1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
Sri Lanka
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Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, is an island country in South Asia near south-east India. Sri Lanka has maritime borders with India to the northwest and the Maldives to the southwest, Sri Lankas documented history spans 3,000 years, with evidence of pre-historic human settlements dating back to at least 125,000 years. Its geographic location and deep harbours made it of strategic importance from the time of the ancient Silk Road through to World War II. Sri Lanka was known from the beginning of British colonial rule until 1972 as Ceylon, Sri Lankas recent history has been marred by a thirty-year civil war which decisively ended when the Sri Lankan military defeated the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam in 2009. A diverse and multicultural country, Sri Lanka is home to many religions, ethnic groups, in addition to the majority Sinhalese, it is home to large groups of Sri Lankan and Indian Tamils, Moors, Burghers, Malays, Kaffirs and the aboriginal Vedda. Sri Lanka has a rich Buddhist heritage, and the first known Buddhist writings of Sri Lanka, Sri Lanka is a republic and a unitary state governed by a semi-presidential system. The legislative capital, Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte, is a suburb of the capital and largest city. Along with the Maldives, Sri Lanka is one of the two countries in South Asia that are rated among high human development on the Human Development Index. In antiquity, Sri Lanka was known to travellers by a variety of names, according to the Mahavamsa, the legendary Prince Vijaya named the land Tambapanni, because his followers hands were reddened by the red soil of the area. In Hindu mythology, such as the Mahabharata, the island was referred to as Lankā, in Tamil, the island is referred to as Eelam. Ancient Greek geographers called it Taprobanā or Taprobanē from the word Tambapanni, as a British crown colony, the island was known as Ceylon, it achieved independence as the Dominion of Ceylon in 1948. The country is known in Sinhalese as Śrī Laṃkā and in Tamil as Ilaṅkai, in 1972, its formal name was changed to Free, Sovereign and Independent Republic of Sri Lanka. Later in 1978 it was changed to the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, as the name Ceylon still appears in the names of a number of organisations, the Sri Lankan government announced in 2011 a plan to rename all those over which it has authority. The pre-history of Sri Lanka goes back 125,000 years, the era spans the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and early Iron Ages. Among the Paleolithic human settlements discovered in Sri Lanka, Pahiyangala and it is said that Kubera was overthrown by his demon stepbrother Ravana, the powerful emperor who built a mythical flying machine named Dandu Monara. The modern city of Wariyapola is described as Ravanas airport, early inhabitants of Sri Lanka were probably ancestors of the Vedda people, an indigenous people numbering approximately 2,500 living in modern-day Sri Lanka. According to the Mahāvamsa, a written in Pāḷi, the original inhabitants of Sri Lanka are the Yakshas and Nagas. Ancient cemeteries that were used before 600BC and other signs of advanced civilization has also discovered in Sri Lanka
3.
North Central Province, Sri Lanka
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North Central Province is a province of Sri Lanka. The province is not densely populated, and it has an economy as the land tends to be dry tropical woodlands. In the Sri Lankan context, devolution means transferring political and administrative decision-making authority from central government to elected bodies at lower levels and it consists two districts called Polonnaruwa and Anuradhapure, Anuradhapure is the largest district in the country. NCP also called Wew Bendi Rajje because there are more than 3000 medium, more than 65% of NCPs people depend on basic Agriculture and agro base industries. North Central Province has numourous potentials for Investors to start their Businesses, specially Agriculture, agro based industries, governor of the Province - Hon. P. B. Dissanayake Hon
4.
