1.
Azrael
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Azrael is often identified with the Angel of Death of the Hebrew Bible. The Hebrew name translates to Help of God, Help from God, Azrael is the spelling of the Chambers Dictionary. The Quran refers to a مَلَكُ المَوْتِ which corresponds with Hebrew term Malach ha-Mawet in Rabbinic Literature, islamic-Arabic tradition adopts the name, in the ِArabic alphabet as a ʿIzrāīl. Depending on the outlook and precepts of various religions in which he is a figure, in one description, he has four faces and four thousand wings, and his whole body consists of eyes and tongues whose number corresponds to the number of people inhabiting the Earth. He will be the last to die, recording and erasing, constantly in a book the names of men at birth and death. In Jewish mysticism, he is referred to as Azriel. The Zohar, a book of the Jewish mystical tradition of Kabbalah. He is associated with the South and is considered to be a commander of Gods angels. There is no reference to Azrael in the Bible, and he is not considered a canonical nor a figure within Christianity. However, a story in 2 Esdras which is part of the Apocrypha, has the story of a scribe and judge named Ezra, also sometimes written Azra in different languages. Azra was visited by the Archangel Uriel and given a list of laws and punishments he was to adhere to, Azra was later recorded in the Apocrypha as having entered Heaven without tasting deaths taint. Depending on various religious views, it could be taken as Ezra ascending to angelic status and this would add the suffix el to his name, which denotes a heavenly being. Later books also state a scribe named Salathiel, who was quoted as saying, I, Salathiel, along with Jibrail, Mīkhāīl and Isrāfīl, the Angel of Death, called Azrail is believed by Muslims to be one of the archangels. He is responsible to take the soul of the deceased away from the body, Azrail does not act independently from God and just takes those, who were commanded to be taken. Rather than merely representing an independend personified death, the Angel of Death is described in Islamic sources as subordinate to the will of God with the most profound reverence. Several Muslim traditions recount meetings between the Angel of Death and the prophets, the most famous being a conversation between the Angel of Death and Moses, in an islamic narration, Idris befriended the angel of death. Idris offered him food, thereupon he revealed him his non-human essence, because as an angel, later the angel of death showed him the heavens. Even it is not allowed for a muslim to wish for death, death itself will, additionally the angel of death will take the souls of the believers caring with the words, O pure soul come fourth to Gods pardon and pleasure
2.
Hebrew language
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Hebrew is a language native to Israel, spoken by over 9 million people worldwide, of whom over 5 million are in Israel. Historically, it is regarded as the language of the Israelites and their ancestors, the earliest examples of written Paleo-Hebrew date from the 10th century BCE. Hebrew belongs to the West Semitic branch of the Afroasiatic language family, Hebrew is the only living Canaanite language left, and the only truly successful example of a revived dead language. Hebrew had ceased to be a spoken language somewhere between 200 and 400 CE, declining since the aftermath of the Bar Kokhba revolt. Aramaic and to a lesser extent Greek were already in use as international languages, especially among elites and it survived into the medieval period as the language of Jewish liturgy, rabbinic literature, intra-Jewish commerce, and poetry. Then, in the 19th century, it was revived as a spoken and literary language, and, according to Ethnologue, had become, as of 1998, the language of 5 million people worldwide. After Israel, the United States has the second largest Hebrew-speaking population, with 220,000 fluent speakers, Modern Hebrew is one of the two official languages of the State of Israel, while premodern Hebrew is used for prayer or study in Jewish communities around the world today. Ancient Hebrew is also the tongue of the Samaritans, while modern Hebrew or Arabic is their vernacular. For this reason, Hebrew has been referred to by Jews as Leshon Hakodesh, the modern word Hebrew is derived from the word Ivri, one of several names for the Israelite people. It is traditionally understood to be a based on the name of Abrahams ancestor, Eber. This name is based upon the root ʕ-b-r meaning to cross over. Interpretations of the term ʕibrim link it to this verb, cross over, in the Bible, the Hebrew language is called Yәhudit because Judah was the surviving kingdom at the time of the quotation. In Isaiah 19,18 it is called the Language of Canaan, Hebrew belongs to the Canaanite group of languages. In turn, the Canaanite languages are a branch of the Northwest Semitic family of languages, according to Avraham ben-Yosef, Hebrew flourished as a spoken language in the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah during about 1200 to 586 BCE. Scholars debate the degree to which Hebrew was a vernacular in ancient times following the Babylonian exile. In July 2008 Israeli archaeologist Yossi Garfinkel discovered a ceramic shard at Khirbet Qeiyafa which he claimed may be the earliest Hebrew writing yet discovered, dating around 3000 years ago. The Gezer calendar also dates back to the 10th century BCE at the beginning of the Monarchic Period, classified as Archaic Biblical Hebrew, the calendar presents a list of seasons and related agricultural activities. The Gezer calendar is written in an old Semitic script, akin to the Phoenician one that through the Greeks, the Gezer calendar is written without any vowels, and it does not use consonants to imply vowels even in the places where later Hebrew spelling requires it
3.
Romanization of Hebrew
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Hebrew uses the Hebrew alphabet with optional vowel points. The romanization of Hebrew is the use of the Latin alphabet to transliterate Hebrew words, for example, the Hebrew name spelled יִשְׂרָאֵל in the Hebrew alphabet can be romanized as Yisrael or Yiśrāʼēl in the Latin alphabet. Romanization includes any use of the Latin alphabet to transliterate Hebrew words, usually it is to identify a Hebrew word in a non-Hebrew language that uses the Latin alphabet, such as German, Spanish, Turkish, and so on. Transliteration uses an alphabet to represent the letters and sounds of a word spelled in another alphabet, to go the other way, that is from English to Hebrew, see Hebraization of English. Both Hebraization of English and Romanization of Hebrew are forms of transliteration, where these are formalized these are known as transliteration systems, and, where only some words, not all, are transliterated, this is known as transliteration policy. Transliteration assumes two different script systems, the use of a French word in English without translation, such as bourgeois is not transliteration. The use of a Hindi word in English such as khaki is transliteration and these terms were in many cases also first transliterated into Greek and Latin before English. Different publishers have different transliteration policies, for example ArtScroll publications generally transliterate more words relative to sources such as the Jewish Encyclopedia 1911, or Jewish Publication Society texts. There are various standards or systems for Hebrew-to-English, no one system has significant common usage across all fields. Conflicting systems of transliteration often appear in the text, as certain Hebrew words tend to associate with certain traditions of transliteration. For example, For Hanukkah at the synagogue Beith Sheer Chayyim, Isaac donned his talis that Yitzchak sent him from Bet Qehila in Tsfat, Israel. Similarly, the Hebrew letter ת is transliterated as th in the word Beith, s in the word talis, the Hebrew letter ק is transliterated as c in Isaac, k in Yitzchak, and q in Qehila. Finally, the Hebrew letter צ is transliterated variously as s, tz and these inconsistencies make it impossible for the non-Hebrew-speaking reader to recognize related word forms, or even to properly pronounce the Hebrew words thus transliterated. Early romanization of Hebrew occurred with the contact between the Romans and the Jews and it was influenced by earlier transliteration into the Greek language. For example, the name of the Roman province of Iudaea was apparently derived from the Greek words Ἰούδα and these words can be seen in Chapter 1 of Esdras in the Septuagint, a Hellenistic translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek. The Greek words in turn are transliterations of the Hebrew word יהודה that we now know adapted in English as the names Judah, Judas, in the 1st century, Satire 14 of Juvenal uses the Hebraic words sabbata, Iudaicum, and Moyses, apparently adopted from the Greek. The 4th-century and 5th-century Latin translations of the Hebrew Bible romanize its proper names, the familiar Biblical names in English are derived from these romanizations. The Vulgate, of the early 5th century, is considered the first direct Latin translation of the Hebrew Bible, apart from names, another term that the Vulgate romanizes is the technical term mamzer
4.
Arabic
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Arabic is a Central Semitic language that was first spoken in Iron Age northwestern Arabia and is now the lingua franca of the Arab world. Arabic is also the language of 1.7 billion Muslims. It is one of six languages of the United Nations. The modern written language is derived from the language of the Quran and it is widely taught in schools and universities, and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, government, and the media. The two formal varieties are grouped together as Literary Arabic, which is the language of 26 states. Modern Standard Arabic largely follows the standards of Quranic Arabic. Much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the post-Quranic era, Arabic has influenced many languages around the globe throughout its history. During the Middle Ages, Literary Arabic was a vehicle of culture in Europe, especially in science, mathematics. As a result, many European languages have borrowed many words from it. Many words of Arabic origin are found in ancient languages like Latin. Balkan languages, including Greek, have acquired a significant number of Arabic words through contact with Ottoman Turkish. Arabic has also borrowed words from languages including Greek and Persian in medieval times. Arabic is a Central Semitic language, closely related to the Northwest Semitic languages, the Ancient South Arabian languages, the Semitic languages changed a great deal between Proto-Semitic and the establishment of the Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include, The conversion of the suffix-conjugated stative formation into a past tense, the conversion of the prefix-conjugated preterite-tense formation into a present tense. The elimination of other prefix-conjugated mood/aspect forms in favor of new moods formed by endings attached to the prefix-conjugation forms, the development of an internal passive. These features are evidence of descent from a hypothetical ancestor. In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside of the Ancient South Arabian family were spoken and it is also believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages were also spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hijaz, Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages, in Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested
5.
Bible
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The Bible is a collection of sacred texts or scriptures that Jews and Christians consider to be a product of divine inspiration and a record of the relationship between God and humans. Many different authors contributed to the Bible, what is regarded as canonical text differs depending on traditions and groups, a number of Bible canons have evolved, with overlapping and diverging contents. The Christian Old Testament overlaps with the Hebrew Bible and the Greek Septuagint, the New Testament is a collection of writings by early Christians, believed to be mostly Jewish disciples of Christ, written in first-century Koine Greek. These early Christian Greek writings consist of narratives, letters, among Christian denominations there is some disagreement about the contents of the canon, primarily the Apocrypha, a list of works that are regarded with varying levels of respect. Attitudes towards the Bible also differ amongst Christian groups and this concept arose during the Protestant Reformation, and many denominations today support the use of the Bible as the only source of Christian teaching. With estimated total sales of over 5 billion copies, the Bible is widely considered to be the book of all time. It has estimated sales of 100 million copies, and has been a major influence on literature and history, especially in the West. The English word Bible is from the Latin biblia, from the word in Medieval Latin and Late Latin. Medieval Latin biblia is short for biblia sacra holy book, while biblia in Greek and it gradually came to be regarded as a feminine singular noun in medieval Latin, and so the word was loaned as a singular into the vernaculars of Western Europe. Latin biblia sacra holy books translates Greek τὰ βιβλία τὰ ἅγια ta biblia ta hagia, the word βιβλίον itself had the literal meaning of paper or scroll and came to be used as the ordinary word for book. It is the diminutive of βύβλος byblos, Egyptian papyrus, possibly so called from the name of the Phoenician sea port Byblos from whence Egyptian papyrus was exported to Greece, the Greek ta biblia was an expression Hellenistic Jews used to describe their sacred books. Christian use of the term can be traced to c.223 CE, bruce notes that Chrysostom appears to be the first writer to use the Greek phrase ta biblia to describe both the Old and New Testaments together. The division of the Hebrew Bible into verses is based on the sof passuk cantillation mark used by the 10th-century Masoretes to record the verse divisions used in oral traditions. The oldest extant copy of a complete Bible is an early 4th-century parchment book preserved in the Vatican Library, the oldest copy of the Tanakh in Hebrew and Aramaic dates from the 10th century CE. The oldest copy of a complete Latin Bible is the Codex Amiatinus and he states that it is not a magical book, nor was it literally written by God and passed to mankind. In Christian Bibles, the New Testament Gospels were derived from traditions in the second half of the first century CE. Riches says that, Scholars have attempted to reconstruct something of the history of the oral traditions behind the Gospels, the period of transmission is short, less than 40 years passed between the death of Jesus and the writing of Marks Gospel. This means that there was time for oral traditions to assume fixed form
6.
