1.
Interceptor aircraft
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An interceptor aircraft, or simply interceptor, is a type of fighter aircraft designed specifically to prevent successful missions by enemy aircraft, particularly bombers and reconnaissance aircraft. For daytime operations, conventional fighters normally fill the interceptor role, few aircraft can be considered dedicated daytime interceptors. Night fighters and bomber destroyers are, by definition, interceptors of the heavy type, examples of classic interceptors of this era include the F-106 Delta Dart, Sukhoi Su-15 and English Electric Lightning. Dedicated interceptor designs became rare, with the widely used examples designed after the 1960s being the Tornado F3, Mikoyan MiG-25 Foxbat. The first dedicated interceptor squadrons were formed up during World War I in order to defend London against attacks by Zeppelins, early units generally used aircraft withdrawn from front-line service, notably the Sopwith Pup. They were told about their targets prior to take-off from a centralized command center in the Horse Guards building. The Pup proved to have too low performance to intercept the Gotha G. IV bombers. Before Second World War started, offensive bomber speeds had improved so much that it appeared that the mission would be effectively impossible. The visual and acoustic detection had a range on the order of a few miles. This could be addressed by a cover of aircraft. The conclusion at the time was that the bomber will always get through, the introduction of radar upset this equation. Radar was able to detect aircraft at long range, on the order of 100 miles even for early systems and this provided enough time for fighters to start up, climb to altitude and chase down their targets. The introduction of jet power increased speeds from perhaps 200 miles per hour to 600 miles per hour in a single step, although radars also improved in performance, the gap between offense and defense was dramatically reduced. Large attacks could so confuse the defenses ability to communicate information to the pilots that the method of manual ground controlled interception was increasingly seen as inadequate. In the United States, this led to the introduction of the Semi-Automatic Ground Environment to computerize this task. In the 1950s, during the Cold War, an interceptor force was crucial for the great powers. Hence for a period of time they faced rapid development. Thus, the doctrine of mutually assured destruction replaced the trend of defense strengthening and their utility waned as the role became blurred into the role of the heavy air superiority fighters dominant in military thinking at the time
2.
Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
3.
Avro Canada
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Avro Canada was a Canadian aircraft manufacturing company. It started in 1945 as a plant and within thirteen years became the third-largest company in Canada, one of the largest 100 companies in the world. Avro Canada was best known for the highly advanced CF-105 Arrow, following the cancellation of the CF-105 Arrow the company ceased operations in 1962. During the Second World War, Victory Aircraft in Malton, Ontario, was Canadas largest aircraft manufacturer. Prior to 1939, as a part of National Steel Car Ltd. of Hamilton, National Steel Car had turned out Avro Anson trainers, Handley Page Hampden bombers, Hawker Hurricane fighters and Westland Lysander army cooperation aircraft. National Steel Car Corporation of Malton, Ontario was formed in 1938 and renamed Victory Aircraft Limited in 1942 when the Canadian government took over ownership and management of main plant. During the Second World War, Victory Aircraft built Avro aircraft,3,197 Anson trainers,430 Lancaster bombers, six Lancastrian, one Lincoln bomber and one York transport. In 1944, an Advisory Committee on Aircraft Manufacture was established by the Canadian government, bob Leckie of the RCAF was a strong advocate over many years, for a wholly domestic end-to-end industry, that would design and build aircraft in Canada. However, the Department of National Defense, according to Avros Roy Dobson, gave a reception to doing any more than the fabrication and assembly of aircraft. In 1945, the UK-based Hawker Siddeley Group purchased Victory Aircraft from the Canadian government, roe Canada Ltd. as the wholly owned Canadian branch of its aircraft manufacturing subsidiary, UK-based A. V. Avro Canada began operations in the former Victory plant, from the outset, the company invested in research and development and embarked on an ambitious design program with a jet engine and a jet-powered fighter and airliner on the drawing boards. Roe Canada Ltd. was restructured in 1954 as a company with two aviation subsidiaries, Avro Aircraft Ltd. and Orenda Engines Ltd. which began operating under these names on 1 January 1955. Each companies facilities were each were located across each other in a complex at the perimeter of Malton Airport. The total labour force of both companies reached 15,000 in 1958. During the same period, with Crawford Gordon as president, A. V, roe Canada Ltd. purchased a number of companies, including Dominion Steel and Coal Corporation, Canada Car and Foundry, and Canadian Steel Improvement. In 1956 the companies generated 45% of the revenue of the Hawker Siddeley Group, in 1958, annual sales revenue was approximately $450 million, ranking A. V. Roe Canada as the third largest corporation in Canada by capitalization, by the time of the cancellation of the Arrow and Iroquois, aircraft-related production amounted to approximately 40% of the companys activities with 60% industrial and commercial. In 1956,500,000 shares were issued to the public at a value of $8 million
4.
Royal Canadian Air Force
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The Royal Canadian Air Force is the air force of Canada. Its role is to provide the Canadian Forces with relevant, responsive and effective airpower, the RCAF is one of three environmental commands within the unified Canadian Armed Forces. Lieutenant-General Michael J. Hood, CMM CD, is the current Commander of the Royal Canadian Air Force, the RCAF is a partner with the United States Air Force in protecting continental airspace under the North American Aerospace Defense Command. The RCAF also provides all primary air resources to and is responsible for the National Search, the RCAF traces its history to the Canadian Air Force which was formed in 1920. The Canadian Air Force was incorporated in 1923 and granted royal sanction in 1924 by King George V, in 1968 the RCAF was amalgamated with the Royal Canadian Navy, and the Canadian Army, as part of the unification of the Canadian Forces. Air units were split between several different commands, Air Defence Command, Air Transport Command, Mobile Command, Maritime Command, in 1975 some commands were dissolved, and all air units were placed under a new environmental command called simply Air Command. Air Command reverted to its name of the Royal Canadian Air Force in August 2011. The Royal Canadian Air Force has served in the Second World War, the Korean War, as a NATO member, the force maintained a presence in Europe during the second half of the 20th century. The Canadian Air Force was established in 1920 as the successor to a short-lived two-squadron Canadian Air Force formed during the First World War in Europe. John Scott Williams, MC, AFC, was tasked in 1921 with organizing the CAF, the new Canadian Air Force was a branch of the Air Board and was chiefly a training militia that provided refresher training to veteran pilots. Many CAF members also worked with the Air Boards Civil Operations Branch on operations that included forestry, in 1923, the CAF became responsible for all flying operations in Canada, including civil aviation. In 1924, the Canadian Air Force, was granted the royal title, most of its work was civil in nature, however, in the late 1920s the RCAF evolved into more of a military organization. After budget cuts in the early 1930s, the air began to rebuild. By the end of the war, the RCAF had become the fourth largest allied air force, after the war, the RCAF reduced its strength. In 1950, the RCAF became involved with the transport of troops and supplies to the Korean War, however, members of the RCAF served in USAF units as exchange officers and several flew in combat. Both auxiliary and regular air defence squadrons were run by Air Defence Command, at the same time, the Pinetree Line, the Mid-Canada Line and the DEW Line radar stations, largely operated by the RCAF, were built across Canada because of the growing Soviet nuclear threat. In 1957, Canada and the United States created the joint North American Air Defense Command, coastal defence and peacekeeping also became priorities during the 1950s and 1960s. In 1968 the Royal Canadian Navy, Royal Canadian Air Force and this initiative was overseen by then Liberal Defence Minister, Paul Hellyer
5.
Canadian dollar
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The Canadian dollar is the currency of Canada. It is abbreviated with the dollar sign $, or sometimes Can$ or C$ to distinguish it from other dollar-denominated currencies and it is divided into 100 cents. Canadas dollar is the fifth most held reserve currency in the world, accounting for approximately 2% of all global reserves, behind only the U. S. dollar, the euro, the yen and the pound sterling. In 1841, the Province of Canada adopted a new system based on the Halifax rating, the new Canadian pound was equal to four US dollars, making one pound sterling equal to 1 pound,4 shillings, and 4 pence Canadian. Thus, the new Canadian pound was worth 16 shillings and 5.3 pence sterling, the 1850s was a decade of wrangling over whether to adopt a sterling monetary system or a decimal monetary system based on the US dollar. In 1851, the Legislative Council and the Legislative Assembly passed an act for the purposes of introducing a sterling unit in conjunction with decimal fractional coinage. The idea was that the coins would correspond to exact amounts in relation to the U. S. dollar fractional coinage. This gold standard was introduced with the gold sovereign being legal tender at £1 = US$ 4.86 2⁄3, no coinage was provided for under the 1853 act. Sterling coinage was legal tender and all other silver coins were demonetized. The British government in principle allowed for a decimal coinage but nevertheless held out the hope that a unit would be chosen under the name of royal. However, in 1857, the decision was made to introduce a decimal coinage into the Province of Canada in conjunction with the U. S. dollar unit, in 1859, Canadian colonial postage stamps were issued with decimal denominations for the first time. In 1860, the colonies of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia followed the colony of Canada in adopting a system based on the U. S. dollar unit. In the following year, Canadian colonial postage stamps were issued with the shown in dollars. The U. S. dollar was created in 1792 on the basis of the weight of a selection of worn Spanish dollars. As such, the Spanish dollar was slightly more than the U. S. dollar, and likewise. In 1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia were united in a called the Dominion of Canada. In 1871, Prince Edward Island went decimal within the U. S. dollar unit, however, the currency of Prince Edward Island was absorbed into the Canadian system shortly afterwards, when Prince Edward island joined the Dominion of Canada in 1873. The Canadian Parliament passed the Uniform Currency Act in April 1871, tying up loose ends as to the currencies of the various provinces, the gold standard was temporarily abandoned during the First World War and definitively abolished on April 10,1933
6.
Delta wing
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The delta wing is a wing shaped in the form of a triangle. It is named for its similarity in shape to the Greek uppercase letter delta, triangular stabilizing fins for rockets were described ca. 1529-1556 by Conrad Haas and in the 17th century by Kazimierz Siemienowicz, the lifting delta wing was pioneered by Alexander Lippisch in Germany after World War I, initially using a very gentle angle so that the wing appeared almost straight. He flew the first tailless aircraft in 1931, followed by four improved designs. None of these designs were easy to handle at low speed, during World War II Lippisch studied a more advanced tailless delta wing of greater angle intended for high-speed and even supersonic flight, for use in interceptor aircraft. One progressed as far as a glider prototype, the British later developed jet aircraft based on the data from Lippisch, notably the Avro Vulcan strategic bomber and the Gloster Javelin fighter. In America Robert T. Jones, working at NACA during World War II, first published in January 1945, this approach differed from Lippischs earlier work on thick delta wings by combining a delta planform with a thin airfoil. This design proved to be superior and would form the basis of all practical supersonic deltas such as those first made by Convair. The tailless delta became a design for high-speed aircraft, and was used almost to the exclusion of other designs by Convair and by Dassault Aviation. The F-102 Delta Dagger and Douglas F4D Skyray were two of the first operational jet fighters with a delta wing when they entered service in 1956. The tailed delta configuration was adopted by the TsAGI, to take advantage of both high angle-of-attack flying capability and high speeds. It was used in the MiG-21 and Sukhoi Su-9/Su-11/15 fighters, built by the tens of thousands in several different communist countries, through the 1960s Saab AB developed a close-coupled canard delta configuration, with a delta foreplane just in front of and above the main delta wing. Patented in 1963, it first flew on the Viggen fighter in 1967, the close coupling modifies the airflow over the wing, most notably when flying at high angles of attack. In contrast to the classic tail-mounted elevators, the canards add to the lift, enabling the execution of extreme maneuvers. This configuration has become common on supersonic fighter aircraft. When supersonic transport aircraft were developed, the tailless delta wing was chosen for both the Anglo-French Concorde and the Soviet Tupolev Tu-144, the Tupolev first flying in 1968. Pure delta wings suffer from some undesirable characteristics, notably flow separation at high angles of attack and this originally limited them primarily to high-speed, high-altitude interceptor roles. Since then the design has been modified in different ways to overcome some of these problems
7.
