read a regal letter written to him in French. Duèze taught both canon and civil law at Toulouse and Cahors, on the recommendation of Charles II of Naples he was made Bishop of Fréjus in 1300. In 1309 he was appointed chancellor of Charles II, and in 1310 he was transferred to Avignon and he delivered legal opinions favorable to the suppression of the Templars, but he also defended Boniface VIII and the Bull Unam Sanctam. On 23 December 1312, Clement V made him Cardinal-Bishop of Porto-Santa Rufina, the death of Pope Clement V in 1314 was followed by an interregnum of two years due to disagreements between the cardinals, who were split into two factions. After two years, Philip, in 1316, finally managed to arrange a papal conclave of cardinals in Lyon. This conclave elected Duèze, who took the name John XXII and was crowned in Lyon and he set up his residence in Avignon rather than Rome, continuing the Avignon Papacy of his predecessor. John XXII involved himself in the politics and religious movements of many European countries in order to advance the interests of the Church and his close links with the French crown created widespread distrust of the papacy. Pope John XXII was an excellent administrator and efficient at reorganizing the Church and he had sent a letter of thanks to the Muslim ruler Uzbeg Khan, who was very tolerant of Christians and treated Christians kindly. John XXII has traditionally been credited with having composed the prayer Anima Christi, and the basis for the hymn Soul of Christ, Sanctify My Breast. On 27 March 1329 John XXII condemned many writings of Meister Eckhart as heretical in his papal bull In Agro Dominico, prior to John XXIIs election a contest had begun for the Holy Roman Empires crown between Louis IV of Bavaria and Frederick I of Austria. Louis IV was assisted in his dispute with the papacy by Marsilius of Padua. Louis IV invaded Italy, entered Rome and set up Pietro Rainalducci as Antipope Nicholas V in 1328, guelphic predominance at Rome was later restored, and Pope John excommunicated William of Ockham. However, Louis IV had silenced the claims and John XXII stayed the rest of his life in Avignon. In 1317, John XXII formally condemned the group of known as the Fraticelli. The experts disagreed among themselves, but the majority condemned the idea on the grounds that it would condemn the Churchs right to have possessions. On 12 November 1323, he issued the bull Quum inter nonnullos, influential members of the order protested, such as the minister general Michael of Cesena, the English provincial William of Ockham, and Bonagratia of Bergamo. In 1324, Louis the Bavarian sided with the Spirituals and accused the Pope of heresy, in 1328 Michael of Cesena was summoned to Avignon to explain the Orders intransigence in refusing the Popes orders and its complicity with Louis of Bavaria
Pope John XXII
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Pope John XXII
Pope John XXII
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17th-century engraving of Pope John XXII
Pope John XXII
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Pope John XXII cameo
22.
Pope Benedict XII
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Pope Benedict XII, born Jacques Fournier, was Pope from 20 December 1334 to his death in April 1342. He was the third Avignon Pope, Benedict was a careful pope who reformed monastic orders and opposed nepotism. Unable to remove his capital to Rome or Bologna, he started the great palace at Avignon and he decided against a notion of Pope John XXII by saying that souls may attain the fulness of the beatific vision before the last judgment. He tried unsuccessfully to reunite the Greek and Roman churches and he also failed to come to an understanding with Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor. Little is known of the origins of Jacques Fournier and he is believed to have been born in Canté in the Comté de Foix around the 1280s to a family of modest means. He became a Cistercian monk and left the countryside to study at the University of Paris, in 1311 he was made Abbot of Fontfroide Abbey and quickly became known for his intelligence and organizational ability. In 1317 he was made Bishop of Pamiers, there he undertook a rigorous hunt for Cathar heretics, such as Guillaume Bélibaste, which won him praise from religious authorities, but alienated the local people. His efforts against the Cathars of Montaillou in the Ariège were carefully recorded in the Fournier Register and his transcription was edited by Jean Duvernoy and has been documented by Emmanuel Le Roy Laduries pioneering microhistory, Montaillou, village occitan. In 1326, upon the successful rooting out of the last – it was believed – heretics of the south, he was made Bishop of Mirepoix in the Ariège, and, Fournier succeeded Pope John XXII as Pope, after being elected in the Conclave of 1334. The Conclave opened on 13 December, and it appeared that there might be a quick election, a two-thirds majority were prepared to elect Cardinal Jean-Raymond de Comminges, the Bishop of Porto, if he would only swear in advance to agree not to return the Papacy to Rome. Comminges refused to make any promises in order to get elected, the Conclave therefore ground on through lengthy discussions. As Fournier himself said. in the discussion held over the election of a future pope, in other words, there were a number of possible candidates. The Cistercian cardinal, Jacques Fournier, was elected on the evening of 20 December 1334, after Vespers, Benedict XII was a reforming pope who did not carry out the policies of his predecessor. He chose to make peace with Holy Roman Emperor Louis IV, and as far as possible came to terms with the Franciscans and he tried to curb the luxuries of the monastic orders, though without much success. He also ordered the construction of the Palais des Papes in Avignon, Benedict spent most of his time working on questions of theology. He rejected many of the ideas developed by John XXII, in this regard, he promulgated an apostolic constitution, Benedictus Deus, in 1336. Though some claim that he campaigned against the Immaculate Conception, this is far from clear and he engaged in long theological debates with other noted figures of the age, such as William of Ockham and Meister Eckhart. Though born a Frenchman, Benedict felt no patriotism towards France nor her king, from the start of his papacy, relations between him and Philip were frigid
Pope Benedict XII
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Pope Benedict XII
Pope Benedict XII
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Pope Benedict XII's tomb,
Cathédrale de Notre-Dame-des-Doms, Avignon
23.