Mudra
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A mudra is a symbolic or ritual gesture in Hinduism and Buddhism. While some mudras involve the body, most are performed with the hands. A mudrā is a gesture and an energetic seal of authenticity employed in the iconography. One hundred and eight mudras are used in regular Tantric rituals, the Chinese translation is yin or yinxiang. The Japanese and Korean pronunciation is in, Mudra is used in the iconography of Hindu and Buddhist art of the Indian subcontinent and described in the scriptures, such as Nātyaśāstra, which lists 24 asaṁyuta and 13 saṁyuta mudras. Mudra positions are formed by both the hand and the fingers. Along with āsanas, they are employed statically in the meditation, Hindu and Buddhist iconography share some mudras. In some regions, for example in Laos and Thailand, these are distinct, according to Jamgotn Kongtrul in his commentary on the Hevajra Tantra, the ornaments of wrathful deities and witches made of human bones are also known as mudra seals. In Indian classical dance, the term Hasta Mudra is used, the Natya Shastra describes 24 mudras, while the Abhinaya Darpana of Nandikeshvara gives 28. In all their forms of Indian classical dance, the mudras are similar, there are 28 root mudras in Bharata Natyam,24 in Kathakali and 20 in Odissi. These root mudras are combined in different ways, like one hand, in Kathakali, which has the greatest number of combinations, the vocabulary adds up to c. Sanyukta mudras use both hands and asanyukta mudras use one hand, the classical sources for the mudras in yoga are the Gheranda Samhita and the Hatha Yoga Pradipika. The thumb and forefinger on each of the hands are joined, the rest of the fingers are extended. The hands are placed palms-up on the thighs or knees while sitting in vajrasana and this mudrā supposedly activates the diaphragm, making for deep stomach-breathing as the diaphragm pushes out the internal organs when it descends towards the pelvis on inhalation. Slow breathing in a 5-2-4-2 mentally counted rhythm causes prana flow in the pelvis, the thumb and forefinger are the same as in Chin Mudrā. The rest of the fingers are folded into a fist, the non-folded part of the forefinger and the middle finger should still be touching. As in Chin Mudrā, the hands are placed palms-up on the thighs while sitting in Vajrasana and this mudra supposedly activates the ribs, making them expand sideways on inhalation. Slow breathing in a 5-2-4-2 counted rhythm causes prana flow in the torso, the thumb is folded into the palm, touching the base of the small finger
5.
Dhatusena of Anuradhapura
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Dhatusena was a king of Sri Lanka who ruled from 455 to 473. He was the first king of the Moriyan dynasty of Sri Lanka, in some records, he is also identified as Dasenkeli. Dhatusena reunited the country under his rule after twenty six years, Dhatusena made eighteen irrigation tanks, a large irrigation canal known as Yodha Ela, and the Avukana statue, a large statue of Lord Buddha. The Cūḷavaṃsa, the ancient chronicle of Sri Lanka, tells us that he was of royal lineage whose ancestors had fled the capital about three hundred years earlier. The country was invaded in 433 by six Tamil leaders from South India and they overthrew the Sri Lankan monarch and ruled the country for twenty six years, from 433 to 459. During this time, Sinhalese leaders abandoned Rajarata and fled to the Ruhuna principality in the south of the country, Ruhuna was used as the base for resistance against the invading rulers. Dhatusena was raised by his uncle, a Buddhist monk named Mahanama, the Pandyan invaders were searching for Dhatusena, and his uncle ordained him as a Buddhist monk to disguise him. Dhatusena later organised a movement against the Tamil invaders and led a rebellion against them. Dhatusena claimed the kingship of the country in 455, by the time Dhatusena started the rebellion, three of the six Pandayn invaders were already dead, and in the battles that occurred during the rebellion, two more were killed. The final battle took place in 459, where the last king, having successfully defeated the Pandyan invaders, Dhatusena was crowned as the king of Sri Lanka in 459 A. D, taking Anuradhapura as his capital. Dhatusena built eighteen irrigation tanks in order to develop agriculture in the country, among these tanks are the Kalavewa and Balaluwewa, which are interconnected and cover an area of 6,380 acres. He also constructed the Yodha Ela, also known as Jayaganga, yoda Ela descends 95 milimeters at each kilometer. This is regarded as a technological achievement. The Avukana statue, a 13-metre high statue of Lord Buddha, is also a creation of Dhatusena, Dhatusena had two sons, Kasyapa I and Moggallana I. Moggallana was the son of the consort and the rightful heir to the throne. Dhatusena’s daughter was married to his sister’s son and the general of his army, following an argument between his daughter and sister, Dhatusena ordered his sister to be killed. In reprisal, Migara encouraged and assisted Kasyapa to overthrow the king, Kasyapa eventually rebelled against Dhatusena and overthrew him. Dhatusena was imprisoned and Kasyapa became the king of the country in 473, Migara led Kasyapa to believe that Dhatusena had hidden treasures of great wealth and persuaded him to find these
6.