Scapegoat
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A scapegoat is a person or animal which takes on the sins of others, or is unfairly blamed for problems. The concept originally comes from Leviticus, in which a goat is designated to be cast into the desert with the sins of the community, other ancient societies had similar practices. In psychology and sociology, the practice of selecting someone as a scapegoat has led to the concept of scapegoating, and Aaron shall place lots upon the two goats, one lot For the Lord, and the other lot, For Azazel. The word scapegoat is an English translation of the Hebrew azazel which occurs in Leviticus 16,8, the lexicographer Gesenius and Brown–Driver–Briggs Hebrew Lexicon give la-azazel as a reduplicative intensive of the stem azel remove, hence la-azazel, for entire removal. This reading is supported by the Greek Old Testament translation as the sender away, alternatively, broadly contemporary with the Septuagint, the pseudepigraphical Book of Enoch may preserve Azazel as the name of a fallen angel. English Christian Bible versions traditionally follow the translation of the Septuagint, william Tyndale rendered the Latin as scape goat in his 1530 Bible. Several modern versions however either follow the reading as a demon, Azazel, or footnote for Azazel. as an alternative reading. Jewish sources in the Talmud give the etymology of azazel as a compound of az, strong or rough, and el, mighty, that the goat was sent from the most rugged or strongest of mountains. From the Targums onwards the term azazel was also seen by some commentators as the name of a Hebrew demon, angelic force. The two readings are still disputed today, a concept superficially similar to the biblical scapegoat is attested in two ritual texts in archives at Ebla of the 24th century BC. They were connected with ritual purification on the occasion of the kings wedding, in them, a she-goat with a silver bracelet hung from her neck was driven forth into the wasteland of Alini, we in the report of the ritual involves the whole community. Such elimination rites, in which an animal, without confession of sins, is the vehicle of evils that are chased from the community are widely attested in the Ancient Near East. The scholia refer to the pharmakos being killed, but many scholars reject this, once a year, on Yom Kippur, the Cohen Gadol sacrificed a bull as a sin offering to atone for sins he may have committed unintentionally throughout the year. Subsequently he took two goats and presented them at the door of the tabernacle, two goats were chosen by lot, one to be for YHWH, which was offered as a blood sacrifice, and the other to be the scapegoat to be sent away into the wilderness. The blood of the goat was taken into the Holy of Holies behind the sacred veil and sprinkled on the mercy seat. In Christianity, especially in Protestantism, this process prefigures the sacrifice of Christ on the cross through which God has been propitiated and sins can be expiated. Christians believe that sinners who own their guilt and confess their sins, exercising faith and trust in the person, Seventh-day Adventist Christians understand this symbolism differently. As the Azazel Goat was understood by some Christians of the reformation to represent Satan, since the second goat was sent away to perish, the word scapegoat has developed to indicate a person who is blamed and punished for the sins of others
7.
Judaism
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Judaism encompasses the religion, philosophy, culture and way of life of the Jewish people. Judaism is an ancient monotheistic Abrahamic religion, with the Torah as its text, and supplemental oral tradition represented by later texts such as the Midrash. Judaism is considered by religious Jews to be the expression of the relationship that God established with the Children of Israel. With between 14.5 and 17.4 million adherents worldwide, Judaism is the tenth-largest religion in the world, Judaism includes a wide corpus of texts, practices, theological positions, and forms of organization. Modern branches of Judaism such as Humanistic Judaism may be nontheistic, today, the largest Jewish religious movements are Orthodox Judaism, Conservative Judaism and Reform Judaism. Major sources of difference between groups are their approaches to Jewish law, the authority of the Rabbinic tradition. Orthodox Judaism maintains that the Torah and Jewish law are divine in origin, eternal and unalterable, Conservative and Reform Judaism are more liberal, with Conservative Judaism generally promoting a more traditional interpretation of Judaisms requirements than Reform Judaism. A typical Reform position is that Jewish law should be viewed as a set of guidelines rather than as a set of restrictions and obligations whose observance is required of all Jews. Historically, special courts enforced Jewish law, today, these still exist. Authority on theological and legal matters is not vested in any one person or organization, the history of Judaism spans more than 3,000 years. Judaism has its roots as a religion in the Middle East during the Bronze Age. Judaism is considered one of the oldest monotheistic religions, the Hebrews and Israelites were already referred to as Jews in later books of the Tanakh such as the Book of Esther, with the term Jews replacing the title Children of Israel. Judaisms texts, traditions and values strongly influenced later Abrahamic religions, including Christianity, Islam, many aspects of Judaism have also directly or indirectly influenced secular Western ethics and civil law. Jews are a group and include those born Jewish and converts to Judaism. In 2015, the world Jewish population was estimated at about 14.3 million, Judaism thus begins with ethical monotheism, the belief that God is one and is concerned with the actions of humankind. According to the Tanakh, God promised Abraham to make of his offspring a great nation, many generations later, he commanded the nation of Israel to love and worship only one God, that is, the Jewish nation is to reciprocate Gods concern for the world. He also commanded the Jewish people to one another, that is. These commandments are but two of a corpus of commandments and laws that constitute this covenant, which is the substance of Judaism
8.
Christianity
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Christianity is a Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ, who serves as the focal point for the religion. It is the worlds largest religion, with over 2.4 billion followers, or 33% of the global population, Christians believe that Jesus is the Son of God and the savior of humanity whose coming as the Messiah was prophesied in the Old Testament. Christian theology is summarized in creeds such as the Apostles Creed and his incarnation, earthly ministry, crucifixion, and resurrection are often referred to as the gospel, meaning good news. The term gospel also refers to accounts of Jesuss life and teaching, four of which—Matthew, Mark, Luke. Christianity is an Abrahamic religion that began as a Second Temple Judaic sect in the mid-1st century, following the Age of Discovery, Christianity spread to the Americas, Australasia, sub-Saharan Africa, and the rest of the world through missionary work and colonization. Christianity has played a prominent role in the shaping of Western civilization, throughout its history, Christianity has weathered schisms and theological disputes that have resulted in many distinct churches and denominations. Worldwide, the three largest branches of Christianity are the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the denominations of Protestantism. There are many important differences of interpretation and opinion of the Bible, concise doctrinal statements or confessions of religious beliefs are known as creeds. They began as baptismal formulae and were expanded during the Christological controversies of the 4th and 5th centuries to become statements of faith. Many evangelical Protestants reject creeds as definitive statements of faith, even agreeing with some or all of the substance of the creeds. The Baptists have been non-creedal in that they have not sought to establish binding authoritative confessions of faith on one another. Also rejecting creeds are groups with roots in the Restoration Movement, such as the Christian Church, the Evangelical Christian Church in Canada, the Apostles Creed is the most widely accepted statement of the articles of Christian faith. It is also used by Presbyterians, Methodists, and Congregationalists and this particular creed was developed between the 2nd and 9th centuries. Its central doctrines are those of the Trinity and God the Creator, each of the doctrines found in this creed can be traced to statements current in the apostolic period. The creed was used as a summary of Christian doctrine for baptismal candidates in the churches of Rome. Most Christians accept the use of creeds, and subscribe to at least one of the mentioned above. The central tenet of Christianity is the belief in Jesus as the Son of God, Christians believe that Jesus, as the Messiah, was anointed by God as savior of humanity, and hold that Jesus coming was the fulfillment of messianic prophecies of the Old Testament. The Christian concept of the Messiah differs significantly from the contemporary Jewish concept, Jesus, having become fully human, suffered the pains and temptations of a mortal man, but did not sin
9.
Islam
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Islam is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion which professes that there is only one and incomparable God and that Muhammad is the last messenger of God. It is the worlds second-largest religion and the major religion in the world, with over 1.7 billion followers or 23% of the global population. Islam teaches that God is merciful, all-powerful, and unique, and He has guided mankind through revealed scriptures, natural signs, and a line of prophets sealed by Muhammad. The primary scriptures of Islam are the Quran, viewed by Muslims as the word of God. Muslims believe that Islam is the original, complete and universal version of a faith that was revealed many times before through prophets including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses. As for the Quran, Muslims consider it to be the unaltered, certain religious rites and customs are observed by the Muslims in their family and social life, while social responsibilities to parents, relatives, and neighbors have also been defined. Besides, the Quran and the sunnah of Muhammad prescribe a comprehensive body of moral guidelines for Muslims to be followed in their personal, social, political, Islam began in the early 7th century. Originating in Mecca, it spread in the Arabian Peninsula. The expansion of the Muslim world involved various caliphates and empires, traders, most Muslims are of one of two denominations, Sunni or Shia. Islam is the dominant religion in the Middle East, North Africa, sizable Muslim communities are also found in Horn of Africa, Europe, China, Russia, Mainland Southeast Asia, Philippines, Northern Borneo, Caucasus and the Americas. Converts and immigrant communities are found in almost every part of the world, Islam is a verbal noun originating from the triliteral root s-l-m which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of wholeness, submission, safeness and peace. In a religious context it means voluntary submission to God, Islām is the verbal noun of Form IV of the root, and means submission or surrender. Muslim, the word for an adherent of Islam, is the active participle of the verb form. The word sometimes has connotations in its various occurrences in the Quran. In some verses, there is stress on the quality of Islam as a state, Whomsoever God desires to guide. Other verses connect Islām and dīn, Today, I have perfected your religion for you, I have completed My blessing upon you, still others describe Islam as an action of returning to God—more than just a verbal affirmation of faith. In the Hadith of Gabriel, islām is presented as one part of a triad that also includes imān, Islam was historically called Muhammadanism in Anglophone societies. This term has fallen out of use and is said to be offensive because it suggests that a human being rather than God is central to Muslims religion
10.
Fallen angel
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A fallen angel is a wicked or rebellious angel that has been cast out of heaven. The term fallen angel does not appear in the Bible, but it is used of angels who sinned, of angels cast down to the earth in the War in Heaven, of Satan, demons, the term has become popular in fictional literature regarding angels. In the period preceding the composition of the New Testament, some sects of Judaism identified the sons of God of Genesis 6. Some scholars consider it most likely that this Jewish tradition of fallen angels predates, even in written form, lester L. Grabbe calls the story of the sexual intercourse of angels with women an old myth in Judaism. Indeed, until the mid-2nd century AD, Jewish writing can be taken to identify the sons of God of Gen 6,1 and 4 as angels, Rabbinic Judaism and Christian authorities rejected the tradition. Those who adopted the tradition viewed the sons of God as fallen angels who married human women and by unnatural union begot the Nephilim. The reference to heavenly beings called Watchers originates in Daniel 4, the Greek word for watchers is ἐγρήγοροι egrḗgoroi, pl. of egrḗgoros, literally wakeful. The Greek term was transcribed in the Jewish pseudepigraphon Second Book of Enoch as Grigori and these Watchers became enamored with human women, and had intercourse with them. The offspring of these unions, and the knowledge they were given, corrupted human beings, a number of apocryphal works, including 1 Enoch link this transgression with the Great Deluge. This fact was adopted by early Christianity, but abandoned by Rabbinic Judaism, during the period immediately before the rise of Christianity, the intercourse between these Watchers and human women was often seen as the first fall of the angels. The Slavonic Second Book of Enoch is problematic as evidence for Jewish belief as it has been heavily redacted by Christian transmission, the Grigori are identified with the Watchers of 1 Enoch. In The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, Apocalypic Literature and Testaments edited by James H, and threw him out from the height with his angels, and he was flying in the air continuously above the bottomless. H. The Hebrew Bible personifies Satan, as Lucifer, as a character in three places, always inferior to Gods power, it portrays him as an accuser, a seducer. It uses the Hebrew word, which means adversary, elsewhere to speak of human opponents or some evil influence, in Christianity, Satan is often seen as the leader of the fallen angels. In Luke 10,18 Jesus says, I saw Satan fall like lightning from heaven, while the New Testament thus mentions Satan falling from Heaven, it never says that he was an angel, only that he masquerades as one, in 2 Corinthians 11,14. However, the concept of angels is not foreign to the New Testament, both 2 Peter 2,4 and Jude 1,6 refer to angels who have sinned against God. In the New Testament, Revelation 12, 3–14 speaks of a red dragon whose tail swept a third part of the stars of heaven. The fall of Lucifer finds its earliest identification with an angel in Origen, based on an interpretation of Isaiah 14, 1–17
11.