Pope Clement VI
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Clement VI, born Pierre Roger, was pope from 7 May 1342 to his death in 1352. He was the fourth Avignon pope, Clement is the pope who reigned during the first visitation of the Black Death, during which he granted remission of sins to all who died of the plague. Pierre Roger was born in the château of Maumont, today part of the commune of Rosiers-dÉgletons, Corrèze, in Limousin, Pierre also had two sisters, Delphine, who married Jacques de Besse, and Alienor, who married Jacques de la Jugie. His brother Guillaume became Seigneur de Chambon, thanks to his wifes dowry, Roger entered the Benedictine order as a boy in 1301, at the Abbey of La Chaise-Dieu in the diocese of Clermont in the Auvergne. After six years there, he was directed to higher studies by the Bishop of Le Puy, Jean de Cumenis, in 1307 he took up studies in Paris at the College de Sorbonne, where he entered the Collège de Narbonne. To support him, beyond what was supplied by his bishop and his abbot, Pierre was in his thirty-first year. He lectured publicly on the Sententiae of Peter Lombard, and defended and promoted the works of Thomas Aquinas and he was appalled by the Defensor Pacis of Marsilius of Padua, and wrote a treatise in 1325 condemning its principles and defending Pope John XXII. He was granted the priory of St and he held the position until 1329. Pierre Roger was called to Avignon through the influence of his friend and protector, Cardinal Pierre de Mortemart, unfortunately, King Charles IV died on 1 February 1328, the last Capetian king of France in the direct line. He received no reply, however, from King Edward, and was forced to return to France, on 3 December 1328 Peter Roger was named Bishop of Arras, in which capacity he became a royal councilor of King Philip VI. He held the diocese of Arras only until 24 November 1329, less than a year and he held the Archbishopric of Sens for one year and one month, until his promotion to the See of Rouen on 14 December 1330. Obviously he was a man in the very highest favor with Pope John XXII, many propositions were put forward against ecclesiastical jurisdiction, which were ably argued by Pierre de Cugnières. Pierre Roger made the rejoinders on 22 December 1329, on behalf of the ecclesiastical authority, when Pierre Roger became Archbishop of Rouen in December 1330, he was expected to swear allegiance to his feudal overlord. He therefore asked the King for time to consider his position, later in the year, in Paris in the Prés des Clercs, the King received the cross personally from the hands of Archbishop Roger. It is said that he was promoted to the office of Chancellor of France, the earliest claim that he was Chancellor is made by Alfonso Chacon. In 1333, the issue of the Beatific Vision, which had been discussion since a sermon of Pope John XXII in 1329. The French Royal Court had been hearing complaints from various quarters, the King privately informed the Pope of their opinions, but the Pope harshly responded to the King that he should stop favoring an opinion which the Pope had not yet definitively settled. The Pope ordered the Archbishop of Rouen, Pierre Roger, to set the Popes view down in writing, ironically, Pierre Roger was not on the Popes side of the argument
Pope Clement VI
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Pope Clement VI
Pope Clement VI
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Pope Clement VI cameo.
24.
