1.
BT-7
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The BT-7 was the last of the BT series of Soviet cavalry tanks that were produced in large numbers between 1935 and 1940. It was lightly armoured, but reasonably well-armed for the time, the BT tanks were known by the nickname Betka from the acronym, or its diminutive, Betushka. The BT-7s successor was the famous T-34 medium tank, introduced in 1940, which replaced all of the Soviet fast tanks, infantry tanks, the first prototypes of the BT-7 had a distinctive canted-ellipse shaped turret mounting both the main gun and a coaxial machine-gun. In the rear of the turret, there was a rotating drum-type magazine for 1845 mm shells or a radio station, the prototype underwent an extensive testing program in the summer and autumn of 1934. As a result of testing, it was felt that a machine-gun was unnecessary on a tank with a 3-man crew. Therefore, in early 1935, the tank went into production with a simpler design, in the production model, a cylindrical turret housed a 45 mm 20K gun with a DT machine gun. On some of the tanks, a model 71-TC radio with frame antenna was installed, the crew consisted of three men, the commander, the loader and the driver. In 1937, the company launched production of the BT-7 with a conical turret, the main armament remained the same, but the ammunition was increased to 44 rounds. All serving tanks now installed the DT machine gun in the rear niche, for the firing of the gun and coaxial machine gun at night, the tank was equipped with two special projector-type headlamps, and a mask placed on the gun. Subsequently, these lights were retrofitted to earlier models of the tank, improvements were also made to the drive wheels, caterpillar tracks and gearbox by 1938. In parallel with the modification,154 BT-7A artillery tanks were produced between 1936 and 1938. These were fitted with a turret and a 76 mm KT-type gun with 50 rounds of ammunition. From December 1939, the BT-7A went into production with minor modifications - additional bracing for rigidity, a floor hatch. The diesel tanks were more efficient, and the petrol-powered tanks were soon placed into reserve. In 1938, four experimental BT-8 tanks mounted with V-2 diesel engines were produced, after comparative tests of the BT-7 and BT-8, the diesel tanks were put into production in 1940 with the powerplants being produced in a separate plant of the Voroshilovets factory to ensure supply. Several experimental tanks were conceived based on the BT series, for example the wheeled BT-IS, Tsyganov, a platoon commander in the 4th Armoured Regiment of the Ukraine Military District and self-taught designer. The type successfully passed field tests, but was not ordered in bulk, another Tsyganov design was the S-2 Cherepaha, with a new design of hull and turret. Finland converted 18 captured tanks into BT-42 assault guns, shortly before Operation Barbarossa, the BT-7 underwent an up-armor program
2.
Light tank
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Early light tanks were generally armed and armored similar to an armored car, but used tracks in order to provide better cross-country mobility. The fast light tank was a feature of the pre-World War II buildup. Numerous small tank designs and tankettes were developed during this period and known under a variety of names, modified IFVs are assuming these roles in many militaries due to their immediate availability, and as a cheaper alternative to developing and fielding a pure light tank. In World War I industrial initiative also led to swift advances and it would be Renaults small tank design the FT, incorporating a proper climbing face for the tracks, that was the first tank to incorporate a top-mounted turret with a full rotation. Previous models had been box tanks, with a crowded space combining the role of engine room, fighting compartment, ammunition stock. The FT would have the largest production run of any tank of the war - with over 3,700 built it was more numerous than all British, the Carden Loyd tankette and its derivatives were adopted by several nations as small tracked vehicles carrying a machine gun for armament. In 1928, the British firm of Vickers-Armstrong started promoting another design by John Carden and Vivien Loyd as the six-ton tank, although rejected by the British Army, it was bought by a large number of nations in small numbers. It formed the basis of the Soviet T-26 and the Polish 7TP tank, as the only tank fit for immediate manufacture, it was a key element in the expansion of the British Army in the period leading up to the outbreak of war. In general, French tanks of the 1930s were well-armored, innovative vehicles that owed little to foreign designs, the lack of radios with the light tanks was not seen as a major drawback, since French doctrine called for slow-paced, deliberate maneuvers in close conformance to plans. The role of small unit leaders was to execute plans, not to take the initiative in combat, in 1939, a belated effort was made to improve flexibility and increase the number of radios. Throughout the interwar period the US produced only a few hundred tanks, from the end of World War I to 1935, only 15 tanks were produced. Most were derivatives or foreign designs or very poor quality private designs, the Christie designs were among the few better examples, but the US Army acquired only three Christies and did not pursue the idea any further. Budget limitations and the low priority given to the army meant that there were few resources for building tanks, the US Army instead developed and tested tank components such as suspensions, tracks, and transmissions. This paid off when production had to be initiated on the outbreak of war, the Soviet BT tanks were the most advanced in the 1930s, extremely fast and mounting high velocity 45 mm cannons. Their only drawback were their petrol engines which caught fire often, the Japanese Type 95 Ha-Go light tank was equipped with a diesel engine, and although mounting a 37 mm cannon, it was a low velocity gun with a maximum effective range of about 700 meters. However, this conflict would be instrumental in developing the famous T-34 medium tank, germanys armored Panzer force was not especially impressive at the start of the war. In the invasions of Poland and France, the German forces were made up of the Panzer I. The Panzer I was little more than a vehicle armed only with machine guns
3.
Cavalry tank
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The cruiser tank was a British tank concept of the interwar period for tanks designed to function as modernised armoured and mechanised cavalry. Cruiser tanks were developed after the Royal Armoured Corps were not satisfied with many of the tank designs of the 1930s. The cruiser tank concept was conceived by Giffard Le Quesne Martel, there were two main types of cruiser tanks, light cruiser tanks and heavy cruiser tanks. Light cruiser tanks were armoured and relatively fast, while heavy cruiser tanks were more heavily armoured. The Crusader was superseded by the A27 Cromwell reaching service in 1944, the A34 Comet - a better-armed development of Cromwell - entered service in lesser numbers in late 1944. The Centurion tank introduced in 1946 became the Universal tank of the United Kingdom, transcending the cruiser and infantry tank roles, financial constraints had made it impossible to produce a vehicle suitable for close support and for exploitation. The thinking was behind several tank designs which saw action during the Second World War, British armoured operations theory flowed from the decision to build two types of tank in parallel and use them to equip two types of unit and formation. Infantry tanks went to Army Tank Battalions, sometimes grouped administratively into Army Tank Brigades of the RTR, small, fast, lightly-armed tanks like the Light Tank Mk VI operated as reconnaissance vehicles. Armoured division theory emphasised using the speed of cruiser tanks for independent action to protect flanks, attacks on an opponents flanks and rear, pursuit and counter-attack. Giffard Le Quesne Martel originated the concept, while Assistant Director. Martel preferred a large number of smaller and simpler tanks to swamp an opponent, like naval cruisers, cruiser tanks were fast and mobile for operations independent from slower-moving infantry with their heavier infantry tanks and artillery. F. C. Fuller, Percy Hobart and B. H. Liddell-Hart, the cruiser tank was designed for use in a way similar to cavalry, which made speed the most important factor and to achieve this, early cruisers were lightly armoured and armed to save weight. The emphasis on speed unbalanced the British designs, on limited engine power, the idea that speed is armour was considered most important in the Royal Tank Corps. An even bigger problem for most cruiser tanks was the small calibre of their main gun, the first cruisers were armed with the 2-pounder gun. This gun had adequate armour penetration against early war tanks, but was never issued high explosive ammunition and this made the cruisers less able to deal with towed anti-tank guns. The Cromwell had too small a turret ring for the intended high-velocity gun and was fitted with the dual-purpose medium-velocity 75 mm gun, the tank had a high-power engine giving it a maximum speed around 40 mph on roads. It was the tank design in the British cruiser line. As the UK had large numbers of US M4 Sherman tanks, despite the emphasis on high mobility, most cruisers were plagued by mechanical unreliability, notably the Crusader tank in the hot and gritty desert of the North Africa Campaign
4.
Spanish Civil War
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Ultimately, the Nationalists won, and Franco then ruled Spain for the next 36 years, from April 1939 until his death in November 1975. Sanjurjo was killed in an accident while attempting to return from exile in Portugal. The coup was supported by units in the Spanish protectorate in Morocco, Pamplona, Burgos, Zaragoza, Valladolid, Cádiz, Córdoba. However, rebelling units in some important cities—such as Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia, Bilbao, and Málaga—did not gain control, Spain was thus left militarily and politically divided. The Nationalists and the Republican government fought for control of the country, the Nationalist forces received munitions and soldiers from Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, while the Republican side received support from the Communist Soviet Union and leftist populist Mexico. Other countries, such as the United Kingdom and France, operated a policy of non-intervention. The Nationalists advanced from their strongholds in the south and west and they also besieged Madrid and the area to its south and west for much of the war. Those associated with the losing Republicans were persecuted by the victorious Nationalists, with the establishment of a dictatorship led by General Franco in the aftermath of the war, all right-wing parties were fused into the structure of the Franco regime. The war became notable for the passion and political division it inspired, organized purges occurred in territory captured by Francos forces to consolidate the future regime. A significant number of killings took place in areas controlled by the Republicans, the extent to which Republican authorities took part in killings in Republican territory varied. The 19th century was a turbulent time for Spain and those in favour of reforming Spains government vied for political power with conservatives, who tried to prevent reforms from taking place. Some liberals, in a tradition that had started with the Spanish Constitution of 1812, sought to limit the power of the monarchy of Spain, the reforms of 1812 did not last after King Ferdinand VII dissolved the Constitution and ended the Trienio Liberal government. Twelve successful coups were carried out between 1814 and 1874, until the 1850s, the economy of Spain was primarily based on agriculture. There was little development of an industrial or commercial class. The land-based oligarchy remained powerful, a number of people held large estates called latifundia as well as all the important government positions. In 1868 popular uprisings led to the overthrow of Queen Isabella II of the House of Bourbon, two distinct factors led to the uprisings, a series of urban riots and a liberal movement within the middle classes and the military concerned with the ultra-conservatism of the monarchy. In 1873 Isabellas replacement, King Amadeo I of the House of Savoy, abdicated owing to increasing pressure. After the restoration of the Bourbons in December 1874, Carlists and Anarchists emerged in opposition to the monarchy, alejandro Lerroux, Spanish politician and leader of the Radical Republican Party, helped bring republicanism to the fore in Catalonia, where poverty was particularly acute
5.
Second Sino-Japanese War
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The Second Sino-Japanese War was a military conflict fought primarily between the Republic of China and the Empire of Japan from July 7,1937 to September 9,1945. The First Sino-Japanese War was fought from 1894 to 1895, China fought Japan, with some economic help from Germany, the Soviet Union and the United States. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, the war merged into the conflict of World War II as a major front of what is broadly known as the Pacific War. Many scholars consider the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937 to have been the beginning of World War II, the Second Sino-Japanese War was the largest Asian war in the 20th century. The war was the result of a decades-long Japanese imperialist policy to expand its influence politically and militarily in order to access to raw material reserves, food. The period after World War One brought about increasing stress on the Japanese polity, leftists sought universal suffrage and greater rights for workers. Increasing textile production from Chinese mills was adversely affecting Japanese production, the Depression brought about a large slowdown in exports. All of this contributed to militant nationalism, culminating in the rise to power of a militarist fascist faction and this faction was led at its height by the Imperial Rule Assistance Associations Hideki Tojo cabinet under the edict from Emperor Shōwa. Before 1937, China and Japan fought in small, localized engagements, the last of these incidents was the Marco Polo Bridge Incident of 1937, which is traditionally seen as the beginning of total war between the two countries. Since 2017 the Chinese Government has regarded the invasion of Manchuria by the Kwantung Army in 1931, initially the Japanese scored major victories, such as the Battle of Shanghai, and by the end of 1937 captured the Chinese capital of Nanjing. After failing to stop the Japanese in Wuhan, the Chinese central government was relocated to Chongqing in the Chinese interior, by 1939, after Chinese victories in Changsha and Guangxi, and with Japans lines of communications stretched deep into the Chinese interior, the war reached a stalemate. The Japanese were also unable to defeat the Chinese communist forces in Shaanxi, on December 7,1941, the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor, and the following day the United States declared war on Japan. The United States began to aid China via airlift matériel over the Himalayas after the Allied defeat in Burma that closed the Burma Road, in 1944 Japan launched the invasion, Operation Ichi-Go, that conquered Henan and Changsha. However, this failed to bring about the surrender of Chinese forces, in 1945, the Chinese Expeditionary Force resumed its advance in Burma and completed the Ledo Road linking India to China. At the same time, China launched large counteroffensives in South China and retook the west Hunan, the remaining Japanese occupation forces formally surrendered on September 9,1945 with the following International Military Tribunal for the Far East convened on April 29,1946. China was recognized as one of the Big Four of Allies during the war, in the Chinese language, the war is most commonly known as the War of Resistance Against Japan, and also known as the Eight Years War of Resistance, simply War of Resistance. It is also referred to as part of the Global Anti-Fascist War, which is how World War 2 is perceived by the Communist Party of China, in Japan, nowadays, the name Japan–China War is most commonly used because of its perceived objectivity. In Japan today, it is written as 日中戦争 in shinjitai, the word incident was used by Japan, as neither country had made a formal declaration of war
6.