Book of Leviticus
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The Book of Leviticus is the third book of the Old Testament from the Bible, included in the Christian biblical canons, and the third of five books of the Pentateuch. The Hebrew name of the book of the Jewish Bible. Its Greek name Levitikon, things pertaining to the Levites, and its Latin name Leviticus, are based on the term torat kohanim, instruction of the priests from early rabbinic times. The English name is from the Latin Leviticus, taken in turn from Greek and a reference to the Levites, the book, however, addresses all the people of Israel though some passages address the priests specifically. Most of its chapters consist of Gods speeches to Moses which he is commanded to repeat to the Israelites and this takes place within the story of the Israelites Exodus after they escaped Egypt and reached Mt. Sinai. The Book of Exodus narrates how Moses led the Israelites in building the Tabernacle based on Gods instructions, then in Leviticus, God tells the Israelites and their priests how to make offerings in the Tabernacle and how to conduct themselves while camped around the holy tent sanctuary. Leviticus takes place during the month or month-and-a-half between the completion of the Tabernacle and the Israelites departure from Sinai, the instructions of Leviticus emphasize ritual, legal and moral practices rather than beliefs. Nevertheless, they reflect the view of the creation story in Genesis 1 that God wishes to live with humans. The book teaches that faithful performance of the sanctuary rituals can make possible, so long as the people avoid sin. Scholars debate whether it was primarily for Jewish worship in exile that centered on reading or preaching, or was aimed instead at worshipers at temples in Jerusalem. But they are unanimous that the book had a long period of growth. Instructions for the laity on bringing offerings 1–5, the types of offering, burnt, cereal, peace, purification, reparation offerings B. The various offerings, with the addition of the priests cereal offering 7, institution of the priesthood A. Ordination of Aaron and his sons B. Aaron makes the first sacrifices C, judgement on Nadab and Abihu III. Cleansing of diseases E. Unclean discharges IV, Day of Atonement, purification of the tabernacle from the effects of uncleanliness and sin V. Blasphemy J. Sabbatical and Jubilee years K. Exhortation to obey the law, blessing, redemption of votive gifts Chapters 1–5 describe the various sacrifices from the sacrificers point of view, although the priests are essential for handling the blood. Sacrifices are to be divided between God, the priest, and the offerers, although in cases the entire sacrifice is a single portion consigned to God—i. e. Chapters 8–10 describe the consecration by Moses of Aaron and his sons as the first priests, the first sacrifices, the purpose is to underline the character of altar priesthood as an Aaronite privilege, and the responsibilities and dangers of their position
12.
Goat
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The domestic goat is a subspecies of goat domesticated from the wild goat of southwest Asia and Eastern Europe. The goat is a member of the family Bovidae and is related to the sheep as both are in the goat-antelope subfamily Caprinae. There are over 300 distinct breeds of goat, Goats are one of the oldest domesticated species, and have been used for their milk, meat, hair, and skins over much of the world. In 2011, there were more than 924 million live goats around the globe, according to the UN Food, female goats are referred to as does or nannies, intact males are called bucks or billies, and juveniles of both sexes are called kids. Goat meat from animals is called kid or cabrito, while meat from older animals is known simply as goat or sometimes called chevon. To refer to the male, Old English used bucca until ousted by hegote, hegoote in the late 12th century, nanny goat originated in the 18th century and billy goat in the 19th. Goats are among the earliest animals domesticated by humans, the most recent genetic analysis confirms the archaeological evidence that the wild Bezoar ibex of the Zagros Mountains is the likely original ancestor of probably all domestic goats today. The earliest remnants of domesticated goats dating 10,000 years before present are found in Ganj Dareh in Iran. Goat remains have been found at sites in Jericho, Choga Mami Djeitun and Çayönü. Studies of DNA evidence suggests 10,000 years BP as the domestication date, historically, goat hide has been used for water and wine bottles in both traveling and transporting wine for sale. It has also used to produce parchment. Goats are considered small livestock animals, compared to animals such as cattle, camels and horses, but larger than microlivestock such as poultry, rabbits, cavies. Each recognized breed of goats has specific weight ranges, which vary from over 140 kg for bucks of larger breeds such as the Boer, within each breed, different strains or bloodlines may have different recognized sizes. At the bottom of the range are miniature breeds such as the African Pygmy. Most goats naturally have two horns, of various shapes and sizes depending on the breed, Goats have horns unless they are polled or the horns have been removed, typically soon after birth. There have been incidents of polycerate goats, although this is a genetic rarity thought to be inherited, the horns are most typically removed in commercial dairy goat herds, to reduce the injuries to humans and other goats. Unlike cattle, goats have not been bred to be reliably polled, as the genes determining sex. Breeding together two genetically polled goats results in a number of intersex individuals among the offspring, which are typically sterile
13.
Yahweh
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Yahweh was the national god of the Iron Age kingdoms of Israel and Judah. By the end of the Babylonian exile, the existence of foreign gods was denied, and Yahweh was proclaimed as the creator of the cosmos. The Israelites originated as Bronze Age Canaanites, but Yahweh was not initially a Canaanite god, in this case a plausible etymology for the name could be from the root HWY, which would yield the meaning he blows, appropriate to a weather divinity. There is considerable but not universal support for the view that the Egyptian inscriptions refer to Yahweh, the question that arises is how he made his way to the north. A widely accepted hypothesis is that traders brought Yahweh to Israel along the routes between Egypt and Canaan, the Kenite hypothesis, named after one of the groups involved. Israel emerges into the record in the last decades of the 13th century BCE, at the very end of the Late Bronze Age. The milieu from which Israelite religion emerged was accordingly Canaanite and he lived in a tent on a mountain from whose base originated all the fresh waters of the world, with the goddess Asherah as his consort. This pair made up the top tier of the Canaanite pantheon, the tier was made up of their children. Baals sphere was the thunderstorm with its life-giving rains, so that he was also a fertility god, below the seventy second-tier gods was a third tier made up of comparatively minor craftsman and trader deities, with a fourth and final tier of divine messengers and the like. He subdues the ancient gods, shatters the forces of old, so Israel lives in safety, untroubled is Jacobs abode. Your enemies shall come fawning to you, and you shall tread on their backs. After the 9th century BCE the tribes and chiefdoms of Iron Age I were replaced by ethnic nation states, Israel, Judah, Moab, Ammon and others, each with its national god, and all more or less equal. Thus Chemosh was the god of the Moabites, Milcom the god of the Ammonites, Qaus the god of the Edomites, the festivals thus celebrated Yahwehs salvation of Israel and Israels status as his holy people, although the earlier agricultural meaning was not entirely lost. Sacrifice was presumably complemented by the singing or recital of psalms, prayer played little role in official worship. Shiloh, Bethel, Gilgal, Mizpah, Ramah and Dan were also sites for festivals, sacrifices, the making of vows, private rituals. Yahweh-worship was famously aniconic, meaning that the god was not depicted by a statue or other image, pre-exilic Israel, like its neighbours, was polytheistic, and Israelite monotheism was the culmination of a unique set of historical circumstances. The original god of Israel was El, as the name demonstrates—its probable meaning is may El rule or some other sentence-form involving the name of El. Asherah, formerly the wife of El, was worshipped as Yahwehs consort, and various biblical passages indicate that her statues were kept in his temples in Jerusalem, Bethel, and Samaria
14.
Yom Kippur
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Yom Kippur, also known as the Day of Atonement, is the holiest day of the year in Judaism. Its central themes are atonement and repentance, Jewish people traditionally observe this holy day with an approximate 25-hour period of fasting and intensive prayer, often spending most of the day in synagogue services. Yom means day in Hebrew and Kippur comes from a root that means to atone, Yom Kippur is usually expressed in English as Day of Atonement. Yom Kippur is the day of seventh month and is regarded as the Sabbath of Sabbaths. Rosh Hashanah is the first day of that month according to the Hebrew calendar, on this day forgiveness of sins is also asked of God. Yom Kippur completes the period known in Judaism as the High Holy Days or Yamim Noraim that commences with Rosh Hashanah. According to Jewish tradition, God inscribes each persons fate for the year into a book, the Book of Life, on Rosh Hashanah. During the Days of Awe, a Jew tries to amend his or her behavior and seek forgiveness for wrongs done against God, the evening and day of Yom Kippur are set aside for public and private petitions and confessions of guilt. At the end of Yom Kippur, one hopes that they have been forgiven by God, the Yom Kippur prayer service includes several unique aspects. One is the number of prayer services. Unlike a regular day, which has three services, or a Shabbat or Yom Tov, which have four prayer services. The prayer services also include private and public confessions of sins, as one of the most culturally significant Jewish holidays, Yom Kippur is observed by many secular Jews who may not observe other holidays. Many secular Jews attend synagogue on Yom Kippur—for many secular Jews the High Holy Days are the times of the year during which they attend synagogue—causing synagogue attendance to soar. Erev Yom Kippur is the day preceding Yom Kippur, corresponding to the day of the Hebrew month of Tishrei. This day is commemorated with additional morning prayers, asking others for forgiveness, giving charity, performing the ritual, an extended afternoon prayer service. Leviticus 16,29 mandates establishment of this day on the 10th day of the 7th month as the day of atonement for sins. It calls it the Sabbath of Sabbaths and a day upon which one must afflict ones soul, Leviticus 23,27 decrees that Yom Kippur is a strict day of rest. Five additional prohibitions are traditionally observed, as detailed in the Jewish oral tradition, the number five is a set number, relating to, In the Yom Kippur section of the Torah, the word soul appears five times
15.
King James Version
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The King James Version, also known as Authorized Version or simply King James Bible, is an English translation of the Christian Bible for the Church of England begun in 1604 and completed in 1611. The books of the King James Version include the 39 books of the Old Testament, a section containing 14 books of the Apocrypha. It was first printed by the Kings Printer Robert Barker and was the translation into English approved by the English Church authorities. The first had been the Great Bible, commissioned in the reign of King Henry VIII, the translation is noted for its majesty of style, and has been described as one of the most important books in English culture. The translation was done by 47 scholars, all of whom were members of the Church of England. In common with most other translations of the period, the New Testament was translated from Greek, the Old Testament from Hebrew and Aramaic, and the Apocrypha from Greek and Latin. In the Book of Common Prayer, the text of the Authorized Version replaced the text of the Great Bible for Epistle and Gospel readings, over the course of the 18th century, the Authorized Version supplanted the Latin Vulgate as the standard version of scripture for English-speaking scholars. Today the unqualified title King James Version usually indicates that this Oxford standard text is meant, the title page carries the words Appointed to be read in Churches, and F. F. For many years it was not to give the translation any specific name. In his Leviathan of 1651, Thomas Hobbes referred to it as the English Translation made in the beginning of the Reign of King James. Similarly, a History of England, whose edition was published in 1775, writes merely that new translation of the Bible, viz. that now in Use, was begun in 1607. King Jamess Bible is used as the name for the 1611 translation in Charles Butlers Horae Biblicae and this name was also found as King James Bible, for example in a book review from 1811. The phrase King Jamess Bible is used as far back as 1715, the use of Authorized Version or Authorised Version, capitalized and used as a name, is found as early as 1814. For some time before this, descriptive phrases such as our present, and only publicly authorised version, our Authorised version, the Oxford English Dictionary records a usage in 1824. In Britain, the 1611 translation is known as the Authorised Version today. As early as 1814, we find King James version, evidently a descriptive phrase, the King James Version is found, unequivocally used as a name, in a letter from 1855. The next year King James Bible, with no possessive, appears as a name in a Scottish source, in the United States, the 1611 translation is generally known as the King James Version today. The followers of John Wycliffe undertook the first complete English translations of the Christian scriptures in the 14th century and these translations were banned in 1409 due to their association with the Lollards
16.
Modern English Bible translations
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Many attempts have been made to translate the Bible into modern English, which in this context is defined as the form of English in use after 1800. The New Revised Standard Version is the version most commonly preferred by biblical scholars, the RSV gained widespread adoption among the mainstream Protestant Churches in America and a Catholic Edition was released in 1962. It was updated as the New Revised Standard Version in 1989, in the late twentieth century, Bibles increasingly appeared that were much less literal in their approach to translation. In 1946, the New English Bible was initiated in the United Kingdom, in 1966, Good News for Modern Man, a non-literal translation of the New Testament, was released to wide acceptance. The Living Bible, released in 1971, was published by its author Kenneth N. Taylor, Taylor had begun because of the trouble his children had in understanding the literal text of the King James Bible. His work was at first intended for children, but was positioned for marketing to high school and college students. Like Phillips version, the Living Bible was a departure from the King James version. This translation has gone on to one of the best selling in history. In 1996, a new revision of Taylors Living Bible was published and this New Living Translation is a full translation from the original languages rather than a paraphrase of the Bible. Another project aimed to create something in between the literal translation of the King James Bible and the more informal Good News Bible. The goal of this was to create a Bible that would be scholarly yet not overly formal, the result of this project was the New International Version. This version became popular in Evangelical Protestant circles. The debate between the formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence translation styles has increased with the introduction of language versions. Various terms are employed to defend or attack this development, such as feminist, gender neutral, some translations have approached the issue more cautiously, such as the English Standard Version. Today, there is a range of translations ranging from the most literal, such as the Youngs Literal Translation to the most free such as The Message and The Word on the Street. The King James Version of 1611 still has an immense following, the English Revised Version and its derivatives also stem from the King James Version. The English Revised Version was the first official attempt to update the King James Version of 1769 and this was adapted in the United States as the American Standard Version. The translations and versions that stem from them are shown in date order, a significant aspect in translations from the latter half of the 20th century was much greater use of the principles of dynamic equivalence
17.