Pope Innocent VI
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Pope Innocent VI, born Étienne Aubert, was Pope from 18 December 1352 to his death in 1362. He was the fifth Avignon Pope, Étiennes father was Adhemar Aubert, seigneur de Montel-de-Gelat in Limousin province. He was a native of the hamlet of Les Monts, Diocese of Limoges, on 20 September 1342, he was raised to the position of Cardinal Priest of SS. He was made cardinal-bishop of Ostia and Velletri on 13 February 1352, by Pope Clement VI, Etienne was crowned pope on 30 December 1352 by Cardinal Gaillard de la Mothe. Upon his election, he revoked a signed agreement stating the college of cardinals was superior to the pope and his subsequent policy compares favourably with that of the other Avignon Popes. It was largely through the exertions of Innocent VI that the Treaty of Brétigny between France and England was brought about, during his pontificate, the Byzantine emperor John V Palaeologus offered to submit the Greek church to the Roman See on condition of assistance against John VI Cantacuzenus. The resources at the disposal of the Pope, however, were all required for exigencies nearer home, most of the wealth accumulated by John XXII and Benedict XII had been lost during the extravagant pontificate of Clement VI. Innocent VI economised by cutting the chapel staff from twelve to eight, works of art were sold rather than commissioned. His pontificate was dominated by the war in Italy and by Avignons recovery from the plague, by 1357, he was complaining of poverty. Innocent VI was a patron of letters, and, if the extreme severity of his measures against the Fraticelli is ignored, he retains a high reputation for justice. Although, St. Bridget of Sweden denounced him as a persecutor of Christians and he died on 12 September 1362 and was succeeded by Urban V. Today his tomb can be found in the Carthusian monastery in the Chartreuse du Val de Bénédiction in Villeneuve-les-Avignon, modified text from the 9th edition of an unnamed encyclopedia Tomasello, Music and ritual at Papal Avignon 1309–1403. Louis XI, Josepf Frederic, Louis Vaesen, Etienne Charavay, societe detudes de la province de Cambrai, Lille-1907 Antoine Pellisier. Innocent VI, le reformateur, deuxième pape Limousin
Pope Innocent VI
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Pope Innocent VI
25.
Pope Urban V
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Pope Urban V, born Guillaume de Grimoard, was Pope from 28 September 1362 to his death in 1370 and was also a member of the Order of Saint Benedict. He was the sixth Avignon Pope, and the only Avignon pope to be beatified, even after his election as pontiff, he continued to follow the Benedictine Rule, living simply and modestly. His habits did not always gain him supporters who were used to lives of affluence, Urban V pressed for reform throughout his pontificate and also oversaw the restoration and construction of churches and monasteries. One of the goals he made upon his election to the Papacy was the reunion of the Eastern and Western Churches and he came as close as some of his predecessors and successors, but did not succeed. Guillaume de Grimoard was born in 1310 in the Castle of Grizac in the French region of Languedoc, the son of Guillaume de Grimoard, Lord of Bellegarde. He had two brothers, Étienne and Anglic, the cardinal, and a sister Delphine. In 1327, Guillaume Grimoard became a Benedictine monk in the small Priory of Chirac, near his home and he was sent to St. Victor for his novitiate. After his profession of vows, he was ordained a priest in his own monastery in Chirac in 1334. He studied literature and law at Montpellier, and then he moved to the University of Toulouse and he earned a doctorate in Canon Law on 31 October 1342. He was appointed Prior of Nôtre-Dame du Pré in the diocese of Auxerre by Pope Clement VI and he began both disciplinary and financial reforms. Prior Grimoard became Procurator-General for the Order of St. Benedict at the Papal Curia and he became a noted canonist, teaching at Montpellier, Paris and Avignon. He was appointed by the Bishop of Clermont, Pierre de Aigrefeuille to be his Vicar General, when Bishop Pierre was transferred to Uzès, Guillaume Grimond became Vicar General of Uzès. Guillaume was named abbot of the monastery of Saint-Germain en Auxerre on 13 February 1352 by Pope Clement VI, in 1359 the town and abbey were captured by the English and subjected to heavy imposts. In the summer of 1352 Pope Clement VI summoned Abbot Guillaume for an assignment, northern Italy had been in a chaotic state for some time, thanks to the ambitions of the Visconti of Milan, led by Archbishop Giovanni Visconti. He had conquered much of Lombardy, seized the Papal city of Bologna, in order to keep a hold on the territory for the Church, the Pope had hit on the scheme of making Archbishop Visconti his Vicar of Bologna for the present. He drew up an agreement on 27 April 1352, which absolved the Visconti of all their transgressions, the Pope even made the first payment on the subsidy which he was going to provide them. On 26 July, Abbot Grimoard and Msgr, azzo Manzi da Reggio, the Dean of the Cathedral of Aquileia, were presented with written instructions by Pope Clement to go to northern Italy as Apostolic nuncios to deal with the situation. This he did on 2 October 1352, Guillaume was allotted 8 gold florins a day for his expenses, his associate Anzo only 4 florins
Pope Urban V
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Blessed Pope Urban V
Pope Urban V
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A
bolognino of Urban V.
