1.
Poland
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Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe, situated between the Baltic Sea in the north and two mountain ranges in the south. Bordered by Germany to the west, the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south, Ukraine and Belarus to the east, the total area of Poland is 312,679 square kilometres, making it the 69th largest country in the world and the 9th largest in Europe. With a population of over 38.5 million people, Poland is the 34th most populous country in the world, the 8th most populous country in Europe, Poland is a unitary state divided into 16 administrative subdivisions, and its capital and largest city is Warsaw. Other metropolises include Kraków, Wrocław, Poznań, Gdańsk and Szczecin, the establishment of a Polish state can be traced back to 966, when Mieszko I, ruler of a territory roughly coextensive with that of present-day Poland, converted to Christianity. The Kingdom of Poland was founded in 1025, and in 1569 it cemented a political association with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania by signing the Union of Lublin. This union formed the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, one of the largest and most populous countries of 16th and 17th century Europe, Poland regained its independence in 1918 at the end of World War I, reconstituting much of its historical territory as the Second Polish Republic. In September 1939, World War II started with the invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany, followed thereafter by invasion by the Soviet Union. More than six million Polish citizens died in the war, after the war, Polands borders were shifted westwards under the terms of the Potsdam Conference. With the backing of the Soviet Union, a communist puppet government was formed, and after a referendum in 1946. During the Revolutions of 1989 Polands Communist government was overthrown and Poland adopted a new constitution establishing itself as a democracy, informally called the Third Polish Republic. Since the early 1990s, when the transition to a primarily market-based economy began, Poland has achieved a high ranking on the Human Development Index. Poland is a country, which was categorised by the World Bank as having a high-income economy. Furthermore, it is visited by approximately 16 million tourists every year, Poland is the eighth largest economy in the European Union and was the 6th fastest growing economy on the continent between 2010 and 2015. According to the Global Peace Index for 2014, Poland is ranked 19th in the list of the safest countries in the world to live in. The origin of the name Poland derives from a West Slavic tribe of Polans that inhabited the Warta River basin of the historic Greater Poland region in the 8th century, the origin of the name Polanie itself derives from the western Slavic word pole. In some foreign languages such as Hungarian, Lithuanian, Persian and Turkish the exonym for Poland is Lechites, historians have postulated that throughout Late Antiquity, many distinct ethnic groups populated the regions of what is now Poland. The most famous archaeological find from the prehistory and protohistory of Poland is the Biskupin fortified settlement, dating from the Lusatian culture of the early Iron Age, the Slavic groups who would form Poland migrated to these areas in the second half of the 5th century AD. With the Baptism of Poland the Polish rulers accepted Christianity and the authority of the Roman Church
2.
Central Europe
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Central Europe lies between Eastern Europe and Western Europe. The concept of Central Europe is based on a historical, social and cultural identity. Central Europe is going through a phase of strategic awakening, with such as the CEI, Centrope. While the regions economy shows high disparities with regard to income, elements of unity for Western and Central Europe were Roman Catholicism and Latin. According to Hungarian historian Jenő Szűcs, foundations of Central European history at the first millennium were in connection with Western European development. The keyword of Western social development after millennium was the spread of liberties and autonomies in Western Europe and these phenomena appeared in the middle of the 13th century in Central European countries. There were self-governments of towns, counties and parliaments, in 1335 under the rule of the King Charles I of Hungary, the castle of Visegrád, the seat of the Hungarian monarchs was the scene of the royal summit of the Kings of Poland, Bohemia and Hungary. They agreed to cooperate closely in the field of politics and commerce, in the Middle Ages, countries in Central Europe adopted Magdeburg rights. Before 1870, the industrialization that had developed in Western and Central Europe, even in Eastern Europe, industrialization lagged far behind. Russia, for example, remained rural and agricultural. The concept of Central Europe was already known at the beginning of the 19th century, an example of that-time vision of Central Europe may be seen in J. Partsch’s book of 1903. On 21 January 1904, Mitteleuropäischer Wirtschaftsverein was established in Berlin with economic integration of Germany, another time, the term Central Europe became connected to the German plans of political, economic and cultural domination. The bible of the concept was Friedrich Naumann’s book Mitteleuropa in which he called for a federation to be established after the war. The concept failed after the German defeat in World War I, the revival of the idea may be observed during the Hitler era. According to Emmanuel de Martonne, in 1927 the Central European countries included, Austria, Czechoslovakia, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania, italy and Yugoslavia are not considered by the author to be Central European because they are located mostly outside Central Europe. The author use both Human and Physical Geographical features to define Central Europe, the interwar period brought new geopolitical system and economic and political problems, and the concept of Central Europe took a different character. The centre of interest was moved to its eastern part – the countries that have appeared on the map of Europe, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, however, the conflict of interests was too big and neither Little Entente nor Intermarium ideas succeeded. The interwar period brought new elements to the concept of Central Europe, after the war, the Eastern part of Central Europe was placed at the centre of the concept
3.