Winter War
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The Winter War was a military conflict between the Soviet Union and Finland in 1939–1940. It began with the Soviet invasion of Finland on 30 November 1939, the League of Nations deemed the attack illegal and expelled the Soviet Union from the League on 14 December 1939. Finland refused and the USSR invaded the country, the Soviets possessed more than three times as many soldiers as the Finns, thirty times as many aircraft, and a hundred times as many tanks. The Red Army, however, had been crippled by Soviet leader Joseph Stalins Great Purge of 1937. With more than 30,000 of its officers executed or imprisoned, including most of those of the highest ranks, because of these factors, and high morale in the Finnish forces, Finland repelled Soviet attacks for several months, much longer than the Soviets expected. However, after reorganization and adoption of different tactics, the renewed Soviet offensive overcame Finnish defenses at the borders, hostilities ceased in March 1940 with the signing of the Moscow Peace Treaty. Finland ceded territory representing 11% of its area and 13% of its economy to the Soviet Union. Soviet losses were heavy, and the international reputation suffered. While the Soviet Union did not conquer all Finland, Soviet gains exceeded their pre-war demands and they gained substantial territory along Lake Ladoga, providing a buffer for Leningrad, and territory in northern Finland. Finland retained its sovereignty and enhanced its international reputation, the end of the war cancelled the Franco-British plan to send troops to Finland through northern Scandinavia. One of the goals of the projected Franco-British operation had been to take control of northern Swedens iron ore. For this reason it was also a factor in the launching of Operation Weserübung, Nazi Germanys invasion of Denmark. The poor performance of the Red Army encouraged Hitler to think that an attack on the Soviet Union would be successful, until the beginning of the 19th century, Finland constituted the eastern part of the Kingdom of Sweden. In 1809, to protect their capital, Saint Petersburg. While abortive because of Russias internal strife, these attempts ruined Russias relations with the Finns, the new Bolshevik Russian government was weak, and with the threat of civil war looming Soviet Russia recognized the new Finnish government just three weeks after the declaration of independence. Sovereignty was fully achieved in May 1918 after a civil war. Finland joined the League of Nations in 1920, from which it sought security guarantees, nevertheless, the government of Sweden carefully avoided committing itself to Finnish foreign policy. Another Finnish military policy was the top secret military cooperation between Finland and Estonia, the 1920s and early 1930s were a politically unstable time in Finland
7.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
8.
J. Walter Christie
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John Walter Christie was an American engineer and inventor. Christie was born in the Campbell-Christie House in New Milford, New Jersey on May 6,1865 and he started working at the age of sixteen at the Delamater Iron Works while taking classes at the Cooper Union in New York City. He eventually became an engineer for a number of steamship lines. Following the Spanish–American War he developed and patented an improved turret track for naval artillery and his car was knocked out of the race by a collision with Vincenzo Lancia who was at the time leading the race in a Fiat. Lancia was enraged, but presumably noticed the Christie cars vertical-pillar coil-based independent front suspension, on September 9 of that same year, Christie was seriously injured in a crash when his car struck loose debris during a lap at Brunots Island Race Track in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. After ten more laps, the race was stopped so that the men could receive medical treatment. Next up was Christie, driving the car he had used at the Grand Prix only a few months before and he was attempting to break the tracks lap record of 58 seconds, and due to receive a $500 prize if he was successful. Christie was thrown from the car, traveling twenty feet in the air and fifty feet across the ground, Christie had been knocked unconscious by the impact. He also sustained a left wrist, a cut on his right eye from the broken glass of his goggles. Christie remained in the St. Johns Hospital until September 19, on May 28,1916, speed,102.623 MPH, time,1.27.70. Christie now switched his energies away from racing to developing his fwd New York taxicab design. The tractors allowed the departments to keep their steam-powered pumps while ending the use of horses to them to the scene of the fire. In 1916, with the First World War raging in Europe, but the Ordnance board had set out strict guidelines for weapons, and Christie refused to revise his designs to suit their requirements. Christies own personal stubbornness and his habit of offending those in the US Army, Christie had built an amphibious light tank a decade before Donald Roeblings Alligator, and this was to be displayed during the Winter Maneuvers of 1924 at Culebra, Puerto Rico. In overall command of the exercise was Admiral Robert E. Coontz, the tank was transported to the exercise area aboard the USS Wyoming, and designated as the Marine Corps Tank. It was then hoisted on board a waiting submarine prior to its launch toward the shore, then As the mother ship submerged, unable to maneuver through the heavy surf, the vehicle returned to the Wyoming without landing. The next day, when the surf had subsided, the Christie amphibian once again left its mooring aboard the submarine, Christie continued to submit designs to the Ordnance board, but none was deemed acceptable. A major reason was the poor performance, due to limited suspension capabilities
9.
Kharkiv Morozov Machine Building Design Bureau
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It was responsible for many important Soviet AFVs, including the BT tank series and the T-34, T-54, and T-64 tanks. It is closely associated with the Malyshev Factory, KMDB started as the Tank Design Team of the Kharkiv Locomotive Factory Komintern in 1927, in Kharkiv, Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, and was responsible for the T-12 and T-24 light tanks. In the 1930s, the team was designated as the independent T2K Tank Design Bureau. In 1936 the plant was re-designated Plant No,183, and the design bureau KB-190. The plant also produced small quantities of multi-turreted T-35 tanks, and had a design bureau to assist in their development. In 1937, a design bureau was established to build a replacement for the BT tank series. Koshkin pushed the boundaries of the given to him, and further development led to the T-34. Series production began in June 1940 in Kharkiv, and later in the Stalingrad Tractor Plant, in the same year, Koshkin died and Alexander Morozov was appointed Chief Designer of the T-34 Main Design Bureau, a post he would hold for the remaining thirty-six years of his life. In 1939, the tank design bureaux of Kharkiv were merged into an agency called Department 520. In 1941, due to German advances, the factory and design shops were evacuated to the Ural mountains, the plant was united with Uralvagonzavod Plant in Nizhny Tagil into one enterprise called Urals Tank Plant No.183. Although design improvements and production continued to concentrate on the T-34 and improved T-34-85, the T-44 began production in the recaptured Kharkiv factory in 1945, and the first prototypes of the T-54 were built. After the war was over, the factory gradually transferred operations back to Ukraine, T-54 production was started in the Urals and Kharkiv in 1947–48, and the move ended with the 1951 establishment of the KB-60M Design Bureau in Kharkiv. 75, renamed Malyshev Plant in 1957, built tank engines, and later took up production of T-54, T-55, the T-64 was also built in the Leningrad Kirov Plant and Uralvagonzavod Plant. In the 1960s the bureau also designed OT-54 and TO-55 flame-thrower tanks, in 1966, the tank design bureau and experimental tank production shop were combined into the Kharkiv Machine Building Design Bureau. In 1979, after the death of Morozov, it was renamed in his honor, KMDB designed the T-80UD, a diesel-engined variant of the gas turbine-powered T-80, in 1985. After the break-up of the Soviet Union, KMDB and the Malyshev factory became the tank design. However, they were dependent on manufacture of components in Russian facilities. In 1996, Ukraine and Pakistan signed a million contract for delivery of 320 T-80UD tanks
10.
Malyshev Factory
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The Malyshev Factory, formerly the Kharkiv Locomotive Factory, is a state-owned manufacturer of heavy equipment in Kharkiv, Ukraine. It was named after the Soviet politician Vyacheslav Malyshev, the factory is part of the State Concern UkrOboronProm. The factory is closely associated with the Morozov Design Bureau, designer of military armoured fighting vehicles, during 1958 it constructed Kharkovchanka, an off-road vehicle which reached the South Pole the following year. At its height during the Soviet era, the factory employed 60,000 of Kharkivs 1.5 million inhabitants, early 20155,000 people worked at the factory. The factory was renamed several times, english-language sources variously refer to it as factory, plant, or works, from the Russian, and now Ukrainian translation of the word zavod. After the Russian Revolution and the establishment of the Soviet government in Ukraine, the Leningrads Bolshevik Factory and the Kharkivs KhPZ in 1929 became the first two Soviet tank factories to be modernized with German assistance under the Treaty of Rapallo,1922. The KhPZ designed and produced twenty-five T-24 tanks, then nearly eight thousand BT fast tanks and it also built a handful of multi-turreted T-35 tanks. Shortly before the German invasion of the Soviet Union the KhPZ started series production of the T-34, series production began in June 1940 in Kharkiv, and later in the Stalingrad Tractor Plant and Krasnoye Sormovo Shipbuilding Plant. When Ukraine was recaptured, it began production of the new T-44 tank in 1945, after the war was over, the design bureau and factory gradually transferred all operations back to Kharkiv. The No.183 designation was left in Nizhny Tagil, while in Kharkiv the factory merged into Factory No,75, a previously existing plant known for its T-34 diesel engines. T-54 production was started in the Urals and Kharkiv in 1947–48, in 1957, the Factory No.75 was renamed Malyshev Plant, and next year it took up production of T-55, the most-produced tank ever. The bureau also designed OT-54 and TO-55 flame-thrower tanks, for production at the Omsk Transport Machine Construction Plant, in 1967, T-64 tank production began here, as well as in the Kirov Plant and in the Uralvagonzavod. The T-80 tank, with a high gas turbine engine was produced beginning in 1983, followed in 1985 by a more conventional diesel model. Finished tanks were assembled in plants, but Soviet industrial planning prevented any region from being able to establish independent arms production. Components and sub-assemblies were produced in different factories, the Malyshev Factory specializing in engines, like many Ukrainian industries, Malyshev was not allowed to negotiate contracts directly with foreign governments, but had to rely on Ukrspetsexport, a government arms-trading company. Malyshev joined as the leader of thirty-four companies to form a consortium called Ukrainian Armored Vehicles. Malyshev has demonstrated main battle tanks to Turkey, Greece, and Malaysia, in September 2000, a deal was signed to modernize Soviet-made tanks and armoured personnel carries for the United Arab Emirates. The Malyshev factory also manufactures parts for Bizon, a Polish producer of agricultural combines, in April 2009, the Malyshev Factory signed a contract to upgrade 29 T-64B tanks to T-64BM Bulat standard, for the Ukrainian Army for 200 million hryvnia
11.
