1.
Burek (album)
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Burek is the ninth studio album by Bosnian musician Dino Merlin. Three songs were featured as singles, Burek, Supermen and Ako Nastaviš Ovako and this album includes 15 tracks, many of which are new. The song Supermen is sung by Dino Merlin with a guest appearance by Željko Joksimović, many of the songs on this album have also appeared on his Live Koševo 2004 album released in 2005. The other guest appearances on the Burek album include Nina Badrić on Ti si mene, Burek at Dino Merlins official web site
2.
Pie
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A pie is a baked dish which is usually made of a pastry dough casing that covers or completely contains a filling of various sweet or savoury ingredients. Pies are defined by their crusts, a filled pie, has pastry lining the baking dish, and the filling is placed on top of the pastry but left open. A top-crust pie has the filling in the bottom of the dish and is covered with a pastry or other covering before baking, a two-crust pie has the filling completely enclosed in the pastry shell. Shortcrust pastry is a kind of pastry used for pie crusts, but many things can be used, including baking powder biscuits, mashed potatoes. Pies can be a variety of sizes, ranging from bite-size to ones designed for multiple servings. The need for nutritious, easy-to-store, easy-to-carry, and long-lasting foods on long journeys, however, this took up additional space on what were either horse-powered treks or small ships, reducing the time of travel before additional food was required. This resulted in early armies adopting the style of hunter-foraging, the introduction of the baking of processed cereals including the creation of flour, provided a more reliable source of food. Egyptian sailors carried a flat brittle loaf of millet bread called dhourra cake. Early pies were in the form of flat, round or freeform crusty cakes called galettes consisting of a crust of ground oats, wheat, rye, sometime before 2000 BC, a recipe for chicken pie was written on a tablet in Sumer. Ancient Greeks are believed to have originated pie pastry, in the plays of Aristophanes, there are mentions of sweetmeats including small pastries filled with fruit. Nothing is known of the pastry used, but the Greeks certainly recognized the trade of pastry-cook as distinct from that of baker. The Romans made a plain pastry of flour, oil, and water to meats and fowls which were baked. A richer pastry, intended to be eaten, was used to make small pasties containing eggs or little birds which were among the items served at banquets. The 1st-century Roman cookbook Apicius makes various mentions of recipes which involve a pie case, by 160 BC, Roman statesman Marcus Porcius Cato, who wrote De Agri Cultura, notes the recipe for the most popular pie/cake called placenta. Also called libum by the Romans, it was more like a modern-day cheesecake on a pastry base, with the development of the Roman Empire and its efficient road transport, pie cooking spread throughout Europe. The Cornish pasty is an excellent adaptation of the pie to a working mans daily food needs, medieval cooks had restricted access to ovens due to their costs of construction and need for abundant supplies of fuel. Pies could be cooked over an open fire, while partnering with a baker allowed them to cook the filling inside their own locally defined casing. The earliest pie-like recipes refer to coffyns, with straight sealed sides, song birds at the time were a fine delicacy and protected by Royal Law
3.
Turkey
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Turkey, officially the Republic of Turkey, is a transcontinental country in Eurasia, mainly in Anatolia in Western Asia, with a smaller portion on the Balkan peninsula in Southeast Europe. Turkey is a democratic, secular, unitary, parliamentary republic with a cultural heritage. The country is encircled by seas on three sides, the Aegean Sea is to the west, the Black Sea to the north, and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. The Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles, Ankara is the capital while Istanbul is the countrys largest city and main cultural and commercial centre. Approximately 70-80% of the countrys citizens identify themselves as ethnic Turks, other ethnic groups include legally recognised and unrecognised minorities. Kurds are the largest ethnic minority group, making up approximately 20% of the population, the area of Turkey has been inhabited since the Paleolithic by various ancient Anatolian civilisations, as well as Assyrians, Greeks, Thracians, Phrygians, Urartians and Armenians. After Alexander the Greats conquest, the area was Hellenized, a process continued under the Roman Empire. The Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm ruled Anatolia until the Mongol invasion in 1243, the empire reached the peak of its power in the 16th century, especially during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent. During the war, the Ottoman government committed genocides against its Armenian, Assyrian, following the war, the conglomeration of territories and peoples that formerly comprised the Ottoman Empire was partitioned into several new states. Turkey is a member of the UN, an early member of NATO. Turkeys growing economy and diplomatic initiatives have led to its recognition as a regional power while her location has given it geopolitical, the name of Turkey is based on the ethnonym Türk. The first recorded use of the term Türk or Türük as an autonym is contained in the Old Turkic inscriptions of the Göktürks of Central Asia, the English name Turkey first appeared in the late 14th century and is derived from Medieval Latin Turchia. Similarly, the medieval Khazar Empire, a Turkic state on the shores of the Black. The medieval Arabs referred to the Mamluk Sultanate as al-Dawla al-Turkiyya, the Ottoman Empire was sometimes referred to as Turkey or the Turkish Empire among its European contemporaries. The Anatolian peninsula, comprising most of modern Turkey, is one of the oldest permanently settled regions in the world, various ancient Anatolian populations have lived in Anatolia, from at least the Neolithic period until the Hellenistic period. Many of these peoples spoke the Anatolian languages, a branch of the larger Indo-European language family, in fact, given the antiquity of the Indo-European Hittite and Luwian languages, some scholars have proposed Anatolia as the hypothetical centre from which the Indo-European languages radiated. The European part of Turkey, called Eastern Thrace, has also been inhabited since at least forty years ago. It is the largest and best-preserved Neolithic site found to date, the settlement of Troy started in the Neolithic Age and continued into the Iron Age
4.
Middle East
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The Middle East is a transcontinental region centered on Western Asia and Egypt. The corresponding adjective is Middle-Eastern and the noun is Middle-Easterner. The term has come into usage as a replacement of the term Near East beginning in the early 20th century. Arabs, Turks, Persians, Kurds, and Azeris constitute the largest ethnic groups in the region by population. Indigenous minorities of the Middle East include Jews, Assyrians and other Arameans, Baloch, Berbers, Copts, Druze, Lurs, Mandaeans, Samaritans, Shabaks, Tats, in the Middle East, there is also a Romani community. European ethnic groups form a diaspora in the region include Albanians, Bosniaks, Circassians, Crimean Tatars, Franco-Levantines. Among other migrant populations are Bengalis as well as other Indians, Chinese, Filipinos, Indonesians, Pakistanis, the history of the Middle East dates back to ancient times, with the importance of the region being recognized for millennia. Most of the countries border the Persian Gulf have vast reserves of crude oil. The term Middle East may have originated in the 1850s in the British India Office, however, it became more widely known when American naval strategist Alfred Thayer Mahan used the term in 1902 to designate the area between Arabia and India. During this time the British and Russian Empires were vying for influence in Central Asia, Mahan realized not only the strategic importance of the region, but also of its center, the Persian Gulf. Mahan first used the term in his article The Persian Gulf and International Relations, published in September 1902 in the National Review, a British journal. The Middle East, if I may adopt a term which I have not seen, will some day need its Malta, as well as its Gibraltar, it does not follow that either will be in the Persian Gulf. The British Navy should have the facility to concentrate in force if occasion arise, about Aden, India, mahans article was reprinted in The Times and followed in October by a 20-article series entitled The Middle Eastern Question, written by Sir Ignatius Valentine Chirol. During this series, Sir Ignatius expanded the definition of Middle East to include regions of Asia which extend to the borders of India or command the approaches to India. After the series ended in 1903, The Times removed quotation marks from subsequent uses of the term, in the late 1930s, the British established the Middle East Command, which was based in Cairo, for its military forces in the region. After that time, the term Middle East gained broader usage in Europe, the description Middle has also led to some confusion over changing definitions. Before the First World War, Near East was used in English to refer to the Balkans and the Ottoman Empire, while Middle East referred to Iran, the Caucasus, Afghanistan, Central Asia, and Turkestan. The first official use of the term Middle East by the United States government was in the 1957 Eisenhower Doctrine, the Associated Press Stylebook says that Near East formerly referred to the farther west countries while Middle East referred to the eastern ones, but that now they are synonymous
5.
Balkans
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The Balkan Peninsula, or the Balkans, is a peninsula and a cultural area in Eastern and Southeastern Europe with various and disputed borders. The region takes its name from the Balkan Mountains that stretch from the Serbia-Bulgaria border to the Black Sea, the highest point of the Balkans is Mount Musala 2,925 metres in the Rila mountain range. In Turkish, Balkan means a chain of wooded mountains, the name is still preserved in Central Asia with the Balkan Daglary and the Balkan Province of Turkmenistan. A less popular hypothesis regarding its etymology is that it derived from the Persian Balā-Khāna, from Antiquity through the Middle Ages, the Balkan Mountains had been called by the local Thracian name Haemus. According to Greek mythology, the Thracian king Haemus was turned into a mountain by Zeus as a punishment, a reverse name scheme has also been suggested. D. Dechev considers that Haemus is derived from a Thracian word *saimon, a third possibility is that Haemus derives from the Greek word haema meaning blood. The myth relates to a fight between Zeus and the monster/titan Typhon, Zeus injured Typhon with a thunder bolt and Typhons blood fell on the mountains, from which they got their name. The earliest mention of the name appears in an early 14th-century Arab map, the Ottomans first mention it in a document dated from 1565. There has been no other documented usage of the word to refer to the region before that, there is also a claim about an earlier Bulgar Turkic origin of the word popular in Bulgaria, however it is only an unscholarly assertion. The word was used by the Ottomans in Rumelia in its meaning of mountain, as in Kod̲j̲a-Balkan, Čatal-Balkan, and Ungurus-Balkani̊. The concept of the Balkans was created by the German geographer August Zeune in 1808, during the 1820s, Balkan became the preferred although not yet exclusive term alongside Haemus among British travelers. Among Russian travelers not so burdened by classical toponymy, Balkan was the preferred term, zeunes goal was to have a geographical parallel term to the Italic and Iberian Peninsula, and seemingly nothing more. The gradually acquired political connotations are newer and, to a large extent, after the dissolution of Yugoslavia beginning in June 1991, the term Balkans again received a negative meaning, especially in Croatia and Slovenia, even in casual usage. A European Union initiative of 1999 is called the Stability Pact for South Eastern Europe, and its northern boundary is often given as the Danube, Sava and Kupa Rivers. The Balkan Peninsula has an area of about 470,000 km2. It is more or less identical to the known as Southeastern Europe. As of 1920 until World War II, Italy included Istria, the current territory of Italy includes only the small area around Trieste inside the Balkan Peninsula. However, the regions of Trieste and Istria are not usually considered part of the Balkans by Italian geographers, the Western Balkans is a neologism coined to describe the countries of ex-Yugoslavia and Albania
6.
Iran
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Iran, also known as Persia, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, is a sovereign state in Western Asia. Comprising a land area of 1,648,195 km2, it is the second-largest country in the Middle East, with 82.8 million inhabitants, Iran is the worlds 17th-most-populous country. It is the country with both a Caspian Sea and an Indian Ocean coastline. The countrys central location in Eurasia and Western Asia, and its proximity to the Strait of Hormuz, Tehran is the countrys capital and largest city, as well as its leading economic and cultural center. Iran is the site of to one of the worlds oldest civilizations, the area was first unified by the Iranian Medes in 625 BC, who became the dominant cultural and political power in the region. The empire collapsed in 330 BC following the conquests of Alexander the Great, under the Sassanid Dynasty, Iran again became one of the leading powers in the world for the next four centuries. Beginning in 633 AD, Arabs conquered Iran and largely displaced the indigenous faiths of Manichaeism and Zoroastrianism by Islam, Iran became a major contributor to the Islamic Golden Age that followed, producing many influential scientists, scholars, artists, and thinkers. During the 18th century, Iran reached its greatest territorial extent since the Sassanid Empire, through the late 18th and 19th centuries, a series of conflicts with Russia led to significant territorial losses and the erosion of sovereignty. Popular unrest culminated in the Persian Constitutional Revolution of 1906, which established a monarchy and the countrys first legislative body. Following a coup instigated by the U. K. Growing dissent against foreign influence and political repression led to the 1979 Revolution, Irans rich cultural legacy is reflected in part by its 21 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the third-largest number in Asia and 11th-largest in the world. Iran is a member of the UN, ECO, NAM, OIC. Its political system is based on the 1979 Constitution which combines elements of a democracy with a theocracy governed by Islamic jurists under the concept of a Supreme Leadership. A multicultural country comprising numerous ethnic and linguistic groups, most inhabitants are Shia Muslims, the largest ethnic groups in Iran are the Persians, Azeris, Kurds and Lurs. Historically, Iran has been referred to as Persia by the West, due mainly to the writings of Greek historians who called Iran Persis, meaning land of the Persians. As the most extensive interactions the Ancient Greeks had with any outsider was with the Persians, however, Persis was originally referred to a region settled by Persians in the west shore of Lake Urmia, in the 9th century BC. The settlement was then shifted to the end of the Zagros Mountains. In 1935, Reza Shah requested the international community to refer to the country by its native name, opposition to the name change led to the reversal of the decision, and Professor Ehsan Yarshater, editor of Encyclopædia Iranica, propagated a move to use Persia and Iran interchangeably
7.