English Standard Version
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The English Standard Version is an English translation of the Christian Bible. It is a revision of the 1971 edition of the Revised Standard Version that employs an essentially literal translation philosophy. Work on this translation was prompted, in the early 1990s, about 6 percent was revised in the ESV. The ESV uses some gender-neutral language, in 2007, the ESV underwent a minor revision, and the publisher did not identify the updated text as a revised edition. The update changed about 500 words by focusing on grammar, consistency, one notable change was from wounded for our transgressions to pierced for our transgressions. In April 2011, another edition was issued, and the 2007 edition has been phased out. In August 2016, Crossway announced the ESV Permanent Text Edition with 52 word changes in 29 verses, the publishers announced their intention to leave the text alone for the foreseeable future after this update. Lane Dennis, Crossways president and CEO, said, We apologize for this and for any concern this has caused for readers of the ESV Our desire, above all, is to do what is right before the Lord. The publishers hope for new edition which includes the Apocrypha is that it will be used widely in seminaries. The ESV version of the Apocrypha is a revision of the Revised Standard Version 1977 Expanded Edition, the team translating the Apocrypha includes Bernard A. Taylor, David A. deSilva, and Dan McCartney, under the editorship of David Aiken. In the edition including these books, they are printed and arranged in the order of the RSV and NRSV Common Bibles. The Oxford translating team relied on the Göttingen Septuagint for all of the Apocrypha except 4 Maccabees and 2 Esdras, which used the German Bible Societys 1983 edition Vulgate. Mark L. Strauss, in a paper presented at the 2008 annual meeting of the Evangelical Theological Society, criticized the ESV for using dated language, ESV translator William D. Mounce has called these arguments against the ESV ad hominem. Biblical Archaeology Society,3, retrieved December 7,2012 Johnson, S
18.
El (deity)
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’Ēl is a Northwest Semitic word meaning god or deity, or referring to any one of multiple major Ancient Near East deities. A rarer spelling, ila, represents the form in Old Akkadian. The word is derived from the Proto-Semitic archaic biliteral ʔ‑L, meaning god, specific deities known as El or Il include the supreme god of the Canaanite religion and the supreme god of the Mesopotamian Semites in the pre-Sargonic period. Cognate forms are found throughout the Semitic languages and they include Ugaritic ʾil, pl. ʾlm, Phoenician ʾl pl. ʾlm, Hebrew ʾēl, pl. ʾēlîm, Aramaic ʾl, Akkadian ilu, pl. ilānu. In northwest Semitic use, El was both a word for any god and the special name or title of a particular god who was distinguished from other gods as being the god. El is listed at the head of many pantheons, in some Canaanite and Ugaritic sources, El played a role as father of the gods or of creation. For example, in the Ugaritic texts, ʾil mlk is understood to mean Ēl the King, the Semitic root ʾlh may be ʾl with a parasitic h, and ʾl may be an abbreviated form of ʾlh. In Ugaritic the plural form meaning gods is ʾilhm, equivalent to Hebrew ʾelōhîm powers, in the Hebrew texts this word is interpreted as being semantically singular for god by religious readers. Inconsistencies that arise between monotheism and polytheism in the texts are reflective of this hypothesis, the stem ʾl is found prominently in the earliest strata of east Semitic, northwest Semitic, and south Semitic groups. The Egyptian god Ptah is given the title ḏū gitti Lord of Gath in a prism from Lachish which has on its face the name of Amenhotep II The title ḏū gitti is also found in Serābitṭ text 353. A Phoenician inscribed amulet of the seventh century BCE from Arslan Tash may refer to ʼĒl, the text was translated by Rosenthal as follows, An eternal bond has been established for us. Ashshur has established for us, and all the divine beings, however, Cross translated the text as follows, The Eternal One has made a covenant oath with us, Asherah has made with us. And all the sons of El, And the great council of all the Holy Ones, with oaths of Heaven and Ancient Earth. In some inscriptions, the name ’Ēl qōne ’arṣ meaning ʼĒl creator of Earth appears, in Hittite texts, the expression becomes the single name Ilkunirsa, this Ilkunirsa appearing as the husband of Asherdu and father of 77 or 88 sons. In a Hurrian hymn to ʼĒl, he is called ’il brt and ’il dn which Cross takes as ʼĒl of the covenant and ʼĒl the judge respectively. Various family gods are recorded, divine names listed as belong to a family or clan, sometimes by title and sometimes by name. In Amorite personal names, the most common elements are Il, Hadad/Adad. It is likely that Il is also often the god called in Akkadian texts Amurru or Il Amurru
19.
Dead Sea Scrolls
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The caves are located about two kilometres inland from the northwest shore of the Dead Sea, from which they derive their name. The consensus is that the Qumran Caves Scrolls date from the last three centuries BCE and the first century CE. Bronze coins found at the same sites form a series beginning with John Hyrcanus and continuing until the First Jewish–Roman War, supporting the radiocarbon and paleographic dating of the scrolls. In the larger sense, the Dead Sea Scrolls include manuscripts from additional Judaean Desert sites, most of the texts are written in Hebrew, with some in Aramaic, and a few in Greek. If discoveries from the Judean desert are included, Latin and Arabic can be added, most texts are written on parchment, some on papyrus, and one on copper. Owing to the condition of some of the scrolls, not all of them have been identified. The practice of storing worn-out sacred manuscripts in earthenware vessels buried in the earth or within caves is related to the ancient Jewish custom of Genizah. The initial discovery, by Bedouin shepherd Muhammed edh-Dhib, his cousin Juma Muhammed, the shepherds discovered seven scrolls housed in jars in a cave near what is now known as the Qumran site. Trever reconstructed the story of the scrolls from several interviews with the Bedouin, edh-Dhibs cousin noticed the caves, but edh-Dhib himself was the first to actually fall into one. He retrieved a handful of scrolls, which Trever identifies as the Isaiah Scroll, Habakkuk Commentary, and the Community Rule, none of the scrolls were destroyed in this process, despite popular rumor. The Bedouin kept the scrolls hanging on a tent pole while they figured out what to do with them, at some point during this time, the Community Rule was split in two. The Bedouin first took the scrolls to a dealer named Ibrahim Ijha in Bethlehem, Ijha returned them, saying they were worthless, after being warned that they might have been stolen from a synagogue. Undaunted, the Bedouin went to a market, where a Syrian Christian offered to buy them. A sheikh joined their conversation and suggested they take the scrolls to Khalil Eskander Shahin, Kando, the Bedouin and the dealers returned to the site, leaving one scroll with Kando and selling three others to a dealer for 7 GBP. The original scrolls continued to change hands after the Bedouin left them in the possession of a party until a sale could be arranged. In 1947 the original seven scrolls caught the attention of Dr. John C, in March the 1948 Arab-Israeli War prompted the move of some of the scrolls to Beirut, Lebanon, for safekeeping. On 11 April 1948, Millar Burrows, head of the ASOR, early in September 1948, Metropolitan bishop Mar Samuel brought some additional scroll fragments that he had acquired to Professor Ovid R. Sellers, the new Director of ASOR. By the end of 1948, nearly two years after their discovery, scholars had yet to locate the cave where the fragments had been found
20.
Enoch (ancestor of Noah)
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Enoch is a figure in Biblical literature. In the seventh generation from Adam, he was considered the author of the Book of Enoch, in addition to an appearance in the Book of Genesis of the Hebrew Bible, Enoch is the subject of many Jewish and Christian writings. Enoch was the son of Jared, the father of Methuselah, at 65 years old, he begot Methuselah. Regim and Gaidad are also mentioned as his sons according to 2 Enoch, the Bible says that Enoch lived 365 years before he was taken by God. The text reads that Enoch walked with God, and he was no more, for God took him and this Enoch is not to be confused with Cains son Enoch. The Christian New Testament has three references to Enoch from the lineage of Seth, Enoch appears in the Book of Genesis of the Pentateuch as the seventh of the ten pre-Deluge Patriarchs. Genesis recounts that each of the pre-Flood Patriarchs lived for several centuries, Genesis 5 provides a genealogy of these ten figures, providing the age at which each fathered the next, and the age of each figure at death. Enoch is considered by many to be the exception, who is said to not see death. Furthermore, Genesis 5, 22–29 states that Enoch lived 365 years which is short in the context of his peers. The brief account of Enoch in Genesis 5 ends with the note that he not, 3rd Book of Enoch, a Rabbinic text in Hebrew usually dated to the fifth century AD. These recount how Enoch was taken up to Heaven and was appointed guardian of all the treasures, chief of the archangels. He was subsequently taught all secrets and mysteries and, with all the angels at his back, fulfils of his own accord whatever comes out of the mouth of God, executing His decrees. Much esoteric literature like the 3rd Book of Enoch identifies Enoch as the Metatron, the Book of Giants resembles the Book of Enoch, a pseudepigraphical Jewish work from the 3rd century BC. At least six and as many as eleven copies were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls collections, the third-century BC translators who produced the Greek Septuagint rendered the phrase God took him with the Greek verb metatithemi meaning moving from one place to another. Sirach 44,16, from about the period, states that Enoch pleased God and was translated into paradise that he may give repentance to the nations. The Greek word used here for paradise, paradeisos, was derived from an ancient Persian word meaning enclosed garden, later, however, the term became synonymous for heaven, as is the case here. In classical Rabbinical literature, there are views of Enoch. One view regarding Enoch was that found in the Targum Pseudo-Jonathan, which thought of Enoch as a man, taken to Heaven
21.
Qumran
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Qumran is an archaeological site in the West Bank managed by Israels Qumran National Park. It is located on a dry plateau about 1.5 km from the shore of the Dead Sea, near the Israeli settlement. It is best known as the settlement nearest to the Qumran Caves where the Dead Sea Scrolls were hidden, caves in the sheer cliffs and beneath. The principal excavations at Qumran were conducted by Roland de Vaux in the 1950s, since the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls in 1947-1956, extensive excavations have taken place in Qumran. Most were written on parchment and some on papyrus, many scholars believe the location was home to a Jewish sect, probably the Essenes. A large cemetery was discovered to the east of the site, while most of the graves contain the remains of males, some females were also discovered, though some burials may be from medieval times. Only a small portion of the graves were excavated, as excavating cemeteries is forbidden under Jewish law, over a thousand bodies are buried at Qumran cemetery. One theory is that bodies were those of generations of sectarians, the scrolls were found in a series of eleven caves around the settlement, some accessible only through the settlement. Some scholars have claimed that the caves were the permanent libraries of the sect, other scholars believe that some caves also served as domestic shelters for those living in the area. A literary epistle published in the 1990s expresses reasons for creating a community, most of the scrolls seem to have been hidden in the caves during the turmoil of the First Jewish–Roman War, although some of them may have been deposited earlier. The site of Khirbet Qumran had been known to European explorers since the 19th century, the initial attention of the early explorers was focused on the cemetery, beginning with de Saulcy in 1851. In fact, the first excavations at Qumran were of burials in the cemetery, rev. Albert Isaacs, British counsel James Finn, and photographer James Graham visited Qumran in December 1856. Isaacs stated regarding Qumrans tower, It can hardly be doubted that this formed a tower or stronghold of some kind, the situation is commanding, and well adapted for defensive operations. Finn later suggested Qumran was some ancient fort with a cistern, the British scholar Ernest William Gurney Masterman visited Qumran on several occasions between 1900 and 1901. After observing the positioning of Qumran atop a plateau overlooking the ‘Ein Feshkha Springs, Masterman also questioned why a small fort would require a graveyard of over one thousand tombs. Gustaf Dalman visited Qumran in 1914, and explicitly identified Qumran as a burg, full-scale work at the site began after Roland de Vaux and G. Lankester Harding in 1949 excavated what became known as Cave 1, the first scroll-bearing cave. A cursory surface survey that year produced nothing of interest, and this analysis yielded traces of pottery closely related to that found in Cave 1. This discovery led to excavations at the site over a period of six seasons under the direction of de Vaux
22.