Eastern Europe
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Eastern Europe, also known as East Europe, is the eastern part of the European continent. There is no consensus on the area it covers, partly because the term has a wide range of geopolitical, geographical, cultural. There are almost as many definitions of Eastern Europe as there are scholars of the region, a related United Nations paper adds that every assessment of spatial identities is essentially a social and cultural construct. One definition describes Eastern Europe as an entity, the region lying in Europe with main characteristics consisting in Byzantine, Orthodox. Another definition was created during the Cold War and used more or less synonymously with the term Eastern Bloc, a similar definition names the formerly communist European states outside the Soviet Union as Eastern Europe. Historians and social scientists generally view such definitions as outdated or relegating, several definitions of Eastern Europe exist today, but they often lack precision or are extremely general. These definitions vary both across cultures and among experts, even scientists, recently becoming more and more imprecise. The Ural Mountains, Ural River, and the Caucasus Mountains are the land border of the eastern edge of Europe. Eurovoc, a multilingual thesaurus maintained by the Publications Office of the European Union, provides entries for 23 EU languages, of these, those in italics are classified as Eastern Europe in this source. Other official web-pages of the European Union classify some of the countries as strictly Central European. The East–West Schism is the break of communion and theology between what are now the Eastern and Western churches which began in the 11th century and lasts until this very day and it divided Christianity in Europe, and consequently the world, into Western Christianity and Eastern Christianity. Since the Great Schism of 1054, Europe has been divided between Roman Catholic and Protestant churches in the West, and the Eastern Orthodox Christian churches in the east, due to this religious cleavage, Eastern Orthodox countries are often associated with Eastern Europe. A cleavage of this sort is, however, often problematic, for example, Greece is overwhelmingly Orthodox, the fall of the Iron Curtain brought the end of the East–West division in Europe, but this geopolitical concept is sometimes still used for quick reference by the media. The Baltic states have seats in the Nordic Council as observer states and they also are members of the Nordic-Baltic Eight whereas Eastern European countries formed their own alliance called the Visegrád Group. Estonia Latvia Lithuania The Caucasus nations may be included in the definitions of Eastern Europe, the extent of their geographic or political affiliation with Europe varies by country and source. All three states are members of the European Unions Eastern Partnership program and the Euronest Parliamentary Assembly, on 12 January 2002, the European Parliament noted that Armenia and Georgia may enter the EU in the future. Georgia — in modern geography, Georgia has been classified as part of Eastern Europe. Under the European Union’s geographic criteria, Georgia is viewed as part of Eastern Europe and is the only Caucasus country to be actively seeking EU membership and it is a member of Council of Europe and Eurocontrol
4.
North America
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North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be considered a subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean, and to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers, about 16. 5% of the land area. North America is the third largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 565 million people in 23 independent states, or about 7. 5% of the worlds population, North America was reached by its first human populations during the last glacial period, via crossing the Bering land bridge. The so-called Paleo-Indian period is taken to have lasted until about 10,000 years ago, the Classic stage spans roughly the 6th to 13th centuries. The Pre-Columbian era ended with the migrations and the arrival of European settlers during the Age of Discovery. Present-day cultural and ethnic patterns reflect different kind of interactions between European colonists, indigenous peoples, African slaves and their descendants, European influences are strongest in the northern parts of the continent while indigenous and African influences are relatively stronger in the south. Because of the history of colonialism, most North Americans speak English, Spanish or French, the Americas are usually accepted as having been named after the Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci by the German cartographers Martin Waldseemüller and Matthias Ringmann. Vespucci, who explored South America between 1497 and 1502, was the first European to suggest that the Americas were not the East Indies, but a different landmass previously unknown by Europeans. In 1507, Waldseemüller produced a map, in which he placed the word America on the continent of South America. He explained the rationale for the name in the accompanying book Cosmographiae Introductio, for Waldseemüller, no one should object to the naming of the land after its discoverer. He used the Latinized version of Vespuccis name, but in its feminine form America, following the examples of Europa, Asia and Africa. Later, other mapmakers extended the name America to the continent, In 1538. Some argue that the convention is to use the surname for naming discoveries except in the case of royalty, a minutely explored belief that has been advanced is that America was named for a Spanish sailor bearing the ancient Visigothic name of Amairick. Another is that the name is rooted in a Native American language, the term North America maintains various definitions in accordance with location and context. In Canadian English, North America may be used to refer to the United States, alternatively, usage sometimes includes Greenland and Mexico, as well as offshore islands
5.
Israel
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Israel, officially the State of Israel, is a country in the Middle East, on the southeastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea and the northern shore of the Red Sea. The country contains geographically diverse features within its small area. Israels economy and technology center is Tel Aviv, while its seat of government and proclaimed capital is Jerusalem, in 1947, the United Nations adopted a Partition Plan for Mandatory Palestine recommending the creation of independent Arab and Jewish states and an internationalized Jerusalem. The plan was accepted by the Jewish Agency for Palestine, next year, the Jewish Agency declared the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz Israel, to be known as the State of Israel. Israel has since fought several wars with neighboring Arab states, in the course of which it has occupied territories including the West Bank, Golan Heights and it extended its laws to the Golan Heights and East Jerusalem, but not the West Bank. Israels occupation of the Palestinian territories is the worlds longest military occupation in modern times, efforts to resolve the Israeli–Palestinian conflict have not resulted in peace. However, peace treaties between Israel and both Egypt and Jordan have successfully been signed, the population of Israel, as defined by the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, was estimated in 2017 to be 8,671,100 people. It is the worlds only Jewish-majority state, with 74. 8% being designated as Jewish, the countrys second largest group of citizens are Arabs, at 20. 8%. The great majority of Israeli Arabs are Sunni Muslims, including significant numbers of semi-settled Negev Bedouins, other minorities include Arameans, Armenians, Assyrians, Black Hebrew Israelites, Circassians, Maronites and Samaritans. Israel also hosts a significant population of foreign workers and asylum seekers from Africa and Asia, including illegal migrants from Sudan, Eritrea. In its Basic Laws, Israel defines itself as a Jewish, Israel is a representative democracy with a parliamentary system, proportional representation and universal suffrage. The prime minister is head of government and the Knesset is the legislature, Israel is a developed country and an OECD member, with the 35th-largest economy in the world by nominal gross domestic product as of 2016. The country benefits from a skilled workforce and is among the most educated countries in the world with one of the highest percentage of its citizens holding a tertiary education degree. The country has the highest standard of living in the Middle East and the third highest in Asia, in the early weeks of independence, the government chose the term Israeli to denote a citizen of Israel, with the formal announcement made by Minister of Foreign Affairs Moshe Sharett. The names Land of Israel and Children of Israel have historically used to refer to the biblical Kingdom of Israel. The name Israel in these phrases refers to the patriarch Jacob who, jacobs twelve sons became the ancestors of the Israelites, also known as the Twelve Tribes of Israel or Children of Israel. The earliest known artifact to mention the word Israel as a collective is the Merneptah Stele of ancient Egypt. The area is known as the Holy Land, being holy for all Abrahamic religions including Judaism, Christianity, Islam
6.
