1.
Ministry of Internal Affairs of Georgia
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The Ministry of Internal Affairs of Georgia abbreviated MIA, is a state law enforcement agency of Georgia. Its main office is in Tbilisi, after gaining an independence, on May 26,1918 on the National Council meeting the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Georgia was formed. Its main tasks included fighting counter-revolutionary rallies and Bolshevik propaganda, combating embezzlement of public funds, on 25 February 1921, with the help of Russia, the Georgian Bolsheviks overthrew the legitimate Menshevik government of Georgia. Since this day, the independent Ministry of Internal Affairs was disbanded, by the Decision of Georgian Revolutionary Committee of March 6,1921, the Peoples Commissariat of Internal Affairs of Georgia was established. On April 15,1953, the Supreme Council of Georgian SSR adopted a law on Transformation of state ministries of the Soviet Socialist Republic of Georgia, according to the new law, the State Security Ministry merged into the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Georgian SSR. On April 10,1954, by the Decree of the Presidium of Supreme Council of Georgian SSR, the State Security Committee under the Council of Ministers of the Georgian SSR was founded. On September 18,1962, under the Decree of the Supreme Council of Georgian SSR, on November 19,1968, it recovered its old name – the Ministry of Internal Affairs. Since the introduction of reforms of Georgian law enforcement in 2003. Based on the reforms implemented during 2015, organizational and institutional separation of police, an Independent State Security Service was formed. The MIA deploys numerous designated sub branches for extraordinary crisis and emergency situations and those include special measures and rapid deployment capabilities for particular events such as unrests or biological and chemical warfare utilized against the civilian population by hostile entities. Employed especially for latter events is the Emergency Management Agency which is responsible for dealing with any kind of man-made or natural disasters, the Special Tasks Department was established for rapid response to maintain public order and security as a supportive operational force to all other divisions. Its units are among various other obligations, also tasked with protecting the vital Baku–Supsa Pipeline, the STD is also capable of performing combat operations in a supportive role for the armed forces of Georgia and did so during the 2008 war. The overall security of pipelines, however, falls under the responsibility of the Strategic Pipelines Protection Department. The primary surgical force against crime and terrorism are the Anti-Crime Department and Special Emergency and Operations Center
2.
Vano Merabishvili
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Ivane Vano Merabishvili is a Georgian politician and former Prime Minister of Georgia from 4 July to 25 October 2012. Merabishvili was born in the largely Georgian Roman Catholic village of Ude in what is now Samtskhe-Javakheti region in south Georgia and he graduated from the Georgian Technical University in 1992 with a degree from the Faculty of Mining. In an interview with the Washington Post, Merabisvhili stated Shevardnadze was “tired”, Shevardnadze downplayed the criticism, attributing Merabishvili’s statement to the latters youth and inexperience. In 2002, Merabishvili became Secretary General of Mikheil Saakashvili’s newly formed opposition National Movement and he was energetically involved in the protest movement following the November 2003 parliamentary elections which led to Shevardnadze’s resignation in the bloodless Rose Revolution. In December 2004, the Ministry of State Security was merged with the Ministry of Internal Affairs of which Merabishvili was placed in charge. As interior minister, Merabishvili presided over police reform and a crackdown on criminal bosses, critics have accused the Interior Ministry of using excessive force and heavy-handed tactics in several cases, including against opposition protesters in 2007 and 2010. Girgvlianis family accused interior ministry officials of murdering Sandro after he insulted them and Tako Salaqaia, Merabishvilis wife, the court case resulted in the conviction of four lower-level ministry officials, but the case was heavily criticized by several independent observers and opposition parties who claimed a cover up. Merabishvili himself accused the parties of trying to use the Girgvliani murder case for their political interests. By late 2008, Merabishvili had become one of the most influential figures in the government of Georgia, Ivanishvili called on Merabishvili to convince President Saakashvili to step down. Merabishvili later said he did not consider Ivanishvili to have been the governments serious rival, on June 30,2012, President Saakashvili named Merabishvili as the countrys Prime Minister, replacing Nika Gilauri. This decision was made a few months before the October parliamentary elections, Merabishvili said his program would be focused on the three key priorities, employment, agriculture development and availability of healthcare. He was approved by the Parliament of Georgia on July 4,2012, the United National Movement lost majority of seats to the opposition coalition Bidzina Ivanishvili–Georgian Dream in the 2012 election. On October 15,2012, Merabishvili was elected as secretary-general of the United National Movement, pledging to into modern, on May 21,2013, Merabishvili and Zurab Tchiaberashvili, governor of Kakheti, were arrested in connection to investigation into alleged misspending of GEL5. On February 17,2014 Merabishvili was sentenced to five years in jail after being found guilty of abuse of office, bribery of voters, the Merabishvili defense team appealed the sentence. The opposition said it was a hunt of the former government. Merabishvili is married to Tamar Tako Merabishvili née Salaqaia and they have two sons, Misha and Davit
3.
Eka Zguladze
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Ekaterine Eka Zguladze is a Georgian and Ukrainian government official. She served as First Deputy Minister of Internal Affairs of Ukraine since 17 December 2014 till 11 May 2016 and she had served as Georgias First Deputy Minister of Internal Affairs from 2006 to 2012 and Acting Minister of Internal Affairs in 2012. Ekaterine Zguladze was born in Tbilisi, the capital of then-Soviet Georgia and she studied law at the Oklahoma State University and eventually graduated from the Tbilisi State University with a degree in international journalism. Zguladze worked for several international organizations based in Tbilisi and, from 2004 to 2005, during her tenures in the ministry, Zguladze helped carry out sweeping police reforms that earned praise in the West. She was also the spokesperson on a range of issues, including during negotiations with foreign diplomats. On 17 December 2014, Zguladze was appointed as First Deputy Minister of Internal Affairs of Ukraine, earlier that month, the President of Ukraine Petro Poroshenko granted her Ukrainian citizenship to make her eligible for the post. She is the second former Georgian official, after Alexander Kvitashvili, on her plans for police reform, she stated, Were not producing cosmetic changes, we need to create a brand new system of law enforcement. On 5 July 2015,2,000 new patrol police replaced Kyivs old traffic police, in September 2015, Zguladze said, Im a firm believer that Western values, Western democracy, and Western aspirations are the way for Georgia … and for Ukraine. In addition to her native Georgian, Zguladze is fluent in Russian, the couple has a son born in 2011
4.
Ministry of Defense of Georgia
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The Minister of Defence is appointed and removed from the post by the Prime Minister of Georgia. The ministry is headed by Levan Izoria. In the midst of dissolution of Soviet Union and political turmoil in Georgia in late 1980s, Georgian military played an important role in the struggle for, in November 1992, the Parliament of Georgia passed a law creating Council for National Security and Defense. The council reported all its activities to the parliament but was subordinate to the head of state. Eduard Shevardnadze was then appointed the Council Chairman, Georgian politicians Jaba Ioseliani and Tengiz Kitovani were appointed deputy chairmen by Shevardnadze while Tedo Japaridze, the Georgian MFA expert on the United States became the chairmans aide. The council had the right to issue binding resolutions on military. In May 1993, Ioseliani and Kitovani were relieved of their duties in the council and disbanded of their government power bases, the Ministry of Defence was established in 1991. Due to Georgian Civil War, the Georgian military shrunk and was limited in resources, lack of financial resources forced the Georgian government to allocate less money to defence with defence budget being as little as GEL55 million in 1999. By 2005 Georgian government consolidated the seven branches of the defence forces, the number of the active duty personnel in the Armed Forces was reduced to 15,000. As a part of Georgian foreign and security policy, the government has been trying towards progressive integration into European and Euro-Atlantic political, economic, State Ministry for Euro-Atlantic Integration was also created as a part of the process. It consists of four departments, State Military Scientific-Technical Center Delta Military Police Department General Inspection Military Intelligence Department
5.