Mach number
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In fluid dynamics, the Mach number is a dimensionless quantity representing the ratio of flow velocity past a boundary to the local speed of sound. M = u c, where, M is the Mach number, u is the flow velocity with respect to the boundaries. By definition, Mach 1 is equal to the speed of sound, Mach 0.65 is 65% of the speed of sound, and Mach 1.35 is 35% faster than the speed of sound. The local speed of sound, and thereby the Mach number, depends on the condition of the surrounding medium, the Mach number is primarily used to determine the approximation with which a flow can be treated as an incompressible flow. The medium can be a gas or a liquid, the boundary can be the boundary of an object immersed in the medium, or of a channel such as a nozzle, diffusers or wind tunnels channeling the medium. As the Mach number is defined as the ratio of two speeds, it is a dimensionless number, if M <0. 2–0.3 and the flow is quasi-steady and isothermal, compressibility effects will be small and simplified incompressible flow equations can be used. The Mach number is named after Austrian physicist and philosopher Ernst Mach, as the Mach number is a dimensionless quantity rather than a unit of measure, with Mach, the number comes after the unit, the second Mach number is Mach 2 instead of 2 Mach. This is somewhat reminiscent of the modern ocean sounding unit mark, which was also unit-first. In the decade preceding faster-than-sound human flight, aeronautical engineers referred to the speed of sound as Machs number, never Mach 1, Mach number is useful because the fluid behaves in a similar manner at a given Mach number, regardless of other variables. As modeled in the International Standard Atmosphere, dry air at sea level, standard temperature of 15 °C. For example, the atmosphere model lapses temperature to −56.5 °C at 11,000 meters altitude. In the following table, the regimes or ranges of Mach values are referred to, generally, NASA defines high hypersonic as any Mach number from 10 to 25, and re-entry speeds as anything greater than Mach 25. Aircraft operating in this include the Space Shuttle and various space planes in development. Flight can be classified in six categories, For comparison. At transonic speeds, the field around the object includes both sub- and supersonic parts. The transonic period begins when first zones of M >1 flow appear around the object, in case of an airfoil, this typically happens above the wing. Supersonic flow can decelerate back to only in a normal shock. As the speed increases, the zone of M >1 flow increases towards both leading and trailing edges
8.
Avro Canada CF-100 Canuck
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The Avro Canada CF-100 Canuck was a Canadian jet interceptor/fighter serving during the Cold War both in NATO bases in Europe and as part of NORAD. The CF-100 was the only Canadian-designed fighter to enter production, serving primarily with the Royal Canadian Air Force and Canadian Armed Forces. For its day, the CF-100 featured a short run and high climb rate. In the early 1950s, Canada needed an interceptor able to patrol the vast areas of Canadas north. Design of the XC-100 to meet a Royal Canadian Air Force specification for a fighter was initiated at Avro Canada in October 1946. Chief Engineer Edgar Atkins work on the CF-100 was subsequently passed to John Frost who, along with Avros Chief Aerodynamacist Jim Chamberlin, the CF-100 Mark 1 prototype,18101, emerged from the factory, painted gloss black overall with white lightning bolts running down the fuselage and engines. The CF-100 prototype flew its maiden flight on 19 January 1950 with Gloster Aircraft Company Chief Test Pilot Squadron Leader Bill Waterton at the controls, the Mark 1 was powered by two Rolls-Royce Avon RA3 turbojets with 28.9 kN thrust each. The second prototype, serial number 18102, was powered by Rolls-Royce Avons. Five pre-production Mk 2 test aircraft were produced, all fitted with Orenda 2 engines, one was fitted with dual controls, the first production version, designated Mk 3, incorporated the APG-33 radar and was armed with eight.50 in Browning M3 machine guns. The Mk 3CT and Mk 3DT were again dual control versions supplied to operational training units, a CF-100 arrived at Eglin AFB, Florida, in mid-January 1955 for cold-weather tests in the climatic hangar. Tests were to begin in February, in March 1956, four CF-100 Canucks were sent to Eglin AFB for comparative armament trials, and flown by USAF crews. In September 1950, the RCAF ordered 124 Mk 3s, the first entering service in 1953 and these were armed with eight. 50-caliber machine guns. The definitive rocket-armed Mk 4A was based on the prototype Mk 4, the nose housed the much larger APG-40 radar with wingtip pods, each containing up to 29 Mk 4/Mk 40 Mighty Mouse Folding-Fin Aerial Rocket in addition to the guns. As the last 54 of an order for the Mk 3 were changed into the Mk 4 in 1954, the Mk 4B version had more powerful Orenda 11s. Five versions, or marks, were produced, ending, from 1955 onwards, with the high-altitude Mk 5 that featured a 1.06 m -longer wingtip and enlarged tailplane, along with removal of the machine guns. A projected transonic swept-wing CF-103 was built in form in 1951. The Canuck was affectionately known in the RCAF as the Clunk because of the noise the front landing gear made as it retracted into its well after takeoff. Its less-attractive nickname was the Lead Sled, a reference to its controls and general lack of maneuverability
9.
Sputnik 1
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Sputnik 1 was the first artificial Earth satellite. The Soviet Union launched it into an elliptical low Earth orbit on 4 October 1957 and it was a 58 cm diameter polished metal sphere, with four external radio antennas to broadcast radio pulses. It was visible all around the Earth and its radio pulses were detectable and this surprise success precipitated the American Sputnik crisis and triggered the Space Race, a part of the larger Cold War. The launch ushered in new political, military, technological, tracking and studying Sputnik 1 from Earth provided scientists with valuable information, even though the satellite itself wasnt equipped with sensors. The density of the atmosphere could be deduced from its drag on the orbit. Sputnik 1 was launched during the International Geophysical Year from Site No. 1/5, at the 5th Tyuratam range, the satellite travelled at about 29,000 kilometres per hour, taking 96.2 minutes to complete each orbit. It transmitted on 20.005 and 40.002 MHz, the signals continued for 21 days until the transmitter batteries ran out on 26 October 1957. Sputnik burned up on 4 January 1958 while reentering Earths atmosphere, after travelling about 70 million km, on 17 December 1954, chief Soviet rocket scientist Sergei Korolev addressed Dimitri Ustinov and proposed a developmental plan for an artificial satellite. Korolev forwarded a report by Mikhail Tikhonravov with an overview of similar projects abroad, Tikhonravov had emphasized that the launch of an orbital satellite was an inevitable stage in the development of rocket technology. On 29 July 1955, U. S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower announced through his press secretary that the United States would launch an artificial satellite during the International Geophysical Year. A week later, on 8 August, the Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union approved the proposal to create an artificial satellite. On 30 August Vasily Ryabikov – the head of the State Commission on R-7 rocket test launches – held a meeting where Korolev presented calculation data for a trajectory to the Moon. They decided to develop a version of the R-7 rocket for satellite launches. On 30 January 1956 the Council of Ministers approved practical work on an artificial Earth-orbiting satellite. This satellite, named Object D, was planned to be completed in 1957–58, it would have a mass of 1,000 to 1,400 kg, the first test launch of Object D was scheduled for 1957. These included measuring the density of the atmosphere and its ion composition, the wind, magnetic fields. These data would be valuable in the creation of artificial satellites. A system of stations was to be developed to collect data transmitted by the satellite, observe the satellites orbit
10.
Pratt & Whitney J75
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The Pratt & Whitney J75 was an axial-flow turbojet engine first flown in 1955. A two-spool design in the 17,000 lbf thrust class and it was known in civilian service as the JT4A, and in a variety of stationary roles as the GG4 and FT4. In military use, the J75 was used on the Lockheed U-2, the Republic F-105 Thunderchief, and it was also utilized in the prototype and experimental Lockheed A-12, North American YF-107, Vought XF8U-3 Crusader III, Martin P6M SeaMaster, and Avro Canada CF-105 Arrow. After its relatively short lifetime in the role, the JT4A found more enduring use in the naval role. The same basic powerplant saw much use as a peak demand power turbine running on natural gas. From its introduction in 1960 over 1,000 FT4s have been sold, with many of them still in operation for electrical generation
11.
Orenda Iroquois
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The Orenda PS.13 Iroquois was an advanced turbojet engine designed for military use. It was developed by the Canadian aircraft engine manufacturer Orenda Engines, intended for the CF-105 Arrow interceptor, development was cancelled, along with the Arrow, in 1959. The RB.106 and J67 were selected as the primary, however, both the RB.106 and J67 were cancelled during the Arrows design phase, too far into the program to select the Olympus. Orenda Engines quickly responded with the PS.13 Iroquois design, in overall design terms, the PS.13 was similar to the RB.106, using a two-spool layout with low-pressure and high-pressure sections of the compressor for added efficiency. It differed slightly in being more powerful, especially in afterburner. However, the design incorporated a number of new design features intended to improve simplicity. With this in mind, Orenda pioneered work in the use of titanium in engines, titanium has light weight, high strength and good temperature and corrosion resistance. It was estimated that the engine would be 850 pounds lighter than if steel had been used, during the early 1950s, this material was in short supply, and the lack of knowledge of its physical properties and fabrication techniques created problems which had to be overcome. It was also very expensive relative to the more common such as steel. Other parts, such as gearbox casings were made with a magnesium alloy, inconel was used to make the blades in the low pressure turbine assembly and the metal insulation blanket found at the rear of the engine. This heat resistant nickel-chrome alloy retains its strength at high temperatures, the design, development and manufacture of such an advanced jet engine was accomplished in an incredibly short time by the Orenda team. The detailed design was completed in May 1954, and the first run was achieved in December 1954, the earlier Orenda 9 had more parts but produced less power. The Iroquois was one of the most powerful jet engines in the world at its time of introduction and it was aerodynamically matched for peak performance at 50,000 feet altitude and Mach 2 speed. Boeing B-47 Stratojet was loaned to the Royal Canadian Air Force to flight test the Iroquois for use in the CF-105. Canadair, the sub-contractor, attached an Iroquois to the side of the bombers rear fuselage, near the tail. Designated CL-52 by Canadair, it was a nightmare to fly, since the thrust was asymmetrical, after the Arrow project was cancelled, the B-47B/CL-52, which had logged about 35 hours of engine flight tests, was returned to the U. S and subsequently scrapped. The CL-52 was the only B-47 used by any foreign service, an example of an Iroquois-1 engine is found at the Canadian Warplane Heritage Museum in Mount Hope, near Hamilton, Ontario. Another Iroquois-2 engine is owned by a collector in Fort St. John
12.
Canadian Air and Space Museum
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The site was slated for redevelopment as a new sports centre but after closing the museum the development was placed on hold. The museum is developing a new location and its collections are not available for public viewing. When it was active the institution was run by volunteers and had the goal of educating visitors on the Canadian aerospace industry. It is a registered Canadian non-profit organization, the museum was housed in what was the original factory for the de Havilland Aircraft of Canada. It is the oldest surviving aircraft factory building in Canada, originally named the Toronto Aerospace Museum, the museum was re-launched under its new name, the Canadian Air and Space Museum, on February 20,2009. To add space exploration to the museums mandate the board contemplated a series of possible names, since the national museum in Ottawa was called the National Aviation Museum and also had no space mandate, the name Canadian Air and Space Museum was chosen. At that time the Downsview museum had plans to renovate the premises to better house their large exhibits and to provide more detailed information for visitors. The museum temporarily relocated its artifacts to a storage location at Toronto Pearson International Airport. The Museum is affiliated with the Canadian Museums Association, Canadian Heritage Information Network and the Virtual Museum of Canada
13.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
14.
Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
15.
Bomber
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A bomber is a combat aircraft designed to attack ground and sea targets by dropping air-to-ground weaponry, firing torpedoes or deploying air-launched cruise missiles. In 1912, during the First Balkan War, Bulgarian Air Force pilot Christo Toprakchiev suggested the use of aircraft to drop bombs on Turkish positions, captain Simeon Petrov developed the idea and created several prototypes by adapting different types of grenades and increasing their payload. This is deemed to be the first use of an aircraft as a bomber, the first heavier-than-air aircraft purposely designed for bombing were the Italian Caproni Ca 30 and British Bristol T. B.8, both of 1913. The Bristol T. B.8 was an early British single engined biplane built by the Bristol Aeroplane Company, under the command of Charles Rumney Samson, a bombing attack on German gun batteries at Middelkerke, Belgium was executed on 25 November 1914. The dirigible, or airship, was developed in the early 20th century, early airships were prone to disaster, but slowly the airship became more dependable, with a more rigid structure and stronger skin. Prior to the outbreak of war, Zeppelins, a larger and these were the first long range, strategic bombers. Although the German air arm was strong, with a total of 123 airships by the end of the war, they were vulnerable to attack and engine failure, German airships inflicted little damage on all 51 raids, with 557 Britons killed and 1,358 injured. The German Navy lost 53 of its 73 airships, and the German Army lost 26 of its 50 ships, the Caproni Ca 30 was built by Gianni Caproni in Italy. It was a biplane with three 67 kW Gnome rotary engines and first flew in October 1914. Test flights revealed power to be insufficient and the engine layout unworkable, the improved design was bought by the Italian Army and it was delivered in quantity from August 1915. Bombing raids and interdiction operations were carried out by French. Sustained attacks with a view to interrupting the enemys railway communications, in conjunction with the main operations of the Allied Armies. The most important bombers used in World War I were the French Breguet 14, British de Havilland DH-4, German Albatros C. III, the Russian Sikorsky Ilya Muromets, was the first four-engine bomber to equip a dedicated strategic bombing unit during World War I. This heavy bomber was unrivaled in the stages of the war. With engine power as a limitation, combined with the desire for accuracy and other operational factors. By the start of the war included, dive bomber — specially strengthened for vertical diving attacks for greater accuracy. Light bomber, medium bomber and heavy bomber — subjective definitions based on size, torpedo bomber — specialized aircraft armed with torpedoes. Ground attack aircraft — aircraft used against targets on a such as troop or tank concentrations
16.
Nuclear weapon
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A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions, either fission or a combination of fission and fusion. Both reactions release vast quantities of energy from small amounts of matter. The first test of a bomb released the same amount of energy as approximately 20,000 tons of TNT. The first thermonuclear bomb test released the same amount of energy as approximately 10 million tons of TNT, a thermonuclear weapon weighing little more than 2,400 pounds can produce an explosive force comparable to the detonation of more than 1.2 million tons of TNT. A nuclear device no larger than traditional bombs can devastate a city by blast, fire. Nuclear weapons are considered weapons of destruction, and their use. Nuclear weapons have been used twice in nuclear warfare, both times by the United States against Japan near the end of World War II, the bombings resulted in the deaths of approximately 200,000 civilians and military personnel from acute injuries sustained from the explosions. The ethics of the bombings and their role in Japans surrender remain the subject of scholarly, since the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, nuclear weapons have been detonated on over two thousand occasions for the purposes of testing and demonstration. Only a few nations possess such weapons or are suspected of seeking them, israel is also believed to possess nuclear weapons, though in a policy of deliberate ambiguity, it does not acknowledge having them. Germany, Italy, Turkey, Belgium and the Netherlands are nuclear weapons sharing states, south Africa is the only country to have independently developed and then renounced and dismantled its nuclear weapons. Modernisation of weapons continues to occur, all existing nuclear weapons derive some of their explosive energy from nuclear fission reactions. Weapons whose explosive output is exclusively from fission reactions are commonly referred to as bombs or atom bombs. This has long noted as something of a misnomer, as their energy comes from the nucleus of the atom. The latter approach is considered more sophisticated than the former and only the approach can be used if the fissile material is plutonium. A major challenge in all nuclear weapon designs is to ensure that a significant fraction of the fuel is consumed before the weapon destroys itself. The amount of energy released by fission bombs can range from the equivalent of just under a ton to upwards of 500,000 tons of TNT, all fission reactions necessarily generate fission products, the radioactive remains of the atomic nuclei split by the fission reactions. Many fission products are highly radioactive or moderately radioactive. Fission products are the radioactive component of nuclear fallout
17.
Arctic
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The Arctic is a polar region located at the northernmost part of Earth. The Arctic consists of the Arctic Ocean, adjacent seas, and parts of Alaska, Canada, Finland, Greenland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, land within the Arctic region has seasonally varying snow and ice cover, with predominantly treeless permafrost-containing tundra. Arctic seas contain seasonal sea ice in many places, the Arctic region is a unique area among Earths ecosystems. For example, the cultures in the region and the Arctic indigenous peoples have adapted to its cold, in recent years, Arctic sea ice decline has been caused by global warming. Life in the Arctic includes organisms living in the ice, zooplankton and phytoplankton, fish and marine mammals, birds, land animals, plants, Arctic land is bordered by the subarctic. The word Arctic comes from the Greek word ἀρκτικός, near the Bear, northern, there are a number of definitions of what area is contained within the Arctic. The area can be defined as north of the Arctic Circle, the southern limit of the midnight sun. The Arctics climate is characterized by cold winters and cool summers and its precipitation mostly comes in the form of snow and is low, with most of the area receiving less than 50 cm. High winds often stir up snow, creating the illusion of continuous snowfall, average winter temperatures can be as low as −40 °C, and the coldest recorded temperature is approximately −68 °C. Coastal Arctic climates are moderated by oceanic influences, having generally warmer temperatures, the Arctic is affected by current global warming, leading to Arctic sea ice shrinkage, diminished ice in the Greenland ice sheet, and Arctic methane release as the permafrost thaws. Due to the migration of the planets isotherms, the Arctic region is currently shrinking. Perhaps the most spectacular result of Arctic shrinkage is sea ice loss, there is a large variance in predictions of Arctic sea ice loss, with models showing near-complete to complete loss in September from 2040 to some time well beyond 2100. About half of the models show near-complete to complete sea ice loss in September by the year 2100. Arctic life is characterized by adaptation to short growing seasons with long periods of sunlight, Arctic vegetation is composed of plants such as dwarf shrubs, graminoids, herbs, lichens and mosses, which all grow relatively close to the ground, forming tundra. As one moves northward, the amount of available for plant growth decreases considerably. Colder summer temperatures cause the size, abundance, productivity and variety of plants to decrease, trees cannot grow in the Arctic, but in its warmest parts, shrubs are common and can reach 2 m in height, sedges, mosses and lichens can form thick layers. In the coldest parts of the Arctic, much of the ground is bare, non-vascular plants such as lichens and mosses predominate, along with a few scattered grasses, herbivores on the tundra include the Arctic hare, lemming, muskox, and caribou. They are preyed on by the owl, Arctic fox, Grizzly bear
18.
Hawker Siddeley
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Hawker Siddeley was a group of British manufacturing companies engaged in aircraft production. Hawker Siddeley combined the legacies of several British aircraft manufacturers, emerging through a series of mergers, in 1977, Hawker Siddeley became a founding component of the nationalised British Aerospace. Hawker Siddeley also operated in other markets, such as locomotive building. The Company was once a constituent of the FTSE100 Index, at this time, Hawker Siddeley also acquired A. V. Roe & Company, Gloster Aircraft Company and Air Training Services, the constituent companies continued to produce their own aircraft designs under their own name as well as sharing manufacturing work throughout the group. During this campaign, Hurricanes outnumbered all other British fighters, combined, in 1945, the Hawker Siddeley purchased Victory Aircraft of Malton, Ontario, Canada from the Canadian government, renaming the company A. V. Roe Canada, commonly known as Avro Canada, initially a wholly owned subsidiary of Hawker Siddeley, during its operation, Avro Canada aircraft included the C102 Jetliner, CF-100 Canuck, CF-105 Arrow and VZ-9- AV Avrocar. Only the CF-100 fighter entered full-scale production, other design projects included supersonic transport passenger aircraft, a mach-2 VTOL fighter, hovercraft, a jet engine-powered tank, and the hypersonic Space Threshold Vehicle. After the cancellation of the Arrow, the company began to unravel, roe Canada was dissolved and the remaining assets were transferred to the now defunct Hawker Siddeley Canada. In 1948, the name was changed to Hawker Siddeley Group. The aircraft division would become Hawker Siddeley Aviation and the guided missile, in 1959, the aero engine business, Armstrong Siddeley was merged with that of the Bristol Aero Engines to form Bristol Siddeley. Out of this decision, came the order that all future contracts being offered had to include agreements to merge companies, in 1959, Folland Aircraft was acquired, followed by de Havilland Aircraft Company and Blackburn Aircraft in 1960. In 1963, the names of the constituent companies were dropped, in this period, the company developed the first operational, and, by far, the most successful VTOL jet aircraft, the Harrier family. This aircraft remained in production into the 1990s and remains in service, in 1957, Hawker Siddeley purchased the Brush group of companies that included Brush Electrical Machines, and Brush Traction, which manufactures electromotive equipment and railway locomotives. The Brush prototype locomotives Falcon, and the futuristic but over-weight HS4000 Kestrel, were produced there, other railway engineering assets were acquired, including Westinghouse Brake & Signal and the engine builder Mirrlees Blackstone, which came with the Brush businesses. In the early 1970s Hawker Siddeleys Canada Car and Foundry subsidiary began to build rapid transit vehicles for the North American market, later Hawker Siddeley would sell the same general design to the MBTA in Boston for their Blue and Orange Lines. 7048 cars were delivered to the Blue Line in 1978–80 and 12065 cars were delivered to the Orange Line in 1980–81, Hawker Siddeley also manufactured much of the Toronto subway systems older rolling stock, the H5 and H6 models. The heavy rail manufacturing business, based in Mississauga and Thunder Bay, MBTA also bought a number of commuter rail coaches from the German firm Messerschmitt, thereby teaming Hawker Siddeley with its old World War II rival under the same organisation
19.
Malton, Mississauga
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Malton is a neighbourhood in the northeastern part of the city of Mississauga, Ontario, Canada, located to the northwest of Toronto. The neighbourhood has a population of approximately 36,400 as of 2002, Malton is unique in that it does not adjoin any other Mississauga neighbourhood. Together, the Malton and Britannia Woods areas of Mississauga form Ward 5, Ward 5 is one of the largest in the City of Mississauga and the only ward with both a large number of businesses and residents. The oldest portion of Malton is located on the northwest corner of Airport, all of the roads in this area are named after cities in the United Kingdom. The Second Purchase from the Mississauga Indians on Wednesday, October 28,1818, was for 648,000 acres, Toronto Township received 34,556 acres, increasing its total acreage to 64,125. The Toronto Township expansion included Malton Village, the village of Malton took up the east half of Lot 11, Concession 6, East Hurontario Street. This was the 100-acre land grant of Joseph Price that was designated in 1821, most sources say Malton was first settled in 1819 or 1820. The northeast corner of Toronto Township was first settled in 1820 by Richard Halliday, there is no Halliday listed in the Land Registry papers, so he probably was a squatter and then rented, or his purchase was not registered. Halliday was the blacksmith and innkeeper, and he named the settlement Malton, after his home in England, Malton. Another early settler was Joseph Tomlinson and his land petition was dated August 25,1819. He and his wife Mary came to Malton in August 1820 to claim his 100-acre land grant, Joseph built a cabin 16x20, cleared and fenced 5 acres, cleared the roadway in front of the property within 18 months to comply with the conditions of his land grant. Other early settlers included, Samuel and Margaret Shaw 1821200 acres S half Lot 10, W half of Lot 11 Con.8 Henry, in 1850, when Toronto Township was incorporated, Malton had a population of 350. The introduction of the Grand Trunk Railway in 1854, allowed access to Toronto markets for local farmers. The village of Malton was subdivided in 1855, the population was 600 in 1864. Malton was chosen as the county seat in 1867, but Brampton contested the decision and was awarded the county seat a year later and its economic prosperity declined, as did the population, to 200. The opportunity for advancement was dealt another blow when the Credit Valley Railway came to Dixie, Malton suffered with the drop in shipping business. Malton was incorporated as a Police Village in 1914, in April 1937, Land agents representing the Toronto Harbour Commission approached the farmers of Malton who owned Lots 6-10 on Concession 5 and 6 to acquire land for Malton Airport. The farmers were, Mrs. Thomas Osborne -100 acres - This farm was on the SW corner of Malton Four Corners - Airport, death -99 acres - This farm was on the NE corner of Elmbank Road and Torbram, closest to the Village of Elmbank
20.