North Africa
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North Africa or Northern Africa is the northernmost region of Africa. The United Nationss definition of Northern Africa is, Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, Sudan, Tunisia, the countries of Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, and Libya are often collectively referred to as the Maghreb, which is the Arabic word for sunset. Egypt lies to the northeast and encompasses part of West Asia, while Sudan is situated on the edge of the Sahel, Egypt is a transcontinental country because of the Sinai Peninsula, which geographically lies in Western Asia. North Africa also includes a number of Spanish possessions, the Canary Islands and Madeira in the North Atlantic Ocean northwest of the African mainland are included in considerations of the region. From 3500 BC, following the abrupt desertification of the Sahara due to changes in the Earths orbit. The Islamic influence in the area is significant, and North Africa is a major part of the Muslim world. Some researchers have postulated that North Africa rather than East Africa served as the point for the modern humans who first trekked out of the continent in the Out of Africa migration. The Atlas Mountains extend across much of Morocco, northern Algeria and Tunisia, are part of the mountain system that also runs through much of Southern Europe. They recede to the south and east, becoming a steppe landscape before meeting the Sahara desert, the sediments of the Sahara overlie an ancient plateau of crystalline rock, some of which is more than four billion years old. Sheltered valleys in the Atlas Mountains, the Nile Valley and Delta, a wide variety of valuable crops including cereals, rice and cotton, and woods such as cedar and cork, are grown. Typical Mediterranean crops, such as olives, figs, dates and citrus fruits, the Nile Valley is particularly fertile, and most of the population in Egypt and Sudan live close to the river. Elsewhere, irrigation is essential to improve yields on the desert margins. The inhabitants of Saharan Africa are generally divided in a manner corresponding to the principal geographic regions of North Africa, the Maghreb, the Nile valley. The edge of the Sahel, to the south of Egypt has mainly been inhabited by Nubians, Ancient Egyptians record extensive contact in their Western desert with people that appear to have been Berber or proto-Berber, as well as Nubians from the south. They have contributed to the Arabized Berber populations, the official language or one of the official languages in all of the countries in North Africa is Arabic. The people of the Maghreb and the Sahara regions speak Berber languages and several varieties of Arabic, the Arabic and Berber languages are distantly related, both being members of the Afroasiatic language family. The Tuareg Berber languages are more conservative than those of the coastal cities. Over the years, Berbers have been influenced by contact with cultures, Greeks, Phoenicians, Egyptians, Romans, Vandals, Arabs, Europeans
8.
Filo
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Filo is a very thin unleavened dough used for making pastries such as baklava and börek in Middle Eastern, Greek, and Balkan cuisines. Filo-based pastries are made by layering sheets of filo brushed with olive oil. Baklava is probably the earliest dish using filo, and is documented as early as the 13th century, filo dough is made with flour, water, and a small amount of oil or white vinegar, though some dessert recipes also call for egg yolks. Homemade filo takes time and skill, requiring progressive rolling and stretching to a single thin, a very big table and a long roller are used, with continual flouring between layers to prevent tearing. Machines for producing filo pastry were perfected in the 1970s, and have come to dominate the market, filo for domestic use is widely available from supermarkets, fresh or frozen. Filo can be used in ways, layered, folded, rolled, or ruffled. Notable pastries made with filo include, Baklava - An Ottoman dessert with layers of filo with chopped nuts, sweetened, banitsa - A Bulgarian dish consisting of eggs, cheese and filo baked in the oven. Börek - A savory filo pie originally from the Ottoman Empire, bougatsa - A type of Greek breakfast pastry. Bülbül yuvası - A Turkish dessert with pistachios and syrup, bundevara - A Serbian sweet pie filled with pumpkin. Galaktoboureko - A Greek dessert consisting of filo and semolina custard, gibanica - A Serbian dish made from filo, white cheese, and eggs. Kasseropita - A Greek pie made from filo and kasseri cheese, pastizz - A savory pastry from Malta filled with ricotta or mushy peas. Spanakopita - A Greek spinach pie, tiropita - A Greek dish similar to Börek, filled with a cheese-egg mixture. Zelnik - A savory pie from the Balkans, very thin pastry sheets can also be made by touching lumps of dough to a hot surface, as in the North African malsouka or by cooking very thin batters, as in the South Indian pootharekulu. Though filos roots are in Ottoman cuisine, the English term comes from the Greek name, a popular Albanian dish called flia, or fli, may have been an early form of filo. In Albanian, fije/fli translates as both sheet and leaf, the Turkish name yufka means both the thin dough used for baklava and börek, and a kind of flatbread, also called sac ekmeği, cooked on a sac, a domed metal plate. Filo is known by a variety of names in ethnic and regional cuisines, the Taste for Layered Bread among the Nomadic Turks and the Central Asian Origins of Baklava, in A Taste of Thyme, Culinary Cultures of the Middle East,1994. Engin Akın, Mirsini Lambraki, Kosta Sarıoğlu, Aynı Sofrada İki Ülke, Türk ve Yunan Mutfağı, Istanbul 2003, the dictionary definition of filo at Wiktionary Media related to Phyllo at Wikimedia Commons Phyllo dough at Wikibook Cookbooks
9.
Cheese
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Cheese is a food derived from milk that is produced in a wide range of flavors, textures, and forms by coagulation of the milk protein casein. It comprises proteins and fat from milk, usually the milk of cows, buffalo, goats, during production, the milk is usually acidified, and adding the enzyme rennet causes coagulation. The solids are separated and pressed into final form, Some cheeses have molds on the rind, the outer layer, or throughout. Most cheeses melt at cooking temperature, hundreds of types of cheese from various countries are produced. Their styles, textures and flavors depend on the origin of the milk, whether they have been pasteurized, the content, the bacteria and mold, the processing. Herbs, spices, or wood smoke may be used as flavoring agents, the yellow to red color of many cheeses, such as Red Leicester, is produced by adding annatto. Other ingredients may be added to some cheeses, such as pepper, garlic. For a few cheeses, the milk is curdled by adding acids such as vinegar or lemon juice, most cheeses are acidified to a lesser degree by bacteria, which turn milk sugars into lactic acid, then the addition of rennet completes the curdling. Vegetarian alternatives to rennet are available, most are produced by fermentation of the fungus Mucor miehei, cheesemakers near a dairy region may benefit from fresher, lower-priced milk, and lower shipping costs. Cheese is valued for its portability, long life, and high content of fat, protein, calcium, generally speaking, hard cheeses, such as parmesan last longer than soft cheeses, such as Brie or goats milk cheese. The long storage life of some cheeses, especially when encased in a protective rind, There is some debate as to the best way to store cheese, but some experts say that wrapping it in cheese paper provides optimal results. Cheese paper is coated in a plastic on the inside. A specialist seller of cheese is known as a cheesemonger. Becoming an expert in this field requires some formal education and years of tasting and hands-on experience, the cheesemonger is responsible for all aspects of the cheese inventory, selecting the cheese menu, purchasing, receiving, storage, and ripening. The word cheese comes from Latin caseus, from which the modern word casein is also derived, the earliest source is from the proto-Indo-European root *kwat-, which means to ferment, become sour. The word cheese comes from chese and cīese or cēse, the Online Etymological Dictionary states that cheese comes from Old English cyse, cese. from West Germanic *kasjus, from Latin caseus cheese. The Online Etymological Dictionary states that the word is of. unknown origin, perhaps from a PIE root *kwat- to ferment, Old Norse ostr, Danish ost, Swedish ost are related to Latin ius broth, sauce, juice. When the Romans began to make hard cheeses for their legionaries supplies and it is from this word that the French fromage, proper Italian formaggio, Catalan formatge, Breton fourmaj, and Provençal furmo are derived
10.
Pastry
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Pastry is a dough of flour, water and shortening that may be savoury or sweetened. Sweetened pastries are often described as bakers confectionery, the word pastries suggests many kinds of baked products made from ingredients such as flour, sugar, milk, butter, shortening, baking powder, and eggs. Small tarts and other baked products are called pastries. The French word pâtisserie is also used in English for the same foods, common pastry dishes include pies, tarts, quiches and pasties. Pastry can also refer to the dough, from which such baked products are made. Pastry dough is rolled out thinly and used as a base for baked products, pastry is differentiated from bread by having a higher fat content, which contributes to a flaky or crumbly texture. A good pastry is light and airy and fatty, but firm enough to support the weight of the filling, when making a shortcrust pastry, care must be taken to blend the fat and flour thoroughly before adding any liquid. This ensures that the granules are adequately coated with fat. On the other hand, overmixing results in long gluten strands that toughen the pastry, Shortcrust pastry Shortcrust pastry is the simplest and most common pastry. It is made with flour, fat, butter, salt and this is used mainly in tarts. It is also the pastry that is used most often in making a quiche, the process of making pastry includes mixing of the fat and flour, adding water, and rolling out the paste. A related type is the sweetened sweetcrust pastry, also known as pâte sucrée, in which sugar, Flaky pastry Flaky pastry is a simple pastry that expands when cooked due to the number of layers. It bakes into a crisp, buttery pastry, the puff is obtained by the shard-like layers of fat, most often butter or shortening, creating layers which expand in the heat of the oven when baked. Puff pastry Puff pastry has many layers that cause it to expand or puff when baked, Puff pastry is made using flour, butter, salt, and water. The pastry rises up due to the water and fats expanding as they turn into steam upon heating, Puff pastries come out of the oven light, flaky, and tender. Choux pastry Choux pastry is a very light pastry that is filled with cream. Unlike other types of pastry, choux is in closer to a dough before being cooked which gives it the ability to be piped into various shapes such as the éclair. Its name originates from the French choux, meaning cabbage, owing to its rough cabbage-like shape after cooking, Choux begins as a mixture of milk or water and butter which are heated together until the butter melts, to which flour is added to form a dough
11.