Kala Wewa
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Kalawewa is an ancient reservoir in Anuradhapura District of the North Central Province, Sri Lanka. This reservoir was built by the King Dhathusena who ruled the country during 455 –473 CE in the 5th century, tamil invaders who arrived from South India ruled the north part of the country during the period from 429 to 455 AD. King Dhathusena defeated the invaders and united the country and then he wanted to rebuild the system by constructing several tanks, canals, etc. in. After completion of construction of Kala Wewa, the king built another tank called Balalu Wewa near by and his son King Mahinda II who ruled the country during 777 –797 CE expanded the tank further. King Dhathusena was very keen on information with regard to a very suitable to construct a tank to be the massive one in the history of Sri Lanka. There are some folklore on how the king was able to find a place for the tank he imagined, there was a man called Kadawara who left his family and went to live in the jungle due to his wife’s unbearable and repeated insults and disrespects towards him. After some years in the jungle he was accustomed with wild animals. King sent his army to catch him, Kadawara was caught and brought to the palace. When the king questioned him of the treasure, Kadawara revealed his true story and told real reason for his leaving the city, then king asked him of any interesting thing he had seen while living in the jungle. Kadawa said, “No sir, I have not seen anything interesting but in a brook somewhere in the jungle, according to this legend, it was the spot wherein the king created the Kala Wewa. First restoration to the tank is done by King Parakramabahu I in the 12th century, the tank was renovated several times in the past as in the period of British Governor Sir William Henry Gregory (1872–1877 and Sir Arthur Hamilton-Gordon. After the British rule in the country and in 1958, the tank’s bund was reconstructed connecting the tank with Balalu Wewa and its circumference is 40 miles and has a total area of 7 square miles at full capacity. Length of the dam is 22,572 feet and the height is 48 feet, there is a 12 meter high standing statue of Lord Buddha created by same ruler. This statue is named after the village it is situated so it is called Avukana Buddha statue, the reservoir served as one of largest irrigation tanks in ancient time. Being one of main storages in the Mahaweli Irrigation Scheme since 1976 and it is used for fresh water fishing and the flora, specially the grasses in its valley, is the main sources of silage for the herds of cattle in the area. The way to Anuradhapura via Dambulla reaches Kekirawa in the Kekirawa Divisional Secretariat and from there the distance to the tank is 6 miles
7.
Gandhara
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Gandhara is also an ancient name for Kandahar, Afghanistan. Gandhāra was an ancient Indic kingdom situated in the region of Pakistan. It encompassed the Peshawar valley and later extended to both Jalalabad district of modern-day Afghanistan as well as Taxila, in Pakistan. During the Achaemenid period and Hellenistic period, its city was Charsadda. It is mentioned in the Zend Avesta as Vaēkərəta, the sixth most beautiful place on earth and it was known as the crown jewel of Bactria and also held sway over Takṣaśilā. Gandhara existed since the time of the Rigveda and formed part of the Achaemenid Empire in the 6th century BC, after it was conquered by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1001 AD, the name Gandhara disappeared. During the Muslim period, the area was administered from Lahore or from Kabul, during Mughal times, it was an independent district which included the Kabul province. The name Gāndhāra occurs later in the classical Sanskrit of the epics and it is recorded in Avestan as Vaēkərəta. The Gandhari people are a tribe mentioned in the Rigveda, the Atharvaveda, one proposed origin of the name is from the Sanskrit word gandha, meaning perfume and referring to the spices and aromatic herbs which they traded and with which they anointed themselves. Some authors have connected the modern name Kandahar to Gandhara, Herodotus records that those Iranic tribes, which were adjacent to the city of Caspatyrus and the district of Pactyïce, had customs similar to the Bactrians, and are the most