Vehicle armour
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Military vehicles are commonly armoured to withstand the impact of shrapnel, bullets, missiles or shells, protecting the personnel inside from enemy fire. Such vehicles include armoured fighting vehicles like tanks, aircraft and ships, civilian vehicles may also be armoured. These vehicles include cars used by reporters, officials and others in conflict zones or where violent crime is common, armoured cars are also routinely used by security firms to carry money or valuables to reduce the risk of highway robbery or the hijacking of the cargo. Armour may also be used in vehicles to protect from other than a deliberate attack. Some spacecraft are equipped with specialised armour to protect them against impacts from micrometeoroids or fragments of space junk, the design and purpose of the vehicle determines the amount of armour plating carried, as the plating is often very heavy and excessive amounts of armour restrict mobility. In order to decrease this problem, some new materials and material compositions are being researched which include buckypaper, rolled homogeneous armour is strong, hard, and tough. Steel with these characteristics is produced by processing cast steel billets of appropriate size, rolling and forging irons out the grain structure in the steel, removing imperfections which would reduce the strength of the steel. Aluminium is used when weight is a necessity. It is most commonly used on APCs and armoured cars, wrought iron was used on ironclad warships. Early European iron armour consisted of 10 to 13 cm of wrought iron backed by up to one meter of solid wood, titanium is roughly the weight of aluminium, but as strong as iron. So despite being rather expensive, it finds an application in areas where weight is a concern, such as personal armour, because of its high density, depleted uranium can also be used in tank armour, sandwiched between sheets of steel armour plate. Plastic metal was a type of vehicle armour originally developed for merchant ships by the British Admiralty in 1940, the original composition was described as 50% clean granite of half-inch size, 43% of limestone mineral, and 7% of bitumen. It was typically applied in a two inches thick and backed by half an inch of steel. Plastic armour could be applied by pouring it into a cavity formed by the backing plate. Bulletproof glass is a term for glass that is particularly resistant to being penetrated when struck by bullets. The industry generally refers to it as bullet-resistant glass or transparent armour, bullet-resistant glass is usually constructed using a strong but transparent material such as polycarbonate thermoplastic or by using layers of laminated glass. The desired result is a material with the appearance and light-transmitting behaviour of standard glass, the polycarbonate layer, usually consisting of products such as Armormax, Makroclear, Cyrolon, Lexan or Tuffak, is often sandwiched between layers of regular glass. The use of plastic in the laminate provides impact-resistance, such as physical assault with a hammer, the plastic provides little in the way of bullet-resistance
12.
Tank gun
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A tank gun is the main armament of a tank. Modern tank guns are large-caliber high-velocity guns, capable of firing kinetic energy penetrators, high explosive anti-tank rounds, anti-aircraft guns can also be mounted to tanks. They must provide accuracy, range, penetration, and rapid fire in a package that is as compact and lightweight as possible, Tank guns generally use self-contained ammunition, allowing rapid loading. They often display a bulge in the barrel, which is a bore evacuator, or a device on the muzzle and these were naval or field artillery pieces stripped from their carriages and mounted in sponsons or casemates on armored vehicles. The early British Mark I tanks of 1916 used naval 57 mm QF6 pounder Hotchkiss mounted at the sides in sponsons, the first German tank, the A7V, utilized 57 mm Maxim-Nordenfelt fortification guns captured from Belgium and Russia, but mounted at the front. The early French Schneider CA1 mounted a short 75 mm mortar on one side, the larger caliber, shorter range artillery mounting didnt go away however. In some designs - for example, M3 Lee, Churchill, however, other strategists saw new roles for tanks in war, and wanted more specifically developed guns tailored to these missions. The ability to destroy tanks was foremost on their minds. To this end, the emerging anti-tank gun designs were modified to fit tanks and these weapons fired smaller shells, but at higher velocities with higher accuracy, improving their performance against armor. Such light guns as the QF 2-pounder and 37 mm equipped British cruiser tanks and these weapons lacked a good high-explosive shell for attacking infantry and fortifications, but were effective against the light armor of the time. World War II saw a growth in all areas of military technology. Battlefield experience led to powerful weapons being adopted. Guns with calibres from 20 mm to 40 mm soon gave way to 50 mm,75 mm,85 mm,88 mm,90 mm and even 122 mm calibre. In 1939, the standard German panzer had either a 20 mm or 37 mm medium-velocity weapon, the Soviets introduced their 122 mm in a turreted heavy tank series, the Iosef Stalin tanks. Shells were improved to better penetration with harder materials and scientific shaping. All of these meant improvements in accuracy and range, although the tank had to grow as well to carry the ammunition, mounting. Many nations devised tank destroyers during the war - a vehicle designed for anti-tank work. By the end of the war the variety in tank designs was narrowed, after World War II, the race to increase caliber slowed
13.
Degtyaryov machine gun
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The Degtyaryov machine gun or DP is a light machine gun firing the 7. 62×54mmR cartridge that was used primarily by the Soviet Union starting in 1928. The DP machine gun was supplemented in the 1950s by the more modern RPD machine gun, the DP-27 was an improvement of the earlier DP-26, both designed by Vasily Degtyaryov. The DP-27 was relatively cheap and easy to manufacture – early models had fewer than 80 parts, the DP was especially able to withstand dirt in a reliable fashion. In tests it was buried in sand and mud and was capable of firing more than 500 rounds. One of the DPs main drawbacks though was its bipod, it could not withstand much abuse and broke easily. Furthermore, the spring was located under the barrel, around the gas piston. The ammunition was troublesome for automatic fire, degtyarov had to use a flat pan magazine, which could feed those cartridges reliably, but was too heavy itself, uncomfortable to carry and prone to damage. Due to the design of the magazine, reloading an empty magazine with cartridges took a long time. A redeeming factor was that the DPs lower cyclic rate of fire did reduce the risk of barrel overheating, despite its numerous problems, the DP had a reputation as a relatively effective light support weapon. It was nicknamed the Record player by Red Army troops because the disc-shaped pan magazine resembled a gramophone record, many were captured by the Finnish army in the Winter War and the Continuation War and partially replaced the Lahti-Saloranta M/26. The DP received the nickname Emma in Finnish service after a popular waltz, in the summer of 1944, the Finnish army had about 3400 Finnish-made Lahti-Salorantas and 9000 captured Soviet-made Degtyarevs on the front. The Chinese Nationalists received 5,600 DPs from the USSR and used them in the Second Sino-Japanese War, the Chinese Communists used the DP in the Korean War and copied the DPM as the Type 53. All Variants of the DP machine gun were giving and sold to Viet Minh in the First Indochina War by the USSR, dP-28s have also been recovered from Taliban fighters in Helmand Province, Afghanistan as recently as 2014. DPs or DPMs have been spotted in 2014 in the Northern Mali conflict, also used in tandem mounts known as DA-2. Employed in the versions of the Tupolev TB-3 bomber and in the Polikarpov R-5. The DA weighted 7.1 kg empty and 11.5 kg with standard ammunition load and its rate of fire was 600 rounds per minute. It was built between 1928 and March 1930 with 1,200 units delivered and it was soon superseded by the ShKAS, which had a much higher rate of fire. DT and DTM, for mounting in armoured fighting vehicles DTM-4, RP-46, metallic-belt fed version adopted in 1946 with a heavier barrel to allow prolonged sustained fire
14.
Christie suspension
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The Christie suspension is a suspension system developed by American engineer J. Walter Christie for his tank designs. It allowed considerably longer movement than conventional leaf spring systems then in common use, the system was first introduced on his M1928 design, and used on all of his designs until his death in 1944. Christie advocated the use of tanks with long range and high speed, designed to penetrate enemy lines and attack their infrastructure. A major problem with tanks during the First World War was problems with the tracked suspension breaking down before the tank reached action. Christies first tank design of 1919 could be driven on its wheels to get to the starting point, the US Tank Corps ordered a single tank from Christies company based on this design. The tank, known as the M1919, was delivered in early 1921, the modifications added coil suspension to the front wheels and removed the turret - the armament being moved to the nose of the vehicle. The tank - now known as M1921 - was tested in 1922 and 1923 but considered lacking in maneuverability and internal space and his earlier designs in the 1920s were hampered by poor cross-country performance due to limited suspension capability. In the late 1920s he devised a better solution, the solution was the addition of a bellcrank, which changed the direction of motion from vertical to horizontal. The road wheels were mounted on a pipe that could move vertically only. Springs were mounted on the end of the crank, and could be as long as needed, lying along the inside of the hull. The result was a increase in range of motion, from only some 10 cm in his original designs, to 25 cm on the M1928,35 cm on the M1930. The M1928 weighed under 9 tons and had a 338 hp Liberty engine this allowed it to reach 42 mph on tracks and 70 mph on its wheels, the four sprung road wheels could move 11 inches on top of the compression due to the weight of the vehicle. Although there was interest by the Army in the design, negotiations over the requirements were drawn out and these received official designation as Convertible Medium Tank T3 and all seven were delivered by 1932. Four were given to the cavalry for testing and they had the main gun replaced with a heavy machine gun and were renamed Combat Car T1. The crew of two and relatively light armour was insufficient for the support function the tank was expected to have. The Army drew up a specification for an improved T3 but following disputes with Christie the order - for 5 of the Convertible Medium Tank T3E2 was given to the American-La France company. The most famous Christie-based tanks, the Soviet BT tank series, in one public test 1931 in Linden, NJ, Army officials clocked a Christie M1931 tank attaining 104 mph, making it the fastest tank in the world, a record many believe it still holds. There were no return rollers for the track run, the tracks were supported by the road wheels
15.
Russian language
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Russian is an East Slavic language and an official language in Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and many minor or unrecognised territories. Russian belongs to the family of Indo-European languages and is one of the four living members of the East Slavic languages, written examples of Old East Slavonic are attested from the 10th century and beyond. It is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia and the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages and it is also the largest native language in Europe, with 144 million native speakers in Russia, Ukraine and Belarus. Russian is the eighth most spoken language in the world by number of native speakers, the language is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Russian is also the second most widespread language on the Internet after English, Russian distinguishes between consonant phonemes with palatal secondary articulation and those without, the so-called soft and hard sounds. This distinction is found between pairs of almost all consonants and is one of the most distinguishing features of the language, another important aspect is the reduction of unstressed vowels. Russian is a Slavic language of the Indo-European family and it is a lineal descendant of the language used in Kievan Rus. From the point of view of the language, its closest relatives are Ukrainian, Belarusian, and Rusyn. An East Slavic Old Novgorod dialect, although vanished during the 15th or 16th century, is considered to have played a significant role in the formation of modern Russian. In the 19th century, the language was often called Great Russian to distinguish it from Belarusian, then called White Russian and Ukrainian, however, the East Slavic forms have tended to be used exclusively in the various dialects that are experiencing a rapid decline. In some cases, both the East Slavic and the Church Slavonic forms are in use, with different meanings. For details, see Russian phonology and History of the Russian language and it is also regarded by the United States Intelligence Community as a hard target language, due to both its difficulty to master for English speakers and its critical role in American world policy. The standard form of Russian is generally regarded as the modern Russian literary language, mikhail Lomonosov first compiled a normalizing grammar book in 1755, in 1783 the Russian Academys first explanatory Russian dictionary appeared. By the mid-20th century, such dialects were forced out with the introduction of the education system that was established by the Soviet government. Despite the formalization of Standard Russian, some nonstandard dialectal features are observed in colloquial speech. Thus, the Russian language is the 6th largest in the world by number of speakers, after English, Mandarin, Hindi/Urdu, Spanish, Russian is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Education in Russian is still a choice for both Russian as a second language and native speakers in Russia as well as many of the former Soviet republics. Russian is still seen as an important language for children to learn in most of the former Soviet republics, samuel P. Huntington wrote in the Clash of Civilizations, During the heyday of the Soviet Union, Russian was the lingua franca from Prague to Hanoi
16.