Nika Gilauri
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Nika Gilauri is a Georgian politician who was Prime Minister of Georgia from 6 February 2009 to 30 June 2012. He had served as Minister for Energy and Minister for Finance, in 2012, he was appointed as the head of the JSC Partnership Fund, a state-owned stock fund. Currently Mr Gilauri set his advisory boutique for public sector decision makers and he is also a senior advisor at McKinsey and Co. Nika Gilauri was born in 1975 in Tbilisi and he also led energy sector negotiations with Gazprom, SOCAR, Inter RAO and other large energy companies resulting in Georgia becoming one of the most energy secured countries in the region. As a Minister of Finance Mr Gilauri undertook anticorruption reforms in customs services introducing innovative measures to improve services, the move worked well for the country being the first to recover form recession reaching 6, 4% growth rate in 2010. In February 2009 Mr Gilauri succeeded Grigol Mgaloblishvili as a Prime Minister, due to difficult economic situation he was primary charged with economic recovery program and improvement of business climate in the country. In Q22012 Georgia’s economic growth rate was above +8% and Georgia was Ranked 9th worldwide by the World Bank’s Easy to Do Business Report and he also led EU-Georgia FTA agreement negotiations as well as EU – Georgia Association Agreement negotiations. Nika Gilauri married in January 2010 the former Georgian fashion model Marine Shamugia, a Sukhumi native, media related to Nika Gilauri at Wikimedia Commons
6.
Vasil Sikharulidze
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Vasil Sikharulidze is a Georgian diplomat and politician. He worked as a foreign advisor to the President of Georgia Mikhail Saakashvili from August 27,2009. He had previously served as Ambassador to the United States and Georgias Minister of Defence, born in Tbilisi, then-Soviet Georgia, Sikharulidze graduated from Tbilisi State Medical University in 1993 and practiced psychiatry from 1993 to 1995. He headed the NATO division at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Georgia from 2000 to 2002 and he worked for the National Security Council of Georgia in 2004 and served as a Deputy Minister of Defense in the years 2005-2006. In March 2006, Sikharulidze was appointed the Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of Georgia to the United States, Canada and Mexico. He was recalled in December 2008 to replace, as the Minister of Defense of Georgia, Davit Kezerashvili, Sikharulidze held the post for eight months, overseeing the rebuilding of Georgias shattered military after the war. Sikharulidze was moved to the post of Presidents foreign policy advisor and he currently serves as the Chairman of the Atlantic Council of Georgia in Tbilisi, Georgia
7.
Zugdidi
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Zugdidi is a city in the Western Georgian historical province of Samegrelo. It is situated in the north-west of that province, the city is located 318 kilometres west of Tbilisi,30 km from the Black Sea coast and 30 km from the Egrisi Range, at an elevation of 100–110 metres above sea level. Zugdidi is the capital of the Samegrelo-Zemo Svaneti region, which combines Samegrelo and upper part of Svaneti, the city serves as a residence of Metropolitan of Zugdidi and Tsaishi Eparchy of the Georgian Apostolic Autocephalous Orthodox Church. The name Zugdidi first appears in XVII century, literally it means big hill in Mingrelian language. An alternative version of the recorded in old sources is Zubdidi with same meaning from Megrelian. Local Georgian residents of historical provinces of Megrelia and Abkhazia also uses Zugidi, the name was given to the town because of a hill situated in the eastern part of the city, where the some small remains of an ancient fortress are still visible. Historically Zugdidi was a capital of the Principality of Mingrelia until 1867, after then Zugdidi was an administrative center of Zugdidi Uyezd as a part of the Kutaisi Governorate till 1918, when it became a part of the Democratic Republic of Georgia. From 1930 the center of the Zugdidi Raion of the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic, between 17–19th centuries, Zugdidi was one of the important political and cultural center of Mingrelia and whole Georgia. A famous Georgian medieval epic poem The Knight in the Panthers Skin has been rewritten by Mamuka Tavakalashvili here at the court of Prince Levan II Dadiani in 1646, during the Crimean War Ottoman forces with Omar Pasha seized Zugdidi in 1855. At the end of the 1855 and beginning of 1856 city was liberated by Mingrelian Militia commanded by Major General Prince Grigol Dadiani, by the order of Iskender Pasha Ottomans plundered, burnt and destroyed the whole city, especially palaces and botanical garden. Many buildings were damaged during the Georgian Civil War 1992–1993 as well. In 1993, there were located administration of the first President of Georgia Zviad Gamsakhurdia, architectural sights of the city are the Queens palace and Nikos palace, as well as Cathedral of the Blachernae Icon of the Mother of God and Mantskhvar-kari church. Napoleon’s death mask is on display in the Dadiani Palace Museum in Zugdidi, other notable attractions are the old Botanical Garden and the city boulevard, planned by Prince Raphael Eristavi and the Cathedral of Iverian Theotokos. This theaters first performance, Molières Le médecin malgré lui, was staged on 11 April 1869 by Anton Purtseladze, the Drama Theater was founded in 1932. in 1959 the theater was named after the famous Georgian novelist and theatrical actor Shalva Dadiani. Zugdidi Botanical Garden was established in the 19th century by the Prince of Mingrelia David Dadiani and Queen Ekaterine, currently, the garden is a branch of Tbilisi Central Botanical Garden and is administered by the Georgian Academy of Sciences. Historically Zugdidi is known as a distinctly mono-ethnic city with a vast majority of Georgians, by the 2002 state census 98. 97% of its total population were ethnic Georgians. In the second half of the 1850s, due to the short Ottoman occupation, the 1950s-1970s were an important period for Zugdidis development, which affected the growth of population, while the last 20-year growth was mainly caused by refugee displacement. After the Russian-Georgian war in Abkhazia a large number of displaced peoples from Abkhazia were forced to move to Zugdidi
8.
Georgia (country)
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Georgia is a country in the Caucasus region of Eurasia. The capital and largest city is Tbilisi, Georgia covers a territory of 69,700 square kilometres, and its 2016 population is about 3.72 million. Georgia is a unitary, semi-presidential republic, with the government elected through a representative democracy, during the classical era, several independent kingdoms became established in what is now Georgia. The kingdoms of Colchis and Iberia adopted Christianity in the early 4th century, a unified Kingdom of Georgia reached the peak of its political and economic strength during the reign of King David IV and Queen Tamar in the 12th and early 13th centuries. Thereafter the kingdom declined and eventually disintegrated under hegemony of various powers, including the Mongols, the Ottoman Empire. Russian rule over Georgia was eventually acknowledged in various treaties with Iran. Since the establishment of the modern Georgian republic in April 1991, post-communist Georgia suffered from civil, the countrys Western orientation soon led to the worsening of relations with Russia, culminating in the brief Russo-Georgian War in August 2008. Georgia is a member of the United Nations, the Council of Europe, and it contains two de facto independent regions, Abkhazia and South Ossetia, which gained limited international recognition after the 2008 Russo-Georgian War. Georgia and a part of the international community consider the regions to be part of Georgias sovereign territory under Russian military occupation. Georgia probably stems from the Persian designation of the Georgians – gurğān, in the 11th and 12th centuries adapted via Syriac gurz-ān/gurz-iyān, starting with the Persian word gurğ/gurğān, the word was later adopted in numerous other languages, including Slavic and West European languages. This term itself might have established through the ancient Iranian appellation of the near-Caspian region. The self-designation used by ethnic Georgians is Kartvelebi, the medieval Georgian Chronicles present an eponymous ancestor of the Kartvelians, Kartlos, a great-grandson of Japheth. However, scholars agree that the word is derived from the Karts, the name Sakartvelo consists of two parts. Its root, kartvel-i, specifies an inhabitant of the core central-eastern Georgian region of Kartli, ancient Greeks and Romans referred to early western Georgians as Colchians and eastern Georgians as Iberians. Today the full, official name of the country is Georgia, before the 1995 constitution came into force the countrys name was the Republic of Georgia. The territory of modern-day Georgia was inhabited by Homo erectus since the Paleolithic Era, the proto-Georgian tribes first appear in written history in the 12th century BC. The earliest evidence of wine to date has found in Georgia. In fact, early metallurgy started in Georgia during the 6th millennium BC, the classical period saw the rise of a number of early Georgian states, the principal of which was Colchis in the west and Iberia in the east
9.