Book of Enoch
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It is not part of the biblical canon as used by Jews, apart from Beta Israel. It is regarded as canonical by the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church and Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church and it is wholly extant only in the Geez language, with Aramaic fragments from the Dead Sea Scrolls and a few Greek and Latin fragments. No Hebrew version is known to have survived and it is asserted in the book itself that its author was Enoch, before the Biblical Flood. The text was also utilised by the community that originally collected the Dead Sea Scrolls, the first part of the Book of Enoch describes the fall of the Watchers, the angels who fathered the Nephilim. The remainder of the book describes Enochs visits to heaven in the form of travels, visions and dreams, and his revelations. By the 4th century, the Book of Enoch was mostly excluded from Christian canons, and it is now regarded as scripture by only the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, compare this with Enoch 1,9, translated from the Ethiopic, And behold. Under the heading of canonicity, it is not enough to demonstrate that something is quoted. Instead, it is necessary to demonstrate the nature of the quotation. In the case of the Jude 1,14 quotation of 1 Enoch 1,9, it would be difficult to argue that Jude does not quote Enoch as an historical prophet since he cites Enoch by name. However, there remains a question as to whether the author of Jude attributed the quotation believing the source to be the historical Enoch before the flood or a midrash of Deut 33, certainly he did consider it authoritative, a true word from God. We cannot tell whether he ranked it alongside other books such as Isaiah and Jeremiah. What we do know is, first, that other Jewish groups, most notably those living in Qumran near the Dead Sea, also used and valued 1 Enoch, but we do not find it grouped with the scriptural scrolls. The attribution Enoch the Seventh from Adam is apparently itself a section heading taken from 1 Enoch, also, it has been alleged that 1 Peter, and 2 Peter make reference to some Enochian material. However, later Fathers denied the canonicity of the book, the traditional belief of the Ethiopic Orthodox Church, which sees 1 Enoch as an inspired document, is that the Ethiopic text is the original one, written by Enoch himself. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints does not consider 1 Enoch to be part of its standard canon, the most extensive witnesses to the Book of Enoch exist in the Geez language. Robert Henry Charless critical edition of 1906 subdivides the Ethiopic manuscripts into two families, Family α, thought to be ancient and more similar to the Greek versions. 485 of the British Museum, 16th century, with Jubilees B – ms. orient,491 of the British Museum, 18th century, with other biblical writings C – ms. of Berlin orient. 531 of the Bodleian Library of Oxford, 18th century I – ms, brace 74 of the Bodleian Library of Oxford, 16th century J – ms. orient
23.
War in Heaven
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Revelations war in heaven is related to the idea of fallen angels, and possible parallels have been proposed in the Hebrew Bible and the Dead Sea Scrolls. Some commentators have seen the war in heaven as not literal, in Miltons Paradise Lost, the angel Lucifer leads a rebellion against God before the Fall of Man. A third of the angels, including pagan gods such as Moloch, jonathan Edwards said in his sermon Wisdom Displayed in Salvation, Satan and his angels rebelled against God in heaven, and proudly presumed to try their strength with his. And when God, by his almighty power, overcame the strength of Satan and he added that Michaels name was the war-cry of the good angels in the battle fought in heaven against the enemy and his followers. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints teaches that Revelation 12 concerns an event in the pre-mortal existence of man. The Book of Moses, included in the LDS standard works canon, references the War in Heaven, anatole France in the 1914 novel La Révolte des Anges adapted the Christian myth to make a parable about revolts and revolutionary movements. The motif of the fall of Satan and his angels can be found in Christian angelology and Christian art, the Christian tradition has stories about angelic beings cast down from heaven by God, often presenting the punishment as inflicted in particular on Satan. Lucifers rebellion has been attributed to a number of motives, all of which stem from his great pride. These motives include, A refusal to bow down to mankind on the occasion of the creation of man as in the Armenian, Georgian, a similar view is held in Islamic tradition, in which Iblis refuses to bow down to Adam. The culmination of a distancing from God through use of free will. A declaration by God that all were to be subject to his Son, parallels are drawn to the passage in Isaiah 14, 4-17 that mentions the son of the morning that had fallen from heaven and was cast down to the earth. In verse 12 of this passage, the Hebrew word that referred to the star was translated into Latin as Lucifer. With the application to the Devil of the morning star story, the name Lucifer, the Latin name for the morning star, is often given to the Devil in these stories. Stars were then regarded as living celestial beings, according to Jewish thought, the passage in Isaiah was used to prophesy the fate of the King of Babylon, who is described as aiming to rival God. That the Melchizedek document concerns a war in heaven is denied by Fred L, War in Heaven Christoph Auffarth, Loren T. Stuckenbruck, The Fall of the Angels. Eine Analyse des Höllenverständnisses verschiedener Epochen anhand von Höllendarstellungen, neil Forsyth, The Old Enemy, Satan & the Combat Myth 1987
24.
Mount Hermon
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Mount Hermon is a mountain cluster constituting the southern end of the Anti-Lebanon mountain range. Its summit straddles the border between Syria and Lebanon and, at 2,814 m above sea level, is the highest point in Syria. On the top, in the United Nations buffer zone between Syrian- and Israeli-occupied territories, is the highest permanently manned UN position in the world, the southern slopes of Mount Hermon extend to the Israeli-occupied portion of the Golan Heights, where the Mount Hermon ski resort is located. A peak in this rising to 2,236 m is the highest elevation in Israeli-controlled territory. Mount Hermon is actually a cluster of mountains with three summits, each about the same height. The Hermon range covers an area of about 700 km2 of which about 70 km2 are under Israeli control, most of the portion of Mount Hermon within the Israeli-controlled area constitutes the Hermon nature reserve. The entire relatively narrow range, with the Lebanon-Syria boundary along its spine, the mountain forms one of the greatest geographic resources of the area. Because of its height it captures a great deal of precipitation in a dry area of the world. The Jurassic limestone is broken by faults and solution channels to form a karst topography, Mount Hermon has seasonal winter and spring snow falls, which cover all three of its peaks for most of the year. Melt water from the mountains western and southern bases seeps into the rock channels and pores, feeding springs at the base of the mountain. These merge to become the Jordan River, additionally, the runoff facilitates fertile plant life below the snow line, where vineyards and pine, oak, and poplar trees are abundant. The springs, and the mountain itself, are contested by the nations of the area for the use of the water. Mount Hermon is also called the mountain, the gray-haired mountain. It is also called the eyes of the nation in Israel because its elevation makes it Israels primary strategic early warning system, in the Book of Enoch, Mount Hermon is the place where the Watcher class of fallen angels descended to Earth. They swear upon the mountain that they would take wives among the daughters of men, the mountain or summit is referred to as Saphon in Ugaritic texts where the palace of Baal is located in a myth about Attar. The Book of Chronicles also mentions Mount Hermon as a place where Epher, Ishi, Eliel, Azriel, Jeremiah, Hodaviah, france, in his book on the Gospel of Matthew, noted that Mount Hermon was a possible location of the Transfiguration of Jesus. Various Temples of Mount Hermon can be found in villages on the slopes, there is a sacred building made of hewn blocks of stone on the summit of Mount Hermon. Known as Qasr Antar, it is the highest temple of the ancient world and was documented by Sir Charles Warren in 1869
25.
Demon
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A demon is a supernatural, mythological and often malevolent being prevalent in religion, occultism, literature, fiction, mythology and folklore. The original Greek word daimon does not carry the negative connotation initially understood by implementation of the Koine δαιμόνιον, the Ancient Greek word δαίμων daimōn denotes a spirit or divine power, much like the Latin genius or numen. Daimōn most likely came from the Greek verb daiesthai, the Greek conception of a daimōn notably appears in the works of Plato, where it describes the divine inspiration of Socrates. To distinguish the classical Greek concept from its later Christian interpretation, the Greek terms do not have any connotations of evil or malevolence. In fact, εὐδαιμονία eudaimonia, means happiness, far into the Byzantine period Christians eyed their cities old pagan statuary as a seat of the demons presence. It was no longer beautiful, it was infested, the term had first acquired its negative connotations in the Septuagint translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek, which drew on the mythology of ancient Semitic religions. This was then inherited by the Koine text of the New Testament, the Western medieval and neo-medieval conception of a demon derives seamlessly from the ambient popular culture of Late Antiquity. The Hellenistic daemon eventually came to include many Semitic and Near Eastern gods as evaluated by Christianity, the supposed existence of demons remains an important concept in many modern religions and occultist traditions. Demons are still feared largely due to their power to possess living creatures. In the contemporary Western occultist tradition, a demon is a metaphor for certain inner psychological processes. According to the Jewish Encyclopedia, In Chaldean mythology the seven evil deities were known as shedu, storm-demons and they were represented as winged bulls, derived from the colossal bulls used as protective jinn of royal palaces. From Chaldea, the term shedu traveled to the Israelites, the writers of the Tanach applied the word as a dialogism to Canaanite deities. There are indications that demons in popular Hebrew mythology were believed to come from the nether world, various diseases and ailments were ascribed to them, particularly those affecting the brain and those of internal nature. Examples include catalepsy, headache, epilepsy and nightmares, there also existed a demon of blindness, Shabriri who rested on uncovered water at night and blinded those who drank from it. Demons supposedly entered the body and caused the disease while overwhelming or seizing the victim, to cure such diseases, it was necessary to draw out the evil demons by certain incantations and talismanic performances, at which the Essenes excelled. In mythology, there were few defences against Babylonian demons, the mythical mace Sharur had the power to slay demons such as Asag, a legendary gallu or edimmu of hideous strength. As referring to the existence or non-existence of shedim there are converse opinions in Judaism, there are practically nil roles assigned to demons in the Jewish Bible. In conclusion, Jews are not obligated to believe in the existence of shedim, the word shedim appears only in two places in the Tanakh
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Watcher (angel)
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Watcher is a term used in connection with biblical angels. Watcher occurs in both plural and singular forms in the Book of Daniel, where reference is made to their holiness, the apocryphal Books of Enoch refer to both good and bad Watchers, with a primary focus on the rebellious ones. In the Book of Daniel 4,13,17,23 there are three references to the class of watcher, holy one, the term is introduced by Nebuchadnezzar who says he saw a watcher, a holy one come down from heaven. Lutheran Protestant reformer Johann Wigand viewed the watcher in Nebuchadnezzars dream as either God himself and he promoted Trinitarian thinking by linking verse 17 with verse 24. In the Books of Enoch, the first Book of Enoch devotes much of its attention to the fall of the Watchers, the Second Book of Enoch addresses the Watchers who are in fifth heaven where the fall took place. The Third Book of Enoch gives attention to the unfallen Watchers, the use of the term Watchers is common in the Book of Enoch. The Book of the Watchers occurs in the Aramaic fragments with the phrase irin we-qadishin, Watchers and Holy Ones, the Aramaic irin watchers is rendered as angel in the Greek and Ethiopian translations, although the usual Aramaic term for angel malakha does not occur in Aramaic Enoch. The dating of this section of 1 Enoch is around 2nd–1st century BC and this book is based on one interpretation of the Sons of God passage in Genesis 6, according to which angels married with human females, giving rise to a race of hybrids known as the Nephilim. In the Book of Enoch, the Watchers are angels dispatched to Earth to watch over the humans and they soon begin to lust for human women and, at the prodding of their leader Samyaza, defect en masse to illicitly instruct humanity and procreate among them. The offspring of these unions are the Nephilim, savage giants who pillage the earth, eventually God allows a Great Flood to rid the earth of the Nephilim, but first sends Uriel to warn Noah so as not to eradicate the human race. The Watchers are bound in the valleys of the Earth until Judgment Day, the chiefs of tens, listed in the Book of Enoch, are as follows,7. These are their chiefs of tens, the book of Enoch also lists leaders of the 200 fallen angels who married and commenced in unnatural union with human women, and who taught forbidden knowledge. Some are also listed in Book of Raziel, the Zohar, araqiel taught humans the signs of the earth. Armaros in Enoch I taught men the resolving of enchantments, Azazel taught men to make knives, swords, shields, and how to devise ornaments and cosmetics. Gadreel taught the art of cosmetics, the use of weapons, bezaliel mentioned in Enoch I, left out of most translations because of damaged manuscripts and problematic transmission of the text. Chazaqiel taught men the signs of the clouds, kokabiel, In the Book of Raziel he is a high-ranking, holy angel. In Enoch I, he is a fallen Watcher, resident of the nether realms, among other duties, he instructs his fellows in astrology. Penemue taught mankind the art of writing ink and paper, and taught the children of men the bitter and the sweet
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Genesis flood narrative