26.
Antipope Clement VII
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Robert of Geneva was elected to the papacy as Clement VII by the French cardinals who opposed Urban VI, and was the first antipope residing in Avignon, France. He was the son of Amadeus III, Count of Geneva and he became Bishop of Thérouanne in 1361, Archbishop of Cambrai in 1368, and a cardinal on 30 May 1371. In 1392, he inherited the title of Count of Geneva, the title then passed from him through his eldest sister Mary to her son, Humbert de Thoire. Clement owed the support of Queen Joanna of Naples and of several of the Italian barons. Charles V of France, who seems to have been sounded beforehand on the choice of the Roman pontiff, Clement eventually succeeded in winning to his cause Scotland, Castile, Aragon, Navarre, a great part of the Latin East, and Flanders. He had adherents, besides, scattered through Germany, while Portugal on two occasions acknowledged him, but afterwards forsook him, burgundy and Savoy also acknowledged his authority. Unable to maintain himself in Italy, he took up his residence at Avignon in the southern French Comtat Venaissin, where he became dependent on the French court. These tempting offers gave rise to a series of expeditions into Italy carried out almost exclusively at Clement’s expense, the campaign was unsuccessful, Louis suddenly died at Bisceglie on 20 September 1384. After the death of Louis, Clement hoped to find equally brave and interested champions in Louis’ son and namesake Louis II of Anjou, to which he donated the larger part of the Pontifical States. Clement then tried to ally with Louis I, Duke of Orléans, the brother of Charles VI, with Charles VI himself, and with John III, Count of Armagnac. The prospect of his brilliant progress to Rome was ever before Clements eyes, moreover, his ambitions and the financial needs of his court had resorted to simony, the loss of land and extortion which discerned among his adherents the germs of disaffection. He had created excellent cardinals, but he seems never to have desired the termination of the schism. He died at Avignon on 16 September 1394, eventually it was determined that he would be recorded as an antipope rather than as a pope. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Valois. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Weber
Antipope Clement VII
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Antipope Clement VII
27.
Antipope Clement VIII
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Antipope Clement VIII should not be confused with Pope Clement VIII. Clement VIII was one of the antipopes of the Avignon line and he was born in Teruel between 1369–1370, as Gil Sánchez Muñoz y Carbón, and died on 28 December 1446. He was a friend and advisor of the future Avignon Pope Benedict XIII, in 1396 he was an envoy to the Bishop of Valencia to get Spanish support. Benedict had appointed four cardinals, and on his death, three of them, on 10 June 1423, elected Sanchez Muñoz as Pope. The fourth, Jean Carrier, absent at the time, declared the election invalid, and elected his own antipope in turn, consequently, Jean Carrier was excommunicated by Clement VIII. Clement VIIIs fate was bound up with the ambitions of Alfonso V of Aragon, Alfonso wished to negotiate for Naples, and so gave Clement support, his queen Maria of Castile, and the Aragonese bishops supported Martin. However, through the exertions of Cardinal Pierre de Foix, a diplomat and relation of the king’s. Alfonso then sent a delegation in 1428, to persuade Clement to recognise Martin, Clement declared his abdication on 26 July 1429 and had his cardinals elect Oddo di Colonna his successor, a formal act precluding future doubts concerning apostolic succession. His abdication was confirmed in mid-August, Clement had to make a penitential submission in forma to Martin V, and when this was done Martin granted Sanchez Muñoz the Bishopric of Mallorca. Sanchez Muñoz died on 28 December 1446
Antipope Clement VIII
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Tomb of Antipope Clement VIII in
Palma Cathedral
28.