Ontario
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Ontario, one of the 13 provinces and territories of Canada, is located in east-central Canada. It is Canadas most populous province by a margin, accounting for nearly 40 percent of all Canadians. Ontario is fourth-largest in total area when the territories of the Northwest Territories and it is home to the nations capital city, Ottawa, and the nations most populous city, Toronto. There is only about 1 km of land made up of portages including Height of Land Portage on the Minnesota border. Ontario is sometimes divided into two regions, Northern Ontario and Southern Ontario. The great majority of Ontarios population and arable land is located in the south, in contrast, the larger, northern part of Ontario is sparsely populated with cold winters and is heavily forested. The province is named after Lake Ontario, a thought to be derived from Ontarí, io, a Huron word meaning great lake, or possibly skanadario. Ontario has about 250,000 freshwater lakes, the province consists of three main geographical regions, The thinly populated Canadian Shield in the northwestern and central portions, which comprises over half the land area of Ontario. Although this area mostly does not support agriculture, it is rich in minerals and in part covered by the Central and Midwestern Canadian Shield forests, studded with lakes, Northern Ontario is subdivided into two sub-regions, Northwestern Ontario and Northeastern Ontario. The virtually unpopulated Hudson Bay Lowlands in the north and northeast, mainly swampy. Southern Ontario which is further sub-divided into four regions, Central Ontario, Eastern Ontario, Golden Horseshoe, the highest point is Ishpatina Ridge at 693 metres above sea level located in Temagami, Northeastern Ontario. In the south, elevations of over 500 m are surpassed near Collingwood, above the Blue Mountains in the Dundalk Highlands, the Carolinian forest zone covers most of the southwestern region of the province. A well-known geographic feature is Niagara Falls, part of the Niagara Escarpment, the Saint Lawrence Seaway allows navigation to and from the Atlantic Ocean as far inland as Thunder Bay in Northwestern Ontario. Northern Ontario occupies roughly 87 percent of the area of the province. Point Pelee is a peninsula of Lake Erie in southwestern Ontario that is the southernmost extent of Canadas mainland, Pelee Island and Middle Island in Lake Erie extend slightly farther. All are south of 42°N – slightly farther south than the border of California. The climate of Ontario varies by season and location, the effects of these major air masses on temperature and precipitation depend mainly on latitude, proximity to major bodies of water and to a small extent, terrain relief. In general, most of Ontarios climate is classified as humid continental, Ontario has three main climatic regions
21.
Toronto Pearson International Airport
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The airport is named in honour of Toronto-born Lester B. Pearson, Nobel Peace Prize Laureate and 14th Prime Minister of Canada, Pearson Airport is the largest and busiest airport in Canada. Pearson handles more international passengers than any airport in North America other than John F. Kennedy International Airport, Pearson is the main hub for Air Canada. It is also a hub for passenger airline WestJet and cargo airline FedEx Express, Pearson Airport is operated by the Greater Toronto Airports Authority as part of Transport Canadas National Airports System. In 1952, the became the first in the world to provide facilities for United States border preclearance. An extensive network of domestic flights is operated from Pearson by several airlines to all major. As of 2017, over 75 airlines operate around 1,100 daily departures from Toronto Pearson to more than 180 destinations across all six of the inhabited continents. In 1937, the Government of Canada agreed to support the building of two airports for Toronto, one site was downtown, todays Billy Bishop Toronto City Airport. The other was to be outside the city, as a backup for the downtown field, a site near the town of Malton, northwest of Toronto, was chosen and the Toronto Harbour Commission purchased and acquired several farms to provide the land for the airfield. The first scheduled flight for the new Malton Airport was a Trans-Canada Air Lines DC-3 that landed on August 29,1939. During World War II, the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan operated No.1 Elementary Service Flying School, in 1958, the City of Toronto sold the Malton Airport to Transport Canada, who subsequently changed the name of the facility to Toronto International Airport. The airport was officially renamed Lester B. Pearson International Airport in 1984, Pearson, the fourteenth Prime Minister of Canada and recipient of the 1957 Nobel Peace Prize. The Greater Toronto Airports Authority assumed management, operation, and control of the airport in 1996, Toronto Pearson International Airport has two active terminals, Terminal 1 and Terminal 3. A third terminal, the Infield Terminal, is not used for regular operations at Pearson. Measuring over 567,000 square metres, Terminal 1 is the largest terminal at Pearson Airport and is among the largest buildings in the world by floor space, Air Canada and all other Star Alliance airlines that serve Toronto Pearson operate out of Terminal 1. The terminal is used by non-alliance airline Emirates. Terminal 1 was designed by a joint venture known as Airports Architects Canada, comprising Skidmore, Owings & Merrill LLP, Adamson Associates Architects and Moshe Safdie and Associates. It contains 58 gates, D1, D3, D5, D7-D12, D20, D22, D24, D26, D28, D31–D45, D51, D53, D55, D57, F60–F63, F64A–F64B, F65, F66A–F66B, F/E67–F/E81, F91, and F93
22.
Drag (physics)
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In fluid dynamics, drag is a force acting opposite to the relative motion of any object moving with respect to a surrounding fluid. This can exist between two layers or a fluid and a solid surface. Unlike other resistive forces, such as dry friction, which are independent of velocity. Drag force is proportional to the velocity for a laminar flow, even though the ultimate cause of a drag is viscous friction, the turbulent drag is independent of viscosity. Drag forces always decrease fluid velocity relative to the object in the fluids path. In the case of viscous drag of fluid in a pipe, in physics of sports, the drag force is necessary to explain the performance of runners, particularly of sprinters. Types of drag are generally divided into the categories, parasitic drag, consisting of form drag, skin friction, interference drag, lift-induced drag. The phrase parasitic drag is used in aerodynamics, since for lifting wings drag it is in general small compared to lift. For flow around bluff bodies, form and interference drags often dominate, further, lift-induced drag is only relevant when wings or a lifting body are present, and is therefore usually discussed either in aviation or in the design of semi-planing or planing hulls. Wave drag occurs either when an object is moving through a fluid at or near the speed of sound or when a solid object is moving along a fluid boundary. Drag depends on the properties of the fluid and on the size, shape, at low R e, C D is asymptotically proportional to R e −1, which means that the drag is linearly proportional to the speed. At high R e, C D is more or less constant, the graph to the right shows how C D varies with R e for the case of a sphere. As mentioned, the equation with a constant drag coefficient gives the force experienced by an object moving through a fluid at relatively large velocity. This is also called quadratic drag, the equation is attributed to Lord Rayleigh, who originally used L2 in place of A. Sometimes a body is a composite of different parts, each with a different reference areas, in the case of a wing the reference areas are the same and the drag force is in the same ratio to the lift force as the ratio of drag coefficient to lift coefficient. Therefore, the reference for a wing is often the area rather than the frontal area. For an object with a surface, and non-fixed separation points—like a sphere or circular cylinder—the drag coefficient may vary with Reynolds number Re. For an object with well-defined fixed separation points, like a disk with its plane normal to the flow direction
23.
Wave drag
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Wave drag is independent of viscous effects, and tends to present itself as a sudden and dramatic increase in drag as the vehicle increases speed to the Critical Mach number. It is the sudden and dramatic rise of wave drag that leads to the concept of a sound barrier, wave drag presents itself as part of pressure drag due to compressibility effects. It is caused by the formation of waves around a body. Shock waves create a considerable amount of drag, which can result in extreme drag on the body, although shock waves are typically associated with supersonic flow, they can form at subsonic aircraft speeds on areas of the body where local airflow accelerates to supersonic speed. The effect is seen on aircraft at transonic speeds. It led to the concept of a sound barrier, in 1947, studies into wave drag led to the development of perfect shapes to reduce wave drag as much as theoretically possible. For a fuselage the resulting shape was the Sears–Haack body, which suggested a perfect shape for any given internal volume. The von Kármán ogive was a shape for bodies with a blunt end. Both were based on long narrow shapes with pointed ends, the difference being that the ogive was pointed on only one end. These techniques were quickly put to use by aircraft designers, one common solution to the problem of wave drag was to use a swept wing, which had actually been developed before World War II and used on some German wartime designs. The wing need not be swept when it is possible to build a wing that is extremely thin and this solution was used on a number of designs beginning with the Bell X-1, the first manned aircraft to fly at the speed of sound. The downside to this approach is that the wing is so thin it is no longer possible to use it for storage of fuel or landing gear, such wings are very common on missiles, although in that field they are often referred to as fins. Fuselage shaping was similarly changed with the introduction of the Whitcomb area rule and this meant that the fuselage needed to be made narrower where it joined the wings, so that the cross-section of the entire aircraft matched the Sears-Haack body. Application of the rule can also be seen in the use of anti-shock bodies on transonic aircraft. Anti-shock bodies, which are pods along the edges of the wings. Several other attempts to wave drag have been introduced over the years. The supercritical airfoil is a type that results in low speed lift like a normal airfoil. All modern civil airliners use forms of supercritical aerofoil and have substantial supersonic flow over the upper surface
24.
Sound barrier
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The sound barrier or sonic barrier is a popular term for the sudden increase in aerodynamic drag and other effects experienced by an aircraft or other object when it approaches supersonic speed. When aircraft first began to be able to close to supersonic speed. In dry air at 20 °C, the barrier is reached when an object moves at a speed of 343 metres per second. By the 1950s, new aircraft designs routinely broke the sound barrier, some common whips such as the bullwhip or stockwhip are able to move faster than sound, the tip of the whip breaks the sound barrier and causes a sharp crack—literally a sonic boom. Firearms made after the 19th century have generally had a muzzle velocity. The sound barrier may have been first breached by living beings some 150 million years ago and this finding is theoretical and disputed by others in the field. Meteorites entering the Earths atmosphere usually, if not always, descend faster than sound, the tip of the propeller on many early aircraft may reach supersonic speeds, producing a noticeable buzz that differentiates such aircraft. This is particularly noticeable on the Stearman, and noticeable on the North American T-6 Texan when it enters a sharp-breaking turn and this is undesirable, as the transonic air movement creates disruptive shock waves and turbulence. It is due to effects that propellers are known to suffer from dramatically decreased performance as they approach the speed of sound. It is easy to demonstrate that the power needed to improve performance is so great that the weight of the required engine grows faster than the output of the propeller can compensate. Nevertheless, propeller aircraft were able to approach the speed of sound in a dive, unfortunately, doing so led to numerous crashes for a variety of reasons. Most infamously, in the Mitsubishi Zero, pilots flew full power into the terrain because the rapidly increasing forces acting on the surfaces of their aircraft overpowered them. In this case, several attempts to fix it only made the problem worse and this was solved in later models with changes to the wing. in 1946. A similar problem is thought to be the cause of the 1943 crash of the BI-1 rocket aircraft in the Soviet Union. All of these effects, although unrelated in most ways, led to the concept of a barrier that makes it difficult for an aircraft to exceed the speed of sound. During WWII and immediately thereafter a number of claims were made that the barrier had been broken in a dive. The majority of these events can be dismissed as instrumentation errors. The typical airspeed indicator uses air pressure differences between two or more points on the aircraft, typically near the nose and at the side of the fuselage and this effect became known as Mach jump
25.