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The Genesis flood narrative makes up chapters 6–9 in the Book of Genesis, in the Torah. Thus, the flood was a reversal of creation, although many religious groups consider the story to be largely allegorical, there are still many groups and individuals who believe the story to be literally true. Genesis 6, 1–4 presents the reason for the flood, the Sons of God marry the daughters of men and sire a race of giants, mighty men which of old, men of renown. Genesis continues, And GOD saw that the wickedness of man great in the earth, God decides to destroy the world in a reversal of creation. The flood occurs because God judges humanity, in Genesis 6, 5-8, the LORD judged man for being wicked and evil. In verses Genesis 6, 11-22, God judged all flesh for being corrupt, the judgment in verses 6, 5–8 is thought to have been written earlier and later combined with the second. This element of judgment makes the flood story different from the flood in the Babylonian Epic of Gilgamesh. In the Gilgamesh story, the flood is mentioned only in passing as part of the Epic tale itself, beginning with Genesis 6,14, God instructed Noah to build an ark to save his immediate family, along with samples of animal life. The ark was to be made of wood covered with pitch inside and outside. The ark was 300 cubits long,50 cubits wide, and 30 cubits high, and it had an opening for daylight near the top, an entrance on its side, and three decks. God told Noah that he, his sons, his wife, his sons wives, and two of each kind of beast – male and female – would survive in the ark. The Priestly source, Genesis 7,11,8, 1-2, describes the nature of the waters as a cosmic cataclysm, by the opening of the springs of the deep. This is the reverse of the separation of the waters recounted in the Genesis creation narrative of chapter 1. After Noah and the remnant of animals were secured, the fountains of the great deep, the waters elevated, with the summits of the highest mountains under 15 cubits of water, flooding the world for 150 days, and then receding in 220 days. The Jahwist version of how the waters came to be is indicated in Genesis 7,12. During this time, the ark came to rest on the mountains of Ararat, then he sends out a dove to see if the waters had decreased from the ground, but the dove could not find a resting place, and returned to the ark. He waited another seven days, and again sent out the dove, and he waited another seven days and sent out the dove, and it did not return. When Noah removed the covering of the ark, he saw that the ground was drying, God makes a pledge of commitment to Noah in Genesis 9, 1–17
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Raphael (archangel)
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Raphael is an archangel of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam who in the Christian tradition performs all manners of healing. In Islam, Raphael is the fourth angel, in the Muslim tradition. Raphael is generally associated with the mentioned in the Gospel of John as stirring the water at the healing pool of Bethesda. Raphael is also an angel in Mormonism, as he is mentioned in the Doctrine. The angels mentioned in the Torah, the books of the Hebrew Bible, are without names. Rabbi Shimon ben Lakish of Tiberias, asserted that all the names for the angels were brought back by the Jews from Babylon. Raphael is named in several Jewish apocryphal books, and place upon him rough and jagged rocks, and cover him with darkness, and let him abide there for ever, and cover his face that he may not see light. And on the day of the judgment he shall be cast into the fire. Of archangels in the angelology of post-Exilic Judaism, only Michael, mentioned as archangel, the name of the angel Raphael appears only in the Biblical Book of Tobit. The Book of Tobit is considered deuterocanonical by Catholics, Orthodox, Raphael first appears disguised in human form as the travelling companion of Tobits son, Tobiah, calling himself Azarias the son of the great Ananias. During the course of the journey the archangels protective influence is shown in many including the binding of a demon in the desert of upper Egypt. After returning and healing the blind Tobit, Azarias makes himself known as the angel Raphael, one of the seven and he is venerated as Saint Raphael the Archangel. In the New Testament, only the archangels Gabriel and Michael are mentioned by name, and he that went down first into the pond after the motion of the water was made whole of whatsoever infirmity he lay under. Because of the role assigned to Raphael, this particular angel is generally associated with the archangel. On July 8,1497, when Vasco Da Gama set forth from Lisbon with his four ship fleet to sail to India, when the flotilla reached the Cape of Good Hope on October 22, the sailors disembarked and erected a column in the archangels honor. The little statue of St. Raphael that accompanied Da Gama on the voyage is now in the Naval Museum in Lisbon, Raphael is said to guard pilgrims on their journeys, and is often depicted holding a staff. He is also depicted holding or standing on a fish. The feast day of Raphael was included for the first time in the General Roman Calendar in 1921, with the 1969 revision of the General Roman Calendar, the feast was transferred to September 29 for celebration together with archangels Saints Michael and Gabriel
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Last Judgment
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In Christian belief, it is the final and eternal judgment by God of the people in every nation resulting in the glorification of some and the punishment of others. The concept is found in all the Canonical gospels, particularly the Gospel of Matthew, Christian Futurists believe it will take place after the Resurrection of the Dead and the Second Coming of Christ while Full Preterists believe it has already occurred. The Last Judgment has inspired numerous artistic depictions, beware of false prophets, which come to you in sheeps clothing, but inwardly they are ravening wolves. Ye shall know them by their fruits, do men gather grapes of thorns, or figs of thistles. Even so, every good tree bringeth forth good fruit, but a corrupt tree bringeth forth evil fruit, a good tree cannot bring forth evil fruit, neither can a corrupt tree bring forth good fruit. Every tree that bringeth not forth good fruit is hewn down, therefore, by their fruits ye shall know them. Not every one that saith unto me, Lord, Lord, shall enter into the Kingdom of Heaven, many will say to me in that day, Lord, Lord, have we not prophesied in thy name. And in thy name have cast out devils. and in thy name done many wonderful works, and then will I profess unto them, I never knew you, depart from me, ye that work iniquity. Then said one unto him, Lord, are few that be saved. And he said them, Strive to enter in at the strait gate, for many, I say unto you, will seek to enter in. But he shall say, I tell you, I know you not whence ye are, depart from me, all ye workers of iniquity. There shall be weeping and gnashing of teeth, when ye shall see Abraham, and Isaac, and Jacob, and all the prophets, in the kingdom of God, and you yourselves thrust out. The doctrine is supported by passages in the Books of Daniel, Isaiah. From his presence earth and sky fled away, and no place was found for them, and I saw the dead, great and small, standing before the throne, and books were opened. Then another book was opened, which is the book of life, and the dead were judged by what was written in the books, according to what they had done. Even now the axe is lying at the root of the trees, I baptize you with water for repentance, but one who is more powerful than I is coming after me, I am not worthy to carry his sandals. He will baptize you with the Holy Spirit and fire and his winnowing fork is in his hand, and he will clear his threshing-floor and will gather his wheat into the granary, but the chaff he will burn with unquenchable fire. Just as the weeds are collected and burned up with fire, Then the righteous will shine like the sun in the kingdom of their Father
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Septuagint
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The Septuagint is a Koine Greek translation of an Hebraic textual tradition that included certain texts which were later included in the canonical Hebrew Bible and other related texts which were not. As the primary Greek translation of the Old Testament, it is called the Greek Old Testament. This translation is quoted a number of times in the New Testament, particularly in Pauline epistles, the title and its Roman numeral LXX refer to the legendary seventy Jewish scholars who solely translated the Five Books of Moses into Koine Greek as early as the 3rd century BCE. Separated from the Hebrew canon of the Jewish Bible in Rabbinic Judaism, the traditional story is that Ptolemy II sponsored the translation of the Torah. The Septuagint should not be confused with the seven or more other Greek versions of the Old Testament, of these, the most important are those by Aquila, Symmachus, and Theodotion. However, it was not until the time of Augustine of Hippo that the Greek translation of the Jewish scriptures came to be called by the Latin term Septuaginta. This narrative is found in the pseudepigraphic Letter of Aristeas to his brother Philocrates, the story is also found in the Tractate Megillah of the Babylonian Talmud, King Ptolemy once gathered 72 Elders. He placed them in 72 chambers, each of them in a separate one and he entered each ones room and said, Write for me the Torah of Moshe, your teacher. God put it in the heart of one to translate identically as all the others did. Philo of Alexandria, who relied extensively on the Septuagint, says that the number of scholars was chosen by selecting six scholars from each of the tribes of Israel. After the Torah, other books were translated over the two to three centuries. It is not altogether clear which was translated when, or where, some may even have been translated twice, into different versions, the quality and style of the different translators also varied considerably from book to book, from the literal to paraphrasing to interpretative. The translation of the Septuagint itself began in the 3rd century BCE and was completed by 132 BCE, initially in Alexandria, the Septuagint is the basis for the Old Latin, Slavonic, Syriac, Old Armenian, Old Georgian and Coptic versions of the Christian Old Testament. Some sections of the Septuagint may show Semiticisms, or idioms and phrases based on Semitic languages like Hebrew, other books, such as Daniel and Proverbs, show Greek influence more strongly. The Septuagint may also elucidate pronunciation of pre-Masoretic Hebrew, many nouns are spelled out with Greek vowels in the LXX. However, it is unlikely that all ancient Hebrew sounds had precise Greek equivalents. As the work of translation progressed, the canon of the Greek Bible expanded, the Torah always maintained its pre-eminence as the basis of the canon, but the collection of prophetic writings, based on the Jewish Neviim, had various hagiographical works incorporated into it. In addition, some books were included in the Septuagint
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Vulgate
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The Vulgate is a late fourth-century Latin translation of the Bible that became, during the 16th century, the Catholic Churchs officially promulgated Latin version of the Bible. The translation was largely the work of St. Jerome, who, in 382 AD, was commissioned by Pope Damasus I to revise the Vetus Latina collection of biblical texts in Latin then in use by the Church. Once published, it was adopted and eventually eclipsed the Vetus Latina and, by the 13th century, was known as the versio vulgata or, more simply. The Catholic Church affirmed it as its official Latin Bible at the Council of Trent, the Vulgate has a compound text that is not entirely the work of Jerome. Its components include, Jeromes independent translation from the Hebrew, the books of the Hebrew Bible, usually not including his translation of the Psalms. Translation from the Greek of Theodotion by Jerome, The three additions to the Book of Daniel, Song of the Three Children, Story of Susanna, and The Idol Bel and the Dragon. The Song of the Three Children was retained within the narrative of Daniel, translation from the Septuagint by Jerome, the Rest of Esther. Jerome gathered all these additions together at the end of the Book of Esther, translation from the Hexaplar Septuagint by Jerome, his Gallican version of the Book of Psalms. Jeromes Hexaplaric revisions of other books of Old Testament continued to circulate in Italy for several centuries, free translation by Jerome from a secondary Aramaic version, Tobias and Judith. Revision by Jerome of the Old Latin, corrected with reference to the oldest Greek manuscripts available, Old Latin, more or less revised by a person or persons unknown, Baruch, Letter of Jeremiah,3 Esdras, Acts, Epistles, and the Apocalypse. Old Latin, wholly unrevised, Epistle to the Laodiceans, Prayer of Manasses,4 Esdras, Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, and 1 and 2 Maccabees. Jerome did not embark on the work with the intention of creating a new version of the whole Bible, how much of the rest of the New Testament he then revised is difficult to judge today, but little of his work survived in the Vulgate text. Jerome first embarked on a revision of the Psalms, translated from the revised Septuagint Greek column of the Hexapla and he also appears to have undertaken further new translations into Latin from the Hexaplar Septuagint column for other books. But from 390 to 405, Jerome translated anew from the Hebrew all 39 books in the Hebrew Bible, including a further version of the Psalms. This new translation of the Psalms was labelled by him as iuxta Hebraeos, the Vulgate is usually credited as being the first translation of the Old Testament into Latin directly from the Hebrew Tanakh, rather than the Greek Septuagint. Moreover, Augustine in that passage demonstrates his own preference for the Greek thus eliminating any possibility that Saint Jerome translated the OT from Greek. In these letters, Jerome described those books or portions of books in the Septuagint that were not found in the Hebrew as being non-canonical, Jeromes views did not, however, prevail, and all complete manuscripts and editions of the Vulgate include some or all of these books. Their style is markedly distinguishable from Jeromes
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Martin Luther
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Martin Luther, O. S. A. was a German professor of theology, composer, priest, monk and a seminal figure in the Protestant Reformation. Luther came to reject several teachings and practices of the Roman Catholic Church and he strongly disputed the Catholic view on indulgences as he understood it to be, that freedom from Gods punishment for sin could be purchased with money. Luther proposed a discussion of the practice and efficacy of indulgences in his Ninety-five Theses of 1517. His translation of the Bible into the vernacular made it accessible to the laity. It fostered the development of a version of the German language, added several principles to the art of translation, and influenced the writing of an English translation. His hymns influenced the development of singing in Protestant churches and his marriage to Katharina von Bora, a former nun, set a model for the practice of clerical marriage, allowing Protestant clergy to marry. In two of his works, Luther expressed antagonistic views towards Jews, writing that Jewish homes and synagogues should be destroyed, their money confiscated. Condemned by virtually every Lutheran denomination, these statements and their influence on antisemitism have contributed to his controversial status, Martin Luther was born to Hans Luder and his wife Margarethe on 10 November 1483 in Eisleben, Saxony, then part of the Holy Roman Empire. He was baptized as a Catholic the next morning on the feast day of St. Martin of Tours and his family moved to Mansfeld in 1484, where his father was a leaseholder of copper mines and smelters and served as one of four citizen representatives on the local council. He had several brothers and sisters, and is known to have close to one of them. Hans Luther was ambitious for himself and his family, and he was determined to see Martin, his eldest son, become a lawyer. He sent Martin to Latin schools in Mansfeld, then Magdeburg in 1497, where he attended a school operated by a lay group called the Brethren of the Common Life, the three schools focused on the so-called trivium, grammar, rhetoric, and logic. Luther later compared his education there to purgatory and hell, in 1501, at the age of 19, he entered the University of Erfurt, which he later described as a beerhouse and whorehouse. He was made to wake at four every morning for what has been described as a day of rote learning and he received his masters degree in 1505. In accordance with his fathers wishes, Luther enrolled in law school at the university that year but dropped out almost immediately. Luther sought assurances about life and was drawn to theology and philosophy, expressing particular interest in Aristotle, William of Ockham, philosophy proved to be unsatisfying, offering assurance about the use of reason but none about loving God, which to Luther was more important. Reason could not lead men to God, he felt, for Luther, reason could be used to question men and institutions, but not God. Human beings could learn about God only through divine revelation, he believed and he later attributed his decision to an event, on 2 July 1505, he was returning to university on horseback after a trip home