Montreal-style bagel
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The Montreal bagel, is a distinctive variety of handmade and wood-fired baked bagel. In contrast to the New York-style bagel, the Montreal bagel is smaller, thinner, sweeter and denser, with a larger hole and it contains malt, egg, and no salt and is boiled in honey-sweetened water before being baked. In many Montreal establishments, bagels are still produced by hand, there are two predominant varieties, black-seed, or white-seed. Minor controversy surrounds the question of who first brought the bagel to Montreal and they were first baked in Montreal by Chaim Seligman, as verified by Montreal historian Joe King, a historian of Montreal Jewry. Seligman first worked in the community of Lachine and later moved his bakery to the lane next door to Schwartzs Delicatessen on Boulevard St. Laurent in central Montreal. Seligman would string his bagels into dozens and patrol Jewish Main purveying his wares, originally with a pushcart, then a horse and wagon, Seligman went into partnership with Myer Lewkowicz and with Jack Shlafman but fell out with both of them. Seligman and Lewkowicz founded the St. Viateur Bagel Shop in 1957 and Shlafman established Fairmount Bagel in 1919, a substantial proportion of Montreals English-speaking Jewish community gradually left for other locales. For a time this style of bagel was almost completely unknown in the northeastern U. S. despite its proximity to Montreal, however at present in New York City, there are two Montreal-style bagel locations in the borough of Brooklyn within four blocks of each other. Montreal-style bagels are currently the only style of bagel known to have ventured into space, gregory Chamitoff, who grew up in Montreal, took three bags of sesame bagels with him on his assignments to STS-124 as passenger and ISS Expedition 17 as crewmember. Montreal-style bagels are, for the most part, manufactured by the method used to produce a generic bagel. The Montreal-style method of making bagels builds on the traditional method in the following ways, The bagel dough includes egg. Honey is also added to the used for poaching the bagels before baking. The bagels are baked in a wood-fired oven, several Montreal bagel factories are famous for their authentic Montreal-style bagels. St-Viateur West, Fairmount Bagel, at 74 av, fairmont West are the most well-known and popular bagel shops in Montreal. St. Viateur Bagel in particular has pictures of a number of famous visitors attached to their wall and these shops often sell popular bagel accompaniments such as cream cheese spreads and smoked salmon. Mile End, Montreal Montreal-style smoked meat Urban culture Bublik Albernaz, no shocker that Montreal bagels won. Montreal Bagels – are they the Best in the World, a documentary film on the battle between St. Viateur and Fairmount Montreal bagel bakeries
7.
Pizza bagel
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A pizza bagel is a bagel with pizza toppings. The simple tomato sauce and cheese pizza bagel is the most common, though a layer of cream cheese sometimes is used as a base under the tomato sauce, toppings are as varied as those for pizza. Preferably, the bagel should then be toasted lightly to control absorption of the tomato sauce, each side is then covered with tomato sauce, cheese, and other toppings. The pizza bagel is then placed through a conveyor toaster or in an oven to melt the cheese, due to the risk of fire, pop-up toasters should not be used to cook pizza bagels. The dish is usually served open-faced, a commercial product, Bagel Bites, is sold as platters of smaller frozen pizza bagels with a variety of toppings. The creation of the pizza bagel is often attributed to the composition of the New York metropolitan area. In the early 20th century, Jewish and Italian immigrants often settled together in such as Brooklyn. Today, these groups populate suburban areas such as Long Island, many have claimed that they created the first pizza bagel throughout the United States. Due to this, there is no answer as to who created the first pizza bagel. Treitman created the cuisine using ingredients from the Italian restaurant adjacent to the bagel shop, the Western Bagel baking company continues to sell his creation to this day. The pizza bagel was modernized in 1994 by The Great Canadian Bagel when Andrew Shopsowitz, at the age of 6, in early 2014, Katz Bagel Bakery in Chelsea, Massachusetts made claim that Harry Katz invented a variation of this pizza bagel in 1970. Unlike traditional pizza bagels, Katz version is similar to a miniature pizza, Katz uses bagel dough without the hole, topped with cheese and tomato sauce. Katz Bagel Bakery still sells these miniature pizza creations in their store today, bialy List of bread dishes Media related to Pizza bagels at Wikimedia Commons
8.
Yiddish
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Yiddish is the historical language of the Ashkenazi Jews. Yiddish is written with a fully vocalized alphabet based on the Hebrew script, the earliest surviving references date from the 12th century and call the language לשון־אַשכּנז or טײַטש, a variant of tiutsch, the contemporary name for Middle High German. Colloquially, the language is sometimes called מאַמע־לשון, distinguishing it from לשון־קדש, the term Yiddish, short for Yiddish-Teitsch, did not become the most frequently used designation in the literature until the 18th century. In the late 19th and into the 20th century the language was commonly called Jewish, especially in non-Jewish contexts. Modern Yiddish has two major forms, Eastern Yiddish is far more common today. It includes Southeastern, Mideastern, and Northeastern dialects, Eastern Yiddish differs from Western both by its far greater size and by the extensive inclusion of words of Slavic origin. Western Yiddish is divided into Southwestern, Midwestern, and Northwestern dialects, the term Yiddish is also used in the adjectival sense, synonymously with Jewish, to designate attributes of Ashkenazi culture. Prior to the Holocaust, there were over 10 million speakers of Yiddish, 85% of the Jews who died in the Holocaust were Yiddish speakers, assimilation following World War II further decreased the use of Yiddish both among survivors and Yiddish-speakers from other countries. However, the number of speakers is increasing in global Hasidic communities, the established view is that, as with other Jewish languages, Jews speaking distinct languages learned new co-territorial vernaculars, which they then Judaized. Exactly what German base lies behind the earliest form of Yiddish is disputed, both Weinreich and Solomon Birnbaum developed this model further in the mid-1950s. In Weinreichs view, this Old Yiddish substrate later bifurcated into two versions of the language, Western and Eastern Yiddish. They retained the Semitic vocabulary needed for religious purposes and created a Judeo-German form of speech, recent linguistic research has finessed, contested, or challenged the Weinreich model, providing alternative approaches to the origins of Yiddish. Some theorists argue that the fusion occurred with a Bavarian dialect base, the two main candidates for the germinal matrix of Yiddish, the Rhineland and Bavaria, are not necessarily incompatible. There may have been developments in the two regions, seeding the Western and Eastern dialects of Modern Yiddish. Dovid Katz proposes that Yiddish emerged from contact between speakers of High German and Aramaic-speaking Jews from the Middle East, wexlers model has met with little academic support, and strong critical challenges, especially among historical linguists. Alternative theories recognize the extent of Yiddishs Germanic vocabulary. Ashkenaz was centered on the Rhineland and the Palatinate, in what is now the westernmost part of Germany and its geographic extent did not coincide with the German principalities of the time, and it included northern France. Ashkenaz bordered on the inhabited by another distinctive Jewish cultural group, the Sephardim or Spanish Jews
9.