Dough
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Dough is a thick, malleable, sometimes elastic, paste made out of any grains, leguminous or chestnut crops. Doughs are made from a variety of flours, commonly wheat but also flours made from maize, rice, rye, legumes, almonds. Doughs vary widely depending on ingredients, the kind of product being produced, the type of leavening agent, how the dough is mixed, there is no formal definition of what makes dough, though most doughs have viscoelastic properties. Leavened or fermented doughs are used all over the world to various breads. Salt, oils or fats, sugars or honey and sometimes milk or eggs are common ingredients in bread dough. Commercial bread doughs may also include dough conditioners, a class of ingredients that aid in dough consistency and final product. Flatbreads such as pita, lafa, lavash, matzah or matzo, naan, roti, sangak, tortilla, some flatbreads, such as naan, use leavening agents, others, such as matzo, do not. Crackers are also made from dough, and some are leavened, pasta and noodles are generally based on unleavened doughs that are worked until they are dry and smooth, and then shaped into their final form. The finished pasta may be cooked immediately or dried before cooking, doughs with higher fat content have a lesser water content, develop less gluten and are therefore generally less elastic than bread doughs, these doughs are often called short by bakers. This category includes many cookie and pie crust doughs, such as shortcrust pastry, in many parts of central India, people use the quick method of making an instant roasted dough ball or baati. In countries in the Sahel region of Africa, dough balls called aiysh or biya are made from sorghum or millet, and are ground and boiled. Quick breads use leavening agents other than yeast, and include most cookies, cakes, biscuits, and more, Techniques used in dough production depend on the type of dough and final product. For yeast-based and sponge breads, a production technique is the dough is mixed, kneaded. Many bread doughs call for a stage, where the dough is kneaded again, shaped into the final form. Kneading is the process of working a dough to produce a smooth, pasta is typically made from a dry dough that is kneaded and shaped, either through extrusion, rolling out in a pasta machine, or stretched or shaped by hand. Pasta may be cooked directly after production or dried, which renders it shelf-stable, doughs for biscuits and many flatbreads which are not leavened with yeast are typically mixed but not kneaded or left to rise, these doughs are shaped and cooked directly after mixing. While breads and other products made from doughs are often baked, some types of dough-based foods are cooked over direct heat, such as tortillas, fried dough foods are also common in many cultures. Unlike bread dough, these batters are not stabilized by the formation of a gluten network, the word dough is a common slang term for money in English-speaking countries, this usage is originally American, and dates to the mid-19th century
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Anatolia
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Anatolia, in geography known as Asia Minor, Asian Turkey, Anatolian peninsula, or Anatolian plateau, is the westernmost protrusion of Asia, which makes up the majority of modern-day Turkey. The region is bounded by the Black Sea to the north, the Mediterranean Sea to the south, the Sea of Marmara forms a connection between the Black and Aegean Seas through the Bosphorus and Dardanelles straits and separates Anatolia from Thrace on the European mainland. Traditionally, Anatolia is considered to extend in the east to a line between the Gulf of Alexandretta and the Black Sea to the Armenian Highlands, thus, traditionally Anatolia is the territory that comprises approximately the western two-thirds of the Asian part of Turkey. The Turkification of Anatolia began under the Seljuk Empire in the late 11th century, however, various non-Turkic languages continue to be spoken by minorities in Anatolia today, including Kurdish, Assyrian, Armenian, Arabic, Laz, Georgian, and Greek. Traditionally, Anatolia is considered to extend in the east to a line running from the Gulf of Alexandretta to the Black Sea. This traditional geographical definition is used, for example, in the latest edition of Merriam-Websters Geographical Dictionary, under this definition, Anatolia is bounded to the east by the Armenian Highlands, and the Euphrates before that river bends to the southeast to enter Mesopotamia. To the southeast, it is bounded by the ranges that separate it from the Orontes valley in Syria, the first name the Greeks used for the Anatolian peninsula was Ἀσία, presumably after the name of the Assuwa league in western Anatolia. As the name of Asia came to be extended to areas east of the Mediterranean. The name Anatolia derives from the Greek ἀνατολή meaning “the East” or more literally “sunrise”, the precise reference of this term has varied over time, perhaps originally referring to the Aeolian, Ionian and Dorian colonies on the west coast of Asia Minor. In the Byzantine Empire, the Anatolic Theme was a theme covering the western, the modern Turkish form of Anatolia is Anadolu, which again derives from the Greek name Aνατολή. The Russian male name Anatoly and the French Anatole share the same linguistic origin, in English the name of Turkey for ancient Anatolia first appeared c. It is derived from the Medieval Latin Turchia, which was used by the Europeans to define the Seljuk controlled parts of Anatolia after the Battle of Manzikert. Human habitation in Anatolia dates back to the Paleolithic, neolithic Anatolia has been proposed as the homeland of the Indo-European language family, although linguists tend to favour a later origin in the steppes north of the Black Sea. However, it is clear that the Anatolian languages, the oldest branch of Indo-European, have spoken in Anatolia since at least the 19th century BC. The earliest historical records of Anatolia stem from the southeast of the region and are from the Mesopotamian-based Akkadian Empire during the reign of Sargon of Akkad in the 24th century BC, scholars generally believe the earliest indigenous populations of Anatolia were the Hattians and Hurrians. The region was famous for exporting raw materials, and areas of Hattian-, one of the numerous cuneiform records dated circa 20th century BC, found in Anatolia at the Assyrian colony of Kanesh, uses an advanced system of trading computations and credit lines. They were speakers of an Indo-European language, the Hittite language, originating from Nesa, they conquered Hattusa in the 18th century BC, imposing themselves over Hattian- and Hurrian-speaking populations. According to the most widely accepted Kurgan theory on the Proto-Indo-European homeland, however, the Hittites adopted the cuneiform script, invented in Mesopotamia
13.
Levant
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The Levant is an approximate historical geographical term referring to a large area in the Eastern Mediterranean. The term Levant entered English in the late 15th century from French and it derives from the Italian Levante, meaning rising, implying the rising of the sun in the east. As such, it is equivalent to the Arabic term Mashriq. Eventually the term was restricted to the Muslim countries of Syria-Palestine, in 1581, England set up the Levant Company to monopolize commerce with the Ottoman Empire. The name Levant States was used to refer to the French mandate over Syria and this is probably the reason why the term Levant has come to be used synonymously with Syria-Palestine. Some scholars misunderstood the term thinking that it derives from the name of Lebanon, today the term is typically used in conjunction with prehistoric or ancient historical references. It does not include Anatolia, the Caucasus Mountains, or any part of the Arabian Peninsula proper, the Sinai Peninsula is sometimes included. The Levant has been described as the crossroads of western Asia, the eastern Mediterranean, and northeast Africa, the populations of the Levant share not only the geographic position, but cuisine, some customs, and a very long history. They are often referred to as Levantines, the term Levant, which appeared in English in 1497, originally meant the East in general or Mediterranean lands east of Italy. It is borrowed from the French levant rising, referring to the rising of the sun in the east, the phrase is ultimately from the Latin word levare, meaning lift, raise. Similar etymologies are found in Greek Ἀνατολή, in Germanic Morgenland, in Italian, in Hungarian Kelet, in Spanish and Catalan Levante and Llevant, most notably, Orient and its Latin source oriens meaning east, is literally rising, deriving from Latin orior rise. The notion of the Levant has undergone a process of historical evolution in usage, meaning. While the term Levantine originally referred to the European residents of the eastern Mediterranean region, it came to refer to regional native. The English Levant Company was founded in 1581 to trade with the Ottoman Empire, at this time, the Far East was known as the Upper Levant. In early 19th-century travel writing, the term sometimes incorporated certain Mediterranean provinces of the Ottoman empire, in 19th-century archaeology, it referred to overlapping cultures in this region during and after prehistoric times, intending to reference the place instead of any one culture. The French mandate of Syria and Lebanon was called the Levant states, today, Levant is the term typically used by archaeologists and historians with reference to the history of the region. Scholars have adopted the term Levant to identify the region due to it being a wider, yet relevant, archaeologists seeking a neutral orientation that is neither biblical nor national have used terms such as Levantine archaeology and archaeology of the Southern Levant. Two academic journals were launched, Journal of Levantine Studies, published by the Van Leer Jerusalem Institute and The Levantine Review
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Mediterranean Sea
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The sea is sometimes considered a part of the Atlantic Ocean, although it is usually identified as a separate body of water. The name Mediterranean is derived from the Latin mediterraneus, meaning inland or in the middle of land and it covers an approximate area of 2.5 million km2, but its connection to the Atlantic is only 14 km wide. The Strait of Gibraltar is a strait that connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea and separates Gibraltar. In oceanography, it is called the Eurafrican Mediterranean Sea or the European Mediterranean Sea to distinguish it from mediterranean seas elsewhere. The Mediterranean Sea has a depth of 1,500 m. The sea is bordered on the north by Europe, the east by Asia and it is located between latitudes 30° and 46° N and longitudes 6° W and 36° E. Its west-east length, from the Strait of Gibraltar to the Gulf of Iskenderun, the seas average north-south length, from Croatia’s southern shore to Libya, is approximately 800 km. The Mediterranean Sea, including the Sea of Marmara, has an area of approximately 2,510,000 square km. The sea was an important route for merchants and travelers of ancient times that allowed for trade, the history of the Mediterranean region is crucial to understanding the origins and development of many modern societies. In addition, the Gaza Strip and the British Overseas Territories of Gibraltar and Akrotiri, the term Mediterranean derives from the Latin word mediterraneus, meaning amid the earth or between land, as it is between the continents of Africa, Asia and Europe. The Ancient Greek name Mesogeios, is similarly from μέσο, between + γη, land, earth) and it can be compared with the Ancient Greek name Mesopotamia, meaning between rivers. The Mediterranean Sea has historically had several names, for example, the Carthaginians called it the Syrian Sea and latter Romans commonly called it Mare Nostrum, and occasionally Mare Internum. Another name was the Sea of the Philistines, from the people inhabiting a large portion of its shores near the Israelites, the sea is also called the Great Sea in the General Prologue by Geoffrey Chaucer. In Ottoman Turkish, it has also been called Bahr-i Sefid, in Modern Hebrew, it has been called HaYam HaTikhon, the Middle Sea, reflecting the Seas name in ancient Greek, Latin, and modern languages in both Europe and the Middle East. Similarly, in Modern Arabic, it is known as al-Baḥr al-Mutawassiṭ, in Turkish, it is known as Akdeniz, the White Sea since among Turks the white colour represents the west. Several ancient civilisations were located around the Mediterranean shores, and were influenced by their proximity to the sea. It provided routes for trade, colonisation, and war, as well as food for numerous communities throughout the ages, due to the shared climate, geology, and access to the sea, cultures centered on the Mediterranean tended to have some extent of intertwined culture and history. Two of the most notable Mediterranean civilisations in classical antiquity were the Greek city states, later, when Augustus founded the Roman Empire, the Romans referred to the Mediterranean as Mare Nostrum
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Eastern Europe
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Eastern Europe, also known as East Europe, is the eastern part of the European continent. There is no consensus on the area it covers, partly because the term has a wide range of geopolitical, geographical, cultural. There are almost as many definitions of Eastern Europe as there are scholars of the region, a related United Nations paper adds that every assessment of spatial identities is essentially a social and cultural construct. One definition describes Eastern Europe as an entity, the region lying in Europe with main characteristics consisting in Byzantine, Orthodox. Another definition was created during the Cold War and used more or less synonymously with the term Eastern Bloc, a similar definition names the formerly communist European states outside the Soviet Union as Eastern Europe. Historians and social scientists generally view such definitions as outdated or relegating, several definitions of Eastern Europe exist today, but they often lack precision or are extremely general. These definitions vary both across cultures and among experts, even scientists, recently becoming more and more imprecise. The Ural Mountains, Ural River, and the Caucasus Mountains are the land border of the eastern edge of Europe. Eurovoc, a multilingual thesaurus maintained by the Publications Office of the European Union, provides entries for 23 EU languages, of these, those in italics are classified as Eastern Europe in this source. Other official web-pages of the European Union classify some of the countries as strictly Central European. The East–West Schism is the break of communion and theology between what are now the Eastern and Western churches which began in the 11th century and lasts until this very day and it divided Christianity in Europe, and consequently the world, into Western Christianity and Eastern Christianity. Since the Great Schism of 1054, Europe has been divided between Roman Catholic and Protestant churches in the West, and the Eastern Orthodox Christian churches in the east, due to this religious cleavage, Eastern Orthodox countries are often associated with Eastern Europe. A cleavage of this sort is, however, often problematic, for example, Greece is overwhelmingly Orthodox, the fall of the Iron Curtain brought the end of the East–West division in Europe, but this geopolitical concept is sometimes still used for quick reference by the media. The Baltic states have seats in the Nordic Council as observer states and they also are members of the Nordic-Baltic Eight whereas Eastern European countries formed their own alliance called the Visegrád Group. Estonia Latvia Lithuania The Caucasus nations may be included in the definitions of Eastern Europe, the extent of their geographic or political affiliation with Europe varies by country and source. All three states are members of the European Unions Eastern Partnership program and the Euronest Parliamentary Assembly, on 12 January 2002, the European Parliament noted that Armenia and Georgia may enter the EU in the future. Georgia — in modern geography, Georgia has been classified as part of Eastern Europe. Under the European Union’s geographic criteria, Georgia is viewed as part of Eastern Europe and is the only Caucasus country to be actively seeking EU membership and it is a member of Council of Europe and Eurocontrol