Chord (aeronautics)
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In aeronautics, chord refers to the imaginary straight line joining the leading and trailing edges of an aerofoil. The chord length is the distance between the edge and the point on the leading edge where the chord intersects the leading edge. The point on the edge that is used to define the chord can be defined as either the surface point of minimum radius. The wing, horizontal stabilizer, vertical stabilizer and propeller of an aircraft are all based on sections. The chord of a wing, stabilizer and propeller is determined by measuring the distance between leading and trailing edges in the direction of the airflow, the term chord is also applied to the width of wing flaps, ailerons and rudder on an aircraft. The term is applied to aerofoils in gas turbine engines such as turbojet, turboprop. Most wings are not rectangular so they have a different chord at different positions along their span, to give a characteristic figure that can be compared among various wing shapes, the mean aerodynamic chord, or MAC, is used. The MAC is somewhat complex to calculate, because most wings vary in chord over the span. This means that lift is generated on the wider inner portions. Standard mean chord is defined as wing area divided by wing span, SMC = S b, thus, the SMC is the chord of a rectangular wing with the same area and span as those of the given wing. This is a geometric figure and is rarely used in aerodynamics. Mean aerodynamic chord is defined as, MAC =2 S ∫0 b 2 c 2 d y, other terms are as for SMC. The MAC is a representation of the whole wing. The pressure distribution over the wing can be reduced to a single lift force on. Therefore, not only the length but also the position of MAC is often important. In particular, the position of center of mass of an aircraft is measured relative to the MAC. Note that the figure to the right implies that the MAC occurs at a point where leading or trailing edge sweep changes, in general, this is not the case. Any shape other than a simple trapezoid requires evaluation of the above integral, the ratio of the length of a rectangular-planform wing to its chord is known as the aspect ratio, an important indicator of the lift-induced drag the wing will create
26.
Swept wing
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A swept wing is a wing which angles either backward or, occasionally, forward, from its root rather than in a straight sideways direction. Wing sweep has the effect of delaying the shock waves and accompanying aerodynamic drag caused by fluid compressibility near the speed of sound. Swept wings are often used on jet aircraft designed to fly at these speeds. Swept wings are sometimes used for other reasons, such as structural convenience or visibility. Wing sweep at high speeds was first investigated in Germany as early as 1935, since then, swept wings have become almost universal on all but the slowest jets. The term swept wing is used to mean swept back, but other swept variants include forward sweep, variable sweep wings and oblique wings in which one side sweeps forward. The delta wing also incorporates the same advantages as part of its layout, typical sweep angles vary from 0 for a straight-wing aircraft, to 45 degrees or more for fighters and other high-speed designs. The swept wing geometry appeared before World War I, and was conceived as a means of permitting the design of safe, stable, and tailless flying wings. It imposed self-damping inherent stability upon the flying wing, and, as a result, many flying wing gliders, one of the earliest swept wing designs was used by José Weiss to construct a swept-wing tail-less glider in 1908 in England. He followed this up with a version powered by an Anzani engine driving two propellers, at the same time the Anglo-Irish engineer John William Dunne was experimenting along similar lines, obsessed with achieving innate stability in flight. He was able to successfully employ severely swept wings in his tailless aircraft as a means of creating positive longitudinal static stability, in 1905 he had already built a glider with swept wings and by 1913 he had constructed successful powered variants that were able to cross the English Channel. The Dunne D.5 was exceptionally aerodynamically stable for the time and the D.8 was sold to the Royal Flying Corps, however, Dunnes theories met with little acceptance from the leading aircraft designers and companies at the time. The Curtiss XP-55 was the first American swept wing airplane, although it was not considered successful, the idea of using swept wings to reduce high-speed drag was developed in Germany in the 1930s. At a Volta Conference meeting in 1935 in Italy, Dr. Adolf Busemann suggested the use of wings for supersonic flight. Albert Betz immediately suggested the effect would be equally useful in the transonic. After the presentation the host of the meeting, Arturo Crocco, croccos sketch showed a classic 1950s fighter design, with swept wings and tail surfaces, although he also sketched a swept propeller powering it. Even notable attendees including Theodore von Kármán and Eastman Jacobs did not recall the presentation 10 years later when it was re-introduced to them, hubert Ludewieg of the High-Speed Aerodynamics Branch at the AVA Göttingen in 1939 conducted the first wind tunnel tests to investigate Busemanns theory. Two wings, one with no sweep, and one with 45 degrees of sweep were tested at Mach numbers of 0.7 and 0.9 in the 11 x 13 cm wind tunnel
27.
Avro Canada CF-103
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Due to the perceived limitations of the CF-100s original thick, straight wing, Chief Designer John Frost proposed a series of refinements that included a thinner swept wing. Frost considered the new design as an interim aircraft between the CF-100 and the more advanced C-104 project, the salient changes to the basic wing planform were in decreasing its chord and thickness, and adding a 42° sweep to the leading edge, creating a near-delta wing configuration. The tail surfaces were also swept back, one version that was considered featured two streamlined fuel tanks blended into the leading edge of the wings near the three/quarter position. In 1951, the Canadian Department of Trade and Commerce issued an order for two prototypes and a static test airframe, under the CF-103 project designation. Jigs, tools and detailed engineering drawings were in place by June 1951, with wind tunnel testing, conducted at Cornell University, completed by November 1951. Two different tail designs were fitted with the effort only having a swept leading edge of the tail. Work on the CF-103 stalled, with the maiden flight originally scheduled for the summer of 1952, although the mock-up languished in the experimental bay at the factory, a dramatic event served to preclude any attempt to restart the project. On 18 December 1952, from a height of 33,000 ft and his unauthorized test flight resulted in the final scrapping of the mock-up.85 or 647 mph Armament Proposed Forward-firing ventral gun pack containing eight
28.
James C. Floyd
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James Charles Floyd is a Canadian aerospace engineer, born in Manchester, England. Floyd was the Avro Aircraft Ltd. chief design engineer, Floyd started in January 1930 as an apprentice with A. V. Floyd moved up the chain finally ending as Senior Vice President, during his early career, Floyd was employed as a design engineer on the Anson, Manchester, Lancaster, York, Lincoln and Tudor projects at A. V. Roe. He also spent time at Hawkers, another company in the Hawker Siddeley group. He worked under two British aircraft designers, Roy Chadwick and Sydney Camm and he moved to Canada to join the new A. V. Roe Canada, more known as Avro Canada, in 1946. Floyds work on jet transport in the UK led to the Avro Canada C102 Jetliner, the Jetliner had been designed for the Trans Canada Airlines requirement of 1946. Despite being the first jet-powered airliner in North America, and the second to fly worldwide, when the Canadian government insisted that Avro concentrate on its jet engine and CF-100 designs, Floyd was named as Project Designer for the CF-100 in 1952. Like thousands of other Avro Canada employees, Floyd was laid off in the wake of the Avro CF-105 Arrow/Orenda Iroquois engine cancellation of February 20,1959, Black Friday. After securing positions in companies for many of the engineers in his department, Floyd. He headed up Hawker Siddeleys Advanced Projects Group that developed the HSA.1000 SST design evaluated as part of a joint research study with Bristol whose design became the Concorde. Floyd later worked as a consultant from 1965 to 1972, since his retirement in 1979, Floyd has devoted free time to a number of educational and youth-oriented projects. Floyd and his family returned to Canada in 1981, and, as of 2014, is living in the Greater Toronto area near the razed Avro Canada company buildings in Malton, Ontario. Floyd also was awarded the J. A, mcCurdy trophy in 1958 for his work on the Avro Arrow. In May 2000, he was awarded an Honorary Doctor of Engineering Design by the Royal Military College of Canada. On July 20,2009 Floyd was awarded the first Canadian Air and Space Pioneer Award in a ceremony at The former Canadian Air and Space Museum at Downsview Park, Toronto and he turned 100 in October 2014
29.
G-force
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The g-force is a measurement of the type of acceleration that causes a perception of weight. Despite the name, it is incorrect to consider g-force a fundamental force, since g-force accelerations indirectly produce weight, any g-force can be described as a weight per unit mass. The types of forces involved are transmitted through objects by interior mechanical stresses, the g-force acceleration is the cause of an objects acceleration in relation to free-fall. The g-force acceleration experienced by an object is due to the sum of all non-gravitational. In practice, as noted, these are surface-contact forces between objects, such forces cause stresses and strains on objects, since they must be transmitted from an object surface. Because of these strains, large g-forces may be destructive, gravitation acting alone does not produce a g-force, even though g-forces are expressed in multiples of the acceleration of a standard gravity. Thus, the gravitational acceleration at the Earths surface produces g-force only indirectly. These mechanical forces actually produce the g-force acceleration on a mass, for example, the 1 g force on an object sitting on the Earths surface is caused by mechanical force exerted in the upward direction by the ground, keeping the object from going into free-fall. The upward contact-force from the ground ensures that an object at rest on the Earths surface is accelerating relative to the free-fall condition, stress inside the object is ensured from the fact that the ground contact forces are transmitted only from the point of contact with the ground. Objects allowed to free-fall in an inertial trajectory under the influence of only, feel no g-force acceleration. This is demonstrated by the conditions inside a freely falling elevator falling toward the Earths center. These are examples of coordinate acceleration without a sensation of weight, the experience of no g-force, however it is produced, is synonymous with weightlessness. An example here is a rocket in space, in which simple changes in velocity are produced by the engines. The unit of measure of acceleration in the International System of Units is m/s2, however, to distinguish acceleration relative to free-fall from simple acceleration, the unit g is often used. One g is the due to gravity at the Earths surface and is the standard gravity, defined as 9.80665 metres per second squared. Note that the definition does not vary with location—the g-force when standing on the moon is about 0.181 g. The unit g is not one of the SI units, which uses g for gram, also g should not be confused with G, which is the standard symbol for the gravitational constant. For example, it is said an F-16 fighter jet is able to sustain up to 9 Gs for a limited time
30.