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Peshitta
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The Peshitta is the standard version of the Bible for churches in the Syriac tradition. This New Testament, originally excluding certain disputed books, had become a standard by the early 5th century, the five excluded books were added in the Harklean Version of Thomas of Harqel. However, the 1905 United Bible Society Peshitta used new editions prepared by the Irish Syriacist John Gwynn for the missing books, the name Peshitta is derived from the Syriac mappaqtâ pšîṭtâ, literally meaning simple version. However, it is possible to translate pšîṭtâ as common, or straight. Syriac is a dialect, or group of dialects, of Eastern Aramaic and it is written in the Syriac alphabet, and is transliterated into the Latin script in a number of ways, Peshitta, Peshittâ, Pshitta, Pšittâ, Pshitto, Fshitto. All of these are acceptable, but Peshitta is the most conventional spelling in English, there is no full and clear knowledge of the circumstances under which the Peshitta was produced and came into circulation. Whereas the authorship of the Latin Vulgate has never been in dispute, almost every assertion regarding the authorship of the Peshitta and its time, the chief ground of analogy between the Vulgate and the Peshitta is that both came into existence as the result of a revision. This, indeed, has strenuously denied, but since Dr. The very designation, Peshito, has given rise to dispute and it has been applied to the Syriac as the version in common use, and regarded as equivalent to the Greek koiné and the Latin Vulgate. The word itself is a form, meaning simple, as in easy to be understood. It seems to have used to distinguish the version from others which are encumbered with marks. However, the term as a designation of the version has not been found in any Syriac author earlier than the 9th or 10th century, as regards the Old Testament, the antiquity of the version is admitted on all hands. The tradition, however, that part of it was translated from Hebrew into Syriac for the benefit of Hiram in the days of Solomon is surely a myth. That a translation was made by a priest named Assa, or Ezra and that the translation of the Old Testament and New Testament was made in connection with the visit of Thaddaeus to Abgar at Edessa belongs also to unreliable tradition. Mark has even been credited in ancient Syriac tradition with translating his own Gospel, F. Crawford Burkitt concluded that the translation of the Old Testament was probably the work of Jews, of whom there was a colony in Edessa about the commencement of the Christian era. The older view was that the translators were Christians, and that the work was late in the 1st century or early in the 2nd. The Old Testament known to the early Syrian church was substantially that of the Palestinian Jews and it contained the same number of books but it arranged them in a different order. Most of the Deuterocanonical books of the Old Testament are found in the Syriac, of the New Testament, attempts at translation must have been made very early, and among the ancient versions of New Testament Scripture the Syriac in all likelihood is the earliest
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Book of Genesis
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The Book of Genesis is the first book of the Hebrew Bible and the Christian Old Testament. The basic narrative expresses the theme, God creates the world and appoints man as his regent. The new post-Flood world is also corrupt, God does not destroy it, instead calling one man, Abraham, to be the seed of its salvation. At Gods command Abraham descends from his home into the land of Canaan, given to him by God, Genesis ends with Israel in Egypt, ready for the coming of Moses and the Exodus. The narrative is punctuated by a series of covenants with God, the books author or authors appear to have structured it around ten toledot sections, but modern commentators see it in terms of a primeval history followed by the cycle of Patriarchal stories. In Judaism, the importance of Genesis centers on the covenants linking God to his chosen people. It is not clear, however, what this meant to the original authors, while the first is far shorter than the second, it sets out the basic themes and provides an interpretive key for understanding the entire book. The primeval history has a symmetrical structure hinging on chapters 6–9, God creates the world in six days and consecrates the seventh as a day of rest. God creates the first humans Adam and Eve and all the animals in the Garden of Eden but instructs them not to eat the fruit of the tree of knowledge of good and evil. A talking serpent portrayed as a creature or trickster, entices Eve into eating it anyway. Eve bears two sons, Cain and Abel, Cain kills Abel after God accepts Abels offering but not Cains. Eve bears another son, Seth, to take Abels place, after many generations of Adam have passed from the lines of Cain and Seth, the world becomes corrupted by the sin of man and Nephilim, and God determines to wipe out mankind. First, he instructs the righteous Noah and his family to build a huge boat, then God sends a great flood to wipe out the rest of the world. When the waters recede, God promises that he not destroy the world a second time with water with the rainbow as the symbol of his promise. But upon seeing mankind cooperating to build a great tower city, God instructs Abram to travel from his home in Mesopotamia to the land of Canaan. Abrams name is changed to Abraham and that of his wife Sarai to Sarah, because Sarah is old, she tells Abraham to take her Egyptian handmaiden, Hagar, as a second wife. God resolves to destroy the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah for the sins of their people, Abraham protests and gets God to agree not to destroy the cities if 10 righteous men can be found. Angels save Abrahams nephew Lot and his family, but his wife back on the destruction against their command and is turned into a pillar of salt
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Weapon
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A weapon, arm, or armament is any device used with intent to inflict damage or harm to living beings, structures, or systems. Weapons are used to increase the efficacy and efficiency of such as hunting, crime, law enforcement, self-defense. In a broader context, weapons may be construed to include anything used to gain a strategic, something that has been re-purposed, converted, or enhanced to become a weapon of war is termed weaponized, such as a weaponized virus or weaponized lasers. The use of objects as weapons has been observed among chimpanzees, however, this can not be confirmed using physical evidence because wooden clubs, spears, and unshaped stones would not have left an unambiguous record. The earliest unambiguous weapons to be found are the Schöninger Speere, the first defensive structures and fortifications appeared in the Bronze Age, indicating an increased need for security. Weapons designed to breach fortifications followed soon after, for example the battering ram was in use by 2500 BC, although early Iron Age swords were not superior to their bronze predecessors, once iron-working developed, around 1300 BC in Greece Alex Webb, Metalworking in Ancient Greece. Domestication of the horse and widespread use of spoked wheels by ca.2000 BC, led to the light, the mobility provided by chariots were important during this era. Spoke-wheeled chariot usage peaked around 1300 BC and then declined, ceasing to be militarily relevant by the 4th century BC. Cavalry developed once horses were bred to support the weight of a man, the horse extended the range and increased the speed of attacks. Ships built as weapons or warships such as the trireme were in use by the 7th century BC and these ships were eventually replaced by larger ships by the 4th century BC. European warfare during the Post-classical history was dominated by groups of knights supported by massed infantry. They were involved in combat and sieges which involved various siege weapons. Knights on horseback developed tactics for charging with lances providing an impact on the enemy formations, whereas infantry, in the age before structured formations, relied on cheap, sturdy weapons such as spears and billhooks in close combat and bows from a distance. As armies became more professional, their equipment was standardized and infantry transitioned to pikes, pikes are normally seven to eight feet in length, in conjunction with smaller side-arms. In Eastern and Middle Eastern warfare, similar tactics were developed independent of European influences, the introduction of gunpowder from the Far East at the end of this period revolutionized warfare. Formations of musketeers, protected by pikemen came to dominate open battles, the European Renaissance marked the beginning of the implementation of firearms in western warfare. Guns and rockets were introduced to the battlefield, firearms are qualitatively different from earlier weapons because they release energy from combustible propellants such as gunpowder, rather than from a counter-weight or spring. This energy is released very rapidly and can be replicated without much effort by the user, therefore even early firearms such as the arquebus were much more powerful than human-powered weapons. During the U. S. Civil War various technologies including the gun and ironclad warship emerged that would be recognizable and useful military weapons today
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Cosmetics
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Cosmetics, also known as make-up, are substances or products used to enhance or alter the appearance or fragrance of the body. Many cosmetics are designed for use of applying to the face and they are generally mixtures of chemical compounds, some being derived from natural sources, and some being synthetics. Common cosmetics include lipstick, mascara, eye shadow, foundation, rouge, skin cleansers and skin lotions, shampoo, hairstyling products, perfume and this broad definition includes any material intended for use as a component of a cosmetic product. The FDA specifically excludes soap from this category, Egyptian women and men also used makeup. They were very fond of eyeliner and eyeshadows in dark colors including blue, red, Ancient Sumerian men and women were possibly the first to invent and wear lipstick, about 5,000 years ago. They crushed gemstones and used them to decorate their faces, mainly on the lips, also around 3000 BC to 1500 BC, women in the ancient Indus Valley Civilization applied red tinted lipstick to their lips for face decoration. Ancient Egyptians extracted red dye from fucus-algin,0. 01% iodine, and some bromine mannite, lipsticks with shimmering effects were initially made using a pearlescent substance found in fish scales. Six thousand year old relics of the hollowed out tombs of the Ancient Egyptian pharaohs are discovered, according to one source, early major developments include, Kohl used by ancient Egypt as a protective of the eye kohl Castor oil used by ancient Egypt as a protective balm. Skin creams made of beeswax, olive oil, and rose water, vaseline and lanolin in the nineteenth century. The Ancient Greeks also used cosmetics as the Ancient Romans did, Cosmetics are mentioned in the Old Testament, such as in 2 Kings 9,30, where Jezebel painted her eyelids—approximately 840 BC—and in the book of Esther, where beauty treatments are described. One of the most popular traditional Chinese medicines is the fungus Tremella fuciformis, used as a beauty product by women in China, the fungus reportedly increases moisture retention in the skin and prevents senile degradation of micro-blood vessels in the skin, reducing wrinkles and smoothing fine lines. Cosmetic use was frowned upon at many points in Western history, for example, in the 19th century, Queen Victoria publicly declared make-up improper, vulgar, and acceptable only for use by actors. During the sixteenth century, the attributes of the women who used make-up created a demand for the product among the upper class. As of 2016, the worlds largest cosmetics company is LOréal, the market was developed in the US during the 1910s by Elizabeth Arden, Helena Rubinstein, and Max Factor. These firms were joined by Revlon just before World War II, during the 18th century, there was a high number of incidences of lead-poisoning because of the fashion for red and white lead makeup and powder. This led to swelling and inflammation of the eyes, attacked tooth enamel, heavy use was known to lead to death. Concealer is commonly used by men, Cosmetics brands release products especially tailored for men, and men are increasingly using them. Cosmetics are intended to be applied externally, a subset of cosmetics is called make-up, refers primarily to products containing color pigments that are intended to alter the users appearance
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Fornication