Romanization of Russian
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Romanization of the Russian alphabet is the process of transliterating the Russian language from the Cyrillic script into the Latin alphabet. Scientific transliteration, also known as the International Scholarly System, is a system that has used in linguistics since the 19th century. It is based on the Czech alphabet and formed the basis of the GOST, OST8483 was the first Soviet standard on romanization of Russian, introduced in 16 October 1935. This standard is an equivalent of GOST 16876-71 and was adopted as a standard of the COMECON. GOST7. 79-2000 System of Standards on Information, Librarianship and it is the official standard of both Russia and the Commonwealth of Independent States. Machine readable passports is an adoption of an ICAO stadards for travel documents and it was used in Russian passports for a short period during 2010–2013. The standard was substituted in 2013 by GOST R ISO/IEC 7501-1-2013, which does not contain romanization, ISO/R9, established in 1954 and updated in 1968, was the adoption of the scientific transliteration by the International Organization for Standardization. It covers Russian and seven other Slavic languages, ISO9,1995 is the current transliteration standard from ISO. It is based on its predecessor ISO/R9,1968, which it deprecates, for Russian, the UNGEGN, a Working Group of the United Nations, in 1987 recommended a romanization system for geographical names, which was based on the 1983 version of GOST 16876-71. It may be found in some international cartographic products, American Library Association and Library of Congress romanization tables for Slavic alphabets are used in North American libraries and in the British Library since 1975. The formal, unambiguous version of the system requires some diacritics and two-letter tie characters, British Standard 2979,1958 is the main system of the Oxford University Press, and a variation was used by the British Library to catalogue publications acquired up to 1975. The BGN/PCGN system is relatively intuitive for Anglophones to read and pronounce, the portion of the system pertaining to the Russian language was adopted by BGN in 1944 and by PCGN in 1947. In Soviet international passports, transliteration was based on French rules, in 1997, with the introduction of new Russian passports, a diacritic-free English-oriented system was established by the Ministry of Internal Affairs, but this system was also abandoned in 2010. In 2006, GOST52535. 1-2006 was adopted, which defines technical requirements and standards for Russian international passports, in 2010, the Federal Migratory Service of Russia approved Order No. 26, stating that all names in the passports issued after 2010 must be transliterated using GOST52535. 1-2006. The standard was abandoned in 2013, finally in 2013, Order No.320 of the Federal Migratory Service of Russia came into force. It states that all names in the passports must be transliterated using the ICAO system. This system differs from the GOST52535. 1-2006 system in two things, ц is transliterated into ts, ъ is transliterated into ie, Scholarly ¹ Some archaic letters are transcribed in different ways
17.
Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
18.
T-34
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The T-34 was a Soviet medium tank that had a profound and lasting effect on the field of tank design. Although its armour and armament were surpassed later in the war, it has often credited as the most effective, efficient. At its introduction, the T-34 possessed a combination of firepower, mobility, protection. The T-34 was the mainstay of Soviet armoured forces throughout the Second World War and its design allowed it to be continuously refined to meet the constantly evolving needs of the Eastern Front, as the war went on it became more capable, but also quicker and cheaper to produce. Replacing many light and medium tanks in Red Army service, it was the tank of the war. Its development led directly to the T-54 and T-55 series of tanks, which in turn evolved into the later T-62, T-72, T-34 variants were widely exported after World War II and as late as 1996 were still in service in at least 27 countries. In 1939, the most numerous Soviet tank models were the T-26 infantry tank, the T-26 was slow-moving, designed to keep pace with infantry on the ground. The BT tanks were tanks, fast-moving and light, designed for manoeuvre warfare. In 1937, the Red Army had assigned engineer Mikhail Koshkin to lead a new team to design a replacement for the BT tanks at the Kharkiv Komintern Locomotive Plant. It also had an 8×6-wheel convertible drive similar to the BT tanks 8×2, by 1937-38, track design had improved and the designers considered it a waste of space, weight, and maintenance resources, despite the road speed advantage. The A-20 also incorporated previous research into sloped armour, its all-round sloped armour plates were likely to deflect rounds than perpendicular armour. The Soviet tanks were easily destroyed by the Japanese Type 95 tanks 37 mm gunfire, despite the low velocity of that gun. Koshkin named the second prototype A-32, after its 32 mm of frontal armour and it had an L-1076.2 mm gun, and the same Model V-2-34 diesel. Both were tested in trials at Kubinka in 1939, with the heavier A-32 proving to be as mobile as the A-20. A still heavier version of the A-32, with 45 mm of front armour, wider tracks, koshkins team completed two prototype T-34s in January 1940. Some drivetrain shortcomings were identified and corrected and this pressure was brought to bear by the developer of the KV-1 tank which was in competition with the T-34. The first production T-34s were completed in September 1940, completely replacing the production of the T-26, the BT series, Koshkin died of pneumonia at the end of that month, and the T-34s drivetrain developer, Alexander Morozov, was appointed Chief Designer. The T-34 posed new challenges for Soviet industry and it had heavier armour than any medium tank produced to date, and there were problems with defective armour plates
19.
Infantry tanks
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The infantry tank was a concept developed by the British and French in the years leading up to World War II. Infantry tanks were designed to support infantry-soldiers in an attack, to achieve this, the vehicles were generally heavily armoured to allow them to operate in close concert with infantry even under heavy fire. The extra armour came at the expense of speed, which was not an issue when supporting relatively slow-moving infantry, the British tank arm was constrained by decisions about procurement made in the early 1930s. A close support tank armed with a gun firing high explosive, the cost of experiments with tanks led in 1932 to the Director of Mechanisation to cancel work on a replacement for the medium tank, during the financial cuts imposed during the Great Depression. When work resumed in 1935, the army had Light Tank but no design bureau for a new medium tank, the prototype of October 1936 weighted 10 long tons had a maximum speed of only 8 mph but carried 60–65 mm of armour and was mechanically reliable. By 1939, further amendments to FSR added counter-attacks on an enemy armoured breakthrough, defence against tanks could be achieved by troops finding physical obstacles and by controlling their own anti-tank guns. The obstacles could be woods and rivers or minefields as long as they were covered by fire from other weapons. Capable of 15 mph, the A12 was still slow but had 60–70 mm of armour, making it almost invulnerable to tank guns and standard foreign guns like the German 37 mm Pak 36 anti-tank gun. The tank had a crew and a turret big enough for a radio. Vickers and government factories could not take on the work and it was farmed out to a civilian firm, which lacked experience, designers and draftsmen. It took until 1939 to bring the A12 into production as the Matilda II and it had not gone into service when the war began, only 67 A11s having been delivered. Using later terminology, the tank has been compared to a heavy tank, while the cruisers were compared to mediums, lights. This comparison can be misleading, particularly as the tank was never intended to have the same anti-tank capabilities as a heavy tank. The Neubaufahrzeug was considered too slow for Blitzkrieg tactics and fell from favour, German wartime doctrine shifted towards faster medium and heavy tanks fighting large multi-tank battles, with the role of the infantry tank in the assault taken by simpler Sturmgeschütz. An important difference, however, was that tanks were generally very well armed. For example, the Soviet KV-1 heavy tank and British Matilda II infantry tank were deployed at about the time in 1940. These two models had similar levels of protection and mobility, but the KVs 76.2 mm main gun was much larger than the Matildas 2-pounder. In British practice, the armament of the infantry tank went in three phases
20.
Medium tank
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Many of the medium tanks lines became what are called main battle tank in most countries. The first tanks to carry the name Medium appeared in the First World War with the British Medium Mark A Whippet and it was smaller and lighter than the British heavy tanks and only carried machine guns. The medium tank doctrine came into use in the interwar period and its existence outlasted the super-heavy tank and heavy tank and gradually transitioned into the main battle tank. Medium tanks of the period included the British Vickers Medium Mark II. There were medium tanks that focused on capabilities, and medium tanks which were more focused on the anti-tank role. The French cavalry tanks focused on speed in addition to power and they were similar to what other countries called medium tanks. The result was the T-34 medium tank, whose superb capabilities shocked the German Wehrmacht when it invaded the Soviet Union. The lessons of Blitzkrieg, first employed by the Germans and eventually adopted by other nations, found their best expression in formations of mutually-supporting medium tanks, the traditional view of infantry and cavalry tank roles was rendered obsolete. During and after World War II, the roles of tanks were gradually taken over by less-expensive armoured cars. Heavy tanks, having shown their limitations in combat, experienced a limited post-war arms race of progressively more heavily armed and armoured designs, with the rise of more sophisticated anti-tank missile weapons, to which heavy tanks had demonstrated high vulnerability, these too were eventually phased out. Simpler and more economical self-propelled guns, and later anti-tank guided missiles, came to fulfil some fire-support and anti-tank roles, the role of medium tanks started with a prioritisation of speed. Medium tanks could travel faster, but needed help to cross trenches, in British use, this evolved into the Cruiser tank class, while other tank doctrines formed around the medium tank making the main advance. In this later use, medium tanks represent the intent of producing a successful balance of firepower, mobility. Medium tanks aim to be suitable to the widest variety of roles, with less reliance on other types of tank during normal operations Light tank Heavy tank Super-heavy tank Main battle tank
21.
Chain drive
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Chain drive is a way of transmitting mechanical power from one place to another. It is often used to power to the wheels of a vehicle. It is also used in a variety of machines besides vehicles. The gear is turned, and this pulls the chain putting mechanical force into the system, another type of drive chain is the Morse chain, invented by the Morse Chain Company of Ithaca, New York, United States. Sometimes the power is output by simply rotating the chain, which can be used to lift or drag objects, in other situations, a second gear is placed and the power is recovered by attaching shafts or hubs to this gear. By varying the diameter of the input and output gears with respect to each other, for example, when the bicycle pedals gear rotate once, it causes the gear that drives the wheels to rotate more than one revolution. The oldest known application of a chain appears in the Polybolos. Two flat-linked chains were connected to a windlass, which by winding back and it is here that the flat-link chain, often attributed to Leonardo da Vinci, actually made its first appearance. The chain drive itself was given power via the works of Sus water clock tank and waterwheel. Roller chain and sprockets is an efficient method of power transmission compared to belts. Although chains can be stronger than belts, their greater mass increases drive train inertia. Drive chains are most often made of metal, while belts are often rubber, plastic, urethane, or other substances. Drive belts can slip unless they have teeth, which means that the side may not rotate at a precise speed. Wear on rubber or plastic belts and their teeth is often easier to observe, one problem with roller chains is the variation in speed, or surging, caused by the acceleration and deceleration of the chain as it goes around the sprocket link by link. It starts as soon as the line of the chain contacts the first tooth of the sprocket. This contact occurs at a point below the circle of the sprocket. As the sprocket rotates, the chain is raised up to the circle and is then dropped down again as sprocket rotation continues. This rising and falling of the line is what causes chordal effect or speed variation
22.
Road
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Roads consist of one or two roadways, each with one or more lanes and any associated sidewalks and road verges. Roads that are available for use by the public may be referred to as parkways, avenues, freeways, interstates, highways, or primary, secondary, and tertiary local roads. In urban areas roads may diverge through a city or village and be named as streets, serving a function as urban space easement. Modern roads are normally smoothed, paved, or otherwise prepared to allow easy travel, historically many roads were simply recognizable routes without any formal construction or maintenance. In the United Kingdom there is ambiguity between the terms highway and road. The Highway code details rules for road users and this includes footpaths, bridleways and cycle tracks, and also road and driveways on private land and many car parks. Vehicle Excise Duty, a use tax, is payable on some vehicles used on the public road. The definition of a road depends on the definition of a highway, in the United States, laws distinguish between public roads, which are open to public use, and private roads, which are privately controlled. The assertion that the first pathways were the trails made by animals has not been universally accepted, others believe that some roads originated from following animal trails. The Icknield Way is given as an example of type of road origination. By about 10,000 BC, rough roads/pathways were used by human travelers, the worlds oldest known paved road was constructed in Egypt some time between 2600 and 2200 BC. Stone-paved streets are found in the city of Ur in the Middle East dating back to 4000 BC, corduroy roads are found dating to 4000 BC in Glastonbury, England. The Sweet Track, a timber causeway in England, is one of the oldest engineered roads discovered. Built in winter 3807 BC or spring 3806 BC, tree-ring dating enabled very precise dating and it was claimed to be the oldest road in the world until the 2009 discovery of a 6, 000-year-old trackway in Plumstead, London. Brick-paved streets were used in India as early as 3000 BC, in 500 BC, Darius I the Great started an extensive road system for Persia, including the Royal Road, which was one of the finest highways of its time. The road remained in use after Roman times, a hybrid of road transport and ship transport beginning in about 1740 is the horse-drawn boat in which the horse follows a cleared path along the river bank. From about 312 BC, the Roman Empire built straight strong stone Roman roads throughout Europe and North Africa, at its peak the Roman Empire was connected by 29 major roads moving out from Rome and covering 78,000 kilometers or 52,964 Roman miles of paved roads. In the 8th century AD, many roads were built throughout the Arab Empire, the most sophisticated roads were those in Baghdad, which were paved with tar
23.