Bristol Olympus
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The Rolls-Royce Olympus was the worlds first two-spool axial-flow turbojet aircraft engine design, dating from November 1946, although not the first to run or enter service. It was originally developed and produced by Bristol Aero Engines, first running in 1950, its initial use was as the powerplant of the Avro Vulcan V bomber. The design was developed for supersonic performance as part of the BAC TSR-2 programme. Later it saw production as the Rolls-Royce/Snecma Olympus 593, the powerplant for Concorde SST, versions of the engine were licensed to Curtiss-Wright in the US as the TJ-32 or J67 and the TJ-38 Zephyr. The Olympus was also developed with success as marine and industrial gas turbines, Bristol Aero Engines merged with Armstrong Siddeley Motors in 1959 to form Bristol Siddeley Engines Limited, which in turn was taken over by Rolls-Royce in 1966. As of 2012, the Olympus remains in service as both a marine and industrial gas turbine, at the end of World War II, the Bristol Engine Company’s major effort was the development of the Hercules and Centaurus radial piston engines. In early 1947, the parent Bristol Aeroplane Company submitted a proposal for a bomber to the same specification B. 35/46 which led to the Avro Vulcan. The Bristol design was the Type 172 and was to be powered by four or six Bristol engines of 9,000 lbf thrust to the Ministry engine specification TE. 1/46. The thrust required of the new engine, then designated B. E.10, the pressure ratio would be an unheard of 9,1. To achieve this, the design used a low-pressure axial compressor. Without these features an engine could not be started nor run at low speeds without destructive blade vibrations, nor could they accelerate to high speeds with fast acceleration times without surge. The design was modified and the centrifugal HP compressor was replaced by an axial HP compressor. This reduced the diameter of the new engine to the specification of 40 in. The Bristol Type 172 was cancelled though development continued for the Avro Vulcan, the first engine, its development designation being BOl.1, had six LP compressor stages and eight HP stages, each driven by a single-stage turbine. The combustion system was novel in ten connected flame tubes were housed within a cannular system, a hybrid of separate flame cans. Separate combustion cans would have exceeded the diameter beyond the limit. In 1950, Dr Stanley Hooker was appointed as Chief Engineer of Bristol Aero Engines, the next development was the BOl. 1/2 which produced 9,500 lbf thrust in December 1950. Examples of the similar BOl. 1/2A were constructed for US manufacturer Curtiss-Wright which had bought a licence for developing the engine as the TJ-32 or J67, the somewhat revised BOl. 1/2B, ran in December 1951 producing 9,750 lbf thrust
31.
Orenda Engines
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Orenda Engines was a Canadian aircraft engine manufacturer and parts supplier. The origins of the company back to the Second World War. During the war, the National Research Council of Canada ran a small aerodynamics effort similar to NACA in the US or Royal Aircraft Establishment in the UK. In 1942 they sent two of their researchers to the UK to take a survey of their efforts and report back on what fields of study the Canadians should focus on in order to avoid duplication. One of the many topics mentioned was Frank Whittles efforts to build the first working jet engine, at the same time the fledgling RCAF was concerned about their dependence on the US and UK for their aircraft engines. Both the RCAF and NRC felt the jet engine offered a way for Canada to quickly catch up in engine technology via this newly evolving field. Another report was started to make a study of the jet engine efforts in the UK. Among their recommendations was the suggestion to form a cold weather testing centre, another suggestion was to form their own engine company as soon as possible. Following the advice of the Report, in March 1944 the government formed Turbo Research as a crown corporation, the company was formally incorporated on 1 July 1944, and were set up in a disused section of the Research Enterprises Limited factories in Leaside. Several members of the NRC teams that had traveled to the UK during the Report moved to the new company, tupper as chief engineer, Paul Dilworth as chief designer and Winnett Boyd, initially as the combustion engineer, but later as the chief designer. The team initially studied a series of designs based on the basic Whittle centrifugal-flow design, starting with the TR.1 and growing through the TR.2 to the largest, the TR.3. None of these progressed past initial studies however, as the team turned their attention to a new axial-flow design, the TR.4. At about this time, the former Victory Aircraft plants in Malton were being converted into the new A. V, in the spring of 1946 the government decided to turn all engine development over to private industry, and sold Turbo Research to Avro. Paul Dillworth remained as engineer of the newly christened Gas Turbine Division. Work on the TR.4, the first Canadian-designed jet engine, now called the Chinook, it first ran on March 1948, producing 2,600 lbf thrust. Only three were built before all attention moved to the Orenda, work on the TR.4 continued through this period, but in the summer of 1946, Avro Canada asked them to produce a new 6,500 lbf engine for their CF-100 Canuck interceptor design. The resulting TR.5 Orenda design was essentially a scaled-up Chinook, with work continuing on the latter to bring the production and test teams up to speed. The Orendas design was similar enough to the Chinook that prototype production was completed in less than a year, testing proceeded quickly at a facility outside Nobel, Ontario, formerly a munitions factory owned by C-I-L
32.
AIM-4 Falcon
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The Hughes AIM-4 Falcon was the first operational guided air-to-air missile of the United States Air Force. Development began in 1946, the weapon was first tested in 1949, the missile entered service with the USAF in 1956. Produced in both heat-seeking and radar-guided versions, the missile served during the Vietnam War with USAF McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II units, designed to shoot down slow bombers with limited maneuverability, it was ineffective against maneuverable fighters over Vietnam. Lacking proximity fusing, the missile would only detonate if a hit was scored. The Sidewinder was much more effective and continues to serve the forces of the United States. Development of a guided air-to-air missile began in 1946, Hughes Aircraft was awarded a contract for a subsonic missile under the project designation MX-798, which soon gave way to the supersonic MX-904 in 1947. The original purpose of the weapon was as a weapon for bomber aircraft. The first test firings took place in 1949, at time it was designated AAM-A-2. A brief policy of awarding fighter and bomber designations to missiles led it to be redesignated F-98 in 1951, in 1955, the policy changed again, and the missile was again redesignated GAR-1. The initial GAR-1 and GAR-2 models entered service in 1956 and it armed the Northrop F-89 Scorpion, McDonnell F-101B Voodoo and Convair F-102 Delta Dagger and F-106 Delta Dart interceptors. The only other users were Canada, Finland, Sweden and Switzerland, whose CF-101 Voodoo, Saab 35 Draken, Canada also hoped to use them on the Avro CF-105 Arrow interceptor, however, this was never realized because of the Arrows cancellation. Fighters carrying the Falcon were often designed with internal weapons bays for carrying this missile, the Scorpion carried them on wingtip pods, while the Delta Dagger and Delta Dart had belly bays with a trapeze mechanism to move them into the airstream for launch. The F-101B had an unusual bay arrangement where two were stored externally, and then the bay door would rotate to expose two more missiles, the GAR-1 had semi-active radar homing, giving a range of about 5 mi. It was replaced in production by the GAR-1D, with control surfaces. About 12,000 of this variant were produced, the production version of the SARH Falcon. The GAR-2 was a heat-seeker, generally limited to rear-aspect engagements, as would also be Soviet practice, it was common to fire the weapon in salvos of both types to increase the chances of a hit. The GAR-2 was about 1.5 in longer and 16 lb heavier than its SARH counterpart and it was replaced in production by the GAR-2A, with a more sensitive infrared seeker. A total of about 26,000 of the infrared-homing Falcons were built, all of the early Falcons had a small 7.6 lb warhead, limiting their lethal radius
33.
Myasishchev M-4
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The Myasishchev design bureau was formed to build such a bomber. First flying soon after the first flight of the Boeing B-52 Stratofortress, the aircraft was a surprise to the United States, which had not known that the Soviets had built a jet bomber. However, it became clear that the bomber had an insufficient range to attack the United States. Only a few of the original production M-4s were actually put into service, to remedy this problem, the Myasishchev design bureau introduced the 3M, known to the West as the Bison-B, which was considerably more powerful than the previous version. This new model first flew in 1955, among other things, two of the five original gun barbettes were removed to lighten the aircraft. In July 1955 American observers saw 28 Bisons in two groups during a Soviet air show, the United States government believed that the bomber was in mass production, and the Central Intelligence Agency estimated that 800 would be available by 1960. The display was a hoax, the first group of ten repeated the flyby with eight more, the classified estimates led, however, to American politicians warning of a bomber gap. This time, it was not the Soviet Air Force that wanted the 3M, though it could still not bomb Washington, D. C. the 3M had a sufficient range to fulfill the need for a long-range maritime patrol aircraft. In 1959, the 3M broke numerous world records, however, it was thought by the West that the 3M was the original M-4, meaning that the capability of the M-4 was vastly overestimated by Western intelligence agencies. In the early 1960s, the Bison-C, with a search radar, was introduced. By this time, many of the original M-4s had been converted to M-4-2 fuel tankers for aerial refueling, later, 3Ms were converted to 3MS-2 and 3MN-2 tankers as well. Neither the M-4 nor the 3M ever saw combat, and none were converted for low-altitude attack, as many American B-52s were. Production of the Bison aircraft stopped in 1963, by which time 93 of them had been built, the last aircraft, an M-4-2 fuel tanker, was withdrawn from service in 1994. The three VM-T heavy lift aircraft were converted from 3MN-2 tankers, with large loads carried piggy-back above the fuselage. The single vertical fin/rudder was replaced with two large rectangular fin/rudders at the tips of the horizontal stabilizers to improve due to the turbulence caused by the cargo pod. With the withdrawal of the Myasishchev bombers and tankers the vast majority of the airframes were broken up under the terms of the relevant arms limitation treaty. SDB – The government designation for the M-4 programme, subject 25 – The VVS designation for the strategic bomber program. Myasishchev M-4 – The designation used for production aircraft,35 built including two prototypes and a static test article
34.
Thermonuclear weapon
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A thermonuclear weapon is a nuclear weapon that uses the energy from a primary nuclear fission reaction to compress and ignite a secondary nuclear fusion reaction. The result is greatly increased power when compared to single-stage fission weapons. It is colloquially referred to as a bomb or an H-bomb because it employs the fusion of isotopes of hydrogen. The first full scale thermonuclear test was carried out by the United States in 1952, similar devices were developed by the Soviet Union, United Kingdom, China, and France. The radiation implosion mechanism is an engine that exploits the temperature difference between the secondary stages hot, surrounding radiation channel and its relatively cool interior. This temperature difference is maintained by a massive heat barrier called the pusher. If made of uranium, as is almost always the case, it can capture neutrons produced by the reaction and undergo fission itself. In many Teller–Ulam weapons, fission of the pusher dominates the explosion, detailed knowledge of fission and fusion weapons is classified to some degree in virtually every industrialized nation. Born secret is rarely invoked for cases of private speculation, in a small number of prior cases, the U. S. government has attempted to censor weapons information in the public press, with limited success. According to the New York Times, physicist Kenneth Ford defied government orders to remove classified information from his new book, Building the H Bomb, the state of public knowledge about the Teller–Ulam design has been mostly shaped from a few specific incidents outlined in a section below. At a bare minimum, this implies a primary section consists of an implosion-type fission bomb. The energy released by the primary compresses the secondary through a process called radiation implosion, at which point it is heated, surrounding the other components is a hohlraum or radiation case, a container that traps the first stage or primarys energy inside temporarily. The outside of this case, which is also normally the outside casing of the bomb, is the only direct visual evidence publicly available of any thermonuclear bomb components configuration. Numerous photographs of various thermonuclear bomb exteriors have been declassified, generally, a research program with the capacity to create a thermonuclear bomb has already mastered the ability to engineer boosted fission. The secondary is usually shown as a column of fusion fuel, around the column is first a pusher-tamper, a heavy layer of uranium-238 or lead that serves to help compress the fusion fuel. Inside this is the fuel itself, usually a form of lithium deuteride. This dry fuel, when bombarded by neutrons, produces tritium, inside the layer of fuel is the spark plug, a hollow column of fissile material that, when compressed, can itself undergo nuclear fission. The tertiary, if one is present, would be set below the secondary, separating the secondary from the primary is the interstage
35.