Ministry of Justice of Georgia
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The ministry is headed by Tea Tsulukiani. The development of the system in Georgia dates back to Pharnavazi era when legislative functions were regulated by the Peoples Assembly. In 9th-10th centuries, the system was assigned to a body called Darbazi which included clergy, aristocracy. A single collection of old documents was preserved and saved during the reign of Vakhtang VI in the beginning of the 18th century, the collection is known as the Book of Laws of Vakhtang VI. King Vakhtang’s Dasturlamal has survived to the present day, composed in 1707-1709, it contains description of the statesmen and assignment of their duties, survey and census of the population, economy, revenues, taxes and property accounts, etc. The duties assumed by the present day Minister of Justice of Georgia were divided among a Chancellor, Chief Bookkeeper, after independence of Georgia was restored in 1991, the ministry was re-established. The ministry is headed by the minister aided by three deputy ministers, the ministry carries out its activities in accordance with the resolution enacted by the Presidential Decree No.541 dated November 7,2008
10.
Gldani prison scandal
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The Gldani prison scandal was a political scandal in the country of Georgia involving the recorded abuse of inmates in the Georgian prison system. The videos detailed abuse similar to the Abu Ghraib scandal, the scandal was unique in Georgian history in that it was initially shared and discussed on social media, before the story began to appear on Georgias largely pro-government television channels. The scandal is widely viewed as a point in Georgias post-Soviet evolution. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, Georgia was world renowned for having a high level of crime. While Saakashvilis reforms dramatically reduce crime rates, it resulted in large numbers of young men being incarcerated. This was a change both the late Soviet and Shevardnadze eras, when criminals could easily bribe their way out of prison. The Gldani prison scandal is widely believed to have resulted in Saakashvilis party losing power, the highly controversial video footage resulted in orchestrated rallies in cities such as Tbilisi, Batumi, Poti, Kutaisi and Gori. Upset by images of prisoner abuse, protestors demanded justice. Later that night Khatuna Kalmakhelidze fired David Chakua, the Chairman of the Penitentiary Department, several days later, Kalmakhelidze herself resigned. Several persons suspected of inhumane treatment of inmates were detained. Hours before the video was released, the Georgian Interior Ministry said on Tuesday afternoon that three officials of the Gldani prison were arrested for inhuman treatment of inmates, the ministry also released footage showing two prison guards beating an inmate in a cell. Tamaz Tamazashvili is supported by the political party Georgian Dream, which him a senior position in the newly created government. They also assert that Tamaz is a political prisoner, Khatuna Kalmakhelidze asked for resignation later the same day. Bedukadze would later gain infamy in Georgia for affiliating himself with a Pro-Putin political party ran a controversial television commercial in the lead up to the 2016 elections. Bedukadzes affiliation with a political party would later draw his previous actions in leaking the videos into question. Prisoners are shown being raped with broom handles and police batons, the first video shows ten prison guards conducting physical and verbal abuse on prisoners. In the second video a man is forced to take off his underpants and he is then insulted and spat upon, During the offence, an attacker makes references to him being a thief in law. In the last part of the video, the man is writing something under dictation
11.
Tbilisi State University
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Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University, is a university established on 8 February 1918 in Tbilisi, Georgia. Excluding academies and theological seminaries which have functioned in Georgia for centuries, TSU is the oldest university in Georgia. Over 18,000 students are enrolled and the number of faculty. The university has five branches in the regions of Georgia, six faculties,60 scientific-research laboratories and centers, the main founder of the university was a Georgian historian and academician, Ivane Javakhishvili. Professor Petre Melikishvili, a Georgian chemist, was chosen the first rector of TSU, the Rector of TSU since September 2016 Giorgi Sharvashidze. Tbilisi State University was founded in 1918 owing to the leadership of Georgian historian Ivane Javakhishvili and it was the first and the only educational body of this type in Caucasus Region by that time. The university is housed in the building of Georgian Nobility Gymnasium constructed by the architect Simon Kldiashvili from 1899 to 1906. The foundation of the Academy of Science of Georgia and other educational institutions was encouraged by the university. The university was opened on 26 January 1918, the day of remembrance of the Georgian King David the Builder, a church in the University garden, named after the King, has been functioning since 5 September 1995. In 1989 the university was named after its founder - Ivane Javakhishvili, Petre Melikishvili, a chemist and professor, was elected as the first rector of the university. At its commencement, the university had one faculty - that of philosophy, Ivane Javakhishvili, a Georgian historian, delivered the first lecture. At the beginning of 1918 the board of professors and lecturers numbered 18, over 35 thousand students are studying at the University and its eight regional branches. 95 educational programs were used at the course,194 at masters studies. Schools that came into being at Tbilisi University were, Mathematics, Physics, national scholarly schools of Georgian historiography, History of literature, Georgian philosophy, Study of Art, Georgian and Caucasian Linguistics, Oriental and Classic Philology. The chairs and scientific research departments serve for preparation of postgraduate students,26 qualification councils operate for conferring scientific degrees in almost all fields of science. Medical education was restored at the university in 1994, originally the specialty of medicine was opened at the faculty of biology and medicine, and the faculty of medicine became an independent unit in 2000. A center for the Management of Health Care and the Department for Continuous Medical Education were opened, the university diagnostic center provides the health care of the professors and lecturers and collaborators of the University. A printing press was set up in 1923 and a publishing-house in 1933, the University Archive was founded in 1933
12.
Non-governmental organization
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A non-governmental organization is a not-for-profit organization that is independent from states and international governmental organizations. They are usually funded by donations but some avoid formal funding altogether and are run primarily by volunteers, NGOs are highly diverse groups of organizations engaged in a wide range of activities, and take different forms in different parts of the world. Some may have charitable status, while others may be registered for tax exemption based on recognition of social purposes, others may be fronts for political, religious, or other interests. The number of NGOs worldwide is estimated to be 3.7 million, India is estimated to have had around 2 million NGOs in 2009, just over one NGO per 600 Indians, and many times the number of primary schools and primary health centres in India. China is estimated to have approximately 440,000 officially registered NGOs, NGOs are difficult to define, and the term NGO is not always used consistently. In some countries the term NGO is applied to an organization that in another country would be called an NPO, there are many different classifications of NGO in use. The most common focus is on orientation and level of operation, an NGOs orientation refers to the type of activities it takes on. These activities might include human rights, environmental, improving health, an NGOs level of operation indicates the scale at which an organization works, such as local, regional, national, or international. The term non-governmental organization was first coined in 1945, when the United Nations was created, later the term became used more widely. One characteristic these diverse organizations share is that their non-profit status means they are not hindered by short-term financial objectives. Accordingly, they are able to devote themselves to issues which occur across longer time horizons, such as change, malaria prevention. Public surveys reveal that NGOs often enjoy a degree of public trust. NGO/GRO types can be understood by their orientation and level of how they operate, charitable orientation often involves a top-down paternalistic effort with little participation by the beneficiaries. It includes NGOs with activities directed toward meeting the needs of the poor people, in the classical community development project, participation begins with the need definition and continues into the planning and implementation stages. There is maximum involvement of the beneficiaries with NGOs acting as facilitators, community-based organizations arise out of peoples own initiatives. They can be responsible for raising the consciousness of the poor, helping them to understand their rights in accessing needed services. City-wide organizations include organizations such as chambers of commerce and industry, coalitions of business, ethnic or educational groups, national NGOs include national organizations such as the YMCAs/YWCAs, professional associations and similar groups. Some have state and city branches and assist local NGOs and they can be responsible for funding local NGOs, institutions and projects and implementing projects
13.