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Western Asia
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Western Asia, West Asia, Southwestern Asia or Southwest Asia is the westernmost subregion of Asia. The concept is in limited use, as it overlaps with the Middle East. The term is used for the purposes of grouping countries in statistics. The total population of Western Asia is an estimated 300 million as of 2015, in an unrelated context, the term is also used in ancient history and archaeology to divide the Fertile Crescent into the Asiatic or Western Asian cultures as opposed to ancient Egypt. As a geographic concept, Western Asia almost always includes the Levant, Mesopotamia, the term is used pragmatically and has no correct or generally agreed-upon definition. In contrast to this definition, the United Nations Industrial Development Organisation in its 2015 yearbook also includes Armenia and Azerbaijan, unlike the UNIDO, the United Nations Statistics Division excludes Iran from Western Asia and include Turkey, Georgia, and Cyprus in the region. These four countries are listed in the European category of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, the Olympic Council of Asias multi-sport event West Asian Games are contested by athletes representing these thirteen countries. Among the regions sports organisations are the West Asia Basketball Association, West Asian Billiards and Snooker Federation, West Asian Football Federation, Western Asia was in use as a geographical term in the early 19th century, even before Near East became current as a geopolitical concept. Use of the term in the context of contemporary geopolitics or world economy appears to date from the 1960s, Western Asia is located directly south of Eastern Europe. The region is surrounded by seven major seas, the Aegean Sea, the Black Sea, the Caspian Sea, the Persian Gulf, the Arabian Sea, the Red Sea, and the Mediterranean Sea. The Dasht-e Kavir and Dasht-e Lut deserts in eastern Iran naturally delimit the region somewhat from Asia itself, three major tectonic plates converge on Western Asia, including the African, Eurasian, and Arabian plates. The boundaries between the plates make up the Azores-Gibraltar Ridge, extending across North Africa, the Red Sea. The Arabian Plate is moving northward into the Anatolian plate at the East Anatolian Fault, several major aquifers provide water to large portions of Western Asia. In Saudi Arabia, two large aquifers of Palaeozoic and Triassic origins are located beneath the Jabal Tuwayq mountains and areas west to the Red Sea. Cretaceous and Eocene-origin aquifers are located beneath large portions of central and eastern Saudi Arabia, including Wasia, flood or furrow irrigation, as well as sprinkler methods, are extensively used for irrigation, covering nearly 90,000 km² across Western Asia for agriculture. Western Asia is primarily arid and semi-arid, and can be subject to drought, the region consists of grasslands, rangelands, deserts, and mountains. Water shortages are a problem in parts of West Asia, with rapidly growing populations increasing demands for water. Major rivers, including the Tigris and Euphrates, provide sources for water to support agriculture
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Ottoman Empire
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After 1354, the Ottomans crossed into Europe, and with the conquest of the Balkans the Ottoman Beylik was transformed into a transcontinental empire. The Ottomans ended the Byzantine Empire with the 1453 conquest of Constantinople by Mehmed the Conqueror, at the beginning of the 17th century the empire contained 32 provinces and numerous vassal states. Some of these were later absorbed into the Ottoman Empire, while others were granted various types of autonomy during the course of centuries. With Constantinople as its capital and control of lands around the Mediterranean basin, while the empire was once thought to have entered a period of decline following the death of Suleiman the Magnificent, this view is no longer supported by the majority of academic historians. The empire continued to maintain a flexible and strong economy, society, however, during a long period of peace from 1740 to 1768, the Ottoman military system fell behind that of their European rivals, the Habsburg and Russian Empires. While the Empire was able to hold its own during the conflict, it was struggling with internal dissent. Starting before World War I, but growing increasingly common and violent during it, major atrocities were committed by the Ottoman government against the Armenians, Assyrians and Pontic Greeks. The word Ottoman is an anglicisation of the name of Osman I. Osmans name in turn was the Turkish form of the Arabic name ʿUthmān, in Ottoman Turkish, the empire was referred to as Devlet-i ʿAlīye-yi ʿOsmānīye, or alternatively ʿOsmānlı Devleti. In Modern Turkish, it is known as Osmanlı İmparatorluğu or Osmanlı Devleti, the Turkish word for Ottoman originally referred to the tribal followers of Osman in the fourteenth century, and subsequently came to be used to refer to the empires military-administrative elite. In contrast, the term Turk was used to refer to the Anatolian peasant and tribal population, the term Rūmī was also used to refer to Turkish-speakers by the other Muslim peoples of the empire and beyond. In Western Europe, the two names Ottoman Empire and Turkey were often used interchangeably, with Turkey being increasingly favored both in formal and informal situations and this dichotomy was officially ended in 1920–23, when the newly established Ankara-based Turkish government chose Turkey as the sole official name. Most scholarly historians avoid the terms Turkey, Turks, and Turkish when referring to the Ottomans, as the power of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum declined in the 13th century, Anatolia was divided into a patchwork of independent Turkish principalities known as the Anatolian Beyliks. One of these beyliks, in the region of Bithynia on the frontier of the Byzantine Empire, was led by the Turkish tribal leader Osman, osmans early followers consisted both of Turkish tribal groups and Byzantine renegades, many but not all converts to Islam. Osman extended the control of his principality by conquering Byzantine towns along the Sakarya River and it is not well understood how the early Ottomans came to dominate their neighbours, due to the scarcity of the sources which survive from this period. One school of thought which was popular during the twentieth century argued that the Ottomans achieved success by rallying religious warriors to fight for them in the name of Islam, in the century after the death of Osman I, Ottoman rule began to extend over Anatolia and the Balkans. Osmans son, Orhan, captured the northwestern Anatolian city of Bursa in 1326 and this conquest meant the loss of Byzantine control over northwestern Anatolia. The important city of Thessaloniki was captured from the Venetians in 1387, the Ottoman victory at Kosovo in 1389 effectively marked the end of Serbian power in the region, paving the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe
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Ottoman cuisine
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Ottoman cuisine is the cuisine of the Ottoman Empire and its continuation in the cuisines of Turkey, Greece, the Balkans, and parts of the Caucasus, and the Middle East. It is clear that Ottoman cuisine was unified and refined in imperial Istanbul, the Balkans, Greece, Anatolia and the Fertile Crescent. are common heirs to what was once the Ottoman life-style, and their cuisines offer treacherous circumstantial evidence of this fact. Of course, they represent at the time a good deal of local or regional culinary traditions. This diverse cuisine was amalgamated and honed in the Imperial Palaces kitchens by chefs brought from certain parts of the empire to create and these chefs were tested and hired by their method of cooking rice, a simple dish. They were brought over from various places for the purpose of experimenting with exotic textures and ingredients. Each cook specialized in specific tasks, all dishes intended for the sultan were first passed by the palate of the Chesnidjibashi, or imperial food taster, who tested the food for both poison and taste. Culinary cultures of the Ottoman Empire
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Classical antiquity
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It is the period in which Greek and Roman society flourished and wielded great influence throughout Europe, North Africa and Southwestern Asia. Conventionally, it is taken to begin with the earliest-recorded Epic Greek poetry of Homer, and continues through the emergence of Christianity and it ends with the dissolution of classical culture at the close of Late Antiquity, blending into the Early Middle Ages. Such a wide sampling of history and territory covers many disparate cultures, Classical antiquity may refer also to an idealised vision among later people of what was, in Edgar Allan Poes words, the glory that was Greece, and the grandeur that was Rome. The culture of the ancient Greeks, together with influences from the ancient Near East, was the basis of art, philosophy, society. The earliest period of classical antiquity takes place before the background of gradual re-appearance of historical sources following the Bronze Age collapse, the 8th and 7th centuries BC are still largely proto-historical, with the earliest Greek alphabetic inscriptions appearing in the first half of the 8th century. Homer is usually assumed to have lived in the 8th or 7th century BC, in the same period falls the traditional date for the establishment of the Ancient Olympic Games, in 776 BC. The Phoenicians originally expanded from Canaan ports, by the 8th century dominating trade in the Mediterranean, carthage was founded in 814 BC, and the Carthaginians by 700 BC had firmly established strongholds in Sicily, Italy and Sardinia, which created conflicts of interest with Etruria. The Etruscans had established control in the region by the late 7th century BC, forming the aristocratic. According to legend, Rome was founded on April 21,753 BC by twin descendants of the Trojan prince Aeneas, Romulus and Remus. As the city was bereft of women, legend says that the Latins invited the Sabines to a festival and stole their unmarried maidens, leading to the integration of the Latins and the Sabines. Archaeological evidence indeed shows first traces of settlement at the Roman Forum in the mid-8th century BC, the seventh and final king of Rome was Tarquinius Superbus. As the son of Tarquinius Priscus and the son-in-law of Servius Tullius, Superbus was of Etruscan birth and it was during his reign that the Etruscans reached their apex of power. Superbus removed and destroyed all the Sabine shrines and altars from the Tarpeian Rock, the people came to object to his rule when he failed to recognize the rape of Lucretia, a patrician Roman, at the hands of his own son. Lucretias kinsman, Lucius Junius Brutus, summoned the Senate and had Superbus, after Superbus expulsion, the Senate voted to never again allow the rule of a king and reformed Rome into a republican government in 509 BC. In fact the Latin word Rex meaning King became a dirty and hated throughout the Republic. In 510, Spartan troops helped the Athenians overthrow the tyrant Hippias, cleomenes I, king of Sparta, put in place a pro-Spartan oligarchy conducted by Isagoras. Greece entered the 4th century under Spartan hegemony, but by 395 BC the Spartan rulers removed Lysander from office, and Sparta lost her naval supremacy. Athens, Argos, Thebes and Corinth, the two of which were formerly Spartan allies, challenged Spartan dominance in the Corinthian War, which ended inconclusively in 387 BC
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Baklava
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Baklava is a rich, sweet pastry made of layers of filo filled with chopped nuts and sweetened and held together with syrup or honey. It is characteristic of the cuisines of the Levant, the Caucasus, Balkans, Maghreb, the word baklava is first attested in English in 1650, a borrowing from Ottoman Turkish بقلاوه /bɑːklɑvɑː/. The name baklava is used in languages with minor phonetic. Buell argues that the word baklava may come from the Mongolian root baγla- to tie, wrap up, pile up composed with the Turkic verbal ending -v, however, a possible Turkish origin is rejected by German Turkologist G. Doerfer. Another form of the word is recorded in Persian, باقلبا. Though the suffix -vā might suggest a Persian origin, the part does not appear to be Persian. The Arabic name بقلاوة baqlāwa is doubtless a borrowing from Turkish, though a folk etymology, unsupported by Wehrs dictionary, although the history of baklava is not well documented, its current form was probably developed in the imperial kitchens of the Topkapı Palace in Istanbul. The Sultan presented trays of baklava to the Janissaries every 15th of the month of Ramadan in a procession called the Baklava Alayı. Baklava, for example, is claimed by both countries, Greek and Turkish cuisine both built upon the cookery of the Byzantine Empire, which was a continuation of the cooking of the Roman Empire. Roman cuisine had borrowed a great deal from the ancient Greeks, shape the placenta as follows, place a single row of tracta along the whole length of the base dough. This is then covered with the mixture from the mortar, place another row of tracta on top and go on doing so until all the cheese and honey have been used up. Finish with a layer of tracta, place the placenta in the oven and put a preheated lid on top of it. When ready, honey is poured over the placenta, andrew Dalby identifies this, and surrounding dessert recipes in Cato, as coming from a Greek tradition and cites Antiphanes as quoted by Athenaeus. Several sources state that this Roman dessert continued to evolve during the Byzantine Empire into modern baklava. Muhammad bin Hasan al-Baghdadi was a compiler from the Abbasid period who described lauzinaq, lauzinaq, which derives from the Aramaic word for almond, refers to small pieces of almond paste wrapped in very thin pastry and drenched in syrup. Al-Baghdadis cookbook, Kitab al-Tabikh, was written in 1226 and was based on a collection of 9th century Persian-inspired recipes. According to Gil Marks, Middle Eastern pastry makers developed the process of layering the ingredients, eventually, Muhammad ibn Mahmud al-Shirwani, the physician of the Ottoman Sultan Murad II prepared a Turkish translation of the book, adding around 70 contemporary recipes. Another recipe for a dessert is güllaç, a dessert found in the Turkish cuisine
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Turkish cuisine
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Turkish cuisine is largely the continuation of Ottoman cuisine, which in turn borrowed many elements from Circassian, Central Asian, Caucasian, Middle Eastern, Balkan and Greek cuisines. Turkish cuisine has in turn influenced those and other neighbouring cuisines, including those of Southeast Europe, Central Europe, Turkish cuisine varies across the country. The cuisine of the Black Sea Region uses fish extensively, especially the Black Sea anchovy, the cuisine of the southeast is famous for its variety of kebabs, mezes and dough-based desserts such as baklava, şöbiyet, kadayıf, and künefe. Especially in the parts of Turkey, where olive trees grow abundantly. The cuisines of the Aegean, Marmara and Mediterranean regions are rich in vegetables, herbs, Central Anatolia has many famous specialties, such as keşkek, mantı and gözleme. Dishes directly cognate with mantı are found also in Chinese and Korean cuisine, a specialtys name sometimes includes that of a city or region, either in or outside of Turkey, and may refer to the specific technique or ingredients used in that area. For example, the difference between Urfa kebap and Adana kebap is the thickness of the skewer and the amount of hot pepper that the kebab contains, Urfa kebap is less spicy and thicker than Adana kebap. Although meat-based foods such as kebabs are the mainstay in Turkish cuisine as presented in countries, native Turkish meals largely center around rice, vegetables. Turks usually prefer a rich breakfast, a speciality for breakfast is called menemen, which is prepared with tomatoes, green peppers, onion, olive oil and eggs. Invariably, Turkish tea is served at breakfast, the Turkish word for breakfast, kahvaltı, means before coffee. Homemade food is preferred by Turkish people. Although the newly introduced way of life pushes the new generation to eat out, a typical meal starts with soup, followed by a dish made of vegetables or legumes boiled in a pot, often with or before rice or bulgur pilav accompanied by a salad or cacık. In summertime many people prefer to eat a dish of vegetables cooked with olive oil instead of the soup, either before or after the main course. Although fast food is gaining popularity and many major foreign fast food chains have opened all over Turkey, Turkish people still rely primarily on the rich and extensive dishes of Turkish cuisine. In addition, some traditional Turkish foods, especially köfte, döner, kokoreç, kumpir midye tava börek, eating out has always been common in large commercial cities. Esnaf lokantası are widespread, serving traditional Turkish home cooking at affordable prices, in the hot Turkish summer, a meal often consists of fried vegetables such as eggplant and peppers or potatoes served with yogurt or tomato sauce. Menemen and çılbır are typical dishes, based on eggs. Sheep cheese, cucumbers, tomatoes, watermelons and melons also make a summer meal