Cold War
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The Cold War was a state of geopolitical tension after World War II between powers in the Eastern Bloc and powers in the Western Bloc. Historians do not fully agree on the dates, but a common timeframe is the period between 1947, the year the Truman Doctrine was announced, and 1991, the year the Soviet Union collapsed. The term cold is used there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two sides, although there were major regional wars, known as proxy wars, supported by the two sides. The Cold War split the temporary alliance against Nazi Germany, leaving the Soviet Union. The USSR was a Marxist–Leninist state ruled by its Communist Party and secret police, the Party controlled the press, the military, the economy and all organizations. In opposition stood the West, dominantly democratic and capitalist with a free press, a small neutral bloc arose with the Non-Aligned Movement, it sought good relations with both sides. The two superpowers never engaged directly in full-scale armed combat, but they were armed in preparation for a possible all-out nuclear world war. The first phase of the Cold War began in the first two years after the end of the Second World War in 1945, the Berlin Blockade was the first major crisis of the Cold War. With the victory of the communist side in the Chinese Civil War and the outbreak of the Korean War, the USSR and USA competed for influence in Latin America, and the decolonizing states of Africa and Asia. Meanwhile, the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was stopped by the Soviets, the expansion and escalation sparked more crises, such as the Suez Crisis, the Berlin Crisis of 1961, and the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The USSR crushed the 1968 Prague Spring liberalization program in Czechoslovakia, détente collapsed at the end of the decade with the beginning of the Soviet–Afghan War in 1979. The early 1980s were another period of elevated tension, with the Soviet downing of Korean Air Lines Flight 007, the United States increased diplomatic, military, and economic pressures on the Soviet Union, at a time when the communist state was already suffering from economic stagnation. In the mid-1980s, the new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the reforms of perestroika and glasnost. Pressures for national independence grew stronger in Eastern Europe, especially Poland, Gorbachev meanwhile refused to use Soviet troops to bolster the faltering Warsaw Pact regimes as had occurred in the past. The result in 1989 was a wave of revolutions that peacefully overthrew all of the communist regimes of Central, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union itself lost control and was banned following an abortive coup attempt in August 1991. This in turn led to the dissolution of the USSR in December 1991. The United States remained as the only superpower. The Cold War and its events have left a significant legacy and it is often referred to in popular culture, especially in media featuring themes of espionage and the threat of nuclear warfare
36.
Fire-control system
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A fire-control system is a number of components working together, usually a gun data computer, a director, and radar, which is designed to assist a weapon system in hitting its target. It performs the task as a human gunner firing a weapon. The best known United States device was the Norden bombsight, simple systems, known as lead computing sights also made their appearance inside aircraft late in the war as gyro gunsights. These devices used a gyroscope to measure turn rates, and moved the gunsights aim-point to take this into account, the only manual input to the sight was the target distance, which was typically handled by dialing in the size of the targets wing span at some known range. Small radar units were added in the period to automate even this input. By the start of the Vietnam War, a new computerized bombing predictor, called the Low Altitude Bombing System, the key advantage is that the weapon can be released accurately even when the plane is maneuvering. Most bombsights until this time required that the plane maintain a constant attitude, the LABS system was originally designed to facilitate a tactic called toss bombing, to allow the aircraft to remain out of range of a weapons blast radius. The principle of calculating the point, however, was eventually integrated into the fire control computers of later bombers and strike aircraft, allowing level, dive. In addition, as the control computer became integrated with ordnance systems. By the start of World War II, aircraft altitude performance had increased so much that anti-aircraft guns had similar predictive problems, the main difference between these systems and the ones on ships was size and speed. The USN Mk 37 system made similar assumptions except that it could predict assuming a constant rate of altitude change. The Kerrison Predictor is an example of a system that was built to solve laying in real time, simply by pointing the director at the target and then aiming the gun at a pointer it directed. It was also designed to be small and light, in order to allow it to be easily moved along with the guns it served. The radar-based M-9/SCR-584 Anti-Aircraft System was used to air defense artillery since 1943. In combination with the VT proximity fuze, this system accomplished the feat of shooting down V-1 cruise missiles with less than 100 shells per plane. This system was instrumental in the defense of London and Antwerp against the V-1, although listed in Land based fire control section anti-aircraft fire control systems can also be found on naval and aircraft systems. In the United States, Coast Artillery fire control systems began to be developed at the end of the 19th Century, early systems made use of multiple observation or base end stations to find and track targets attacking American harbors. Fire control in the Coast Artillery became more and more sophisticated in terms of correcting firing data for such factors as weather conditions, provisions were also made for adjusting firing data for the observed fall of shells
37.
Project Nike
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Project Nike, was a U. S. Army project, proposed in May 1945 by Bell Laboratories, to develop a line-of-sight anti-aircraft missile system. The project delivered the United States first operational anti-aircraft missile system, a great number of the technologies and rocket systems used for developing the Nike Ajax were re-used for a number of functions, many of which were given the Nike name. The missiles first-stage solid rocket booster became the basis for many types of rocket including the Nike Hercules missile and NASAs Nike Smoke rocket, a much longer-ranged collision-course system was developed by General Electric, named Project Thumper, eventually delivering the BOMARC missile. Bell Labs proposal would have to deal with bombers flying at 500 mph or more, at these speeds, even a supersonic rocket is no longer fast enough to be simply aimed at the target. The missile must lead the target to ensure the target is hit before the missile depletes its fuel and this means that the missile and target cannot be tracked by a single radar, increasing the complexity of the system. By this point, the US had considerable experience with lead-calculating analog computers, starting with the British Kerrison Predictor, for Nike, three radars were used. The acquisition radar searched for a target to be handed over to the Target Tracking Radar for tracking, the Missile Tracking Radar tracked the missile by way of a transponder, as the missiles radar signature alone was not sufficient. The MTR also commanded the missile by way of pulse-position modulation, once the tracking radars were locked the system was able to work automatically following launch, barring any unexpected occurrences. The computer compared the two directions, along with information on the speeds and distances, to calculate the intercept point. The entirety of this system was provided by the Bell Systems electronics firm, the Douglas-built missile was a two-stage missile using a solid fuel booster stage and a liquid fueled second stage. The missile could reach a speed of 1,000 mph. The missile contained an unusual three part payload, with explosive charges at three points down the length of the missile to help ensure a lethal hit. The missiles limited range was seen by critics as a serious flaw, after disputes between the Army and the Air Force, all longer-range systems were assigned to the Air Force during 1948. They merged their own research with Project Thumper, while the Army continued to develop Nike. During 1950 the Army formed the Army Anti-Aircraft Command to operate batteries of anti-aircraft guns, ARAACOM was renamed the US Army Air Defense Command during 1957. It adopted a simpler acronym, ARADCOM, in 1961, the first successful Nike test was during November 1951, intercepting a drone B-17 Flying Fortress. The first type, Nike Ajax, were deployed starting in 1953, the Army initially ordered 1,000 missiles and 60 sets of equipment. They were placed to protect strategic and tactical sites within the US, as a last-line of defense from air attack, they were positioned to protect cities as well as military installations
38.
Wallops Island
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Wallops Island is a six-square-mile island off the Eastern Shore of Virginia, part of the Virginia Barrier Islands that stretch along the eastern seaboard of the United States of America. It is located in Accomack County, Virginia, the island is just south of Chincoteague Island, a popular tourist destination. Wallops Island proper, originally known as Kegotank Island, was granted to John Wallop by the Crown on April 29,1692, ownership was divided down through the years, until the Commonwealth of Virginia seized the property in 1876 and 1877 in lieu of unpaid taxes. From 1877, ownership was divided and sub-divided until 1889. The Club was incorporated and assumed ownership in 1933 as the Wallops Island Association, Inc. Association members, the Association grazed sheep, cattle, and ponies on the area until the mid-1940s. In 1947, the U. S. Navy began using the upper two-thirds of the island on a basis for aviation ordnance testing. Forerunner of NASA, leased the lower 1,000 acres for rocket launching facilities, the Wallops Island National Wildlife Refuge is located on the island. The current population of Wallops Island is 434
39.
Angle of attack
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In fluid dynamics, angle of attack is the angle between a reference line on a body and the vector representing the relative motion between the body and the fluid through which it is moving. Angle of attack is the angle between the reference line and the oncoming flow. This article focuses on the most common application, the angle of attack of a wing or airfoil moving through air, since a wing can have twist, a chord line of the whole wing may not be definable, so an alternate reference line is simply defined. Often, the line of the root of the wing is chosen as the reference line. Another choice is to use a line on the fuselage as the reference line. Some authors do not use a chord line, but use the zero lift axis. Some British authors have used the angle of incidence instead of angle of attack. However, this can lead to confusion with the term angle of incidence meaning the angle between the chord of an airfoil and some fixed datum in the airplane. The lift coefficient of a fixed-wing aircraft varies with angle of attack, increasing angle of attack is associated with increasing lift coefficient up to the maximum lift coefficient, after which lift coefficient decreases. The figure shows a curve for a cambered straight wing. A symmetrical wing has zero lift at 0 degrees angle of attack, the lift curve is also influenced by the wing shape, including its airfoil section and wing planform. A swept wing has a lower, flatter curve with a critical angle. The critical angle of attack is the angle of attack which produces maximum lift coefficient and this is also called the stall angle of attack. Below the critical angle of attack, as the angle of attack increases, conversely, above the critical angle of attack, as angle of attack increases, the air begins to flow less smoothly over the upper surface of the airfoil and begins to separate from the upper surface. On most airfoil shapes, as the angle of attack increases, at the critical angle of attack, upper surface flow is more separated and the airfoil or wing is producing its maximum coefficient of lift. As angle of attack increases further, the surface flow becomes more and more fully separated. Above this critical angle of attack, the aircraft is said to be in a stall, a fixed-wing aircraft by definition is stalled at or above the critical angle of attack rather than at or below a particular airspeed. The airspeed at which the aircraft stalls varies with the weight of the aircraft, the load factor, however the aircraft always stalls at the same critical angle of attack
40.
Dog-tooth
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The earliest example is found in the hall at Rabbath Ammon in Moab built by the Sassanians, where it decorates the arch molding of the blind arcades and the string courses. The pattern consists of 4 flower petals forming a square or diamond shape with central elements, the petals have the form of the pointed conical canine tooth, eye tooth or cuspid. In the apse of the church at Murano, near Venice, in the 12th and 13th centuries it was further elaborated with carving, losing therefore its primitive form, but constituting a most beautiful decorative feature. In Elgin Cathedral the dogtooth ornament in the archivolt becomes a four-lobed leaf, and in Stone church, Kent, the term has been supposed to originate in a resemblance to the dog tooth violet, but the original idea of a projecting tooth is a sufficient explanation. Dogtooth is also a woven fabric pattern which resembles a canine tooth, a dogtooth in aviation is a wing or tailplane design where the leading edge of the airfoil has a noticeable notch. Many high-performance aircraft use the design, which induces a vortex over the wing to control boundary layer spanwise extension, increasing lift. Some of the most well-known uses of the dogtooth is in the stabilizer of the F-15 Eagle, the wings of the F-4 Phantom II, F/A-18 Super Hornet, CF-105 Arrow, F-8U Crusader, and it was first implemented in the Flyer IV of the Wright brothers
41.
Camber (aerodynamics)
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In aeronautics and aeronautical engineering, camber is the asymmetry between the top and the bottom surfaces of an aerofoil. An aerofoil that is not cambered is called a symmetrical aerofoil, the benefits of camber, in contrast to symmetrical aerofoils, were discovered and first utilized by Sir George Cayley in the early 19th century. Camber is usually designed into an aerofoil to increase the lift coefficient. This minimizes the speed of aircraft using the aerofoil. Aircraft with wings based on cambered aerofoils usually have lower stalling speeds than similar aircraft with wings based on symmetric aerofoils, an aircraft designer may also reduce the camber of the outboard section of the wings to increase the critical angle of attack at the wing tips. Some recent designs use negative camber, one such design is called the supercritical aerofoil. It is used for flight, and produces a higher lift to drag ratio at near supersonic flight than traditional aerofoils. Supercritical aerofoils employ a flattened surface, highly cambered aft section. These changes delay the onset of wave drag, the camber of an aerofoil can be defined by a camber line, which is the curve that is halfway between the upper and lower surfaces of the aerofoil. To fully define an aerofoil we also need a thickness function T, such an aerofoil is useful in certain situations, such as with tailless aircraft, because the moment about the aerodynamic center of the aerofoil can be 0. A camber line for such an aerofoil can be defined as follows, the thickness distribution for a NACA 4-series aerofoil was used, with a 12% thickness ratio. The equation for this distribution is, T ¯ = t 0.2 Where t is the thickness ratio. Chord NACA airfoil Aerodynamic drag Zero lift axis Sources Desktop Aerodynamics Digital Textbook, theory of Wing Sections, Ira H. Abbott and Albert E. Von Doenhoff ISBN 0-486-60586-8
42.