Crown of Aragon
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Put in contemporary terms, it has sometimes been considered that the different lands of the Crown of Aragon functioned more as a confederation than as a single kingdom. In this sense, the larger Crown of Aragon must not be confused with one of its constituent parts, formally, the political center of the Crown of Aragon was Zaragoza, where kings were crowned at La Seo Cathedral. The de facto capital and leading cultural, administrative and economic centre of the Crown of Aragon was Barcelona followed by Valencia, finally, Palma was an additional important city and seaport. For brief periods the Crown of Aragon also controlled Montpellier, Provence, Corsica, the countries that are today known as Spain and Portugal spent the Middle Ages after 722 in an intermittent struggle called the Reconquista. This struggle pitted the northern Christian kingdoms against the Islamic taifa petty kingdoms of the South, in the Late Middle Ages, the expansion of the Aragonese Crown southwards met with the Castilian advance eastward in the region of Murcia. Afterward, the Aragonese Crown focused on the Mediterranean, acting as far as Greece and Barbary, whereas Portugal, mercenaries from the territories in the Crown, known as almogàvers participated in the creation of this Mediterranean empire, and later found employment in countries all across southern Europe. The Crown of Aragon has been considered by some as an empire which ruled in the Mediterranean for hundreds of years and it was indeed, at its height, one of the major powers in Europe. However, its different territories were connected through the person of the monarch. A modern historian, Juan de Contreras y Lopez de Ayala, Marqués de Lozoya described the Crown of Aragon as being more like a confederacy than a centralised kingdom, let alone an empire. Nor did official documents refer to it as an empire, instead. This union respected the institutions and parliaments of both territories. This was due to the loss of Catalan influence, the renunciation of the family rights of the counts of Barcelona in Occitania. Petronillas father King Ramiro, The Monk who was raised in the Saint Pons de Thomières Monastery and his brothers Peter I and Alfonso I El Batallador had bravely fought against Castile for hegemony in the Iberian peninsula. After the death of Alfonso I, the Aragonese nobility that campaigned close him feared being overwhelmed by the influence of Castile, and so, Ramiro was forced to leave his monastic life and proclaim himself King of Aragon. He married Agnes, sister of the Duke of Aquitaine and betrothed his daughter to Raymond Berengar IV of Barcelona. The wedding agreement provided Raymond Berengar IV the title of Princeps Aragonum and Dominator Aragonenesis and kept the title, Raymond Berengar IV, the first ruler of the united dynasty, called himself Count of Barcelona and Prince of Aragon. Alfonso II inherited two realms and with them, two different expansion processes, the House of Jiménez looked south in a battle against Castile for the control of the Mediterranean coast in the Iberian peninsula. The House of Barcelona looked north to its origins, Occitania, soon, Alfonso II of Aragon and Barcelona committed himself to conquer Valencia as the Aragonese nobility demanded
Crown of Aragon
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Petronilla of Aragon (1136–1173) and
Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Barcelona (ca. 1131–1162) depicted in a 16th-century painting.
Crown of Aragon
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Standard
Crown of Aragon
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Equestrian heraldic representation of King of Aragon in the "Equestrian armorial of the Golden Fleece" 1433-1435.
Crown of Aragon
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Ferdinand V and
Isabella I,
King and Queen of Castile and León, and later of Aragon, Valencia, Sicily, and Majorca
29.