Polish language
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Polish is a West Slavic language spoken primarily in Poland and is the native language of the Poles. It belongs to the Lechitic subgroup of the West Slavic languages, Polish is the official language of Poland, but it is also used throughout the world by Polish minorities in other countries. It is one of the languages of the European Union. Its written standard is the Polish alphabet, which has 9 additions to the letters of the basic Latin script, Polish is closely related to Kashubian, Silesian, Upper Sorbian, Lower Sorbian, Czech and Slovak. It is also the second most widely spoken Slavic language, after Russian, in history, Polish is known to be an important language, both diplomatically and academically in Central and Eastern Europe. Today, Polish is spoken by over 38.5 million people as their first language in Poland. It is also spoken as a language in western parts of Belarus and Ukraine, west and central Lithuania, as well as the northern parts of the Czech Republic. There are 55 million Polish language speakers around the world, Polish began to emerge as a distinct language around the 10th century, the process largely triggered by the establishment and development of the Polish state. With Christianity, Poland also adopted the Latin alphabet, which made it possible to write down Polish, the precursor to modern Polish is the Old Polish language. Ultimately, Polish is thought to descend from the unattested Proto-Slavic language, Poland is the most linguistically homogeneous European country, nearly 97% of Polands citizens declare Polish as their first language. Elsewhere, Poles constitute large minorities in Lithuania, Belarus, Polish is the most widely used minority language in Lithuanias Vilnius County and is found elsewhere in southeastern Lithuania. There are significant numbers of Polish speakers among Polish emigrants and their descendants in many other countries, in the United States, Polish Americans number more than 11 million but most of them cannot speak Polish fluently. The largest concentrations of Polish speakers reported in the census were found in three states, Illinois, New York, and New Jersey. Enough people in these areas speak Polish that PNC Financial Services offer services available in Polish at all of their machines in addition to English and Spanish. According to the 2011 census there are now over 500,000 people in England, in Canada, there is a significant Polish Canadian population, There are 242,885 speakers of Polish according to the 2006 census, with a particular concentration in Toronto and Montreal. The geographical distribution of the Polish language was affected by the territorial changes of Poland immediately after World War II. Poles settled in the Recovered Territories in the west and north and this tendency toward a homogeneity also stems from the vertically integrated nature of the authoritarian Polish Peoples Republic. The inhabitants of different regions of Poland still speak standard Polish somewhat differently, first-language speakers of Polish have no trouble understanding each other, and non-native speakers may have difficulty distinguishing regional variations
10.
Bread
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Bread is a staple food prepared from a dough of flour and water, usually by baking. Throughout recorded history it has been popular around the world and is one of the oldest artificial foods, proportions of types of flour and other ingredients vary widely, as do modes of preparation. As a result, types, shapes, sizes, and textures of breads differ around the world, Bread may be leavened by processes such as reliance on naturally occurring sourdough microbes, chemicals, industrially produced yeast, or high-pressure aeration. Some bread is cooked before it can leaven, including for traditional or religious reasons, non-cereal ingredients such as fruits, nuts and fats may be included. Commercial bread commonly contains additives to improve flavor, texture, color, shelf life, Bread is served in various forms with any meal of the day. It is eaten as a snack, and used as an ingredient in other preparations, such as sandwiches. It forms the main component of bread pudding, as well as of stuffings designed to fill cavities or retain juices that otherwise might drip out. Bread has a social and emotional significance beyond its importance as nourishment and it plays essential roles in religious rituals and secular culture. Its prominence in daily life is reflected in language, where it appears in proverbs, colloquial expressions, in prayer and in the etymology of words, the Old English word for bread was hlaf, which appears to be the oldest Teutonic name. Old High German hleib and modern German Laib derive from this Proto-Germanic word, Bread is one of the oldest prepared foods. Evidence from 30,000 years ago in Europe revealed starch residue on rocks used for pounding plants. It is possible that during this time, starch extract from the roots of plants, such as cattails and ferns, was spread on a rock, placed over a fire. Around 10,000 BC, with the dawn of the Neolithic age, yeast spores are ubiquitous, including on the surface of cereal grains, so any dough left to rest leavens naturally. There were multiple sources of leavening available for early bread, airborne yeasts could be harnessed by leaving uncooked dough exposed to air for some time before cooking. Pliny the Elder reported that the Gauls and Iberians used the foam skimmed from beer to produce a kind of bread than other peoples. Parts of the ancient world that drank wine instead of used a paste composed of grape juice and flour that was allowed to begin fermenting, or wheat bran steeped in wine. The most common source of leavening was to retain a piece of dough from the day to use as a form of sourdough starter. In 1961 the Chorleywood bread process was developed, which used the intense mechanical working of dough to dramatically reduce the fermentation period, the process, whose high-energy mixing allows for the use of lower protein grain, is now widely used around the world in large factories
11.