Steering
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Steering is the collection of components, linkages, etc. which allows any vehicle to follow the desired course. An exception is the case of transport by which rail tracks combined together with railroad switches provide the steering function. The primary purpose of the system is to allow the driver to guide the vehicle. Other arrangements are found on different types of vehicles, for example. The basic aim of steering is to ensure that the wheels are pointing in the desired directions and this is typically achieved by a series of linkages, rods, pivots and gears. The angle the wheels make with the plane also influences steering dynamics as do the tires. The rack and pinion design has the advantages of a degree of feedback. A disadvantage is that it is not adjustable, so that when it does wear and develop lash, BMW began to use rack and pinion steering systems in the 1930s, and many other European manufacturers adopted the technology. American automakers adopted rack and pinion steering beginning with the 1974 Ford Pinto, older designs use two main principles, the worm and sector design and the screw and nut. Both types were enhanced by reducing the friction, for screw and nut it is the ball mechanism. The steering column turns a large screw which meshes with nut by recirculating balls and this design is still in use in trucks and other large vehicles, where rapidity of steering and direct feel are less important than robustness, maintainability, and mechanical advantage. The worm and sector was a design, used for example in Willys and Chrysler vehicles. To reduce friction the sector is replaced by a roller or rotating pins on the rocker shaft arm, other systems for steering exist, but are uncommon on road vehicles. Power steering helps the driver of a vehicle to steer by directing some of its power to assist in swiveling the steered road wheels about their steering axes. To alleviate this auto makers have developed power steering systems, or more correctly power-assisted steering, there are two types of power steering systems, hydraulic and electric/electronic. A hydraulic-electric hybrid system is also possible, a hydraulic power steering uses hydraulic pressure supplied by an engine-driven pump to assist the motion of turning the steering wheel. In EPS, the amount of assistance is easily tunable to the type, road speed. An added benefit is the elimination of environmental hazard posed by leakage, an outgrowth of power steering is speed sensitive steering, where the steering is heavily assisted at low speed and lightly assisted at high speed
24.
New Jersey
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New Jersey is a state in the Northeastern and mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. It is bordered on the north and east by New York, on the southeast and south by the Atlantic Ocean, on the west by Pennsylvania, New Jersey is the fourth-smallest state but the 11th-most populous and the most densely populated of the 50 United States. New Jersey lies entirely within the statistical areas of New York City. New Jersey was inhabited by Native Americans for more than 2,800 years, in the early 17th century, the Dutch and the Swedes made the first European settlements. New Jersey was the site of decisive battles during the American Revolutionary War in the 18th century. In the 19th century, factories in cities such as Camden, Paterson, Newark, Trenton, around 180 million years ago, during the Jurassic Period, New Jersey bordered North Africa. The pressure of the collision between North America and Africa gave rise to the Appalachian Mountains, around 18,000 years ago, the Ice Age resulted in glaciers that reached New Jersey. As the glaciers retreated, they left behind Lake Passaic, as well as rivers, swamps. New Jersey was originally settled by Native Americans, with the Lenni-Lenape being dominant at the time of contact, scheyichbi is the Lenape name for the land that is now New Jersey. The Lenape society was divided into clans that were based upon common female ancestors. These clans were organized into three distinct phratries identified by their animal sign, Turtle, Turkey, and Wolf and they first encountered the Dutch in the early 17th century, and their primary relationship with the Europeans was through fur trade. The Dutch became the first Europeans to lay claim to lands in New Jersey, the Dutch colony of New Netherland consisted of parts of modern Middle Atlantic states. Although the European principle of ownership was not recognized by the Lenape. The first to do so was Michiel Pauw who established a patronship called Pavonia in 1630 along the North River which eventually became the Bergen, peter Minuits purchase of lands along the Delaware River established the colony of New Sweden. During the English Civil War, the Channel Island of Jersey remained loyal to the British Crown and it was from the Royal Square in St. Helier that Charles II of England was proclaimed King in 1649, following the execution of his father, Charles I. The North American lands were divided by Charles II, who gave his brother, the Duke of York, the region between New England and Maryland as a proprietary colony. James then granted the land between the Hudson River and the Delaware River to two friends who had remained loyal through the English Civil War, Sir George Carteret and Lord Berkeley of Stratton, the area was named the Province of New Jersey. Since the states inception, New Jersey has been characterized by ethnic, New England Congregationalists settled alongside Scots Presbyterians and Dutch Reformed migrants
25.
Christie tank
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The Christie suspension is a suspension system developed by American engineer J. Walter Christie for his tank designs. It allowed considerably longer movement than conventional leaf spring systems then in common use, the system was first introduced on his M1928 design, and used on all of his designs until his death in 1944. Christie advocated the use of tanks with long range and high speed, designed to penetrate enemy lines and attack their infrastructure. A major problem with tanks during the First World War was problems with the tracked suspension breaking down before the tank reached action. Christies first tank design of 1919 could be driven on its wheels to get to the starting point, the US Tank Corps ordered a single tank from Christies company based on this design. The tank, known as the M1919, was delivered in early 1921, the modifications added coil suspension to the front wheels and removed the turret - the armament being moved to the nose of the vehicle. The tank - now known as M1921 - was tested in 1922 and 1923 but considered lacking in maneuverability and internal space and his earlier designs in the 1920s were hampered by poor cross-country performance due to limited suspension capability. In the late 1920s he devised a better solution, the solution was the addition of a bellcrank, which changed the direction of motion from vertical to horizontal. The road wheels were mounted on a pipe that could move vertically only. Springs were mounted on the end of the crank, and could be as long as needed, lying along the inside of the hull. The result was a increase in range of motion, from only some 10 cm in his original designs, to 25 cm on the M1928,35 cm on the M1930. The M1928 weighed under 9 tons and had a 338 hp Liberty engine this allowed it to reach 42 mph on tracks and 70 mph on its wheels, the four sprung road wheels could move 11 inches on top of the compression due to the weight of the vehicle. Although there was interest by the Army in the design, negotiations over the requirements were drawn out and these received official designation as Convertible Medium Tank T3 and all seven were delivered by 1932. Four were given to the cavalry for testing and they had the main gun replaced with a heavy machine gun and were renamed Combat Car T1. The crew of two and relatively light armour was insufficient for the support function the tank was expected to have. The Army drew up a specification for an improved T3 but following disputes with Christie the order - for 5 of the Convertible Medium Tank T3E2 was given to the American-La France company. The most famous Christie-based tanks, the Soviet BT tank series, in one public test 1931 in Linden, NJ, Army officials clocked a Christie M1931 tank attaining 104 mph, making it the fastest tank in the world, a record many believe it still holds. There were no return rollers for the track run, the tracks were supported by the road wheels
26.
Gun turret
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A gun turret is a location from which weapons can be fired that affords protection, visibility, and some cone of fire. Rotating gun turrets have the protection, the weapon, and its crew rotate, when this meaning of the word turret started being used at the beginning of the 1860s, turrets were normally cylindrical. Barbettes were an alternative to turrets, with a barbette the protection was fixed, in the 1890s, armoured hoods were added to barbettes, these rotated with the platform. By the early 20th Century, these hoods were known as turrets, modern warships have gun-mountings described as turrets, though the protection on them is limited to protection from the weather. They may be manned or remotely controlled and are most often protected to some degree, the protection provided by the turret may be against battle damage, the weather conditions, general environment in which the weapon or its crew will be operating. A small turret, or sub-turret set on top of a one, is called a cupola. The term cupola is used for a rotating turret that carries a sighting device rather than weaponry. Before the development of large-calibre, long-range guns in the mid-19th century, firepower was provided by a large number of guns, each of which could traverse only in a limited arc. Additionally casemate mounts had to be recessed into the side of a vessel to afford a wide arc of fire, designs for a rotating gun turret date back to the late 18th century. The Lady Nancy proved a success and Coles patenting his rotating turret design after the war. Coless aim was to create a ship with the greatest possible all round arc of fire, the Admiralty accepted the principle of the turret gun as a useful innovation, and incorporated it into other new designs. Coles submitted a design for a ship having ten domed turrets each housing two large guns, the design was rejected as impractical, although the Admiralty remained interested in turret ships and instructed its own designers to create better designs. Coles enlisted the support of Prince Albert, who wrote to the first Lord of the Admiralty, in January 1862, the Admiralty agreed to construct a ship, the HMS Prince Albert which had four turrets and a low freeboard, intended only for coastal defence. While Coles designed the turrets the ship was the responsibility of the chief Constructor Isaac Watts, another ship using Coles turret designs, HMS Royal Sovereign, was completed in August 1864. Its existing broadside guns were replaced with four turrets on a flat deck, early ships like the Royal Sovereign had little sea-keeping qualities being limited to coastal waters. Sir Edward James Reed, went on to design and build HMS Monarch, laid down in 1866 and completed in June 1869, it carried two turrets, although the inclusion of a forecastle and poop prevented the turret guns firing fore and aft. The gun turret was independently invented by the Swedish inventor John Ericsson in America, Ericsson designed the USS Monitor in 1861, its most prominent feature being a large cylindrical gun turret mounted amidships above the low-freeboard upper hull, also called the raft. This extended well past the sides of the lower, more traditionally shaped hull, a small armoured pilot house was fitted on the upper deck towards the bow, however, its position prevented Monitor from firing her guns straight forward
27.
Kharkov Komintern Locomotive Plant
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The Malyshev Factory, formerly the Kharkiv Locomotive Factory, is a state-owned manufacturer of heavy equipment in Kharkiv, Ukraine. It was named after the Soviet politician Vyacheslav Malyshev, the factory is part of the State Concern UkrOboronProm. The factory is closely associated with the Morozov Design Bureau, designer of military armoured fighting vehicles, during 1958 it constructed Kharkovchanka, an off-road vehicle which reached the South Pole the following year. At its height during the Soviet era, the factory employed 60,000 of Kharkivs 1.5 million inhabitants, early 20155,000 people worked at the factory. The factory was renamed several times, english-language sources variously refer to it as factory, plant, or works, from the Russian, and now Ukrainian translation of the word zavod. After the Russian Revolution and the establishment of the Soviet government in Ukraine, the Leningrads Bolshevik Factory and the Kharkivs KhPZ in 1929 became the first two Soviet tank factories to be modernized with German assistance under the Treaty of Rapallo,1922. The KhPZ designed and produced twenty-five T-24 tanks, then nearly eight thousand BT fast tanks and it also built a handful of multi-turreted T-35 tanks. Shortly before the German invasion of the Soviet Union the KhPZ started series production of the T-34, series production began in June 1940 in Kharkiv, and later in the Stalingrad Tractor Plant and Krasnoye Sormovo Shipbuilding Plant. When Ukraine was recaptured, it began production of the new T-44 tank in 1945, after the war was over, the design bureau and factory gradually transferred all operations back to Kharkiv. The No.183 designation was left in Nizhny Tagil, while in Kharkiv the factory merged into Factory No,75, a previously existing plant known for its T-34 diesel engines. T-54 production was started in the Urals and Kharkiv in 1947–48, in 1957, the Factory No.75 was renamed Malyshev Plant, and next year it took up production of T-55, the most-produced tank ever. The bureau also designed OT-54 and TO-55 flame-thrower tanks, for production at the Omsk Transport Machine Construction Plant, in 1967, T-64 tank production began here, as well as in the Kirov Plant and in the Uralvagonzavod. The T-80 tank, with a high gas turbine engine was produced beginning in 1983, followed in 1985 by a more conventional diesel model. Finished tanks were assembled in plants, but Soviet industrial planning prevented any region from being able to establish independent arms production. Components and sub-assemblies were produced in different factories, the Malyshev Factory specializing in engines, like many Ukrainian industries, Malyshev was not allowed to negotiate contracts directly with foreign governments, but had to rely on Ukrspetsexport, a government arms-trading company. Malyshev joined as the leader of thirty-four companies to form a consortium called Ukrainian Armored Vehicles. Malyshev has demonstrated main battle tanks to Turkey, Greece, and Malaysia, in September 2000, a deal was signed to modernize Soviet-made tanks and armoured personnel carries for the United Arab Emirates. The Malyshev factory also manufactures parts for Bizon, a Polish producer of agricultural combines, in April 2009, the Malyshev Factory signed a contract to upgrade 29 T-64B tanks to T-64BM Bulat standard, for the Ukrainian Army for 200 million hryvnia
28.