Pope Martin V
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Pope Martin V, born Otto Colonna, was Pope from 11 November 1417 to his death in 1431. His election effectively ended the Western Schism and he was born at Genazzano, the son of Agapito Colonna and Caterina Conti, between January 26 and February 20,1369. He belonged to one of the oldest and most distinguished families of Rome and his brother Giordano became Prince of Salerno and Duke of Venosa, while his sister Paola was Lady of Piombino between 1441 and 1445. Oddone studied law at the University of Pavia and he became apostolic protonotary under Pope Urban VI, and was created Cardinal-Deacon of San Giorgio al Velabro by Pope Innocent VII in 1405. In 1409 he took part in the Council of Pisa, and was one of the supporters of Antipope Alexander V and he was excommunicated for this in 1411 by Pope Gregory XII. Oddone was with John XXIIIs entourage at the Council of Constance, later he returned to Constance and took part in the process leading to the deposition of John XXIII. After deposing Antipope John XXIII in 1415, the Council of Constance was long divided by the claims of Pope Gregory XII. Martin was elected pope, at the age of 48, at the Council of Constance on St. Martins Day,11 November 1417, by a conclave consisting of twenty-three cardinals and he was ordained a priest on Saturday November 13,1417 and consecrated bishop the next day. Martin left Constance at the close of the council, but travelled slowly through Italy and his authority in Rome was represented by his brother Giordano, who had fought under Muzio Attendolo against the condottiero Braccio da Montone. After a long stay in Florence, Martin was thus able to enter Rome in September 1420 and he at once set to work, establishing order and restoring the dilapidated churches, palaces, bridges, and other public structures. For this reconstruction he engaged some famous masters of the Tuscan school, by 1415 Bohemia was in turmoil and the subject of much discussion at the Council of Constance. Adherents of Jan Hus adopted the practice of Communion under both kinds, the Council sent earnest letters to the civil and ecclesiastical authorities in Bohemia, insisting they deal with the heresy. Bohemian and Moravian nobles responded that the sentence on Hus was unjust and insulting to their country, prague was placed under interdict for sheltering the excommunicate Johann of Jesenic. Beghards arrived attracted by Bohemias reputation for religious liberty, in 1419 King Wenceslaus, who had resisted what he considered interference in his kingdom, commanded that all ejected Catholic beneficiaries should be reinstated in their offices and revenues. In Kuttenberg, hundreds of captured Hussites were thrown by the miners into the shafts of disused silver mines, King Wenceslaus swore death to all the rebels, but died of a stroke in August,1419. The next months were marked by deeds of violence, many citizens, Wenceslaus was succeeded by his brother Sigismund, German Emperor and King of Hungary, who prepared to restore order. On 1 March 1420, Pope Martin V issued a Bull inviting all Christians to unite in a crusade against the Wycliffites, Hussites, according to Burton Martin authorized a crusade against Africa in 1418 in relation to the slave trade. Martin declared two Crusades in 1420, the first was against heretics in Bohemia, as described above
Pope Martin V
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Pope Martin V
Pope Martin V
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Pope Martin's election.
30.
Enclave and exclave
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An enclave is a territory, or a part of a territory, that is entirely surrounded by the territory of one other state. Territorial waters have the same attributes as land, and enclaves may therefore exist within territorial waters. An exclave is a portion of a state or territory geographically separated from the part by surrounding alien territory. Enclave is sometimes used improperly to denote a territory that is partly surrounded by another state. Vatican City and San Marino, enclaved by Italy, and Lesotho, unlike an enclave, an exclave can be surrounded by several states. The Azeri exclave of Naxçıvan is an example of an exclave. Semi-enclaves and semi-exclaves are areas that, except for possessing an unsurrounded sea border, Enclaves and semi-enclaves can exist as independent states, while exclaves always constitute just a part of a sovereign state. A pene-enclave is a part of the territory of one country that can be approached conveniently — in particular by wheeled traffic — only through the territory of another country, pene-enclaves are also called functional enclaves or practical enclaves. Many pene-exclaves partially border their own territorial waters, a pene-enclave can also exist entirely on land, such as when intervening mountains render a territory inaccessible from other parts of a country except through alien territory. A commonly cited example is the Kleinwalsertal, a part of Vorarlberg, Austria. The word enclave is French and first appeared in the century as a derivative of the verb enclaver. In law, this created a servitude of passage for the benefit of the owner of the surrounded land, the first diplomatic document to contain the word enclave was the Treaty of Madrid, signed in 1526. Later, the term began to be used also to refer to parcels of countries, counties, fiefs, communes, towns, parishes. This French word eventually entered the English and other languages to denote the same concept although local terms have continued to be used, in India, the word pocket is often used as a synonym for enclave. In British administrative history, subnational enclaves were usually called detachments or detached parts, in English ecclesiastic history, subnational enclaves were known as peculiars. The word exclave, modeled on enclave, is a extension of the concept of enclave. Enclaves exist for a variety of historical, political and geographical reasons, in particular, this state of affairs persisted into the 19th century in the Holy Roman Empire, and these domains exhibited many of the characteristics of sovereign states. Prior to 1866 Prussia alone consisted of more than 270 discontiguous pieces of territory, thus, over time enclaves have tended to be eliminated. This exchange thus effectively de-enclaved another two dozen second-order enclaves and one third-order enclave, eliminating 197 of the Indo-Bangladesh enclaves in all, the residents in these enclaves had complained of being effectively stateless
Enclave and exclave
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Land for the
Captain Cook Monument was deeded outright to the British Government by the independent nation of Hawaii in 1877
Enclave and exclave
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A1 and A2 are not enclaves: neither of them is surrounded by a single "foreign" territory;