History of the Jews in Poland
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The history of the Jews in Poland dates back over 800 years. For centuries, Poland was home to the largest and most significant Jewish community in the world, Poland was the centre of Jewish culture thanks to a long period of statutory religious tolerance and social autonomy. This ended with the Partitions of Poland which began in 1772, in particular, from the founding of the Kingdom of Poland in 1025 through to the early years of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth created in 1569, Poland was the most tolerant country in Europe. Known as paradisus Iudaeorum, it became a shelter for persecuted and expelled European Jewish communities, according to some sources, about three-quarters of the worlds Jews lived in Poland by the middle of the 16th century. With the weakening of the Commonwealth and growing religious strife, Polands traditional tolerance began to wane from the 17th century onward. Still, as Poland regained independence in the aftermath of World War I, Antisemitism was a growing problem throughout Europe in those years, from both the political establishment and the general population. At the start of World War II, Poland was partitioned between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union, one-fifth of the Polish population perished during World War II, half of them were 3,000,000 Polish Jews murdered in The Holocaust, constituting 90% of Polish Jewry. Although the Holocaust occurred largely in German-occupied Poland, there was collaboration with the Nazis by its citizens. Collaboration by individual Poles has been described as smaller than in other occupied countries, statistics of the Israeli War Crimes Commission indicate that less than 0. 1% of Polish gentiles collaborated with the Nazis. Grouped by nationality, Poles represent the largest number of people who rescued Jews during the Holocaust, britain demanded Poland to halt the exodus, but their pressure was largely unsuccessful. Most of the remaining Jews left Poland in late 1968 as the result of the Soviet-sponsored anti-Zionist campaign. After the fall of the Communist regime in 1989, the situation of Polish Jews became normalized, Religious institutions were revived, largely through the activities of Jewish foundations from the United States. The first Jews arrived in the territory of modern Poland in the 10th century, by travelling along the trade routes leading eastwards to Kiev and Bukhara, Jewish merchants, known as Radhanites, crossed the areas of Silesia. In the summer of 965 or 966 Jacob made a trade and diplomatic journey from his native Toledo in Moslem Spain to the Holy Roman Empire, the first actual mention of Jews in Polish chronicles occurs in the 11th century. It appears that Jews were then living in Gniezno, at time the capital of the Polish kingdom of the Piast dynasty. Among the first Jews to arrive in Poland were those banished from Prague, the first permanent Jewish community is mentioned in 1085 by a Jewish scholar Jehuda ha-Kohen in the city of Przemyśl. The first extensive Jewish emigration from Western Europe to Poland occurred at the time of the First Crusade in 1098. Under Bolesław III, the Jews, encouraged by the tolerant regime of this ruler, settled throughout Poland, Bolesław III recognized the utility of Jews in the development of the commercial interests of his country
12.
Yeast
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Yeasts are eukaryotic, single-celled microorganisms classified as members of the fungus kingdom. The yeast lineage originated hundreds of millions of years ago, and 1,500 species are currently identified and they are estimated to constitute 1% of all described fungal species. Yeast sizes vary greatly, depending on species and environment, typically measuring 3–4 µm in diameter, most yeasts reproduce asexually by mitosis, and many do so by the asymmetric division process known as budding. Yeasts, with their growth habit, can be contrasted with molds. Fungal species that can take both forms are called dimorphic fungi and it is also a centrally important model organism in modern cell biology research, and is one of the most thoroughly researched eukaryotic microorganisms. Researchers have used it to information about the biology of the eukaryotic cell. Other species of yeasts, such as Candida albicans, are opportunistic pathogens, yeasts have recently been used to generate electricity in microbial fuel cells, and produce ethanol for the biofuel industry. Yeasts do not form a taxonomic or phylogenetic grouping. The budding yeasts are classified in the order Saccharomycetales, within the phylum Ascomycota, the word yeast comes from Old English gist, gyst, and from the Indo-European root yes-, meaning boil, foam, or bubble. Yeast microbes are probably one of the earliest domesticated organisms, archaeologists digging in Egyptian ruins found early grinding stones and baking chambers for yeast-raised bread, as well as drawings of 4, 000-year-old bakeries and breweries. In 1680, Dutch naturalist Anton van Leeuwenhoek first microscopically observed yeast, but at the time did not consider them to be living organisms, researchers were doubtful whether yeasts were algae or fungi, but in 1837 Theodor Schwann recognized them as fungi. In 1857, French microbiologist Louis Pasteur proved in the paper Mémoire sur la fermentation alcoolique that alcoholic fermentation was conducted by living yeasts and not by a chemical catalyst. Pasteur showed that by bubbling oxygen into the yeast broth, cell growth could be increased, by the late 18th century, two yeast strains used in brewing had been identified, Saccharomyces cerevisiae and S. carlsbergensis. S. cerevisiae has been sold commercially by the Dutch for bread-making since 1780, while, around 1800, in 1825, a method was developed to remove the liquid so the yeast could be prepared as solid blocks. The industrial production of yeast blocks was enhanced by the introduction of the press in 1867. In 1872, Baron Max de Springer developed a process to create granulated yeast. Yeasts are chemoorganotrophs, as they use organic compounds as a source of energy, carbon is obtained mostly from hexose sugars, such as glucose and fructose, or disaccharides such as sucrose and maltose. Some species can metabolize pentose sugars such as ribose, alcohols, Yeast species either require oxygen for aerobic cellular respiration or are anaerobic, but also have aerobic methods of energy production
13.