Rose Revolution
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The Revolution of Roses, often translated into English as the Rose Revolution, describes a pro-Western peaceful change of power in Georgia in November 2003. The event derives its name from the moment, when demonstrators led by Mikheil Saakashvili stormed the Parliament session with red roses in hand. The Citizens Union of Georgia had been the party for most of Eduard Shevardnadzes Presidency. The ineffectiveness of the government and the popularity of the regime led to the defection of numerous parliamentary deputies from the ruling party in 2000. The first group to leave the CUG represented the business community and this began the collapse of the party, as numerous party officials and deputies defected to join or form other parties. Eduard Shevardnadze himself resigned from the chairmanship of the CUG in September 2001, fatefully, Mikheil Saakashvili left the ruling party in September and would form the National Movement opposition party one month later. The disintegration of the party highlighted the weakness of the Shevardnadze regime and dispersed the political elite amongst a number of new parties, the collapse of the Citizens Union of Georgia and more apparent public discontent with Shevardnadze allowed for the formation of numerous new parties after 2000. The former ruling party showed its vulnerability in the 2002 local elections, losing decisively to independents, the local elections saw independents secure 2754 seats, with the New Rights Party being the most successful political party, obtaining 558 parliamentary seats. The Citizens Union of Georgia won only 70 out of approximately 4,850 parliamentary seats, following the disastrous 2002 local elections, Shevardnadze made a concerted attempt to rebuild a political coalition that could support him. The CUG was rebuilt before the 2003 parliamentary election, which was understood to be a key trial before the 2005 presidential election, however, President Shevardnadzes popularity rating had plummeted to around 5%, undermining any attempt to revive the CUG under his leadership. The new CUG further found itself divided over internal disputes, NGOs played a significant role in the Rose Revolution. By the end of 2000, the amount of NGOs estimated to be in Georgia numbered around four thousand, the 1997 Civil Code made the registration of an NGO relatively easy, and they operated in Georgia with few restrictions. Though only a portion of those likely had influence on the government or were successful in lobbying. While public participation in these NGOs was relatively low, they were successful in mobilizing the population to play a more active role in government. Georgias weak economy allowed these NGOs, who were often partially foreign funded, some of these leaders hoped to make the Serbian scenario a reality in Georgia, in the sense that they wanted to promote non-violent protests to force the resignation of an authoritarian leader. Before the Rose Revolution, a network of NGOs with foreign financial support already existed in the country that could later coordinate protest. Foreign support for the Shevardnadze regime declined from 2000 to 2003, in the three years before the Rose Revolution, foreign financial support for the regime began to become severely limited. Instead, foreign states and organizations gave financial assistance to NGOs and opposition parties within Georgia, the United States announced a reduction in aid, coinciding with a decision by the International Monetary Fund to suspend aid to Georgia
14.
Ombudsman
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In some countries an Inspector General, Citizen Advocate or other official may have duties similar to those of a national ombudsman, and may also be appointed by a legislature. Below the national level an ombudsman may be appointed by a state, unofficial ombudsmen may be appointed by, or even work for, a corporation such as a utility supplier, newspaper, NGO, or professional regulatory body. The typical duties of an ombudsman are to investigate complaints and attempt to resolve them, Ombudsmen sometimes also aim to identify systematic issues leading to poor service or breaches of peoples rights. At the national level, most ombudsmen have a mandate to deal with the entire public sector. In some cases, there is a more restricted mandate, for example with particular sectors of society, more recent developments have included the creation of specialized Childrens Ombudsman and Information Commissioner agencies. In some jurisdictions an ombudsman charged with handling concerns about government is more formally referred to as the Parliamentary Commissioner. In many countries where the ombudsmans responsibility includes protecting human rights, the post of ombudsman had by the end of the 20th century been instituted by most governments and by some intergovernmental organizations such as the European Union. A prototype of ombudsmen may have flourished in China during the Qin Dynasty, the Roman Tribune had some similar roles, with power to veto acts that infringed upon the Plebeians. Another precursor to the ombudsman was the Turkish Diwan-al-Mazalim which appears to go back to the caliph, Umar. They were also attested in Siam, India, the Liao dynasty, Japan, an indigenous Swedish, Norwegian, and Danish term, ombudsman is etymologically rooted in the Old Norse word umboðsmaðr, essentially meaning representative. In the Danish Law of Jutland from 1241, the term is umbozman, from 1552, it is also used in the other Scandinavian languages such as the both Icelandic and Faroese umboðsmaður, the Norwegian ombudsmann/ombodsmann and the Swedish ombudsman. The Swedish speaking minority in Finland uses the Swedish terminology, the predecessor of the Swedish Parliamentary Ombudsman was the Office of Supreme Ombudsman, which was established by the Swedish King, Charles XII, in 1713. Charles XII was in exile in Turkey and needed a representative in Sweden to ensure that judges and civil servants acted in accordance with the laws, if they did not do so, the Supreme Ombudsman had the right to prosecute them for negligence. In 1719 the Swedish Office of Supreme Ombudsman became the Chancellor of Justice, the word ombudsman and its specific meaning have since been adopted in various languages, including Spanish, Dutch and Czech. The German language uses Ombudsmann, Ombudsfrau and Ombudsleute, notable exceptions are French and Finnish, which use translations instead. Modern variations of this term include ombud, ombuds, ombudsperson, or ombudswoman, if the ombudsman finds a complaint to be substantiated, the problem may get rectified, or an ombudsman report is published making recommendations for change. Further redress depends on the laws of the concerned. Ombudsmen in most countries do not have the power to initiate legal proceedings or prosecution on the grounds of a complaint, the major advantage of an ombudsman is that he or she examines complaints from outside the offending state institution, thus avoiding the conflicts of interest inherent in self-policing
15.
Sozar Subari
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Sozar Subari is a Georgian politician, journalist, and human rights activist. He is Georgias Minister for IDPs, Accommodation and Refugees since July 26,2014 and he served as a Public Defender of Georgia from 2004 to 2009 and Minister of Corrections and Legal Assistance from 2012 to 2014. Subari was born as Sozar Subeliani in the highland village Chuberi and he studied history at the Tbilisi State University and theology at the Tbilisi Theological Academy. After a service as a deacon from 1989 to 1991, he took part in the conflict in Abkhazia in 1993. He was involved with the influential NGO Liberty Institute from 2000 to 2004 and he also worked as a journalist, including being a correspondent for Radio Liberty, and an editor of the Tbilisi-based Kavkasioni newspaper. Subari was elected as ombudsman by the Parliament of Georgia for five years term in 2004, during his tenure, the ombudsmans role in Georgian society increased. Subari emerged as a prominent critic of the Mikheil Saakashvili government, during the anti-government rally of 2007, he claimed to have been repeatedly beaten by the police, and stated, Georgia is now the same as Lukashenko’s Belarus. On their part, the government officials have accused Subari of politicizing the Public Defender’s Office, subaris term expired on September 16,2009. He was succeeded by Giorgi Tughushi, a ruling United National Movement party nominee, Subari himself joined the opposition Alliance for Georgia led by Georgias former UN envoy, Irakli Alasania. In 2012, Subari became a member of the Georgian Dream party, founded by the billionaire Bidzina Ivanishvili, whose coalition won the October 1,2012 parliamentary election. After this, Subari became Minister of Corrections and Legal Assistance in the cabinet of Bidzina Ivanishvili on October 25,2012, succeeding Giorgi Tughushi, his onetime successor as an ombudsman
16.