Area rule
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The Whitcomb area rule, also called the transonic area rule, is a design technique used to reduce an aircrafts drag at transonic and supersonic speeds, particularly between Mach 0.75 and 1.2. At high-subsonic flight speeds, the speed of the airflow can reach the speed of sound where the flow accelerates around the aircraft body. The speed at which development occurs varies from aircraft to aircraft and is known as the critical Mach number. The resulting shock waves formed at these points of sonic flow can reduce power. To reduce the number and power of these waves, an aerodynamic shape should change in cross sectional area as smoothly as possible. The area rule says that two airplanes with the same longitudinal cross-sectional area distribution have the same drag, independent of how the area is distributed laterally. Furthermore, to avoid the formation of shock waves, this total area distribution must be smooth. As a result, aircraft have to be arranged so that at the location of the wing. Similar but less pronounced fuselage waisting is used at the location of a bubble canopy, the area rule also holds true at speeds exceeding the speed of sound, but in this case the body arrangement is in respect to the Mach line for the design speed. For example, consider that at Mach 1.3 the angle of the Mach cone formed off the body of the aircraft will be at about μ = arcsin =50. 3°. In this case the shape is biased rearward, therefore. A classic example of such a design is the Concorde, the correct procedure is to average over all possible orientations of the intersecting plane. A superficially related concept is the Sears–Haack body, which is the shape with the wave drag for a given length. However, the Sears-Haack body shape is derived starting with the Prandtl-Glauert equation which governs small-disturbance supersonic flows, but this equation is not valid for transonic flows where the Area rule applies. So although the Sears-Haack body shape, being smooth, will have favorable wave drag properties according to the Area rule and he wrote a description on 17 December 1943, with the title Arrangement of Displacement Bodies in High-Speed Flight, this was used in a patent filed in 1944. In this case Küchemann arrived at the theory by studying airflow, notably spanwise flow, the swept wing is already an indirect application of the area rule. Wallace D. Hayes, a pioneer of flight, developed the transonic area rule in publications beginning in 1947 with his Ph. D. thesis at the California Institute of Technology. Richard T. Whitcomb, after whom the rule is named, independently discovered this rule in 1952, while working at the NACA
43.
Monocoque
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Monocoque, also structural skin, is a structural system where loads are supported through an objects external skin, similar to an egg shell. The word monocoque is a French term for single shell or single hull, a true monocoque carries both tensile and compressive forces within the skin and can be recognised by the absence of a load carrying internal frame. By contrast, a semi-monocoque is a combining a tensile stressed skin. Other semi-monocoques not to be confused with true monocoques include vehicle unibodies, which tend to be composites, early aircraft were constructed using frames, typically of wood or steel tubing, which could then be covered with fabric such as irish linen or cotton. The skin added nothing to the strength of the airframe and was dead weight beyond providing a smooth sealed surface. This reduced drag so effectively it was able to win most of the races it was entered into, however, it was prone to damage from moisture and delamination. While all metal aircraft from the Junkers firm had appeared as early as 1915, the first metal monocoques were built by Claudius Dornier, while working for Zeppelin-Lindau. After failed attempts with several large flying boats in which a few components were monocoques, the aluminum alloy monocoque chassis was first used in the 1962 Lotus 25 Formula 1 race car. The term monocoque is frequently misused when referring to unibody cars, in motor racing, the safety of the driver depends on the car body which must meet stringent regulations and a few cars have been built with monocoque structures. Tanks and other armored vehicles such as the German Fuchs 2 and this reduces weight for a given amount of armor compared to vehicles to which armor has been attached to an underlying frame. A monocoque-framed motorcycle was developed by the Spanish motorcycle manufacturer, Ossa, Ossa won four Grand Prix races with the monocoque bike before their rider was killed during the 1970 Isle of Man TT, causing the Ossa factory to withdraw from Grand Prix competition. Notable designers such as Eric Offenstadt and Dan Hanebrink created unique monocoque designs in the early 1970s, the 1973 Isle of Man TT was won by Peter Williams on the monocoque-framed Norton John Player Special that he helped design. Honda also experimented with a monocoque Grand Prix racing motorcycle named the NR500 in 1979, in 1987 John Britten developed the Aero-D One, featuring a composite monocoque chassis that weighed only 12 kg. The first time an aluminium monocoque frame appeared on a production motorcycle was the 2000 Kawasaki Ninja ZX-12R. This was Kawasakis flagship production sportbike aimed at being the fastest production motorcycle, various rockets have used pressure-stabilized monocoque designs, such as Atlas and Falcon 1. Balloon tanks are not true monocoques but act in the way as inflatable shells. A balloon tank skin only handles tensile forces while compression is resisted by internal pressure in a way similar to semi-monocoques braced by a solid frame. This becomes obvious when internal pressure is lost and the structure collapses, the Handle is an electric guitar characterized by its hollow sectioned monocoque chassis, created by the award-winning designer Peter Solomon
44.
Magnesium
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Magnesium is a chemical element with symbol Mg and atomic number 12. Magnesium is the ninth most abundant element in the universe and it is produced in large, aging stars from the sequential addition of three helium nuclei to a carbon nucleus. When such stars explode as supernovas, much of the magnesium is expelled into the medium where it may recycle into new star systems. Magnesium is the eighth most abundant element in the Earths crust and the fourth most common element in the Earth, making up 13% of the planets mass and it is the third most abundant element dissolved in seawater, after sodium and chlorine. Magnesium occurs naturally only in combination with elements, where it invariably has a +2 oxidation state. The free element can be produced artificially, and is highly reactive, the free metal burns with a characteristic brilliant-white light. The metal is now obtained mainly by electrolysis of magnesium salts obtained from brine, Magnesium is less dense than aluminium, and the alloy is prized for its combination of lightness and strength. Magnesium is the eleventh most abundant element by mass in the body and is essential to all cells. Magnesium ions interact with polyphosphate compounds such as ATP, DNA, hundreds of enzymes require magnesium ions to function. Magnesium compounds are used medicinally as common laxatives, antacids, elemental magnesium is a gray-white lightweight metal, two-thirds the density of aluminium. Magnesium has the lowest melting and the lowest boiling point 1,363 K of all the alkaline earth metals, Magnesium reacts with water at room temperature, though it reacts much more slowly than calcium, a similar group 2 metal. When submerged in water, hydrogen bubbles form slowly on the surface of the metal—though, if powdered, the reaction occurs faster with higher temperatures. Magnesiums reversible reaction with water can be harnessed to store energy, Magnesium also reacts exothermically with most acids such as hydrochloric acid, producing the metal chloride and hydrogen gas, similar to the HCl reaction with aluminium, zinc, and many other metals. Magnesium is highly flammable, especially when powdered or shaved into thin strips, flame temperatures of magnesium and magnesium alloys can reach 3,100 °C, although flame height above the burning metal is usually less than 300 mm. Once ignited, such fires are difficult to extinguish, with combustion continuing in nitrogen, carbon dioxide, Magnesium may also be used as an igniter for thermite, a mixture of aluminium and iron oxide powder that ignites only at a very high temperature. When burning in air, magnesium produces a light that includes strong ultraviolet wavelengths. Magnesium powder was used for illumination in the early days of photography. Later, magnesium filament was used in electrically ignited single-use photography flashbulbs, Magnesium powder is used in fireworks and marine flares where a brilliant white light is required
45.
Titanium
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Titanium is a chemical element with symbol Ti and atomic number 22. It is a transition metal with a silver color, low density. Titanium is resistant to corrosion in sea water, aqua regia, titanium was discovered in Cornwall, Great Britain, by William Gregor in 1791, and it is named by Martin Heinrich Klaproth for the Titans of Greek mythology. The metal is extracted from its principal mineral ores by the Kroll, the most common compound, titanium dioxide, is a popular photocatalyst and is used in the manufacture of white pigments. Other compounds include titanium tetrachloride, a component of smoke screens and catalysts, and titanium trichloride, the two most useful properties of the metal are corrosion resistance and strength-to-density ratio, the highest of any metallic element. In its unalloyed condition, titanium is as strong as some steels, there are two allotropic forms and five naturally occurring isotopes of this element, 46Ti through 50Ti, with 48Ti being the most abundant. Although they have the number of valence electrons and are in the same group in the periodic table. As a metal, titanium is recognized for its high strength-to-weight ratio and it is a strong metal with low density that is quite ductile, lustrous, and metallic-white in color. The relatively high melting point makes it useful as a refractory metal and it is paramagnetic and has fairly low electrical and thermal conductivity. Commercial grades of titanium have ultimate tensile strength of about 434 MPa, equal to that of common, low-grade steel alloys, titanium is 60% denser than aluminium, but more than twice as strong as the most commonly used 6061-T6 aluminium alloy. Certain titanium alloys achieve tensile strengths of over 1400 MPa, however, titanium loses strength when heated above 430 °C. Titanium is not as hard as some grades of heat-treated steel, it is non-magnetic, machining requires precautions, because the material might gall unless sharp tools and proper cooling methods are used. Like steel structures, those made from titanium have a limit that guarantees longevity in some applications. The metal is an allotrope of an hexagonal α form that changes into a body-centered cubic β form at 882 °C. The specific heat of the α form increases dramatically as it is heated to this transition temperature but then falls, similar to zirconium and hafnium, an additional omega phase exists, which is thermodynamically stable at high pressures, but metastable at ambient pressures. This phase is usually hexagonal or trigonal and can be considered to be due to a soft longitudinal acoustic phonon of the β phase causing collapse of planes of atoms, like aluminium and magnesium, titanium metal and its alloys oxidize immediately upon exposure to air. Titanium readily reacts with oxygen at 1,200 °C in air and it is, however, slow to react with water and air at ambient temperatures because it forms a passive oxide coating that protects the bulk metal from further oxidation. When it first forms, this layer is only 1–2 nm thick but continues to grow slowly
46.
Pounds per square inch
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The pound per square inch or, more accurately, pound-force per square inch is a unit of pressure or of stress based on avoirdupois units. Now converting the psi to standard atmospheres,1 atm =101325 Pa =101325 Pa 6894.757293168 Pa / psi ≈14.70 psi Therefore,1 atmosphere is approximately 14.7 pounds per square inch. Pounds per square inch absolute is used to make it clear that the pressure is relative to a rather than the ambient atmospheric pressure. Since atmospheric pressure at sea level is around 14.7 psi, the converse is pounds per square inch gauge or pounds per square inch gage, indicating that the pressure is relative to atmospheric pressure. For example, a bicycle tire pumped up to 65 psi above atmospheric pressure. When gauge pressure is referenced to something other than ambient atmospheric pressure, the kilopound per square inch is a scaled unit derived from psi, equivalent to a thousand psi. Ksi are not widely used for gas pressures and they are mostly used in materials science, where the tensile strength of a material is measured as a large number of psi. The conversion in SI Units is 1 ksi =6.895 MPa, the megapound per square inch is another multiple equal to a million psi. It is used in mechanics for the modulus of the materials. The conversion in SI Units is 1 Mpsi =6.895 GPa, inch of water,0.036 psid Blood pressure – clinically normal human blood pressure,2.32 psig/1.55 psig Natural gas residential piped in for consumer appliance, 4–6 psig. Boost pressure provided by a turbocharger, 6–15 psig NFL football,12. 5–13.5 psig Atmospheric pressure at sea level,14
Cutaway of the Avro CF-105 Arrow by Flight Global.