Glacis
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A glacis in military engineering is an artificial slope as part of a medieval castle or in early modern fortresses. They may be constructed of earth as a structure or of stone in more permanent structure. A glacis plate is the sloped front-most section of the hull of a tank or other armored fighting vehicle, more generally, the term glacis can denote any slope, natural or artificial, which fulfils the above requirements. The etymology of this French word suggests a slope made dangerous with ice, hence the relationship with glacier, a glacis could also appear in ancient fortresses, such as the one built at Semna, by the ancient Egyptians. Here it was used by them to prevent enemy siege engines from weakening defensive walls, ancient British hill forts started to incorporate glacis around 350 BC. Those at Maiden Castle in Dorset were 25 metres high, towards the end of the medieval period some castles were modified to make them defensible against cannons. Glacis consisting of earthen slopes faced with stones were placed in front of the curtain walls, towers were lowered to the same height as the curtain walls and converted into gun platforms. Early modern European fortresses were so constructed as to any potential assailant under the fire of the defenders until the last possible moment. This gave defenders a direct line of sight into the assaulting force, additionally, but secondarily, the bank of earth would shield the walls from being hit directly by cannon fire. Though defenders on a high ground already have a line of sight. The term glacis plate describes the sloped front-most section of the hull of a tank or other armored fighting vehicle, in a head-on-head armored engagement, the glacis plate is the largest and most obvious target available to an enemy gunner. For example, an aimed at 4 of plate steel set on a 45-degree angle will have to pass through 5.67 of material to penetrate. Anti-tank mines which employ a tilt-rod fuze are also designed to detonate directly underneath the glacis plate, as a result, it is generally the thickest, most robust armored section of a tank, followed by the turret face and gun mantlet. Fortification Siege Sloped armour Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Fortification, caen Castle, A Ten Centuries Old Fortress. Greenwood guides to historic events of the medieval world
29.
BT tank
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The BT tanks were a series of Soviet light tanks produced in large numbers between 1932 and 1941. They were lightly armoured, but reasonably well-armed for their time, the BT tanks were known by the nickname Betka from the acronym, or its diminutive Betushka. The successor of the BT tanks would be the famous T-34 medium tank, introduced in 1940, which would all of the Soviet fast tanks, infantry tanks. The BT tanks were convertible tanks and this was a feature designed by J. Walter Christie to reduce wear of the unreliable tank tracks of the 1930s. In about thirty minutes, the crew could remove the tracks and engage a chain drive to the rearmost road wheel on each side, in wheeled mode, the tank was steered by pivoting the front road wheels. Soviet tank forces soon found the option of little practical use, in a country with few paved roads, it consumed space and added needless complexity. The feature was dropped from later Soviet designs, Christie, a race car mechanic and driver from New Jersey, had failed to convince the U. S. Army Ordnance Bureau to adopt his Christie tank design. At least two of Christies M1931 tanks were purchased in the United States and sent to the Soviet Union under false documentation. Both tanks were delivered to the Kharkov Komintern Locomotive Plant, the original Christie tanks were designated fast tanks by the Soviets, abbreviated to BT. Based both on them and on other plans obtained earlier, three unarmed BT-2 prototypes were completed in October 1931 and mass production began in 1932. Most BT-2s were equipped with a 37 mm gun and a machine gun, the sloping front hull armor design of the Christie M1931 prototype was retained in later Soviet tank hull designs, later adopted for side armor as well. The BT-5 and later models were equipped with a 45 mm gun, Soviet Union variants, BT-1, Christie prototype with no turret. BT-2 Model 1932, M-5-400 engine, three versions were produced, with single 37mm gun, 37mm gun and one DT machine gun, twin DP machine guns mount. In late 1932, modified to BT-3 but produced under the same designation, BT-3, same as BT-2, produced according to metric system. In official documentation referred to as BT-2, bT-4, was a design with welded hull and minor changes in the suspension. 3 prototypes produced BT-5, larger turret, 45mm 20-K gun. BT-5 Model 1933, new turret with twin hatches and larger bustle, bT-5A, artillery support version with 76. 2mm howitzer. RBT-5, rocket launcher artillery version, equipped with two 420mm tank torpedoes, bT-5-IS, experimental model with heavily sloped front armor, it served as sloped armor testbed together with the BT-SW-2 experimental tank
30.
Self-propelled gun
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A self-propelled gun is a form of self-propelled artillery, and in modern use is usually used to refer to artillery pieces such as howitzers. Self-propelled guns are mounted on a wheeled or tracked chassis. As such the gun can be maneuvered under its own power as opposed to a gun that relies upon a vehicle or other means to be moved on the battlefield. Self-propelled guns are combat support weapons, they are employed by combat support units fighting in support of, or attached to, self-propelled guns are best at providing indirect fire but can give direct fire when needed. It may be armoured, in case it is considered an armoured fighting vehicle. Typically, self-propelled guns are more lightly armoured and may not have turrets, the greatest tactical advantage in the case of artillery guns is clearly the greater degree of mobility they have compared to towed artillery. A secondary advantage in the case of – even lightly – armoured guns is the protection offered to the gun crews. The first attempts to give artillery a greater degree of manoeuvrability was in World War I, although mechanical tractors had been used to tow some artillery, most were still towed by horses. The Gun Carrier Mark I was a piece that was transported by. Between the wars, in the development of their armoured warfare tactics and it carried an 18 pounder gun on a chassis derived from their then medium tank and as such was able to keep up and cross the same ground as the tanks it was intended to support. As well as use as a gun, the gun could be elevated sufficiently for use against aircraft. Self-propelled guns and howitzers are used in the way as their towed variety. Self-propelled artillery can also include other types of weapons not considered a self-propelled gun. Assault guns are artillery pieces, meant to support infantry by direct fire with high explosive ammunition
31.
Liberty L-12
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The Liberty L-12 was an American 27-litre water-cooled 45° V-12 aircraft engine of 400 hp designed for a high power-to-weight ratio and ease of mass production. It was succeeded by the Packard 1A-2500, the two left their positions at the Fageol Motors Co. putting an end to the short production of the most luxurious automobile of the period. They were given the task of designing as rapidly as possible an aircraft engine that would rival if not surpass those of Great Britain, France, the Board specified that the engine would have a high power-to-weight ratio and be adaptable to mass production. The Board brought Vincent and Hall together on 29 May 1917 at the Willard Hotel in Washington, in July 1917, an eight-cylinder prototype assembled by Packards Detroit plant arrived in Washington for testing, and in August, the 12-cylinder version was tested and approved. Hall-Scott in California was considered too small to receive a production order, manufacturing by multiple factories was facilitated by its modular design. Lincoln constructed a new plant in record time, devoted entirely to Liberty engine production, by the time of the Armistice with Germany, the various companies had produced 13,574 Liberty engines, attaining a production rate of 150 engines per day. Production continued after the war, for a total of 20,478 engines built between July 4,1917 and 1919, although it is widely reported otherwise, a few Liberty engines did see action in France as power for the American version of the Airco DH.4. This led to Henry Leland leaving Cadillac to form the Lincoln Motor Company to make Liberty engines and he quickly gained a $10,000,000 government contract to build 6,000 engines. Subsequently the order was increased to 9,000 units, with the option to produce 8,000 more if the government needed them, more than 16,000 Liberty engines were produced during the calendar year 1918. To November 11,1918, more than 14,000 Liberty engines were produced, Lincoln had delivered 6,500 of the 400 hp, V-12, overhead camshaft engines when production ceased in January 1919. Durant later changed his mind and both Cadillac and Buick produced the engines, the Liberty engine was a modular design where four or six cylinders could be used in one or two banks, with the cylinders designed as individual units, each with their own water jacket. A pair of the 52 engines produced were destroyed by William Christmas testing his so-called Christmas Bullet fighter, an inverted Liberty 12-A referred to as the V-1650 was produced up to 1926 by Packard. The same designation was applied to the Packard V-1650 Merlin. This was a World War II Packard produced version of the Rolls-Royce Merlin, the Allison VG-1410 was an air-cooled inverted Liberty L-12, with a geared super-charger and Allison epicyclic propeller reduction gear and reduced displacement. An 8-cylinder V engine using Liberty cylinders in banks of four at 90°, the Nuffield Liberty tank engine was licensed and produced in World War II by the UK car manufacturer Nuffield. It was used in early Cruiser tanks, the Crusader, the Cavalier, the Nuffield Liberty ran through multiple versions, Mark I, US built engines modified in Britain. Modification incorporated new carburettors and a new system from Solex, revision of the crankcase breather, new timing gear. This produced 340 hp when governed to 1,500 rpm with the new carburettors, the air compressor wasnt used, and was removed on later engines Mark III, IIIA and IIIB, made for the Crusader tank
32.
Metric system
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The metric system is an internationally agreed decimal system of measurement. Many sources also cite Liberia and Myanmar as the other countries not to have done so. Although the originators intended to devise a system that was accessible to all. Control of the units of measure was maintained by the French government until 1875, when it was passed to an intergovernmental organisation. From its beginning, the features of the metric system were the standard set of interrelated base units. These base units are used to larger and smaller units that could replace a huge number of other units of measure in existence. Although the system was first developed for use, the development of coherent units of measure made it particularly suitable for science. Although the metric system has changed and developed since its inception, designed for transnational use, it consisted of a basic set of units of measurement, now known as base units. At the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789, most countries, the metric system was designed to be universal—in the words of the French philosopher Marquis de Condorcet it was to be for all people for all time. However, these overtures failed and the custody of the metric system remained in the hands of the French government until 1875. In languages where the distinction is made, unit names are common nouns, the concept of using consistent classical names for the prefixes was first proposed in a report by the Commission on Weights and Measures in May 1793. The prefix kilo, for example, is used to multiply the unit by 1000, thus the kilogram and kilometre are a thousand grams and metres respectively, and a milligram and millimetre are one thousandth of a gram and metre respectively. These relations can be written symbolically as,1 mg =0, however,1935 extensions to the prefix system did not follow this convention, the prefixes nano- and micro-, for example have Greek roots. During the 19th century the prefix myria-, derived from the Greek word μύριοι, was used as a multiplier for 10000, prefixes are not usually used to indicate multiples of a second greater than 1, the non-SI units of minute, hour and day are used instead. On the other hand, prefixes are used for multiples of the unit of volume. The base units used in the system must be realisable. Each of the units in SI is accompanied by a mise en pratique published by the BIPM that describes in detail at least one way in which the base unit can be measured. In practice, such realisation is done under the auspices of a mutual acceptance arrangement, in the original version of the metric system the base units could be derived from a specified length and the weight of a specified volume of pure water
33.
Teletank
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Teletanks were a series of wireless remotely controlled unmanned tanks produced in the Soviet Union in the 1930s and early 1940s so as to reduce combat risk to soldiers. They saw their first combat use in the Winter War, at the start of World War II, a teletank is controlled by radio from a control tank at a distance of 500–1,500 metres, the two constituting a telemechanical group. Teletanks were used by the Soviet Red Army in the Winter War, teletanks were also designed to be capable of using chemical weapons, although they were not used in combat. Each teletank, depending on its model, was able to recognize sixteen to twenty-four different commands sent via radio on two frequencies to avoid interference and jamming. Teletanks were built based on T-18, T-26, T-38, BT-5, standard tactics were for the control tank to stay back as far as practicable while the teletank approached the enemy. The control tank would provide support as well as protection for the radio control operator. If the enemy was successful at seizing the teletank, the tank crew was instructed to destroy it with its main gun. When not in combat the teletank was driven manually, in addition to teletanks, there were also remotely controlled telecutters and teleplanes in the Red Army. Telerobotics Teleoperation Goliath tracked mine List of Russian inventions What is teletank, all about teletank Means of communication in battlefield First Soviet tanks Light amphibious tank T-3870 years jubilee of Ulianovsk Higher Engineering School
34.