Post-Soviet states
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On March 11,1990, Lithuania was the first to declare its independence, with Estonia and Latvia following suit in August 1991. All three Baltic states claimed continuity from the states that existed prior to their annexation by the Soviet Union in 1944 and were admitted to the United Nations on 17 September 1991. The remaining 12 republics all subsequently seceded,12 of the 15 states, excluding the Baltic states, initially formed the CIS and most joined CSTO, while the Baltic states focused on European Union and NATO membership. The 15 post-Soviet states are divided into the following five groupings. Each of these regions has its own set of traits, owing not only to geographic and cultural factors. In addition, there are a number of de facto independent, the dissolution of the Soviet Union took place as a result and against the backdrop of general economic stagnation, even regression. In all, the process triggered severe economic declines, with Gross Domestic Product dropping by more than 40% overall between 1990 and 1995. This decline in GDP was much more intense than the 27% decline that the United States suffered in the wake of the Great Depression between 1930 and 1934. The economic shocks associated with wholesale privatization resulted in the deaths of roughly 1 million working age individuals throughout the former Soviet bloc in the 1990s, by 2007,10 of the 15 post-Soviet states had recovered and reached GDP greater than what they had in 1991. Only Moldova, Ukraine, Georgia, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan had GDP significantly below the 1991 level, the recovery in Russia was marginal, with GDP in 2006-2007 just nudging above the 1991 level. Combined with the aftershocks of the 1998 economic crisis it led to a return of more interventionist economic policies by Vladimir Putins administration. Change in Gross Domestic Product in constant prices, 1991-2015 *Economy of most Soviet republics started to decline in 1989-1990, **The year when GDP decline switched to GDP growth. List of the present Gross domestic product, The post-Soviet states listed according to their Human Development Index scores, only organizations that are mainly composed of post-Soviet states are listed in this section, organizations with wider memberships are not discussed. The 15 post-Soviet states are divided in their participation to the blocs, Belarus, Russia. It was conceived as an organization to the USSR. It currently consists of nine of the 15 former Soviet republics, with one participating state, Georgia withdrew from the CIS in August 2008. The sole exception to the above has been their recent membership in the Community of Democratic Choice, the Central Asian states of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan are members of the CIS and participate in several regional organizations that have Russia as a primary mover. Such organizations are the Eurasian Economic Community, Collective Security Treaty Organization, the last two groups only became distinct once Uzbekistan withdrew from GUAM and sought membership in EurAsEc and CSTO
17.
Helmand Province
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Helmand or Hillmand The ancient names of of Helmand were is one of the 34 provinces of Afghanistan, in the south of the country. It is the largest province by area, covering 58,584 square kilometres area, the province contains 13 districts, encompassing over 1,000 villages, and roughly 879,500 settled people. Lashkar Gah serves as the provincial capital, Helmand was part of the Greater Kandahar region until made into a separate province by the Afghan government in the 20th century. The province has an airport, in the city of Lashkar Gah. The British Camp Bastion and U. S, Camp Leatherneck are a short distance southwest of Lashkar Gah. The Helmand River flows through the desert region of the province. The Kajaki Dam, which is one of Afghanistans major reservoirs, is located in the Kajaki district, Helmand is believed to be one of the worlds largest opium-producing regions, responsible for around 42% of the worlds total production. This is believed to be more than the whole of Burma, which is the second largest producing nation after Afghanistan. The region also produces tobacco, sugar beets, cotton, sesame, wheat, mung beans, maize, nuts, sunflowers, onions, potato, tomato, cauliflower, peanut, apricot, grape, and melon. Helmand culture of western Afghanistan was a Bronze Age culture of the 3rd millennium BC and it is exemplified by such major sites as Shahr-i Sokhta, Mundigak, and Bampur. The term Helmand civilization was proposed by M. Tosi and this civilization flourished between 2500 BC and 1900 BC, and may have coincided with the great flourishing of the Indus Valley Civilisation. This was also the phase of Periods III and IV of Shahr-i Sokhta. Jiroft culture is related to Helmand culture. Jiroft culture flourished in the eastern Iran, and the Helmand culture in western Afghanistan at the same time, in fact, they may represent the same cultural area. Mehrgarh culture, on the hand, is far earlier. Some Vedic scholars also believe the Helmand valley corresponds to the Sarasvati area mentioned in the Rig Veda as the homeland for the Indo-Aryan migrations into India, helmland was inhabited by ancient peoples and governed by the Medes before falling to the Achaemenids. Later, the area was part of the ancient Arachosia polity, and a frequent target for conquest because of its location in Asia. The Helmand river valley is mentioned by name in the Avesta as Haetumant, one of the centers of the Zoroastrian faith
18.
Russo-Georgian War
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The Russo-Georgian War was a war between Georgia, Russia and the Russian-backed self-proclaimed republics of South Ossetia and Abkhazia. The war took place in August 2008 following a period of worsening relations between Russia and Georgia, both constituent republics of the Soviet Union. The fighting took place in the strategically important Transcaucasia region, which borders the Middle East and it was regarded as the first European war of the 21st century. The Republic of Georgia declared its independence in early 1991 as the Soviet Union began to fall apart, following the war, a joint peacekeeping force of Georgian, Russian, and Ossetian troops was stationed in the territory. Meanwhile, a stalemate developed in the region of Abkhazia. By August 1,2008, Ossetian separatists began shelling Georgian villages, to put an end to these deadly attacks and restore order, the Georgian Army was sent to the South Ossetian conflict zone on 7 August. Georgians took control of most of Tskhinvali, a separatist stronghold, Georgia later stated it was also responding to Russia moving non-peacekeeping units into the country. Russia accused Georgia of aggression against South Ossetia, and launched a land, air. Russian and Ossetian forces battled Georgian forces in and around South Ossetia for several days, Russian and Abkhaz forces opened a second front by attacking the Kodori Gorge held by Georgia. Russian naval forces blockaded part of the Georgian coast and this was the first war in history in which cyber warfare coincided with military action. An active information war was waged during and after the conflict. President of France Nicolas Sarkozy negotiated an agreement on 12 August. Russian forces temporarily occupied the Georgian cities of Zugdidi, Senaki, Poti, the South Ossetians destroyed most ethnic Georgian villages in South Ossetia and were responsible for an ethnic cleansing of Georgians. Russia recognised Abkhazia and South Ossetia as separate republics on 26 August, in response, Russia mostly completed its withdrawal of troops from Georgia proper on 8 October. In the aftermath, Russias international relations were largely unharmed, the war displaced 192,000 people and while many returned to their homes after the war,20,272 people remained displaced as of 2014. Russia has, since the war, occupied Abkhazia and South Ossetia in violation of the agreement of August 2008. In the tenth century AD, Georgia for the first time emerged as a concept in the territories where the Georgian language was used to perform Christian rituals. After the Mongol invasions of the region, the Kingdom of Georgia eventually was broken up into several kingdoms, in the nineteenth century, the Russian Empire gradually annexed the Georgian lands
19.