Wheat
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Wheat is a cereal grain, originally from the Levant region but now cultivated worldwide. In 2016, world production of wheat was 749 million tonnes, making it the second most-produced cereal after maize, since 1960, world production of wheat and other grain crops has tripled and is expected to grow further through the middle of the 21st Century. This grain is grown on land area than any other commercial food. World trade in wheat is greater than for all other crops combined, globally, wheat is the leading source of vegetal protein in human food, having a protein content of about 13%, which is relatively high compared to other major cereals and staple foods. The archaeological record suggests that wheat was first cultivated in the regions of the Fertile Crescent around 9600 BCE. In a small part of the population, gluten – the major part of wheat protein – can trigger coeliac disease, non-coeliac gluten sensitivity, gluten ataxia. Cultivation and repeated harvesting and sowing of the grains of wild grasses led to the creation of domestic strains, in domesticated wheat, grains are larger, and the seeds remain attached to the ear by a toughened rachis during harvesting. In wild strains, a more fragile rachis allows the ear to easily shatter, as the traits that improve wheat as a food source also involve the loss of the plants natural seed dispersal mechanisms, highly domesticated strains of wheat cannot survive in the wild. Cultivation of wheat began to spread beyond the Fertile Crescent after about 8000 BCE, jared Diamond traces the spread of cultivated emmer wheat starting in the Fertile Crescent sometime before 8800 BCE. Archaeological analysis of wild emmer indicates that it was first cultivated in the southern Levant with finds dating back as far as 9600 BCE, Genetic analysis of wild einkorn wheat suggests that it was first grown in the Karacadag Mountains in southeastern Turkey. Dated archeological remains of wheat in settlement sites near this region, including those at Abu Hureyra in Syria. With the anomalous exception of two grains from Iraq ed-Dubb, the earliest carbon-14 date for einkorn wheat remains at Abu Hureyra is 7800 to 7500 years BCE. Remains of harvested emmer from several sites near the Karacadag Range have been dated to between 8600 and 8400 BCE, that is, in the Neolithic period and these remains were dated by Willem van Zeist and his assistant Johanna Bakker-Heeres to 8800 BCE. They also concluded that the settlers of Tell Aswad did not develop this form of emmer themselves, the cultivation of emmer reached Greece, Cyprus and India by 6500 BCE, Egypt shortly after 6000 BCE, and Germany and Spain by 5000 BCE. The early Egyptians were developers of bread and the use of the oven, by 3000 BCE, wheat had reached the British Isles and Scandinavia. A millennium later it reached China, the oldest evidence for hexaploid wheat has been confirmed through DNA analysis of wheat seeds, dating to around 6400-6200 BCE, recovered from Çatalhöyük. The first identifiable bread wheat with sufficient gluten for yeasted breads has been identified using DNA analysis in samples from a dating to approximately 1350 BCE at Assiros in Macedonia. From Asia, wheat continued to spread throughout Europe, in the British Isles, wheat straw was used for roofing in the Bronze Age, and was in common use until the late 19th century
14.
Boiling
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Transition boiling is an intermediate, unstable form of boiling with elements of both types. The boiling point of water is 100 °C or 212 °F, boiling water is used as a method of making it potable by killing microbes that may be present. Clostridium spores can survive this treatment, but as the infection caused by this microbe is not water-borne, boiling is also used in cooking. Foods suitable for boiling vegetables, starchy foods such as rice, noodles and potatoes, eggs, meats, sauces, stocks. As a cooking method it is simple and suitable for large scale cookery, tough meats or poultry can be given a long, slow cooking and a nutritious stock is produced. Disadvantages include loss of water-soluble vitamins and minerals, commercially prepared foodstuffs are sometimes packed in polythene sachets and sold as boil-in-the-bag products. Nucleate boiling is characterized by the growth of bubbles or pops on a heated surface, in general, the number of nucleation sites are increased by an increasing surface temperature. An irregular surface of the vessel or additives to the fluid can create additional nucleation sites, while an exceptionally smooth surface, such as plastic. Under these conditions, a liquid may show boiling delay. As the boiling surface is heated above a temperature, a film of vapor forms on the surface. Since this vapor film is less capable of carrying heat away from the surface. The point at which this occurs is dependent on the characteristics of boiling fluid, transition boiling may be defined as the unstable boiling, which occurs at surface temperatures between the maximum attainable in nucleate and the minimum attainable in film boiling. If a surface heating the liquid is significantly hotter than the liquid then film boiling will occur, where a layer of vapor. This condition of a vapor film insulating the surface from the liquid characterizes film boiling, in distillation, boiling is used in separating mixtures. This is possible because the rising from a boiling fluid generally has a ratio of components different from that in the liquid. The elimination of micro-organisms by boiling follows first-order kinetics—at high temperatures it is achieved in time and at lower temperatures. Boiling does not ensure the elimination of all micro-organisms, the bacterial spores Clostridium can survive at 100 °C but are not water-borne or intestine affecting, thus for human health, complete sterilization of water is not required. Though the boiling point decreases with increasing altitude, it is not enough to affect the disinfecting process, boiling is the method of cooking food in boiling water, or other water-based liquids such as stock or milk
15.
Baking
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Baking is a method of cooking food that uses prolonged dry heat, normally in an oven, but also in hot ashes, or on hot stones. The most common baked item is bread but many types of foods are baked. Heat is gradually transferred from the surface of cakes, cookies, as heat travels through it transforms batters and doughs into baked goods with a firm dry crust and a softer centre. Baking can be combined with grilling to produce a hybrid barbecue variant by using both methods simultaneously, or one after the other, Baking is related to barbecuing because the concept of the masonry oven is similar to that of a smoke pit. Because of historical social and familial roles, baking has traditionally performed at home by women for domestic consumption and by men in bakeries. When production was industrialized, baking was automated by machines in large factories, the art of baking remains a fundamental skill and is important for nutrition, as baked goods, especially breads, are a common but important food, both from an economic and cultural point of view. A person who prepares baked goods as a profession is called a baker, all types of food can be baked, but some require special care and protection from direct heat. Various techniques have developed to provide this protection. In addition to bread, baking is used to prepare cakes, pastries, pies, tarts, quiches, cookies, scones, crackers, pretzels, and more. Larger cuts prepared without stuffing or coating are often roasted. Roasting, however, is suitable for finer cuts of meat. One of these is the known as en croûte, which protects the food from direct heat. Meat, poultry, game, fish or vegetables can be prepared by baking en croûte, the en croûte method also allows meat to be baked by burying it in the embers of a fire – a favourite method of cooking venison. In this case, the casing is made from a paste of flour. Salt can also be used to make a protective crust that is not eaten, another method of protecting food from the heat while it is baking, is to cook it en papillote. In this method, the food is covered by baking paper to protect it while it is being baked, the cooked parcel of food is sometimes served unopened, allowing diners to discover the contents for themselves which adds an element of surprise. Eggs can also be used in baking to produce savoury or sweet dishes, in combination with dairy products especially cheese, they are often prepared as a dessert. For example, although a baked custard can be made using starch, baked custards, such as crème caramel, are among the items that need protection from an ovens direct heat, and the bain-marie method serves this purpose
16.