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Byzantine cuisine
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Byzantine cuisine was marked by a merger of Greek and Roman gastronomy. The development of the Byzantine Empire and trade brought in spices, sugar, cooks experimented with new combinations of food, creating two styles in the process. These were the Eastern, consisting of Byzantine cuisine supplemented by trade items, Byzantine food consumption varied by class. The Imperial Palace was a metropolis of spices and exotic recipes, guests were entertained with fruits, honey-cakes, the core diet consisted of bread, vegetables, pulses, and cereals prepared in varied ways. Salad was very popular, to the amazement of the Florentines, the Byzantines produced various cheeses, including anthotiro or kefalintzin. They also relished shellfish and fish, both fresh and salt-water and they prepared eggs to make famous omelettes — called sphoungata, i. e. spongy — mentioned by Theodore Prodromos. Every household also kept a supply of poultry, Byzantine elites obtained other kinds of meat by hunting, a favourite and distinguished occupation of men. They usually hunted with dogs and hawks, though sometimes employed trapping, netting, larger animals were a more expensive and rare food. Citizens slaughtered pigs at the beginning of winter and provided their families with sausages, salt pork, only upper middle and higher Byzantines could afford lamb. They seldom ate beef, as they used cattle to cultivate the fields, middle and lower class citizens in cities such as Constantinople and Thessaloniki consumed the offerings of the taverna. The most common form of cooking was boiling, a tendency which sparked a derisive Byzantine maxim—The lazy cook prepares everything by boiling. Liutprand of Cremona, the ambassador to Constantinople from Otto I, described being served food covered in an exceedingly bad fish liquor, many scholars state that Byzantine koptoplakous and plakountas tetyromenous are the ancestors of modern baklava and tiropita respectively. Both variants descended from the ancient Roman Placenta cake, the resulting melting pot continued during Ottoman times and therefore modern Turkish cuisine, Greek cuisine and Balkans cuisine are all almost identical, and use a very wide range of ingredients. Macedonia was renowned for its wines, served for upper class Byzantines, during the crusades and after, western Europeans valued costly Byzantine wines. The most famous example is the still extant Commandaria wine from Cyprus served at the wedding of King Richard the Lionheart, other renowned varieties were Cretan wines from muscat grapes, Romania or Rumney, and Malvasia or Malmsey. gr
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Byzantine Greek
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From the 7th century onwards, Greek was the only language of administration and government in the Byzantine Empire. This stage of language is described as Byzantine Greek. The study of the Medieval Greek language and literature is a branch of Byzantine Studies, or Byzantinology, however, this approach is rather arbitrary as it is more an assumption of political as opposed to cultural and linguistic developments. Indeed, by time the spoken language, particularly pronunciation, had already shifted towards modern forms. Medieval Greek is the link between this vernacular, known as Koine Greek, and the Modern Greek language. With the transfer of the Roman imperial court to Byzantium between 324 and 330, the centre of the Roman Empire was moved into an area where Greek was the dominant language. At first, Latin remained the language of both the court and the army and it was used for documents, but its influence soon waned. From the beginning of the 6th century, amendments to the law were written in Greek. Furthermore, parts of the Roman Corpus Iuris Civilis were gradually translated into Greek, under the rule of Emperor Heraclius, who also assumed the Greek title Basileus in 629, Greek became the official language of the Eastern Roman Empire. This was in spite of the fact that the inhabitants of the empire still considered themselves Romaioi until its end in 1453, the number of those who were able to communicate in Greek may have been far higher. In any case, all cities of the Eastern Roman Empire were strongly influenced by the Greek language, alexandria, a center of Greek culture and language, fell to the Arabs in 642. During the seventh and eighth centuries, Greek was replaced by Arabic as a language in conquered territories such as Egypt. Thus, the use of Greek declined early on in Syria, Egypt, from the late 11th century onwards, the interior of Anatolia was invaded by Seljuq Turks, who advanced westwards. Language varieties after 1453 are referred to as Modern Greek, as early as in the Hellenistic period, there was a tendency towards a state of diglossia between the Attic literary language and the constantly developing vernacular Koiné. By late antiquity, the gap had become impossible to ignore, written literature reflecting this demotic Greek begins to appear around 1100. Among the preserved literature in the Attic literary language, various forms of historiography take a prominent place and they comprise chronicles as well as classicist, contemporary works of historiography, theological documents, and saints lives. Poetry can be found in the form of hymns and ecclesiastical poetry, many of the Byzantine emperors were active writers themselves and wrote chronicles or works on the running of the Byzantine state and strategic or philological works. Furthermore, letters, legal texts, and numerous registers and lists in Medieval Greek exist and these are influenced by the vernacular language of their time in choice of words and idiom, but largely follow the models of written Koine in their morphology and syntax
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Placenta cake
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Placenta is a dish from ancient Rome consisting of many dough layers interspersed with a mixture of cheese and honey and flavored with bay leaves, then baked and covered in honey. Cato included a recipe in his De Agri Cultura, cato writes, Shape the placenta as follows, place a single row of tracta along the whole length of the base dough. This is then covered with the mixture from the mortar, place another row of tracta on top and go on doing so until all the cheese and honey have been used up. Finish with a layer of tracta. place the placenta in the oven, when ready, honey is poured over the placenta. A flowery description of plakous was left by the Greek poet Antiphanes, a number of scholars suggest that the desserts Eastern Roman descendants, plakountas tetyromenous and koptoplakous, are the ancestors of modern tiropita and baklava respectively. The name placenta is used today on the island of Lesbos in Greece to describe a dessert of layered pastry leaves containing crushed nuts that is baked. Another variant of the Roman dish survived into the era as the Romanian plăcintă cake. Through its Greek name plakountos, it was adopted into Armenian cuisine as plagindi, plagunda, thus, the dish may have traveled to the Levant in the Middle Ages via the Armenians, many of whom migrated there after the first appearance of the Turkish tribes in medieval Anatolia
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Ancient Roman cuisine
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Ancient Roman cuisine changed over the long duration of the ancient Roman civilization. In the beginning, dietary differences between Roman social classes were not very great, but disparities developed with the empires growth, traditionally, a breakfast called ientaculum was served at dawn. In the late morning, Romans ate a lunch, and in the evening they ate cena. With the increased importation of foreign foods, the cena grew larger in size and it gradually shifted to the afternoon, while the vesperna, a light supper eaten in the evening was abandoned completely. Prandium, a second breakfast, was introduced around noon, among the lower classes of society, these changes were less pronounced as the traditional routines corresponded closely to the daily rhythms of manual labor. Among the upper classes, who did not engage in manual labor, after the prandium, the last responsibilities would be discharged, and a visit would be made to the baths. Around 2 p. m. the cena would begin and this meal could last until late in the night, especially if guests were invited, and would often be followed by comissatio, a round of alcoholic beverages. In the period of the kings and the early Republic, but also in later periods, the cena essentially consisted of a kind of porridge, the simplest kind would be made from emmer, water, salt and fat. The more sophisticated kind was made with oil, with an accompaniment of assorted vegetables when available. The richer classes ate their puls with eggs, cheese, and honey, over the course of the Republican period, the cena developed into 2 courses, a main course and a dessert with fruit and seafood. By the end of the Republic, it was usual for the meal to be served in 3 parts, one course, main course, and dessert. Originally flat, round loaves made of emmer with a bit of salt were eaten, among the classes, eggs, cheese. In the Imperial period, around the beginning of the Christian era, bread made of wheat was introduced, with time, the bread was sometimes dipped in wine and eaten with olives, cheese, and grapes. At the time of the destruction of Pompeii in AD79, the ancient Roman diet included many items that are staples of modern Italian cooking. Pliny the Elder discussed more than 30 varieties of olive,40 kinds of pear, figs, some of these vegetables are no longer present in the modern world, while others have undergone significant changes. Carrots of different colors were consumed, but not in orange, however, some foods considered characteristic of modern Italian cuisine were not used. There were also few citrus fruits, butchers meat was an uncommon luxury. The most popular meat was pork, including sausages, beef was uncommon in ancient Rome, being more common in ancient Greece - it is not mentioned by Juvenal or Horace
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Cato the Elder
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He was the first to write history in Latin. He came of an ancient Plebeian family who were noted for their military service, like his forefathers, Cato was devoted to agriculture when not serving in the army. As praetor, he expelled usurers from Sardinia, as censor, he tried to preserve Romes ancestral customs and combat degenerate Hellenistic influences. His epithet Elder distinguishes him from his equally famous great-grandson Cato the Younger, Cato the Elder was born in Tusculum, a municipal town of Latium, like some generations of his ancestors. His father had earned a reputation as a soldier. However, the Tusculan Porcii had never obtained the privileges of the Roman magistracy, early in life, he so far exceeded the previous deeds of his predecessors that he is frequently spoken of not only as the leader, but as the founder of the Porcia Gens. Priscus, like Major, may have merely a epithet used to distinguish him from the later Cato of Utica. There is no information as to when he first received the title of Cato. In order to determine the date of Catos birth, we consider the records as to his age at the time of his death, other authors exaggerate the age of Cato. According to Valerius Maximus he survived his 86th year, according to Livy, the exaggerated age, however, is inconsistent with a statement recorded by Plutarch on the asserted authority of Cato himself. Cato is represented to have said that he served his first campaign in his 17th year, when Cato was very young, after his fathers death, he inherited a small property in the Sabine territory, at a distance from his native town. There, he spent most of his childhood hardening his body by exercise, overseeing and sharing the operations of the farm, learning business and the rural economy. Near this land was a small hut abandoned after the triumphs of its owner Manius Curius Dentatus, whose military feats, Cato was inspired to imitate that character, hoping to match the glory of Dentatus. Soon, an opportunity came for a campaign in 217 BC. Experts express some disagreement about Catos early military life, in 214 BC, he served at Capua, and the historian Wilhelm Drumann imagines that already, at the age of 20, he was a military tribune. Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus had the command in Campania, during the year of his fourth consulship, while Fabius communicated the valued results of military experience, he chose not to inculcate Cato with his personal and political values and preferences. At the siege of Tarentum,209 BC, Cato was again at the side of Fabius, two years later, Cato was one of the select group who went with the consul Claudius Nero on his northern march from Lucania to check the progress of Hasdrubal Barca. It is recorded that the services of Cato contributed to the victory of Sena on the Metaurus
27.
De Agri Cultura
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De Agri Cultura, written by Cato the Elder, is the oldest surviving work of Latin prose. Cato was revered by many authors for his practical attitudes, his natural stoicism and his tight. He is much quoted by Pliny the Elder, for example, the work of Cato is often characterized as a farmers notebook written in a random fashion, it is hard to think of it as literature. The book seems to be no more than a manual of husbandry intended for friends and its direct style, however, was noted by other ancient authors like Aulus Gellius as forceful and vigorous, in a context of extreme simplicity. Perhaps the main achievement of De Agri Cultura is its depiction of life during the Roman Republic. Catos introduction compares farming with other activities of that time, specifically commerce. He criticizes both, the former on the basis of the dangers and uncertainty which it bears, the second according to the Twelve Tables. Cato makes a strong contrast with farming, which he praises as the source of good citizens and soldiers, De Agri Cultura contains much information on the creation and caring of vineyards, including information on the slaves who helped maintain them. After numerous landowners in Rome read Catos prose during this time, Rome began to produce wine on a large scale, many of the new vineyards were sixty acres, and because of their large size, even more slaves were necessary to keep the production of wine running smoothly. One section consists of recipes for farm products and these include, an imitation of Coan wine, the first recorded recipe for vinum Graecum, imitating the style of strongly flavoured Greek wine that used to be imported to Roman Italy. There is a section of religious rituals to be performed by farmers. The language of these is clearly traditional, somewhat more archaic than that of the remainder of the text, all of the manuscripts of Catos treatise also include a copy of Varros essay of the same name. The oldest existing manuscript is the Codex Parisinus 6842, written in Italy at some point before the end of the 12th century. The editio princeps was printed at Venice in 1472, Angelo Politians collation of the Marcianus against his copy of this first printing is considered an important witness for the text. Dalby, Andrew, Cato, On Farming, Totnes, Prospect Books, ISBN 0-907325-80-7 Goujard, R. Caton, De lagriculture, Paris, Collection Budé, Les Belles Lettres William Davis Hooper, Marcus Porcius Cato, On Agriculture, Marcus Terentius Varro, On Agriculture. Part 1 vol.4 pp. 439–497
28.