Vladimer Chachibaia
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Vladimer Chachibaia is a Georgian military officer who became Chief of General Staff on 22 November 2016. He had once occupied this position from 2008 to 2009, Chachibaia was a private in the Soviet Air Forces from 1989 until 1991, when he joined the newly established National Guard of Georgia as a NCO. He commanded a National Guard platoon in the Georgian Civil War of 1992-1993 and continued his service in the Georgian army as a recon and special task forces officer. Chachibaia commanded a Georgian contingent within the Multinational force in Iraq in 2004 and was appointed a commander of the 3rd Infantry Brigade of the Armed Forces of Georgia in 2005. He has since served in the General Staff and was a commander of the Georgian Land Forces in 2006. He briefly served as Deputy Defense Minister in 2009 and became Deputy Chief of General Staff of Georgian Armed Forces in 2012, in 2014 he was promoted to the rank of brigadier-general. In October 2015, Chachibaia was appointed as High Military Adviser of the United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan, from November 2015 to August 2016, he was Rector of the National Defense Academy. He then served as Deputy Chief of General Staff and became Chief of General Staff in November 2016, succeeding General Vakhtang Kapanadze
20.
President of Georgia
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The President of Georgia is the head of state, supreme commander-in-chief, and holder of the highest office within the Government of Georgia. Executive power is split between the President and the Prime Minister, who is the head of government, the office was first introduced by the Supreme Council of the Republic of Georgia on 14 April 1991, five days after Georgias declaration of independence from the Soviet Union. The President serves a five-year term, the incumbent is Giorgi Margvelashvili, who was sworn in on 17 November 2013. The President of Georgia is Head of State, the President is a guarantor of national independence and unity of the country. He/she ensures the functioning of state bodies in accordance with the Constitution, the President is the representative of Georgia in foreign relations. The President of Georgia is elected on the basis of universal, equal and direct suffrage by secret ballot, the President may not be elected for more than two consecutive terms. Appoints and dismisses military commanders in agreement with the government, the president of Georgia issue decrees, edicts, and ordinances, also orders as the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of Georgia, to exercise constitutional powers. The President of Georgia also exercises other powers defined in the Constitution, legal acts of the president require countersignature from the Prime Minister. Any legal act of the President that requires countersigning shall be promulgated, in the case of countersignature, the responsibility for legal acts shall rest with the Government. During his/her period in office, he/she may not be arrested, in the event that the President violates the Constitution, betrays the state or commits other crimes, Parliament may remove him/her from office with the approval of the Constitutional Court. Security of the President of Georgia is provided by the Special State Protection Service, copies of the standard are used inside the Presidents office, at the Chancellery Building, other state agencies, and as a car flag on vehicles bearing the President within Georgian territory. In the nationwide elections to this post, on 26 May 1991, Gamsakhurdia won a landslide victory, Gamsakhurdia was ousted in a military coup détat in January 1992. He continued to function as a president-in-exile until his death in a attempt to regain power in December 1993. In the post-coup absence of power, a position of the Head of State was introduced for Georgias new leader Eduard Shevardnadze on 10 March 1992. After the adoption of a new Constitution on 24 August 1995, Shevardnadze was elected to presidency on 5 November 1995, and reelected on 9 April 2000. He resigned under pressure of mass known as Rose Revolution on 23 November 2003. After Nino Burjanadzes brief tenure as an Acting President, Mikheil Saakashvili was elected on 4 January 2004 and he was reelected on 5 January 2008. For leaders before independence, see List of leaders of Georgia Presidential Administration of Georgia Official Site of the President of Georgia
21.
Mikheil Saakashvili
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Mikheil Saakashvili is a Ukrainian and former Georgian politician. He was the Governor of Ukraines Odessa Oblast from May 2015 until November 2016, Saakashvili is the founder and former chairman of the United National Movement Party. He was re-elected in the Georgian presidential election on 5 January 2008 and he was widely regarded as a pro-NATO and pro-West leader who spearheaded a series of political and economic reforms. In 2010, he had a 67% approval rating despite being criticized by the opposition for his authoritarian tendencies. On 2 October 2012, Saakashvili admitted his partys defeat in Georgias parliamentary election against the Georgian Dream coalition led by the tycoon Bidzina Ivanishvili. He was barred by the constitution of Georgia from seeking a term in the 2013 presidential election. Shortly after the election, Saakashvili left Georgia, Saakashvili is wanted by Georgias new government on multiple criminal charges, which he denies as politically motivated. Saakashvili energetically supported Ukraines Euromaidan movement and the 2014 Ukrainian revolution, on 30 May 2015 Ukrainian President Petro Poroshenko appointed Saakashvili Governor of Odessa Oblast. He was also granted Ukrainian citizenship, on 7 November 2016 Saakashvili resigned as Governor while blaming President Poroshenko personally for enabling corruption in Odessa and in Ukraine overall. Four days later he announced his goal to create a new party called Movement of New Forces. Some non-Georgian sources spell Saakashvilis first name via the Russian version of the name Mikhail, in Georgia, he is commonly known as Misha, a hypocorism for Mikheil. Mikheil Saakashvili was born in Tbilisi on 21 December 1967, capital of the then Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic in the Soviet Union and his father, Nikoloz Saakashvili, is a physician who practices medicine in Tbilisi and directs a local Balneological Center. His mother, Giuli Alasania, is a historian who lectures at Tbilisi State University, during university, he served his shortened military service in 1989–1990 with the Soviet Border Troops checkpoint unit in the Boryspil Airport in Ukraine. Saakashvili graduated from the Institute of International Relations of the Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv in 1992, at this university he was friends with later President of Ukraine Petro Poroshenko. He received an LL. M. from Columbia Law School in 1994, in 1995, he also received a diploma from the International Institute of Human Rights in Strasbourg, France. He interned at the United Nations and he stood in the December 1995 elections along with Zhvania, and both men won seats in parliament, standing for the Union of Citizens of Georgia, Shevardnadzes party. Saakashvili was chairman of the committee which was in charge of creating a new electoral system, an independent judiciary. Opinion surveys recognised him to be the second most popular person in Georgia and he was named man of the year by a panel of journalists and human rights advocates in 1997
22.
WikiLeaks
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WikiLeaks /ˈwɪkiliːks/ is an international non-profit organisation that publishes secret information, news leaks, and classified media from anonymous sources. Its website, initiated in 2006 in Iceland by the organisation Sunshine Press, Julian Assange, an Australian Internet activist, is generally described as its founder, editor-in-chief, and director. The group has released a number of significant documents that have become front-page news items, early releases included documentation of equipment expenditures and holdings in the Afghanistan war and a report informing a corruption investigation in Kenya. In July of the year, WikiLeaks released Afghan War Diary. In October 2010, the released a set of almost 400,000 documents called the Iraq War Logs in coordination with major commercial media organisations. In April 2011, WikiLeaks began publishing 779 secret files relating to prisoners detained in the Guantanamo Bay detention camp, in November 2010, WikiLeaks collaborated with major global media organisations to release U. S. State Department diplomatic cables in redacted format. During the 2016 U. S. presidential election campaign, WikiLeaks released emails and other documents from the Democratic National Committee and from Hillary Clintons campaign manager and these releases caused significant damage to the Clinton campaign and may have contributed to the Democratic Partys loss. The U. S. intelligence community expressed high confidence that the emails had been hacked by Russia and supplied to WikiLeaks. During the campaign, WikiLeaks promoted conspiracy theories about Clinton and the Democratic Party, WikiLeaks has also been criticised for inadequately curating its content and violating the personal privacy of individuals. WikiLeaks has, for instance, revealed Social Security numbers, medical information, credit card numbers, the wikileaks. org domain name was registered on 4 October 2006. The website was established and published its first document in December 2006, sarah Harrison, Kristinn Hrafnsson and Joseph Farrell are the only other publicly known and acknowledged associates of Assange. Harrison is also a member of Sunshine Press Productions along with Assange, WikiLeaks was originally established with a wiki communal publication method, which was terminated by May 2010. As of June 2009, the website had more than 1,200 registered volunteers, despite some popular confusion, WikiLeaks and Wikipedia are not affiliated. Wikia, a for-profit corporation affiliated loosely with the Wikimedia Foundation, according to the WikiLeaks website, its goal is to bring important news and information to the public. One of our most important activities is to publish original source material alongside our news stories so readers, another of the organisations goals is to ensure that journalists and whistleblowers are not prosecuted for emailing sensitive or classified documents. The online drop box is described by the WikiLeaks website as an innovative, secure and that is why in the US Constitution the Bill of Rights says that Congress is to make no such law abridging the freedom of the press. It is to take the rights of the press outside the rights of the law because those rights are superior to the law because in fact create the law. Every constitution, every bit of legislation is derived from the flow of information, similarly every government is elected as a result of people understanding things
23.