Mikulin M-17
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The Mikulin M-17 was a Soviet-licensed copy of the German BMW VI V-12 liquid-cooled aircraft piston engine, further developed by Alexander Mikulin and used by Soviet aircraft during World War II. Production began in 1930 and continued through 1942, more than 27,000 were produced, of which 19,000 were aircraft engines while the rest were used in Soviet tanks of the period. The Soviets had bought examples of BMWs III and IV engines earlier in the 1920s, following successful bench trials of the engine the Soviets decided to purchase a license for it. A deal was concluded in October 1927 after prolonged negotiations, the Soviets paid $50,000 and were to pay 7. 5% of the price of each engine produced after the first fifty. In exchange, the German company was to inform the Soviets of all changes to the engine for a period of five years, Soviet engineers and technicians were to be trained in Germany and German technicians were to assist setting up production in the vacant factory at Rybinsk. The Soviets also hired a number of German skilled workers to work at Factory No.26 in Rybinsk, the need to refurbish the factory greatly delayed Soviet production, even though the more complex components, including all electrical equipment, were initially imported from Germany. Soviet changes to the design and production quality issues meant that the Soviet-built engines were some 31 kg heavier and produced less power than the original engine. The first M-17s, as the engines were designated by the Soviets, were not produced until spring of 1930, but were not accepted for service until an engine passed its service tests on 15 August 1930. The M-17 was the most powerful available to the Soviet aircraft industry and it was in high demand. 165 engines were produced in 1930 at Rybinsk and Factory No.24 had managed to build its first three engines by June 1930, unfortunately, the engines built by the Moscow factory were of very poor quality because the management there had made unauthorized changes to simplify production. These had a ratio of only 6.15,1 rather than the specified 6.3,1. The Moscow engines, of only thirty were made, were reclassified as training engines. In the meantime production of the M-17 in Moscow had been cancelled in favor of the M-15, production of engines at Rybinsk had been steadily increasing,679 being built in 1931 and 5662 in 1934. Around 1935, development of a suitable for tanks was begun. This was called the M-17T and 7951 were built from 1936 to 1939, the M-17L was a version of the M-17T used to power the T-35 heavy tank and was the last model placed into production,530 being built from 1940 to 1941. A number of engines of various models were assembled from spare parts during World War II, the M-17 had an imported ignition system and one Zenith 60DCJ or DCL carburetor. It was built in two versions with different compression ratios, the M-17E6.0 or M-17-6.0, as it was sometimes called, had a compression ratio of 6.0,1, flat-head pistons and a maximum output of 680 hp. The other version, sometimes called the M-17E7.3 or M-17-7.3, had a ratio of 7.3,1, dished piston heads
35.
Kharkiv model V-2
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The Kharkiv model V-2 was a Soviet diesel tank V-12 engine designed at the Kharkiv Locomotive Factory by Konstantin Chelpan and his team. Throughout its production life, output ranged from roughly 450-700 hp, the water-cooled engine was made of aluminium. Displacement 38.8 L, bore 150 mm, stroke 180 mm left cylinder group and 186 mm right cylinder group, v-2-34, V-2 with revised hull mounts, fuel and cooling connectors and refined clutch,1939. Used in the T-34, SU-85 and SU-100, it produced 500 hp @1800 RPM, v-2K, V-2 with increased injection pressure and higher engine speed,1939. Used in the KV-1 and KV-2, it produced 600 hp, v-2V, V-2 detuned for use in lighter vehicles,1940. Used in the Voroshilovets artillery tractor, it produced 375 hp, v-2L/P, V-2 modified for boats, not built. V-2SN, V-2 with a supercharger from the Mikulin AM-38 aircraft engine,1940, used in the KV-3, it produced 862 hp. V-2-10, V-2 with stronger cylinders and heads, improved fuel pump, larger radiator and oil cooler, used in the IS-2, ISU-122 and ISU-152, and T-10, it produced 520 hp. V-2-450AV-S3, V-2 modified for oil drilling equipment, it produced 450 hp, wisconsin, MBI Publishing Company,1999 ISBN 0-7603-0701-6
36.
Battle of Moscow
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The Battle of Moscow is the name given by Soviet historians to two periods of strategically significant fighting on a 600 km sector of the Eastern Front during World War II. It took place between October 1941 and January 1942, the Soviet defensive effort frustrated Hitlers attack on Moscow, capital of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the largest Soviet city. Moscow was one of the military and political objectives for Axis forces in their invasion of the Soviet Union. Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion plan, called for the capture of Moscow within four months, the German Army Group North moved towards Leningrad, Army Group South took control of Ukraine, and Army Group Center advanced towards Moscow. By July 1941, Army Group Center crossed the Dnieper River, in August 1941, German forces captured Smolensk, an important stronghold on the road to Moscow. At this stage, although Moscow was vulnerable, an offensive against the city would have exposed the German flanks. In part to address these risks, in part to attempt to secure Ukraines food and mineral resources, Hitler ordered the attack to turn north and south and eliminate Soviet forces at Leningrad and this delayed the German advance on Moscow. When that advance resumed on 2 October 1941, German forces had been weakened, for Hitler, the Soviet capital was secondary, and he believed the only way to bring the Soviet Union to its knees was to defeat it economically. He felt this could be accomplished by seizing the economic resources of Ukraine east of Kiev, when Walther von Brauchitsch, Commander-in-Chief of the Army, supported a direct thrust to Moscow, he was told that only ossified brains could think of such an idea. Franz Halder, head of the Army General Staff, was convinced that a drive to seize Moscow would be victorious after the German Army inflicted enough damage on the Soviet forces. This view was shared by most within the German high command, but Hitler overruled his generals in favor of pocketing the Soviet forces around Kiev in the south, followed by the seizure of Ukraine. The move was successful, resulting in the loss of 660,000 Red Army personnel by 26 September, with the end of summer, Hitler redirected his attention to Moscow and assigned Army Group Center to this task. The forces committed to Operation Typhoon included three infantry armies supported by three Panzer Groups and by the Luftwaffes Luftflotte 2, up to two million German troops were committed to the operation, along with 1,000 tanks and 14,000 guns. German aerial strength, however, had severely reduced over the summers campaign. Luftflotte 2 had only 549 serviceable machines, including 158 medium and dive-bombers and 172 fighters, the attack relied on standard blitzkrieg tactics, using Panzer groups rushing deep into Soviet formations and executing double-pincer movements, pocketing Red Army divisions and destroying them. Facing the Wehrmacht were three Soviet fronts forming a line between the cities of Vyazma and Bryansk, which barred the way to Moscow. The armies comprising these fronts had also involved in heavy fighting. Still, it was a formidable concentration consisting of 1,250,000 men,1,000 tanks and 7,600 guns, the Soviet Air Force had suffered appalling losses of some 7,500 or 21,200 aircraft
37.
F-34 tank gun
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The 76 mm tank gun M1940 F-34 was a 76.2 mm Soviet tank gun used on the T-34/76 tank. A modified version of the gun, the 76 mm tank gun M1941 ZiS-5, was used on KV-1 tanks during World War II, nowadays, the two versions are often referred to just by their factory designations, as F-34 and ZiS-5, respectively. The F-34 was designed before the start of World War II by P. Muraviev of Vasiliy Grabins design bureau at Factory No.92 in Gorky. The gun was superior to both contemporary 76.2 mm guns, Gorkys F-32 and the Leningrad Kirov Factorys L-11, the initial T-34 Model 1940 with L-11 was in production when Germany invaded the Soviet Union. The F-34 was ready for production, but Marshal Grigory Kuliks high-handed interference with tank appropriation had made the relevant bureaucrats too frightened to approve the better gun. Grabin and the director of the Kharkov Locomotive Factory, the centre of T-34 production, conspired to produce the F-34 anyway, the new T-34 Model 1941 tanks, which were issued mostly to company and platoon commanders, were immensely popular with their crews. Letters from tank units reached Stalins State Defence Committee, which officially authorized production, also, due to Kuliks meddling, the KV-1 heavy tank model 1940 had ended up mounting Grabins older F-32 gun, making it more poorly armed than the T-34 medium tank. Chief Designer of Tanks Joseph Kotin convinced the GKO to allow the use of the F-34 gun on the KV-1 heavy tank Model 1941, the ZiS-5 was a version of the gun designed to better fit the KV-1s turret. In 1943, the armor of the new German Tiger and Panther tanks had rendered the F-34 gun obsolete. The better-penetrating 57 mm ZiS-2 high velocity gun was installed on some T-34/57 tanks. A more heavily armoured T-34 prototype was built, the T-43, but it was vulnerable to the Tigers 88. Some F-34 guns were installed in Lend-Lease M4A2 Sherman tanks. The L-11 gun was mounted on the initial T-34 Model 1940 medium tank, the F-32 was on the KV-1 Model 1940. Subsequent models of both mounted the F-34 until it was replaced by 85mm guns in the T-34-85 medium tank. Ordnance QF75 mm, contemporary British tank gun 7.5 cm KwK40, contemporary German tank gun 75 mm Gun M2/M3/M6, contemporary US tank gun Zaloga, Soviet Tanks and Combat Vehicles of World War Two. Soviet Repair Manual for the F-34 Gun Penetration table for various Soviet guns, scroll down for F-34
38.
BT-42
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The BT-42 was a Finnish assault gun, constructed during the Continuation War. It was constructed from captured Soviet BT-7 light tanks and British 4. 5-inch howitzers from 1918, as the Second World War progressed, the Soviets were fielding better and better tanks. The Finnish Army, on the hand, had to make do with a large number of captured tanks. The Finns decided to redesign the BT-7 Model 1937 tank and they constructed a new turret and armed it with British-made 114.3 mm howitzers that had been supplied by the British during the Winter War. Eighteen BT-42 were built and these were pressed into service in 1943 and these converted vehicles quickly became very unpopular with their crews. The weaknesses could mainly be attributed to the new turret, which apart from giving the tank a high-profile also added significant weight to the vehicle, stressing the suspension and the engine. The BT-42 was used for the first time in 1943, at the Svir River, the design worked reasonably well against soft targets but was completely unsuitable for anti-tank warfare. To counter this, the Finns copied a German-designed HEAT round for the gun, however, problems arose with the HEAT shells fuses. The BT-42s were used again during the major Soviet offensive in 1944 and they were deployed in the defence of Vyborg. In one encounter, a Finnish BT-42 hit a Soviet T-3418 times, failing even to immobilize the enemy vehicle, eight of the 18 BT-42s in action made no significant contribution to the fighting. At the time Finnish armored units were composed mostly of older designs such as the Vickers 6-Ton, T-26 and T-28 tanks. The BT-42 was retired soon after the Vyborg battles, replaced in their role by German-made StuG IIIs. BT-43 - another Finnish conversion of BT-7 tank Specifications and operational use at www. jaegerplatoon. net
39.