Turkish language
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Outside of Turkey, significant smaller groups of speakers exist in Germany, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Northern Cyprus, Greece, the Caucasus, and other parts of Europe and Central Asia. Cyprus has requested that the European Union add Turkish as an official EU language, in 1928, as one of Atatürks Reforms in the early years of the Republic of Turkey, the Ottoman Turkish alphabet was replaced with a Latin alphabet. The distinctive characteristics of Turkish are vowel harmony and extensive agglutination, the basic word order of Turkish is subject–object–verb. Turkish has no classes or grammatical gender. Turkish has a strong T–V distinction and usage of honorifics, Turkish uses second-person pronouns that distinguish varying levels of politeness, social distance, age, courtesy or familiarity toward the addressee. The plural second-person pronoun and verb forms are used referring to a person out of respect. Turkic languages belong to the Altaic language group, the Turkic family comprises some 30 living languages spoken across Eastern Europe, Central Asia, and Siberia. Turkish is a member of the Oghuz group of languages, a subgroup of the Turkic language family, there is a high degree of mutual intelligibility between Turkish and the other Oghuz Turkic languages, including Azerbaijani, Turkmen, Qashqai, Gagauz, and Balkan Gagauz Turkish. The earliest known Old Turkic inscriptions are the three monumental Orkhon inscriptions found in modern Mongolia, erected in honour of the prince Kul Tigin and his brother Emperor Bilge Khagan, these date back to the second Turk Kaghanate. The Seljuqs of the Oghuz Turks, in particular, brought their language, following the adoption of Islam c. Turkish literature during the Ottoman period, particularly Divan poetry, was influenced by Persian, including the adoption of poetic meters. One of the tasks of the newly established association was to initiate a reform to replace loanwords of Arabic. By banning the usage of imported words in the press, the association succeeded in removing several hundred words from the language. While most of the words introduced to the language by the TDK were newly derived from Turkic roots, owing to this sudden change in the language, older and younger people in Turkey started to differ in their vocabularies. While the generations born before the 1940s tend to use the terms of Arabic or Persian origin. The past few decades have seen the work of the TDK to coin new Turkish words to express new concepts and technologies as they enter the language. Many of these new words, particularly information technology terms, have received widespread acceptance, however, the TDK is occasionally criticized for coining words which sound contrived and artificial. Some earlier changes—such as bölem to replace fırka, political party—also failed to meet with popular approval, some words restored from Old Turkic have taken on specialized meanings, for example betik is now used to mean script in computer science
29.
Turkic languages
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The Turkic languages are a language family of at least thirty-five languages, spoken by Turkic peoples from Southeastern Europe and the Mediterranean to Siberia and Western China. Turkic languages are spoken as a language by some 170 million people. The Turkic language with the greatest number of speakers is Turkish, spoken mainly in Anatolia and the Balkans, characteristic features of Turkish, such as vowel harmony, agglutination, and lack of grammatical gender, are universal within the Turkic family. Apparent similarities with the Uralic languages family even caused these families to be regarded as one for a time under the hypothesis of Ural-Altaic languages. Turkic languages are languages, have vowel harmony, extensive agglutination by means of suffixes, and lack of grammatical articles, noun classes. Subject–object–verb word order is universal within the family, the geographical distribution of Turkic-speaking peoples across Eurasia ranges from the North-East of Siberia to Turkey in the West, since the Ottoman era. The two groups shared a religion, Tengrism, and there exists a multitude of evident loanwords between Turkic languages and Mongolic languages, although the loans were bidirectional, today Turkic loanwords constitute the largest foreign component in Mongolian vocabulary. The most famous of these loanwords include lion, gold, the Compendium of the Turkic Dialects, written during the 11th century AD by Kaşgarlı Mahmud of the Kara-Khanid Khanate, constitutes an early linguistic treatment of the family. The Compendium is the first comprehensive dictionary of the Turkic languages and it mainly pertains to the Southwestern branch of the family. The earliest records of the language spoken by Volga Bulgars, the parent to todays Chuvash language, are dated to the 13th–14th centuries AD. With the Turkic expansion during the Early Middle Ages, Turkic languages, in the course of just a few centuries, spread across Central Asia, various terminologies from the Turkic languages have passed into Persian, Hindustani, Russian, Chinese, and to a lesser extent, Arabic. This has obscured the historical developments within each language and/or language group, the modern genetic classification schemes for Turkic are still largely indebted to Samoilovich. It is not clear when two major types of Turkic can be assumed to have actually diverged. With less certainty, the Southwestern, Northwestern, Southeastern and Oghur groups may further be summarized as West Turkic, the following isoglosses are traditionally used in the classification of the Turkic languages, Rhoticisation, e. g. in the last consonant of the word for nine *toqqız. This separates the Oghur branch, which exhibits /r/, from the rest of Turkic, in this case, rhoticisation refers to the development of *-/r/, *-/z/, and *-/d/ to /r/, *-/k/, *-/kh/ in this branch. See Antonov and Jacques on the debate concerning rhotacism and lambdacism in Turkic and this separates Khalaj as a peripheral language. The following table is based upon the classification presented by Lars Johanson The following is a brief comparison of cognates among the basic vocabulary across the Turkic language family. Also, there may be shifts in the meaning from one language to another, in some cases the form given is found only in some dialects of the language, or a loanword is much more common
30.
Pirog
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Pirog is a baked case of dough with a sweet or savoury filling. Pirogi are common in Eastern European cuisines, pirogi are characterised as the most popular and important dish and truly national goods of Russian cuisine, ubiquitous in Russian life. The name is derived from the ancient Proto-Slavic word pir, meaning banquet or festivity, the Russian plural pirogi with the stress on the last syllable should not be confused with pierogi in Polish cuisine, which are similar to the Russian pelmeni or Ukrainian varenyky. Pirogi come in different shapes and forms, they are often oblong with tapering ends and they can be closed or open-faced with no crust on top. Pirogi are usually made from yeast-raised dough which distinguishes them from pies and pasties common in other cuisines, in former times, the dough for Russian pirogi was made predominantly of rye flour. Later it was mixed with wheat flour, nowadays, mainly wheat flour is used. Тhere are also made from shortcrust, flaky or puff pastry. In East-Slavic languages pirog is a term which denotes virtually any kind of pie, pasty. Тhus, Karelian pasty, knish or charlotte are considered types of pirog in Eastern Europe, the filling for pirogi may be sweet and contain quark or cottage cheese, fruits like apples, plums or various berries, as well as honey, nuts or poppy seeds. Savoury versions may consist of meat, fish, mushrooms, cabbage, rice, in Ukrainian and Russian cuisines, pyrohy with a savoury filling are traditionally served as an accompaniment with clear borscht, broth or consommé. Similar West Slavic pastries, such as Czech and Slovak Kolach, varieties Designs Bierock or runza List of Russian dishes
31.
Pirozhki
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Pirozhki, also transliterated as piroshki or pyrizhky, is a generic word for individual-sized baked or fried buns stuffed with a variety of fillings. The stress in pirozhki is properly placed on the last syllable, pirozhok is the diminutive form of the Russian pirog, which refers to a full-sized pie. Pirozhki are not to be confused with the pierogi of Poland and Eastern Europe, a common variety of pirozhki are baked stuffed buns made from yeast dough and often glazed with egg to produce the common golden colour. They commonly contain meat or a vegetable filling, Pirozhki could also be stuffed with fish or with an oatmeal filling mixed with meat or giblets. Sweet-based fillings could include stewed or fresh fruit, jam, quark or cottage cheese, the buns may be plain and stuffed with the filling, or else be made in a free-form style with strips of dough decoratively encasing the filling. Variations on the use of yeast dough can be American style pie crust short dough or multilayered pastry dough similar to found in croissants. Piroshki can be of a size, slightly smaller than a hamburger. Another version is smaller, about the size of two fingers, and is served in pairs accompanying soup. Potatoes among American crops became very popular when the vegetable was brought, before then, the ingredient was not available as it took more time to acclimatize to continental regions like Russia and Ukraine. Before then, the ingredients would contain more vegetables and fruits, as well as duck, goose and rabbit meat, uncommon today. The Greek variety piroski is popular in parts of Greece influenced by eastern cuisine and in most big cities, the Greek piroski come deep-fried with many different stuffings. In Serbia the local variety are cylindrical pastries called piroška and they are stuffed with fillings such as ground spiced meat mix of pork and veal or cottage cheese, and with kulen, tomato sauce and herbs. Alternatively they are made from breaded crepes with variety of fillings, in Latvia crescent-shaped buns of leavened dough called pīrāgi or speķa rauši are traditionally filled with bacon and onion. However the name pīrāgi is not exclusive to these buns, but can refer to variety of pastries, such as pies. Pīrāgi were often eaten as lunch by farmers and shepherds working the fields, the pirukad are fairly small in size and have regional variations in respect to fillings. Pirukad are sometimes accompanied by bouillon, many recipes exist, with meat, cabbage, carrots, rice, egg and other fillings and filling mixtures also being used. The Latvian bacon and onion version is known to Estonians, but is not as common, one can also encounter sweet fillings, although savory pirukad predominate. Karelian pasties are a differently shaped pie popular in both Karelia and Finland, compared to the Baltic pirukas and pīrāgi, the Karelian pastries are open-faced
32.
Tatar
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The Tatars are a Turkic people living in Asia and Europe who were one of the five major tribal confederations in the Mongolian plateau in the 12th century CE. The name Tatar first appears in form on the Kul Tigin monument as
33.
Dumpling
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Dumpling is a broad classification for a dish that consists of small pieces of dough, often wrapped around a filling. The dough can be based on bread, flour, or potatoes and they may be cooked by boiling, frying, simmering, or steaming. Dumplings can be savoury or sweet and can be eaten by themselves, with gravy or sauce, banku and kenkey fit the definition of a dumpling in that they are starchy balls of dough that are steamed. They are formed from fermented cornmeal dough, banku are boiled while kenkey are partly boiled then finished by steaming in banana leaves. Fufu may be described as a dumpling although in actual sense, fufu is made by pounding boiled cassava or yam in a wooden mortar with a wooden pestle. Plantain or cocoyam may be added, there are several other versions of fufu in Africa and the Caribbean. There have been versions of fufu which will fit better into the definition of dumplings. These are mostly common outside Africa where they originate and it is made by steaming cassava and plantain/cocoyam flour into thick starchy balls. Tihlo—prepared from roasted barley flour—originated in the Tigray region of Ethiopia and is now popular in Amhara as well. Souskluitjies are dumplings found in South Africa and they are a steamed sweet dumpling, sometimes made with plain flour and sometimes with the addition of dried fruits or other flavors. They are often served with a syrup flavored with cinnamon or a custard sauce, South Africa has another kind of dumpling known as melkkos. These dumplings are formed by putting milk, one teaspoon at a time, the flour clings to the milk and forms dumplings, which are then boiled in a mixture of milk and butter. They are served hot and sprinkled with cinnamon sugar, several types of dumplings are popular in the United States. Dumplings can be made with eggs, milk, baking powder or even yeast, or just from flour, rolled dumplings are rolled thin and cut into small pieces for cooking, while dropped dumplings are formed into small balls. Chicken and dumplings is a comfort food in the Midwestern and Southern U. S. where dumplings are often used as part of the regionally popular Burgoo stew. The baked dumpling is popular in American cuisine and these sweet dumplings are made by wrapping fruit, frequently a whole tart apple, in pastry, then baking until the pastry is browned and the filling is tender. As an alternative to simply baking them, these dumplings are surrounded by a sauce in the baking dish. Popular flavours for apple dumplings include brown sugar, caramel, or cinnamon sauces, boiled dumplings are made from flour to form a dough
34.
Manti (food)
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Manti or Mantu are dumplings popular in most Turkic cuisines, as well as in the Caucasian, Central Asian, Chinese Islamic, and Hejazi cuisines where it was brought by Central Asians settlers. Nowadays, manti are also consumed throughout Russia and other post-Soviet countries, the dumplings typically consist of a spiced meat mixture, usually lamb or ground beef in a dough wrapper, and either boiled or steamed. Size and shape vary significantly depending on the geographical location, manti resemble the Chinese jiaozi, Korean mandu, Mongolian buuz, and the Tibetan momo. Originally, mantou was meat filled, but nowadays mantou refers to steamed bun in China, the former territories of the Mongol Empire is where the various manti dishes are geographically located. The recipe was carried across Central Asia along the Silk Road to Anatolia by migrating Turkic, according to Holly Chase, Turkic and Mongol horsemen on the move are supposed to have carried frozen or dried manti, which could be quickly boiled over a camp-fire. In Turkey, it is also called Tatar böreği, which indicates its relation to nomadic peoples, Korean mandu is also said to have arrived in Korea through the Mongols in the 14th century. However, some researchers do not discount the possibility that manti may have originated in the Middle East and spread eastward to China, manti in Central Asian cuisines are usually larger in size. They are steamed in a metal steamer called mantovarka, mantyshnitsa. It consists of layered pots with holes, that are placed over a boiling stock, in Kazakh cuisine, the manti filling is normally ground lamb, spiced with black pepper, sometimes with the addition of chopped pumpkin or squash. This is considered to be a traditional Uyghur recipe, manti are served topped with butter, sour cream or onion sauce. When sold as food in Kazakhstan, manti are typically presented sprinkled with hot red pepper powder. In Uzbek, Tajik and Kyrgyz cuisines, manti are usually made of one of the ingredients, lamb, beef, potato or pumpkin. Steaming, frying and boiling are all common, manti are usually topped with butter and served with sour cream, tomato sauce or fresh onion rings. A sauce made by mixing vinegar and chilli powder is also common, in Uzbekistan, manti are also called kaskoni. The same style of cooking manti is traditional for Tatar, Bashkir and it is nowadays widespread throughout Russia and other post-Soviet countries. The mantu are also topped with a very small amount of tomato-based sauce which can include split peas. The amount of yoghurt sauce is much greater than the tomato sauce. Chutney, a green or red pepper condiment sauce, may be sprinkled on top
35.