warlike amongst them. These are also the people who obtain gold from the ant-hills of the adjoining desert, on the identity of Caspatyrus, there have been two opinions, one equating it with Kabul, the other with the name of Kashmir. The boundaries of Gandhara varied throughout history, sometimes the Peshawar Valley and Taxila were collectively referred to as Gandhara, sometimes the Swat Valley was also included. The heart of Gandhara, however, was always the Peshawar Valley, the kingdom was ruled from capitals at Kapisa, Pushkalavati, Taxila, Puruṣapura and in its final days from Udabhandapura on the River Indus. Evidence of the Stone Age human inhabitants of Gandhara, including stone tools, the artifacts are approximately 15,000 years old. More recent excavations point to 30,000 years before the present, the region shows an influx of southern Central Asian culture in the Bronze Age with the Gandhara grave culture, and the nucleus of Vedic civilisation. This culture flourished from 1500 to 500 BC and its evidence has been discovered in the hilly regions of Swat and Dir, and even at Taxila. The name of the Gandhāris is attested in the Rigveda and in ancient inscriptions dating back to Achaemenid Persia, the Behistun inscription listing the 23 territories of King Darius I includes Gandāra along with Bactria and Sattagydia. In the book Histories by Herodotus, Gandhara is named as a source of tax collections for King Darius, the Gandhāris, along with the Balhika, Mūjavants, Angas, and the Magadhas, are also mentioned in the Atharvaveda, as distant people
8.
Amaravathi (village), Guntur district
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Amaravathi is a famous Buddhist site and village in Guntur district of the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. It is located in Amaravati mandal of Guntur revenue division, on the banks of Krishna river. Although now it is designated as a village administered by a gram panchayat, it is an important historic town. Sri Amaralingeswara Swamy temple is located at the Amararama Pancharama Kshetra site in this village and it is also a historic Buddhist site, and the Amaravati Mahachaitya stupa was built here between the 2nd century BCE and the 3rd century CE. Designated as a site by the Government of India, Amaravati has been chosen as one of the sites for Heritage City Development. Amaravathi translates to The town which lives on forever in the Telugu language and it is located on the banks of river krishna. It is also referred as Amareswaram, for its famous Amareswara temple dedicated to Lord Siva, one of the famous Pancharamas. The recorded history of Amaravati and nearby Dharanikota dates to 5th century BCE and it was the capital of Satavahanas who ruled from 3rd century BCE to 3rd century CE. After the decline of Satavahanas, Andhra Ikshvakus and later Pallava kings ruled Krishna river valley, subsequently, Eastern Chalukyas and Telugu Cholas held sway over the region. Kota Kings were in control of Amaravati during the medieval times, kota kings were subdued by Kakatiyas in 11th century CE and Amaravati became part of the unified Telugu empire. The Skanda Purana gives a picture of the place and the Siva temple located here and it was ceded to France in 1750 but was captured by England in 1759. Guntur returned to the Nizamate in 1768 but was ceded to England again in 1788 and it was briefly occupied by Hyder Ali. It was part of Madras Presidency during the British colonial period, the most important historic monument in Amaravathi village is the Mahachaitya. It is protected by the Archaeological Survey of India which maintains a museum beside the ruins. The city is located at 16°34′N 80°22′E on the bank of Krishna river. As of 2011 Census of India, the town had a population of 13,400 with 3,316 households, the total population constitute,6,432 males and 6,958 females —a sex ratio of 1,082 females per 1,000 males. 1,321 children are in the age group of 0–6 years, the average literacy rate stands at 71. 34% with 8,617 literates, higher than the state average of 67. 41%. The town is a centre of pilgrimage to both Hindus and Buddhists, the inscriptions on the walls of the Amareswara temple depicts the reign of Vasireddy Venkatadri Nayudu who ruled before the advent of the British rule. He was well known for his benevolence, munificence and for the construction of a number of temples