Sesame
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Sesame is a flowering plant in the genus Sesamum, also called benne. Numerous wild relatives occur in Africa and a number in India. It is widely naturalized in regions around the world and is cultivated for its edible seeds. The world harvested 4.2 million metric tonnes of seeds in 2013, with India. Sesame seed is one of the oldest oilseed crops known, domesticated well over 3000 years ago, Sesame has many species, most being wild and native to sub-Saharan Africa. Sesame indicum, the type, originated in India and is tolerant to drought-like conditions. Sesame has one of the highest oil contents of any seed, with a rich, nutty flavor, it is a common ingredient in cuisines across the world. Like other nuts and foods, it can trigger allergic reactions in some people, sometimes sold with its seed coat removed, this variety is often present on top of baked goods in many countries. The word sesame is from Latin sesamum or Greek sēsamon, it also has derivation from Arabic semsem, from these roots, words with the generalized meaning “oil, liquid fat” were derived. Sesame names vary among numerous languages, Sesame seed is considered to be the oldest oilseed crop known to humanity. The genus has many species, and most are wild, most wild species of the genus Sesamum are native to sub-Saharan Africa. Sesame indicum, the type, originated in India. Some reports claim sesame was cultivated in Egypt during the Ptolemiac period, records from Babylon and Assyria, dating about 4000 years ago, mention sesame. Egyptians called it sesemt, and it is included in the list of drugs in the scrolls of the Ebers Papyrus dated to be over 3600 years old. Archeological reports from Turkey indicate that sesame was grown and pressed to extract oil at least 2750 years ago in the empire of Urartu, the historic origin of sesame was favored by its ability to grow in areas that do not support the growth of other crops. It was a crop that could be grown by farmers at the edge of deserts. Sesame has been called a survivor crop, the flowers are yellow, tubular,3 to 5 cm long, with a four-lobed mouth. The flowers may vary in colour, with some being white, blue, Sesame seeds occur in many colours depending on the cultivar
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Salt
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Salt is present in vast quantities in seawater, where it is the main mineral constituent. The open ocean has about 35 grams of solids per litre, Salt is essential for life in general, and saltiness is one of the basic human tastes. The tissues of animals contain larger quantities of salt than do plant tissues, Salt is one of the oldest and most ubiquitous food seasonings, and salting is an important method of food preservation. Salt was also prized by the ancient Hebrews, the Greeks, the Romans, the Byzantines, the Hittites, Egyptians, and the Indians. Salt became an important article of trade and was transported by boat across the Mediterranean Sea, along specially built salt roads, the scarcity and universal need for salt has led nations to go to war over it and use it to raise tax revenues. Salt is used in ceremonies and has other cultural significance. Salt is processed from salt mines, or by the evaporation of seawater or mineral-rich spring water in shallow pools. Its major industrial products are caustic soda and chlorine, and is used in industrial processes including the manufacture of polyvinyl chloride, plastics, paper pulp. Of the annual production of around two hundred million tonnes of salt, only about 6% is used for human consumption. Other uses include water conditioning processes, de-icing highways, and agricultural use, edible salt is sold in forms such as sea salt and table salt which usually contains an anti-caking agent and may be iodised to prevent iodine deficiency. As well as its use in cooking and at the table, sodium is an essential nutrient for human health via its role as an electrolyte and osmotic solute. Excessive salt consumption can increase the risk of diseases, such as hypertension, in children. Such health effects of salt have long been studied, accordingly, numerous world health associations and experts in developed countries recommend reducing consumption of popular salty foods. The World Health Organization recommends that adults should consume less than 2,000 mg of sodium, humans have always tended to build communities either around sources of salt, or where they can trade for it. All through history the availability of salt has been pivotal to civilization, the word salary comes from the Latin word for salt because the Roman Legions were sometimes paid in salt. The Natron Valley was a key region that supported the Egyptian Empire to its north, because it supplied it with a kind of salt that came to be called by its name, natron. Even before this, what is now thought to have been the first city in Europe is Solnitsata, in Bulgaria, even the name Solnisata means salt works. A very ancient salt-works operation has been discovered at the Poiana Slatinei archaeological site next to a spring in Lunca, Neamț County
18.