Ravioli
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Ravioli are a type of dumpling composed of a filling sealed between two layers of thin pasta dough. Usually served either in broth or with a sauce, they originated as a traditional food in Italian cuisine. Ravioli are typically square, though other forms are also used, other related filled pastas include the ring-shaped tortellini and the larger tortelloni. The earliest known mention of ravioli appears in the letters of Francesco di Marco Datini. In Rome, ravioli were already well-known when Bartolomeo Scappi served them with boiled chicken to the conclave of 1549. Ravioli were already known in 14th century England, appearing in the Anglo-Norman vellum manuscript Forme of Cury under the name of rauioles, sicilian ravioli and Maltas ravjul may thus be older than North Italian ones. Maltese ravjul are stuffed with irkotta, the locally produced sheeps-milk ricotta, or with gbejna, ravioli are traditionally made at home. The filling varies according to the area where they are prepared, in Rome and Latium the filling is made with ricotta cheese, spinach, nutmeg and black pepper. In Sardinia, ravioli are filled with ricotta and grated lemon rind, Modern ravioli is also mass-produced by machine. Fresh packed ravioli have, in Europe and the United States, canned ravioli was pioneered by the Italian Army in the First World War and was popularized by Heinz and Buitoni in the UK and Europe, and Chef Boyardee in the United States. This type of ravioli is available filled with beef, processed cheese, chicken, or Italian sausage and served in a tomato, tomato-meat, toasted ravioli was developed in St. Louis, Missouri, and is a popular appetizer or snack food. Ravioli are commonly encountered in the cooking of Nice, the broader Côte dAzur, the contents of these vary enormously, but most idiosyncratic to the region is the use of leftover daube meat. Miniaturized ravioli, called locally, are a specialty of the Drôme department in the Rhône-Alpes region, particularly the commune of Romans-sur-Isère. In Turkey, Mantı which is similar to ravioli is a popular dish and it is stuffed with spiced meat and served with paprika sauce and yoghurt. Similar dishes in China are the jiaozi or wonton, also, the Asian dish samosa is similar to ravioli and is stuffed with potato, meat, peas, or paneer, and often served with sweet and sour sauce. In India, a dish called gujiya is similar to ravioli. However, it is prepared sweet, with a filling of dry fruits, sugar, different stuffings are used in different parts of India. The dish is a food prepared during festivals all over that country
36.
Maghreb cuisine
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Maghreb cuisine is the cooking of the Maghreb region, the northwesternmost part of Africa along the Mediterranean Sea, consisting of the countries of Morocco, Libya, and Tunisia. The region has a degree of geographic, political, social, economic and cultural diversity which influences its cuisine. Well-known dishes from the region include couscous, pastilla, and the Moroccan tajine stew, the cuisines of Algeria and Tunisia have in addition been influenced by French and Italian cuisine respectively. In North African cuisine, the most common staple foods are wheat, fish, seafood, goat, lamb, beef, dates, almonds, olives and various vegetables, because the region is predominantly Muslim, halal meats are usually eaten. Most dishes are spiced, especially with cumin, ginger, paprika, fresh peppermint, parsley, or coriander are also very common. Spice mixtures such as ras el hanout, baharat, and chili pastes like harissa are frequently used, the use of legumes, nuts, fruits and spices is very prominent. Salt-preserved lemons and so-called oil-cured olives are distinctive elements of the cuisine, the best-known North African dish abroad is couscous, made from wheat semolina. The tajine, a vessel made of clay of Berber origin, is also a common denominator in this region, although the dishes. For example, a tajine in Tunisia is a baked frittata/quiche-like dish, pastilla is also an important Arab-Andalusian dish of North Africa. List of African cuisines List of African dishes Mediterranean cuisine
37.
Cuisine of the Mizrahi Jews
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The cuisine of the Mizrahi Jews is an assortment of cooking traditions that developed among the Jews of The Middle East, North Africa, Asia, and Arab countries. Mizrahi Jews have also known as Oriental Jews. Jews of the Mizrahi communities cook foods that were and are popular in their home countries, the cuisine is based largely on fresh ingredients, as marketing was done in the local souq. Meat is ritually slaughtered in the process, and is soaked and salted. Meat dishes are a prominent feature of sabbath, festival, cooked, stuffed and baked vegetables are central to the cuisine, as are various kinds of beans, chickpeas, lentils and burghul. Rice takes the place of potatoes, Mizrahi Jews are the Jews of the Middle East, and points south and east, largely along the Mediterranean coastal areas and the Levant. In some countries, there was much mixing of populations after 1492 when the Jews were expelled from Spain. Cuisine of the Mizrahi Jews includes the cuisines of the Jews of Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Yemen, Iran, Afghanistan, Bukhara, Egypt, The Berber communities, Kurdistan, Eastern Caucasus and Georgia. Some of these communities and cuisine styles overlap with Sephardic communities who fled to many Eastern, Middle Eastern, meat dishes often make use of lamb or ground beef. Fresh lemon juice is added to soups and sauces. Many meat and rice dishes incorporate dried fruits such as apricots, prunes, pine nuts are used as a garnish. Pomegranate juice is a staple of Persian Jewish cooking, kubbeh, a meat-stuffed bulgur dumpling, features in the cooking of many Mizrahi communities. It is served in the broth, as a kind of soup. Flatbreads of many varieties are the staple of the Mizrahi diet, various flatbreads such as pitas, laffa, malawah, and lavash are used instead of challah. Lahoh is a flatbread of the Yemenite Jews with a spongy texture, Mizrahi cuisine makes liberal use of cumin, pepper, sesame seeds, and various spices common to all Middle Eastern cuisines. Saffron, a staple of Sephardic cuisine is featured in certain Mizrahi dishes. Many dishes are flavored with seasoning blends or pastes, and light sauces, hilbe, a paste made from fenugreek seeds and hot pepper, is added to soups and other traditional Yemenite dishes. Skhug, a hot sauce, comes in red and green varieties
38.
Cuisine of the Sephardic Jews
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Cuisine of the Sephardi Jews also includes the cuisine of those who became the Western Sephardim who settled in Holland, England, and from these places elsewhere. As such, this article deals only with the cuisine of the Jewish populations with origins in the Iberian Peninsula, in whichever regions they settled. For Cuisine of the Mizrahi Jews, please see that article, as with other Jewish ethnic divisions composing the Jewish Diaspora, Sephardim cooked foods that were popular in their countries of residence, adapting them to Jewish religious dietary requirements. Their choice of foods was also determined by economic factors, with many of the based on inexpensive. Animals deemed permissible as a source of meat had to be slaughtered in keeping with shechita, or Jewish ritual slaughter, hence, meat was often reserved for holidays and special occasions. Many Sephardi dishes use ground meat, milk and meat products could not be mixed or served at the same meal. Cooked, stuffed and baked vegetables are central to the cuisine, as are various kinds of beans, chickpeas, lentils, rice takes the place of potatoes. Sephardi Jews are the Jews of Spain and Portugal and these were expelled or forced to convert in 1492. Many of the expellees settled in North African Arabic-speaking countries, such as Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria and those settling in Greece, Turkey, the Balkans, Syria, the Lebanon and the Holy Land, became the Eastern Sephardim. Sephardi cuisine emphasizes salads, stuffed vegetables and vine leaves, olive oil, lentils, fresh and dried fruits, herbs and nuts, meat dishes often make use of lamb or ground beef. Fresh lemon juice is added to soups and sauces. Many meat and rice dishes incorporate dried fruits such as apricots, prunes, pine nuts are used as a garnish. In the early days, Sephardic cuisine was influenced by the cuisines of Spain and Portugal. A particular affinity to exotic foods from outside of Spain became apparent under Muslim rule, cumin, cilantro, and turmeric are very common in Sephardi cooking. Caraway and capers were brought to Spain by the Muslims and are featured in the cuisine, cardamom is used to flavor coffee. Chopped fresh cilantro and parsley are popular garnishes, chopped mint is added to salads and cooked dishes, and fresh mint leaves are served in tea. Cinnamon is sometimes used as a seasoning, especially in dishes made with ground meat. Saffron, which is grown in Spain is used in varieties of Sephardic cooking
39.
Boyoz
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Boyoz is a Turkish pastry, associated with İzmir, Turkey, which is practically the only city where it is prepared for commercial purposes and follows the original recipe. As such, in the eyes of Smyrniots boyoz acquired the dimension of a symbol of their hometown or of their longing for it when away. The most widely preferred boyoz is plain, without addition of meat or cheese or spinach stuffings, boyoz paste is a mixture of flour, sunflower oil and a small addition of tahini. It is kneaded by hand and the ball of paste is left to repose for 2- hours, the paste is then flattened to the width of a dish and left to repose again. It is then kneaded and opened once more, before being formed into a roll and left to repose as such for a further period of several hours. When the tissue of the paste is still soft but about to detach into pieces, it is cut into small balls and put in rows of small pans, the paste then takes an oval form and acquires the consistency of a millefeuille. The small balls can then be put on a tray into a very high-temperature oven either in form or with fillings of cheese or spinach added inside. The usual accompaniments for boyoz are dark tea and hard-boiled eggs generously sprinkled with black pepper, boyoz is generally consumed outdoors, purchased from street vendors. Virtually all sources agree on the Judeo-Spanish roots of boyoz, in Spanish and Ladino languages, boyoz, spelled as bollos, means a bundle, a pack. Bollos List of pastries Trademark Tastes of Izmir
40.
Ayran
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Ayran, doogh or tan is a cold yogurt beverage mixed with salt. It is popular in Iran, Turkey, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgystan, North Caucasus and its primary ingredients are water and yogurt, and ayran has been variously described as diluted yogurt and a most refreshing drink made by mixing yogurt with iced water. Ayran is served chilled and often as an accompaniment to grilled meat or rice especially during summer, yogurt drinks are popular beyond the Middle East region—ayran has been likened by some to the South Asian lassi. According to Shirin Simmons, doogh has long been a drink and was consumed in ancient Persia. Described by an 1886 source as a drink of curdled milk and water seasoned with mint, its name derives from the Persian word for milking. According to Nevin Halıcı, ayran is a traditional Turkish drink and was consumed by nomadic Turks prior to 1000 CE. According to Celalettin Koçak and Yahya Kemal Avşar, ayran was first developed thousands of years ago by the Göktürks, a c.1000 CE Turkish dictionary, Dīwān ul-Lughat al-Turk, defines ayran as a drink made out of milk. Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, a Turkish politician who has held the posts of President, speaking at a 2013 WHO Global Alcohol Policy Conference held in İstanbul, Erdoğan contrasted ayran with alcohol, which he suggested was a recent introduction to Turkey. Still, sales of ayran in Turkey may lag behind other non-alcoholic beverages, salt is added, and dried mint or pennyroyal can be mixed in as well. One variation includes diced cucumbers to provide a texture to the beverage. Some varieties of doogh have carbonation
41.
Masonry oven
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A masonry oven, colloquially known as a brick oven or stone oven, is an oven consisting of a baking chamber made of fireproof brick, concrete, stone, clay, or cob. Though traditionally wood-fired, coal-fired ovens were common in the 19th century, modern masonry ovens are closely associated with artisanal bread and pizza, but in the past they were used for any cooking task involving baking. The precursor to most modern masonry oven designs is the earth oven, masonry ovens are used in the Persian Gulf region for the preparation of the traditional khubz bread. In India, tandoors are traditional clay ovens, although these days modern electrically fired tandoors are available, the open-topped tandoor is a transitional design between the earth oven and the Roman-plan masonry oven. The traditional direct-fired masonry design is called a Roman or black oven. It is known as a black oven because the smoke from the used as fuel sometimes collects as soot on the roof of the oven. Such ovens were in use throughout medieval Europe and were often built to serve entire communities. Such ovens became popular in the Americas during the era and are still in wide use in artisanal bakeries and pizzerias, as well as some restaurants featuring pizzas. Descendants include the beehive ovens of the colonial United States and the Quebec ovens based on the designs of the ovens of France. In the precolumbian Americas, similar ovens were made of clay or adobe and are sometimes referred to by the Spanish term horno. Masonry ovens are built with fire-resistant materials like firebrick or clay. Generally, a properly-built Roman-plan oven is roughly egg-shaped, with the ceiling of the oven constructed as an arch over the baking surface. The front entrance is ideally approximately 63%±5% the height of the top of the ceiling, too high and heat is lost, too low. The white oven is a more complex design that pipes heat in from an external firebox without routing the smoke from the fire through the oven. A compromise design known as the gueulard in France combines aspects of internal and external-fired models. Modern-designed masonry ovens sometimes bear little resemblance to their forebears, sometimes having only a concrete deck inside a conventional oven exterior. Such devices are used in commercial settings, though tabletop models are available. Wood-burning masonry ovens are mandated for production of true Neapolitan pizza and it is possible to get some of the benefits of a masonry oven without constructing a full oven
42.