United States diplomatic cables leak
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Dated between December 1966 and February 2010, the cables contain diplomatic analysis from world leaders, and the diplomats assessment of host countries and their officials. According to WikiLeaks, the 251,287 cables consist of 261,276,536 words, today, more recent leaks have surpassed that amount. On 28 November, the first 220 cables were published under this agreement by El País, Der Spiegel, Le Monde, The Guardian, WikiLeaks had planned to release the rest over several months, and as of 11 January 2011,2,017 had been published. The remaining cables were published in September 2011 after a series of events compromised the security of a WikiLeaks file containing the cables and this included WikiLeaks volunteers placing an encrypted file containing all WikiLeaks data online as insurance in July 2010, in case something happened to the organization. In August 2011, a German magazine, Der Freitag, published some of these details, enabling others to piece the information together, the cables were then available online, fully unredacted. In response, WikiLeaks decided on 1 September 2011 to publish all 251,287 unedited documents, reactions to the leak in 2010 varied. Western governments expressed strong disapproval, while the material generated intense interest from the public, some political leaders referred to Assange as a criminal, while blaming the U. S. Department of Defense for security lapses. Supporters of Assange referred to him in November 2010 as a key defender of free speech, However, by June 2010, The Guardian had been offered half a million military dispatches from the battlefields of Afghanistan and Iraq. Manning was suspected to have uploaded all that was obtained to WikiLeaks, more than three million U. S. government personnel and soldiers have access to this network. Documents marked top secret are not included in the system, more specifically, the diplomatic, military, law enforcement and intelligence communities would be able to do their jobs better with this easy access to analytic and operative information. A spokesman said that in the weeks and months additional measures had been taken to improve the security of the system. On 22 November, an announcement was made via WikiLeakss Twitter feed that the release would be 7× the size of the Iraq War Logs. U. S. authorities and the media had speculated, at the time, prior to the expected leak, the government of the United Kingdom sent a DA-Notice to UK newspapers, which requested advance notice from newspapers regarding the expected publication. Index on Censorship pointed out there is no obligation on media to comply. Under the terms of a DA-Notice, ewspaper editors would speak to Defence, Press, Assange responded by writing back to the U. S. Ahead of the leak, United States Secretary of State Hillary Clinton and they are releasing the documents we selected, Le Mondes managing editor, Sylvie Kauffmann, said in an interview. WikiLeaks aimed to release the cables in phases over several months due to their global scope, the first batch of leaks released comprised 220 cables. Further cables were made available on the WikiLeaks website
24.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
25.
NATO
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The North Atlantic Treaty Organization, also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance based on the North Atlantic Treaty which was signed on 4 April 1949. The organization constitutes a system of collective defence whereby its member states agree to mutual defence in response to an attack by any external party, three NATO members are permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and are officially nuclear-weapon states. NATOs headquarters are located in Haren, Brussels, Belgium, while the headquarters of Allied Command Operations is near Mons. NATO is an Alliance that consists of 28 independent member countries across North America and Europe, an additional 22 countries participate in NATOs Partnership for Peace program, with 15 other countries involved in institutionalized dialogue programmes. The combined military spending of all NATO members constitutes over 70% of the global total, Members defence spending is supposed to amount to 2% of GDP. The course of the Cold War led to a rivalry with nations of the Warsaw Pact, politically, the organization sought better relations with former Warsaw Pact countries, several of which joined the alliance in 1999 and 2004. N. The Treaty of Brussels, signed on 17 March 1948 by Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, the treaty and the Soviet Berlin Blockade led to the creation of the Western European Unions Defence Organization in September 1948. However, participation of the United States was thought necessary both to counter the power of the USSR and to prevent the revival of nationalist militarism. He got a hearing, especially considering American anxiety over Italy. In 1948 European leaders met with U. S. defense, military and diplomatic officials at the Pentagon, marshalls orders, exploring a framework for a new and unprecedented association. Talks for a new military alliance resulted in the North Atlantic Treaty and it included the five Treaty of Brussels states plus the United States, Canada, Portugal, Italy, Norway, Denmark and Iceland. The first NATO Secretary General, Lord Ismay, stated in 1949 that the goal was to keep the Russians out, the Americans in. Popular support for the Treaty was not unanimous, and some Icelanders participated in a pro-neutrality, the creation of NATO can be seen as the primary institutional consequence of a school of thought called Atlanticism which stressed the importance of trans-Atlantic cooperation. The members agreed that an attack against any one of them in Europe or North America would be considered an attack against them all. The treaty does not require members to respond with military action against an aggressor, although obliged to respond, they maintain the freedom to choose the method by which they do so. This differs from Article IV of the Treaty of Brussels, which states that the response will be military in nature. It is nonetheless assumed that NATO members will aid the attacked member militarily, the treaty was later clarified to include both the members territory and their vessels, forces or aircraft above the Tropic of Cancer, including some Overseas departments of France. The creation of NATO brought about some standardization of allied military terminology, procedures, and technology, the roughly 1300 Standardization Agreements codified many of the common practices that NATO has achieved
26.
Alexander Vershbow
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Alexander Russell Sandy Vershbow is an American diplomat and former Deputy Secretary General of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. From October,2005 to October,2008, he was the United States Ambassador to South Korea, before that post he had been the ambassador to the Russian Federation from 2001 to 2005 and the ambassador to NATO from 1998 to 2001. For his work with NATO he was awarded the State Departments Distinguished Service Award and he was confirmed in April,2009. Vershbow was born in Boston, Massachusetts and he attended the Buckingham Browne & Nichols School before moving on to Yale College, from which he graduated in 1974 in Russian and East European Studies. He earned an MA at Columbia University in 1976 in International Relations, Vershbow was Special Assistant to the President and Senior Director for European Affairs at the National Security Council. He was the first recipient of the Department of Defense’s Joseph J. Kruzel Award for his contributions to peace in the former Yugoslavia, Vershbow was US ambassador to Russia from 2001 to 2005. He is famous for ignoring the official ceremony of giving his letter of credence to Russian President Vladimir Putin, early in his tenure as ambassador to South Korea he generated controversy by continuing the hard line on North Korea begun by his predecessor Christopher Hill. He pressed North Korea on the issues of rights and superdollars, calling the government a criminal regime. The South Korean government has asked him to tone down his rhetoric, in accordance with their Sunshine Policy, in January 2006 his attempt to meet with the Korea Internet Journalists Association, which describes itself as progressive, was blocked by protestors from the Korean Confederation of Trade Unions. Vershbow spoke out in favour of the expansion of the US base at Pyeongtaek, local people demonstrated in great numbers against this expansion, although Vershbow claims that they are out of step with the sentiments of most residents of the area. Vershbow is Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs, vershbows wife, Lisa, is a prominent designer of contemporary jewelry. Poland, Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Republic of Poland Georgia, Order of the Golden Fleece Belgium, Knight Grand Cross in the Order of the Crown,2016
27.