QF 4.5-inch howitzer
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The Ordnance QF4. 5-inch howitzer was the standard British Empire field howitzer of the First World War era. It replaced the BL 5-inch howitzer and equipped some 25% of the field artillery and it entered service in 1910 and remained in service through the interwar period and was last used in the field by British forces in early 1942. It was generally horse drawn until mechanisation in the 1930s, the QF4. 5-inch howitzer was used by British and Commonwealth forces in most theatres, by Russia and by British troops in Russia in 1919. Its calibre and hence shell weight were greater than those of the equivalent German field howitzer, in the Second World War it equipped some units of the BEF and British, Australian, New Zealand and South African batteries in East Africa and the Middle and Far East. During the Second Boer War the British government realised its field artillery was being overtaken by the more modern quick firing guns, the Krupp field howitzers used by the Boers had particularly impressed the British. The usefulness of field howitzers and the need for them to part of an infantry division’s artillery were reinforced by reports from the Russo-Japanese War in 1904. The committee was chaired by General Sir George Marshall, who had been commander in South Africa. It formed in January 1901 with wide ranging terms of reference concerning artillery equipment from guns and howitzers to harness design, the committee swiftly established requirements and invited proposals from British gun makers. None were satisfactory, and all compared poorly with a captured Krupp 12 cm howitzer, a purchase of Krupp howitzers was discussed, including visits to Essen. However, by 1905, the committee was sufficiently satisfied to recommend the production of trial equipments from ordnance factories, Armstrong, Vickers, testing in 1906 showed the Coventry design was by far the most satisfactory and a battery’s worth were ordered for trials. In 1908, after trials, the 4. 5-inch howitzer was recommended for service, the 4. 5-inch howitzer was used on most fronts during the First World War. On the Western Front its normal scale was one battery to three batteries of 18-pounders. Initially 4. 5-inch howitzers equipped a howitzer brigade of the Royal Field Artillery in each infantry division, in the original British Expeditionary Force in 1914 this brigade had three batteries each with six howitzers. Subsequent batteries had four howitzers. This organisation continued between the wars, the weapon remained in service during the inter-war period and was used in various campaigns. Apart from changes to ammunition the howitzer itself remained unchanged except for modifications to enable mechanisation. They were used in the Middle and Far East theatres as well as for training and were replaced by the 25-pounder. QF stands for quick firing, a British term for ordnance that fires ammunition with a cartridge case containing the propellant charge
40.
Tonne
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The SI symbol for the tonne is t, adopted at the same time as the unit itself in 1879. Its use is also official, for the metric ton, within the United States, having been adopted by the US National Institute of Standards and it is a symbol, not an abbreviation, and should not be followed by a period. Informal and non-approved symbols or abbreviations include T, mT, MT, in French and all English-speaking countries that are predominantly metric, tonne is the correct spelling. Before metrication in the UK the unit used for most purposes was the Imperial ton of 2,240 pounds avoirdupois, equivalent to 1,016 kg, differing by just 1. 6% from the tonne. Ton and tonne are both derived from a Germanic word in use in the North Sea area since the Middle Ages to designate a large cask. A full tun, standing about a high, could easily weigh a tonne. An English tun of wine weighs roughly a tonne,954 kg if full of water, in the United States, the unit was originally referred to using the French words millier or tonneau, but these terms are now obsolete. The Imperial and US customary units comparable to the tonne are both spelled ton in English, though they differ in mass, one tonne is equivalent to, Metric/SI,1 megagram. Equal to 1000000 grams or 1000 kilograms, megagram, Mg, is the official SI unit. Mg is distinct from mg, milligram, pounds, Exactly 1000/0. 453 592 37 lb, or approximately 2204.622622 lb. US/Short tons, Exactly 1/0. 907 184 74 short tons, or approximately 1.102311311 ST. One short ton is exactly 0.90718474 t, imperial/Long tons, Exactly 1/1. 016 046 9088 long tons, or approximately 0.9842065276 LT. One long ton is exactly 1.0160469088 t, for multiples of the tonne, it is more usual to speak of thousands or millions of tonnes. Kilotonne, megatonne, and gigatonne are more used for the energy of nuclear explosions and other events. When used in context, there is little need to distinguish between metric and other tons, and the unit is spelt either as ton or tonne with the relevant prefix attached. *The equivalent units columns use the short scale large-number naming system used in most English-language countries. †Values in the equivalent short and long tons columns are rounded to five significant figures, ǂThough non-standard, the symbol kt is also sometimes used for knot, a unit of speed for sea-going vessels, and should not be confused with kilotonne. A metric ton unit can mean 10 kilograms within metal trading and it traditionally referred to a metric ton of ore containing 1% of metal. In the case of uranium, the acronym MTU is sometimes considered to be metric ton of uranium, in the petroleum industry the tonne of oil equivalent is a unit of energy, the amount of energy released by burning one tonne of crude oil, approximately 42 GJ
41.
Horsepower
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Horsepower is a unit of measurement of power. There are many different standards and types of horsepower, two common definitions being used today are the mechanical horsepower, which is approximately 746 watts, and the metric horsepower, which is approximately 735.5 watts. The term was adopted in the late 18th century by Scottish engineer James Watt to compare the output of engines with the power of draft horses. It was later expanded to include the power of other types of piston engines, as well as turbines, electric motors. The definition of the unit varied among geographical regions, most countries now use the SI unit watt for measurement of power. With the implementation of the EU Directive 80/181/EEC on January 1,2010, units called horsepower have differing definitions, The mechanical horsepower, also known as imperial horsepower equals approximately 745.7 watts. It was defined originally as exactly 550 foot-pounds per second [745.7 N. m/s), the metric horsepower equals approximately 735.5 watts. It was defined originally as 75 kgf-m per second is approximately equivalent to 735.5 watts, the Pferdestärke PS is a name for a group of similar power measurements used in Germany around the end of the 19th century, all of about one metric horsepower in size. The boiler horsepower equals 9809.5 watts and it was used for rating steam boilers and is equivalent to 34.5 pounds of water evaporated per hour at 212 degrees Fahrenheit. One horsepower for rating electric motors is equal to 746 watts, one horsepower for rating Continental European electric motors is equal to 735 watts. Continental European electric motors used to have dual ratings, one British Royal Automobile Club horsepower can equal a range of values based on estimates of several engine dimensions. It is one of the tax horsepower systems adopted around Europe, the development of the steam engine provided a reason to compare the output of horses with that of the engines that could replace them. He had previously agreed to take royalties of one third of the savings in coal from the older Newcomen steam engines and this royalty scheme did not work with customers who did not have existing steam engines but used horses instead. Watt determined that a horse could turn a mill wheel 144 times in an hour, the wheel was 12 feet in radius, therefore, the horse travelled 2.4 × 2π ×12 feet in one minute. Watt judged that the horse could pull with a force of 180 pounds-force. So, P = W t = F d t =180 l b f ×2.4 ×2 π ×12 f t 1 m i n =32,572 f t ⋅ l b f m i n. Watt defined and calculated the horsepower as 32,572 ft·lbf/min, Watt determined that a pony could lift an average 220 lbf 100 ft per minute over a four-hour working shift. Watt then judged a horse was 50% more powerful than a pony, engineering in History recounts that John Smeaton initially estimated that a horse could produce 22,916 foot-pounds per minute
42.
Litre
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The litre or liter is an SI accepted metric system unit of volume equal to 1 cubic decimetre,1,000 cubic centimetres or 1/1,000 cubic metre. A cubic decimetre occupies a volume of 10×10×10 centimetres and is equal to one-thousandth of a cubic metre. The original French metric system used the litre as a base unit. The word litre is derived from an older French unit, the litron, whose name came from Greek — where it was a unit of weight, not volume — via Latin, and which equalled approximately 0.831 litres. The litre was also used in subsequent versions of the metric system and is accepted for use with the SI. The spelling used by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures is litre, the less common spelling of liter is more predominantly used in American English. One litre of water has a mass of almost exactly one kilogram. Subsequent redefinitions of the metre and kilogram mean that this relationship is no longer exact, a litre is defined as a special name for a cubic decimetre or 10 centimetres ×10 centimetres ×10 centimetres. Hence 1 L ≡0.001 m3 ≡1000 cm3, from 1901 to 1964, the litre was defined as the volume of one kilogram of pure water at maximum density and standard pressure. The kilogram was in turn specified as the mass of a platinum/iridium cylinder held at Sèvres in France and was intended to be of the mass as the 1 litre of water referred to above. It was subsequently discovered that the cylinder was around 28 parts per million too large and thus, during this time, additionally, the mass-volume relationship of water depends on temperature, pressure, purity and isotopic uniformity. In 1964, the definition relating the litre to mass was abandoned in favour of the current one, although the litre is not an official SI unit, it is accepted by the CGPM for use with the SI. CGPM defines the litre and its acceptable symbols, a litre is equal in volume to the millistere, an obsolete non-SI metric unit customarily used for dry measure. The litre is often used in some calculated measurements, such as density. One litre of water has a mass of almost exactly one kilogram when measured at its maximal density, similarly,1 millilitre of water has a mass of about 1 g,1,000 litres of water has a mass of about 1,000 kg. It is now known that density of water depends on the isotopic ratios of the oxygen and hydrogen atoms in a particular sample. The litre, though not an official SI unit, may be used with SI prefixes, the most commonly used derived unit is the millilitre, defined as one-thousandth of a litre, and also often referred to by the SI derived unit name cubic centimetre. It is a commonly used measure, especially in medicine and cooking, Other units may be found in the table below, where the more often used terms are in bold
43.
Battles of Khalkhin Gol
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The Battles of Khalkhyn Gol were the decisive engagements of the undeclared Soviet–Japanese border conflicts fought among the Soviet Union, Mongolia and the Japan in 1939. The conflict was named after the river Khalkhyn Gol, which passes through the battlefield, in Japan, the decisive battle of the conflict is known as the Nomonhan Incident after a nearby village on the border between Mongolia and Manchuria. The battles resulted in the defeat of the Japanese Sixth Army, after the Japanese occupation of Manchuria in 1931, Japan turned its military interests to Soviet territories that bordered those areas. The first major Soviet-Japanese border incident, the Battle of Lake Khasan, clashes between Japanese and Soviet forces frequently occurred along the border of Manchuria. In 1939, Manchuria was a state of Japan known as Manchukuo. The Japanese maintained that the border between Manchukuo and Mongolia was the Khalkhyn Gol which flows into Lake Buir, in contrast, the Mongolians and their Soviet allies maintained that the border ran some 16 kilometres east of the river, just east of Nomonhan village. The principal occupying army of Manchukuo was the Kwantung Army of Japan, the Soviet forces consisted of the 57th Special Corps, deployed from the Trans-Baikal Military District. They were responsible for defending the border between Siberia and Manchuria, the Mongolian troops mainly consisted of cavalry brigades and light artillery units, and proved to be effective and agile, but lacked armor and manpower in sufficient numbers. In 1939, the Japanese Cabinet sent instructions to the Kwantung Army to strengthen and fortify Manchukuos borders with Mongolia, the incident began on 11 May 1939. A Mongolian cavalry unit of some 70–90 men had entered the area in search of grazing for their horses. On that day, Manchukuoan cavalry attacked the Mongolians and drove back across the river Khalkhin Gol. On 13 May, the Mongolian force returned in greater numbers, Soviet and Mongolian troops returned to the disputed region, however, and Azumas force again moved to evict them. This time things turned out differently, as the Soviet-Mongolian forces surrounded Azumas force on 28 May, the Azuma force suffered eight officers and 97 men killed and one officer and 33 men wounded, for 63% total casualties. The commander of the Soviet forces and the Far East Front was Comandarm Grigori Shtern from May 1938, both sides began building up their forces in the area, soon, Japan had 30,000 men in the theater. The Soviets dispatched a new commander, Comcor Georgy Zhukov. Accompanying Zhukov was Comcor Yakov Smushkevich with his aviation unit, J. Lkhagvasuren, Corps Commissar of the Mongolian Peoples Revolutionary Army, was appointed Zhukovs deputy. On 27 June, the Japanese Army Air Forces 2nd Air Brigade struck the Soviet air base at Tamsak-Bulak in Mongolia, the Japanese won this engagement, but the strike had been ordered by the Kwantung Army without getting permission from Imperial Japanese Army headquarters in Tokyo. In an effort to prevent the incident from escalating, Tokyo promptly ordered the JAAF not to any more air strikes against Soviet airbases
Afghanistan
Republic of China (4 BT-5s)
Finland (Captured)
Hungary (Captured)
Nazi Germany (Captured)
Mongolia
Poland (Captured, likely not operational.)
Soviet Union
Spanish Republic
Spanish State (Captured)