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Fornication is generally consensual sexual intercourse between two people not married to each other. The significance of sexual acts to which the term is applied varies between religions, societies and cultures, in modern usage, the term is often replaced with a value judgment term like extramarital sex. The first recorded use in English is in the Cursor Mundi,1300, the Oxford English Dictionary records a figurative use as well, The forsaking of God for idols. Fornicated as an adjective is used in botany, meaning arched or bending over. The Pauline epistles contain multiple condemnations of various forms of extramarital sex, First Corinthians and the Epistle to the Galatians also address fornication. The Apostolic Decree of the Council of Jerusalem also includes a prohibition of fornication, throughout history, most theologians have argued that any and all forms of premarital sex are immoral. An historical example is the medieval English monastic, John Baconthorpe, a more contemporary example is the modern-day theologian Lee Gatiss who argues that premarital sex is immoral based on scripture. He states that, from a Biblical perspective, physical union should not take place outside of a one flesh union, in chapter 7 Paul addresses the situation of two unmarried Christians who are burning with passion who should either exercise self-control or be permitted to marry. The underlying assumptions are the same as those in Deuteronomy 22, however, a minority of theologians have argued in more recent times that premarital sex may not be immoral in some limited circumstances. An example is John Witte, who argues that the Bible itself is silent on the issue of consensual, premarital sex between an engaged couple, some of the debate arises from the question of which theological approach is being applied. A deontological view of sex interprets porneia, aselgeia and akatharsia in terms of whether the couple are married or non-married, what makes sex moral or immoral is the context of marriage. Elsewhere in First Corinthians, incest, homosexual intercourse and prostitution are all explicitly forbidden by name, Paul is preaching about activities based on sexual prohibitions laid out in Leviticus in the context of achieving holiness. One theory therefore suggests that it is these behaviours, and only these, however, most mainstream Christian sources believe that porneia encompasses all forms of premarital sex. Likewise, Fribergs Analytical Lexicon to the Greek New Testament defines porneia as being generally, every kind of extramarital, Lee Gatiss also argues that porneia encompasses all forms of premarital sex. He states that the word fornication has gone out of fashion and is not in use to describe non-marital sex. However, it is an excellent translation for porneia, which referred to any kind of sex outside of marriage. But the overwhelming weight of scholarship and all the evidence from the ancient world points firmly in this direction. Flee sexual immorality and pursue self-control was the message to Christians in a sex-crazed world
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Archangel
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An archangel /ˌɑːrkˈeɪndʒəl/ is an angel of high rank. The word archangel itself is associated with the Abrahamic religions. The word archangel is derived from the Greek ἀρχάγγελος, Michael and Gabriel are recognized as archangels in Judaism, Islam and by most Christians. Protestants recognize Gabriel as an angel but consider Michael to be the only archangel, raphael—mentioned in the deuterocanonical Book of Tobit—is also recognized in the Catholic and Orthodox churches. Gabriel, Michael, and Raphael are venerated in the Roman Catholic Church with a feast on September 29, the named archangels in Islam are Gabriel, Michael, Israfil and Azrael. Jewish literature, such as the Book of Enoch, mentions Metatron as an archangel, called the highest of the angels, some branches of the faiths mentioned have identified a group of seven Archangels, but the actual angels vary, depending on the source. Gabriel, Michael, and Raphael are always mentioned, the other archangels vary, but most commonly include Uriel, in Zoroastrianism, sacred texts allude to the six great Amesha Spenta of Ahura Mazda. An increasing number of experts in anthropology, theology and philosophy, the Amesha Spentas of Zoroastrianism are likened to archangels. They individually inhabit immortal bodies that operate in the world to protect, guide, and inspire humanity. The Avesta explains the origin and nature of archangels or Amesha Spentas, to maintain equilibrium, Ahura Mazda engaged in the first act of creation, distinguishing his Holy Spirit Spenta Mainyu, the Archangel of righteousness. Ahura Mazda also distinguished from himself six more Amesha Spentas, who, along with Spenta Mainyu, then he oversaw the development of sixteen lands, each imbued with a unique cultural catalyst calculated to encourage the formation of distinct human populations. The Amesha Spentas were charged with protecting these holy lands and through their emanation, the Amesha Spentas as attributes of God are, Spenta Mainyu, lit. Immortality The Hebrew Bible uses the ter. מלאכי אלוהים, The Hebrew word for angel is malach, מלאכי י י, בני אלוהים and הקדושים to refer to beings traditionally interpreted as angelic messengers. Other terms are used in texts, such as העליונים. References to angels are uncommon in Jewish literature except in works such as the Book of Daniel, though they are mentioned briefly in the stories of Jacob. Daniel is the first biblical figure to refer to individual angels by name and it is therefore widely speculated that Jewish interest in angels developed during the Babylonian captivity. According to Rabbi Simeon ben Lakish of Tiberias, specific names for the angels were brought back by the Jews from Babylon, there are no explicit references to archangels in the canonical texts of the Hebrew Bible. In post-Biblical Judaism, certain angels came to take on a particular significance, though these archangels were believed to have rank amongst the heavenly host, no systematic hierarchy ever developed
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Michael (archangel)
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Michael is an archangel in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. In Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Anglican, and Lutheran traditions, he is called Saint Michael the Archangel, in the Oriental Orthodox and Eastern Orthodox traditions, he is called Taxiarch Archangel Michael or simply Archangel Michael. Michael is mentioned three times in the Book of Daniel, in the New Testament Michael leads Gods armies against Satans forces in the Book of Revelation, where during the war in heaven he defeats Satan. In the Epistle of Jude Michael is specifically referred to as the archangel Michael, by the 6th century, devotions to Archangel Michael were widespread both in the Eastern and Western Churches. Over time, teachings on Michael began to vary among Christian denominations, Michael is mentioned three times in the Hebrew Scriptures, all in the book of Daniel. The prophet Daniel experiences a vision after having undergone a period of fasting, Daniel 10, 13-21 describes Daniels vision of an angel who identifies Michael as the protector of Israel. At Daniel 12,1, Daniel is informed that Michael will arise during the time of the end, the Book of Revelation describes a war in heaven in which Michael, being stronger, defeats Satan. After the conflict, Satan is thrown to earth along with the fallen angels, in the Epistle of Jude 1,9, Michael is referred to as an archangel when he again confronts Satan. A reference to an archangel also appears in the First Epistle to the Thessalonians 4,16 and this archangel who heralds the second coming of Christ is not named, but is often associated with Michael. Michael, is one of the two mentioned in the Quran, alongside Jibreel. In the Quran, Michael is mentioned only, in Sura 2,98, Whoever is an enemy to God, and His angels and His messengers. Then, God is an enemy to the disbelievers, some Muslims believe that the reference in Sura 11,69 is Michael, one of the three angels who visited Abraham. Michaels enmity with Samael dates from the time when the latter was thrown down from heaven, Samael took hold of the wings of Michael, whom he wished to bring down with him in his fall, but Michael was saved by God. But appeal to Michael seems to have more common in ancient times. Thus Jeremiah is said to have addressed a prayer to him, the rabbis declare that Michael entered upon his role of defender at the time of the biblical patriarchs. Thus, according to Rabbi Eliezer ben Jacob, it was Michael who rescued Abraham from the furnace into which he had been thrown by Nimrod. It was Michael, the one that had escaped, who told Abraham that Lot had been taken captive, and he announced to Sarah that she would bear a son and he rescued Lot at the destruction of Sodom. It is said that Michael prevented Isaac from being sacrificed by his father by substituting a ram in his place, later Michael prevented Laban from harming Jacob
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Gabriel
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Gabriel, in the Abrahamic religions, is an angel who typically serves as Gods messenger. Gabriel is mentioned in both the Old and New Testaments of the Bible, in the Old Testament, he appears to the prophet Daniel, explaining Daniels visions. In the Gospel of Luke, Gabriel appeared to Zechariah and the Virgin Mary, foretelling the births of John the Baptist and Jesus, respectively. In the Book of Daniel, he is referred to as the man Gabriel, while in the Gospel of Luke, Gabriel is not called an archangel in the Bible, but is so called in Intertestamental period sources like the Book of Enoch. In the Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Anglican churches, the archangels Michael, Raphael, in Islam, Gabriel is considered an archangel whom God is believed to have sent with revelation to various prophets, including Muhammad. The 96th chapter of the Quran, The Clot, is believed by Muslims to have been the first chapter revealed by Gabriel to Muhammad, in the LDS Faith, The Angel Gabriel was The Prophet Noah, and Michael the Archangel was the Prophet Adam in their Mortal Ministries. Jewish rabbis interpreted the man in linen as Gabriel in the Book of Daniel, in the Book of Daniel, Gabriel is responsible for interpreting Daniels visions. Gabriels main function in Daniel is that of revealer, a role he continues in later literature, in the Book of Ezekiel, Gabriel is understood to be the angel that was sent to destroy Jerusalem. According to the Jewish Encyclopedia, Gabriel takes the form of a man, shimon ben Lakish concluded that the angelic names of Michael, Raphael, and Gabriel came out of the Babylonian exile. In Kabbalah, Gabriel is identified with the sephirot of Yesod, Gabriel also has a prominent role as one of Gods archangels in the Kabbalah literature. There, Gabriel is portrayed as working in concert with Michael as part of Gods court, Gabriel is not to be prayed to because only God can answer prayers and sends Gabriel as his agent. According to Jewish mythology, in the Garden of Eden there is a tree of life or the tree of souls that blossoms and produces new souls, which fall into the Guf, Gabriel reaches into the treasury and takes out the first soul that comes into his hand. Then Lailah, the Angel of Conception, watches over the embryo until it is born, the intertestamental period produced a wealth of literature, much of it having an apocalyptic orientation. The names and ranks of angels and devils were greatly expanded, and each had particular duties and status before God. In 1 Enoch 9, 1–3, Gabriel, along with Michael, Uriel and Suriel, saw much blood being shed upon the earth and heard the souls of men cry, Bring our cause before the Most High. —1 Enoch 10,9 Gabriel is the fifth of the five angels who watch, Gabriel, one of the holy angels, who is over Paradise and the serpents. And these are the four angels of the Lord of Spirits, the angel Gabriel is mentioned in Daniel 8, 16-26 and 9, 20-27. Gabriel, one who looked like a man, interprets Daniels visions, Gabriel speaks to Daniel while he is in a deep sleep, and Daniel is tired and sick for days after being with Gabriel
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Uriel
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Uriel is one of the archangels of post-Exilic Rabbinic tradition, and also of certain Christian traditions. In apocryphal, kabbalistic and occult works, Uriel has been equated or confused with Urial, Nuriel, Uryan, Jeremiel, Vretil, Sariel, Suriel, Puruel, Phanuel, Jacob, the angels mentioned in the older books of the Hebrew Bible are without names. Indeed, rabbi Simeon ben Lakish of Tiberias, asserted that all the names for the angels were brought back by the Jews from Babylon. Raphael features prominently in the deuterocanonical Book of Tobit, the Book of Tobit is accepted as scriptural by the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the Oriental Orthodox Church. Where a fourth archangel is added to the three, to represent the four cardinal points, Uriel is generally the fourth. Uriel is listed as the angel in Christian Gnostics, by Gregory the Great. However, the Book of Enoch clearly distinguishes the two Angels, Uriel means the Light of God while Phanuel means the Face of God, Uriel is the third angel listed in the Testament of Solomon, the fourth being Sabrael. Uriel appears in the Second Book of Esdras found in the Biblical apocrypha in which the prophet Ezra asks God a series of questions, and Uriel is sent by God to instruct him. According to the Revelation of Esdras, the angels that will rule at the end of the world are Michael, Gabriel, Uriel, Raphael, Gabuthelon, Beburos, Zebuleon, Aker, and Arphugitonos. The last five listed only appear in book and nowhere else in apocryphal or apocalyptic works. In Christian apocryphal gospels Uriel plays a role, differing sources, in the rescue of Jesus cousin John the Baptist from the Massacre of the Innocents ordered by King Herod. He carries John and his mother Saint Elizabeth to join the Holy Family after their Flight into Egypt and their reunion is depicted in Leonardo da Vincis Virgin of the Rocks. Uriel is often identified as a cherub and angel of repentance and he stands at the Gate of Eden with a fiery sword, or as the angel who watches over thunder and terror. In the Apocalypse of Peter he appears as the Angel of Repentance, in the Life of Adam and Eve, Uriel is regarded as the spirit of the third chapter of Genesis. He is also identified as one of the angels who helped bury Adam, stemming from medieval Jewish mystical traditions, Uriel has also become the Angel of Sunday, the Angel of Poetry, and one of the Holy Sephiroth. Uriel is depicted as the destroyer of the hosts of Sennacherib and he checked the doors of Egypt for lambs blood during the plague. He also holds the key to the Pit during the End Times and he is often depicted carrying a book or a papyrus scroll representing wisdom. Uriel is a patron of the Arts, in addition, every Monday throughout the year is dedicated to the angels
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Apocalypse
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‹See Tfd› An apocalypse is a disclosure of knowledge or revelation. In religious contexts it is usually a disclosure of something hidden, today, the term is commonly used in reference to any prophetic revelation or so-called end time scenario, or to the end of the world in general. The revelation may be made through a dream, as in the Book of Daniel, or through a vision, in biblical accounts of revelations the manner of the revelation and its reception is generally described. According to the Book of Daniel, after a period of fasting, Daniel is standing by a river when a heavenly being appears to him. Symbolism is a frequent characteristic of apocalyptic writing, one instance of this occurs where gematria is employed, either for obscuring the writers meaning or enhancing it, as a number of ancient cultures used letters also as numbers. Thus the symbolic name Taxo, Assumptio Mosis, ix,1, the Number of the Beast, in the Book of Revelation 13,18, the number 666, Sibyllines, i. 326–30. Similar is the frequent prophecy of the length of time through which the events predicted must be fulfilled, judgments, Revelation 16, the dragon, Revelation 12, 3–17, Revelation 20, 1–3, the eagle, Assumptio Mosis, x.8, and so on. In the Hebrew Old Testament some pictures of the end of the age were images of the judgment of the wicked, in the Book of Job and in some Psalms the dead are described as being in Sheol, awaiting the final judgment. The wicked will then be consigned to eternal suffering in the fires of Gehinnom, the Apocalypse on In Our Time at the BBC. Its the End of the World,8 Potential Armageddons, Fox, from the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress
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Singer, Isidore; et al., eds. (1901–1906). "Azazel (Scapegoat, Lev. xvi., A. V.)". Jewish Encyclopedia. New York: Funk & Wagnalls Company.