Georgian Armed Forces
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The Georgian Armed Forces is the name of the unified armed forces of Georgia. The Georgian military is a force consisting of the Georgian Land Forces, Georgian Special Forces and a paramilitary organization. The armed forces of Georgia are under the authority of the Georgian Ministry of Defense, Armed Forces consisted of the Regular Army and Peoples Guard in 1918-1921. On March 23,1994, Georgia was one of the first former Soviet Republics to join the NATO Partnership for Peace program, the Georgia Train and Equip Program training was conducted using U. S. Special Operations Forces and U. S. Marine Corps forces from May 2002 to May 2004, during this time approximately 2,600 Georgian soldiers, including a headquarters staff element and 5 tactical units, received training. Another assistance program, the Georgia Security and Stability Operations Program, was launched in January 2005 as a continuation of the of 2002-2004, Georgian contingents were involved in the Kosovo Force and continue to participate in the operations in Iraq and Afghanistan. Georgia also views a large-scale foreign invasion and the spillover of conflicts from Russia’s North Caucasus as the worst potential near- and long-term scenarios, on August 8,2008 the Georgian military conducted an operation in Georgias breakaway region South Ossetia. The operation led to a conflict with forces from the Russian Federation and resulted in the defeat. Following the military operations, Russia recognized independence of the regions, the military budget of Georgia increased more than 50 times over the period from 2002 to 2007, reaching over 7% of Georgias GDP. In the resulting conflict with Russia, Georgia was driven out of South Ossetia and Abkhazia. According to Defence Minister Davit Kezerashvili, Georgia lost $400 million of material worth, Russian forces confiscated a total of 1,728 firearms. Out of its original 200 T-72 tanks, more than 35 were lost, a total of 50 pieces of military equipment were captured, and some others destroyed. Parts of Georgias relatively modern artillery and anti-aircraft units were captured, Russian forces sank four Georgian naval vessels in the port of Poti, a coast guard gunboat in a naval skirmish, and hauled away nine rigid-hull inflatable boats. The Georgian Air Force lost two L-29 jet trainers, one AN-2 airplane, and four helicopters, all destroyed on the ground. Despite these mostly non combat losses, President Mikheil Saakashvili claimed that Georgia had lost less than 5% of its military hardware, Georgia immediately began a process of re-armament after the war. The conflict was followed by a very quick replenishment program of the gaps in the single GAF arms components with an additional massive re-equipment. Two Georgian naval vessels sunk in Poti were raised and returned to service, although their heaviest armaments were 25-30mm cannons. The Georgian Navys remaining operational units were merged into the Georgian Coast Guard
28.
Reuters
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Reuters /ˈrɔɪtərz/ is an international news agency headquartered in London, England. It is a division of Thomson Reuters, until 2008, the Reuters news agency formed part of an independent company, Reuters Group plc, which was also a provider of financial market data. Since the acquisition of Reuters Group by the Thomson Corporation in 2008, Reuters transmits news in English, French, Arabic, Spanish, German, Italian, Portuguese, Russian, Japanese, Korean, Urdu, and Chinese. The Reuter agency was established in 1851 by Paul Julius Reuter in Britain at the London Royal Exchange, Paul Reuter worked at a book-publishing firm in Berlin and was involved in distributing radical pamphlets at the beginning of the Revolutions in 1848. Upon moving to England, he founded Reuters Telegram Company in 1851, headquartered in London, the company initially covered commercial news, serving banks, brokerage houses, and business firms. The first newspaper client to subscribe was the London Morning Advertiser in 1858, Reuters agency built a reputation in Europe and the rest of the world as the first to report news scoops from abroad. Reuters was the first to report Abraham Lincolns assassination in Europe, for instance, in 1872, Reuters expanded into the far east, followed by South America in 1874. Both expansions were made possible by advances in overland telegraphs and undersea cables, in 1883, Reuters began transmitting messages electrically to London newspapers. In 1923, Reuters began using radio to transmit news internationally, in 1925, The Press Association of Great Britain acquired a majority interest in Reuters, and full owners some years later. During the world wars, The Guardian reported that Reuters came under pressure from the British government to national interests. In 1941 Reuters deflected the pressure by restructuring itself as a private company, the new owners formed the Reuters Trust. In 1941, the PA sold half of Reuters to the Newspaper Proprieters Association, the Reuters Trust Principles were put in place to maintain the companys independence. At that point, Reuters had become one of the major news agencies. In 1961, Reuters scooped news of the erection of the Berlin Wall, in 1981, Reuters began making electronic transactions on its computer network, and afterwards developed a number of electronic brokerage and trading services. Reuters was floated as a company in 1984, when Reuters Trust was listed on the stock exchanges such as the London Stock Exchange. Reuters published the first story of the Berlin Wall being breached in 1989, share price grew during the dotcom boom, then fell after the banking troubles in 2001. In 2002, Brittanica wrote that most news throughout the world came from three major agencies, the Associated Press, Reuters, and Agence France-Presse, Reuters merged with Thomson Corporation in Canada in 2008, forming Thomson Reuters. In 2009, Thomson Reuters withdrew from the LSE and the NASDAQ, instead listing its shares on the Toronto Stock Exchange, the last surviving member of the Reuters family founders, Marguerite, Baroness de Reuter, died at age 96 on 25 January 2009
29.
The New York Times
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The New York Times is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18,1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 119 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper, the papers print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation, behind The Wall Street Journal, and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the US. The New York Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation, following industry trends, its weekday circulation had fallen in 2009 to fewer than one million. Nicknamed The Gray Lady, The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a newspaper of record. The New York Times international version, formerly the International Herald Tribune, is now called the New York Times International Edition, the papers motto, All the News Thats Fit to Print, appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page. On Sunday, The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review, The New York Times Book Review, The New York Times Magazine and T, some other early investors of the company were Edwin B. Morgan and Edward B. We do not believe that everything in Society is either right or exactly wrong, —what is good we desire to preserve and improve, —what is evil, to exterminate. In 1852, the started a western division, The Times of California that arrived whenever a mail boat got to California. However, when local California newspapers came into prominence, the effort failed, the newspaper shortened its name to The New-York Times in 1857. It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s, One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair, the subject of twenty editorials it published alone. At Newspaper Row, across from City Hall, Henry Raymond, owner and editor of The New York Times, averted the rioters with Gatling guns, in 1869, Raymond died, and George Jones took over as publisher. Tweed offered The New York Times five million dollars to not publish the story, in the 1880s, The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical. In 1884, the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland in his first presidential campaign, while this move cost The New York Times readership among its more progressive and Republican readers, the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years. However, the newspaper was financially crippled by the Panic of 1893, the paper slowly acquired a reputation for even-handedness and accurate modern reporting, especially by the 1890s under the guidance of Ochs. Under Ochs guidance, continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition, The New York Times achieved international scope, circulation, in 1910, the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began. The New York Times first trans-Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible, airplane Edition was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening. In the 1940s, the extended its breadth and reach. The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942, and the section in 1946
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Virtual International Authority File
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The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records
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