Lasagne
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Lasagne are wide, flat-shaped pasta, and possibly one of the oldest types of pasta. The word lasagne, and, in many languages, the singular lasagna, can also refer to a dish made with several layers of lasagne sheets alternated with sauces. Traditional lasagne is made by interleaving layers of pasta with layers of sauce, made with ragù, bechamel, Parmigiano-Reggiano, in all cases, the lasagne are oven-baked. Traditionally, pasta dough prepared in Southern Italy used semolina and water and in the northern regions, today in Italy, since the only type of wheat allowed for commercially sold pasta is durum wheat, commercial lasagne are made of semolina. The first theory is that comes from Greek λάγανον, a flat sheet of pasta dough cut into strips. The word λαγάνα is still used in Greek to mean a flat type of unleavened bread baked for the Clean Monday holiday. Another theory is that the word comes from the Greek λάσανα or λάσανον meaning trivet or stand for a pot. The Romans borrowed the word as lasanum, meaning cooking pot in Latin, the Italians used the word to refer to the dish in which lasagne is made. Later, the name of the food took on the name of the serving dish and this recipe has similarities to modern lasagne in both its recipe, which features a layering of ingredients between pasta sheets and its name. An important difference is the lack of tomatoes, which did not arrive in Europe until after Columbus reached America in 1492, in English, lasagne is usually used for the dish, and some redundantism like lasagna noodles can be used for just the pasta
43.
Leek
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The leek is a vegetable, a cultivar of Allium ampeloprasum, the broadleaf wild leek. The edible part of the plant is a bundle of leaf sheaths that is sometimes called a stem or stalk. Historically, many names were used for leeks, but they are now all treated as cultivars of A. ampeloprasum. The name leek developed from the Anglo-Saxon word leac, two closely related vegetables, elephant garlic and kurrat, are also cultivars of A. ampeloprasum, although different in their uses as food. The onion and garlic are also related, being other species of the genus Allium, rather than forming a tight bulb like the onion, the leek produces a long cylinder of bundled leaf sheaths that are generally blanched by pushing soil around them. They are often sold as small seedlings in flats that are started off early in greenhouses, once established in the garden, leeks are hardy, many varieties can be left in the ground during the winter to be harvested as needed. Leek cultivars may be treated as a cultivar group, e. g. as A. ampeloprasum Leek Group. Summer leek types are smaller than overwintering types, overwintering types are generally more strongly flavored. Cultivars include King Richard and Tadorna Blue, leeks are easy to grow from seed and tolerate standing in the field for an extended harvest, which takes place up to 6 months from planting. The soil in which it is grown has to be loose and drained well, leeks usually reach maturity in the autumn months. The thrips species Thrips tabaci is considered a leek pest and leeks can also get leek rust. Leeks can be bunched and harvested early when they are about the size of a finger or pencil, hilling leeks can produce better specimens. Leeks have a mild, onion-like taste, in its raw state, the vegetable is crunchy and firm. The edible portions of the leek are the base of the leaves, the light green parts. One of the most popular uses is for adding flavor to stock, the dark green portion is usually discarded because it has a tough texture, but it can be sautéed or added to stock. A few leaves are sometimes tied with twine and other herbs to form a bouquet garni, leeks are typically chopped into slices 5–10 mm thick. The slices have a tendency to fall apart, due to the structure of the leek. The different ways of preparing the vegetable are, Boiling turns it soft, frying leaves it crunchier and preserves the taste
44.
Zucchini
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Zucchini or courgette is a summer squash which can reach nearly a meter in length, but is usually harvested immature at 15 to 25 cm. In the British Isles, a fully grown zucchini is referred to as a marrow, along with certain other squashes and pumpkins, it belongs to the species Cucurbita pepo. Zucchini can be dark or light green, a related hybrid, the golden zucchini, is a deep yellow or orange color. In a culinary context, zucchini is treated as a vegetable, botanically, zucchinis are fruits, a type of botanical berry called a pepo, being the swollen ovary of the zucchini flower. Zucchini, like all squash, has its ancestry in the Americas, in the United States, Australia and Germany, the plant is commonly called a zucchini, from Italian, zucchina, diminutive of zucca, gourd, marrow, pumpkin, squash. In the United Kingdom, Ireland and New Zealand, a fully-grown, in South Africa, the fruit is typically harvested as a baby vegetable, approximately finger size, and is referred to as “baby marrows”. The female flower is a golden blossom on the end of each emergent zucchini, the male flower grows directly on the stem of the zucchini plant in the leaf axils, on a long stalk, and is slightly smaller than the female. Both flowers are edible and are used to dress a meal or to garnish the cooked fruit. Firm and fresh blossoms that are slightly open are cooked to be eaten, with pistils removed from female flowers. There are a variety of recipes in which the flowers may be fried as fritters or tempura, stuffed, sautéed, baked. Zucchini, like all squash, has its ancestry in the Americas, however, the varieties of green, cylindrical squash harvested immature and typically called zucchini were developed in northern Italy, long after the introduction of cucurbits from the Americas. Its been cultivated in north of Iran too known as Kachelik, the word zucchini and this culinary variety of C. pepo arose independently and simultaneously in 19th-century Tuscany and northern Italy. Zucca is the Italian word for pumpkin/squash and zucchino/zucchina are diminutive forms, zucchino, the masculine form, is the first form to be documented in writing. The Treccani, Istituto dellEnciclopedia italiana, another highly respected authority, gives zucchina as the main Italian word. Zucchini is used in Italy, Australia, Canada, and the United States, Zucchini is one of the plural forms in English, as well as the singular form. The first records of zucchini in the United States date to the early 1920s and it was almost certainly brought over by Italian immigrants and probably was first cultivated in the United States in California. A1928 report on vegetables grown in New York State treats Zucchini as one among 60 cultivated varieties of C. pepo, when used for food, zucchini are usually picked when under 20 cm in length, when the seeds are still soft and immature. Mature zucchini can be as large as a baseball bat, the larger ones are often fibrous
45.
Sephardi Jews
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They established communities throughout Spain and Portugal, where they traditionally resided, evolving what would become their distinctive characteristics and diasporic identity. Spoken by Sephardim in the Eastern Mediterranean, Haketia, an Arabic influenced Judaeo-Spanish variety also derived from Old Spanish, with numerous Hebrew and Aramaic terms. Taken with them in the 15th century after the expulsion from Spain in 1492, Early Modern Spanish and Early Modern Portuguese, including in a mixture of the two. Traditionally spoken or used liturgically by the ex-converso Western Sephardim, taken with them during their later migration out of Iberia in the 16th to 18th centuries as conversos, after which they reverted to Judaism. In most cases these varieties have incorporated loanwords from the languages of the Americas introduced following the Spanish conquest. This article deals with Sephardim within the narrower ethnic definition, the name Sephardi means Spanish or Hispanic, derived from Sepharad, a Biblical location. The location of the biblical Sepharad is disputed, but Sepharad was identified by later Jews as Hispania, that is, Sepharad still means Spain in modern Hebrew. In its most basic form, this broad definition of a Sephardi refers to any Jew, of any ethnic background. The term Sephardi in the sense, thus describes the nusach used by Sephardi Jews in their Siddur. A nusach is defined by a liturgical traditions choice of prayers, order of prayers, text of prayers, Sephardim traditionally pray using Minhag Sefarad. Additionally, Ethiopian Jews, whose branch of practiced Judaism is known as Haymanot, have come under the umbrella of Israels already broad Sephardic Chief Rabbinate. The divisions among Sephardim and their descendants today is largely a result of the consequences of the Royal edicts of expulsion. In the case of the Alhambra Decree of 1492, the purpose was to eliminate their influence on Spains large converso population. Indeed, a number of those Jews who had not yet joined the converso community finally chose to convert. While the stipulations were similar in the Portuguese decree, King Manuel then largely prevented Portugals Jews from leaving, by blocking Portugals ports of exit. This failure to leave Portugal was then reasoned by the king to signify a default acceptance of Catholicism by the Jews, actual physical forced conversions, however, were also experienced throughout Portugal. Sephardi Jews, therefore, encompass Jews descended from those Jews who left the Iberian Peninsula as Jews by the expiration of the respective decreed deadlines. This group is divided between those who fled south to North Africa, as opposed to those who fled eastwards to the Balkans, West Asia
46.
Istanbul
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Istanbul, historically known as Constantinople and Byzantium, is the most populous city in Turkey and the countrys economic, cultural, and historic center. Istanbul is a city in Eurasia, straddling the Bosphorus strait between the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea. Its commercial and historical center lies on the European side and about a third of its population lives on the Asian side, the city is the administrative center of the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality, both hosting a population of around 14.7 million residents. Istanbul is one of the worlds most populous cities and ranks as the worlds 7th-largest city proper, founded under the name of Byzantion on the Sarayburnu promontory around 660 BCE, the city developed to become one of the most significant in history. After its reestablishment as Constantinople in 330 CE, it served as a capital for almost 16 centuries, during the Roman and Byzantine, the Latin. Overlooked for the new capital Ankara during the period, the city has since regained much of its prominence. The population of the city has increased tenfold since the 1950s, as migrants from across Anatolia have moved in, arts, music, film, and cultural festivals were established at the end of the 20th century and continue to be hosted by the city today. Infrastructure improvements have produced a complex transportation network, considered a global city, Istanbul has one of the fastest-growing metropolitan economies in the world. It hosts the headquarters of many Turkish companies and media outlets and accounts for more than a quarter of the gross domestic product. Hoping to capitalize on its revitalization and rapid expansion, Istanbul has bid for the Summer Olympics five times in twenty years, the first known name of the city is Byzantium, the name given to it at its foundation by Megarean colonists around 660 BCE. The name is thought to be derived from a personal name, ancient Greek tradition refers to a legendary king of that name as the leader of the Greek colonists. Modern scholars have hypothesized that the name of Byzas was of local Thracian or Illyrian origin. He also attempted to promote the name Nova Roma and its Greek version Νέα Ῥώμη Nea Romē, the use of Constantinople to refer to the city during the Ottoman period is now considered politically incorrect, even if not historically inaccurate, by Turks. By the 19th century, the city had acquired other names used by foreigners or Turks. Europeans used Constantinople to refer to the whole of the city, pera was used to describe the area between the Golden Horn and the Bosphorus, but Turks also used the name Beyoğlu. The name İstanbul is commonly held to derive from the Medieval Greek phrase εἰς τὴν Πόλιν and this reflected its status as the only major city in the vicinity. The importance of Constantinople in the Ottoman world was reflected by its Ottoman name Der Saadet meaning the gate to Prosperity in Ottoman. An alternative view is that the name evolved directly from the name Constantinople, with the first, a Turkish folk etymology traces the name to Islam bol plenty of Islam because the city was called Islambol or Islambul as the capital of the Islamic Ottoman Empire
47.
Pastirma
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The first recorded mention of Basturma was first recorded between 95-45 BC in Armenia during the reign of Tigranes the Great. Its believed that the technology of air-drying meats was first developed to preserve basturma being traded from Armenia to China, during the Byzantine period, it was called apokt. One story gives its origins as the city of Caesarea, where there was a Byzantine dish called pastón, Armenians were known throughout the Levant as the most skilled makers of basturma. In Caesarea, the production of basturma was entirely run by Armenians, the Armenian family name of Basturmajian was held by families that processed the meat. Some authors claim that the medieval Central Asian nomad traditions to modern production of pastirma during the Ottomans is an extension of that older tradition, the American cured meat product pastrami has its origins in pastirma via Yiddish, פאסטראמא pastrama. Pastirma is prepared by salting the meat, then washing it with water, even though beef is the most common meat today, various meats are also used depending on locality, including camel, lamb, goat, and water buffalo. It may be added to different dishes, the most famous of which is a bean dish, the traditional Armenian pastirma strictly uses beef as the meat and this remains as the most common usage. In Turkey, where it is eaten as a breakfast with eggs and as a meze with rakı, the version from Central Anatolia, often called Kayseri pastırması, is the one most common. The less-common Rumeli pastırması Balkan pastırma, is salted and dried. In Greece Kayseri pastırması was introduced by the Cappadocian Greeks, refugees from the region of Kayseri, in Cyprus παστουρμάς is cooked like sausage. In Iraq, pastirma is used for breakfast, with fried eggs, in Egypt, it is used for breakfast. Biltong Bresaola Cecina Jerky List of dried foods Pastrami Armenian cuisine Alan Davidson, Balkan Food and Cookery, Prospect Books,1995. Media related to Pastirma at Wikimedia Commons
Turkey
Cookbook: Börek
Media related to Burek at Wikimedia Commons
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