Ashkenazi Jews
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The traditional diaspora language of Ashkenazi Jews is Yiddish, with Hebrew used only as a sacred language until relatively recently. Throughout their time in Europe, Ashkenazim have made important contributions to philosophy, scholarship, literature, art, music. Ashkenazim originate from the Jews who settled along the Rhine River, in Western Germany, there they became a distinct diaspora community with a unique way of life that adapted traditions from Babylon, The Land of Israel, and the Western Mediterranean to their new environment. The Ashkenazi religious rite developed in such as Mainz, Worms. The eminent French Rishon Rabbi Shlomo Itzhaki would have a significant impact on the Jewish religion, in the late Middle Ages, the majority of the Ashkenazi population shifted steadily eastward, moving out of the Holy Roman Empire into the Pale of Settlement. The genocidal impact of the Holocaust devastated the Ashkenazim and their culture, immediately prior to the Holocaust, the number of Jews in the world stood at approximately 16.7 million. Statistical figures vary for the demography of Ashkenazi Jews, oscillating between 10 million and 11.2 million. Sergio DellaPergola in a calculation of Sephardic and Mizrahi Jews. Other estimates place Ashkenazi Jews as making up about 75% of Jews worldwide, genetic studies on Ashkenazim—researching both their paternal and maternal lineages—suggest a significant proportion of Middle Eastern ancestry. Ashkenazi Jews are popularly contrasted with Sephardi Jews, who are descendants of Jews from the Iberian Peninsula, there are some differences in how the two groups pronounce certain Hebrew letters, and in points of ritual. The name Ashkenazi derives from the figure of Ashkenaz, the first son of Gomer, son of Khaphet, son of Noah. The name of Gomer has often been linked to the ethnonym Cimmerians, the intrusive n in the Biblical name is likely due to a scribal error confusing a waw ו with a nun נ. In Jeremiah 51,27, Ashkenaz figures as one of three kingdoms in the far north, the others being Minni and Ararat, perhaps corresponding to Urartu, called on by God to resist Babylon. Ashkenaz is linked to Scandza/Scanzia, viewed as the cradle of Germanic tribes and his contemporary Saadia Gaon identified Ashkenaz with the Saquliba or Slavic territories, and such usage covered also the lands of tribes neighboring the Slavs, and Eastern and Central Europe. In modern times, Samuel Krauss identified the Biblical Ashkenaz with Khazaria, sometime in the early medieval period, the Jews of central and eastern Europe came to be called by this term. In conformity with the custom of designating areas of Jewish settlement with biblical names, Spain was denominated Sefarad, France was called Tsarefat, Rashi uses leshon Ashkenaz to describe German speech, and Byzantium and Syrian Jewish letters referred to the Crusaders as Ashkenazim. Given the close links between the Jewish communities of France and Germany following the Carolingian unification, the term Ashkenazi came to refer to both the Jews of medieval Germany and France. Outside of their origins in ancient Israel, the history of Ashkenazim is shrouded in mystery, the most well-supported theory is the one that details a Jewish migration from Israel through what is now Italy and other parts of southern Europe
19.
Jews
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The Jews, also known as the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group originating from the Israelites, or Hebrews, of the Ancient Near East. Jews originated as a national and religious group in the Middle East during the second millennium BCE, the Merneptah Stele appears to confirm the existence of a people of Israel, associated with the god El, somewhere in Canaan as far back as the 13th century BCE. The Israelites, as an outgrowth of the Canaanite population, consolidated their hold with the emergence of the Kingdom of Israel, some consider that these Canaanite sedentary Israelites melded with incoming nomadic groups known as Hebrews. The worldwide Jewish population reached a peak of 16.7 million prior to World War II, but approximately 6 million Jews were systematically murdered during the Holocaust. Since then the population has risen again, and as of 2015 was estimated at 14.3 million by the Berman Jewish DataBank. According to the report, about 43% of all Jews reside in Israel and these numbers include all those who self-identified as Jews in a socio-demographic study or were identified as such by a respondent in the same household. The exact world Jewish population, however, is difficult to measure, Israel is the only country where Jews form a majority of the population. The modern State of Israel was established as a Jewish state and defines itself as such in its Declaration of Independence and its Law of Return grants the right of citizenship to any Jew who requests it. The English word Jew continues Middle English Gyw, Iewe, according to the Hebrew Bible, the name of both the tribe and kingdom derive from Judah, the fourth son of Jacob. The Hebrew word for Jew, יְהוּדִי ISO 259-3 Yhudi, is pronounced, with the stress on the syllable, in Israeli Hebrew. The Ladino name is ג׳ודיו, Djudio, ג׳ודיוס, Djudios, Yiddish, ייִד Yid, ייִדן, Yidn. The etymological equivalent is in use in languages, e. g. but derivations of the word Hebrew are also in use to describe a Jew, e. g. in Italian. The German word Jude is pronounced, the corresponding adjective jüdisch is the origin of the word Yiddish, in such contexts Jewish is the only acceptable possibility. Some people, however, have become so wary of this construction that they have extended the stigma to any use of Jew as a noun, a factual reconstruction for the origin of the Jews is a difficult and complex endeavor. It requires examining at least 3,000 years of ancient human history using documents in vast quantities, as archaeological discovery relies upon researchers and scholars from diverse disciplines, the goal is to interpret all of the factual data, focusing on the most consistent theory. In this case, it is complicated by long standing politics and religious, Jacob and his family migrated to Ancient Egypt after being invited to live with Jacobs son Joseph by the Pharaoh himself. The patriarchs descendants were later enslaved until the Exodus led by Moses, traditionally dated to the 13th century BCE, Modern archaeology has largely discarded the historicity of the Patriarchs and of the Exodus story, with it being reframed as constituting the Israelites inspiring national myth narrative. The growth of Yahweh-centric belief, along with a number of practices, gradually gave rise to a distinct Israelite ethnic group
20.
Leo Rosten
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Leo Calvin Rosten was an American humorist in the fields of scriptwriting, storywriting, journalism, and Yiddish lexicography. Rosten was born into a Yiddish-speaking family in Łódź in what is now Poland and his parents were Samuel C. Rosenberg and Ida Rosenberg, both trade unionists. They opened a shop in the Greater Lawndale area of Chicago. Like their neighbors, the children spoke both English and Yiddish, Rosten showed an interest in books and language very early, and began writing stories when he was only nine. He put himself through school and earned degrees from both the University of Chicago, where he obtained his doctorate, and the London School of Economics, during the Great Depression, when he was unable to find other work, he taught English for recent immigrants at night. These experiences eventually became the source of his most popular works, The Education of H*Y*M*A*N K*A*P*L*A*N and he wrote the story for The Dark Corner, a film noir starring Mark Stevens, and Lured, the Douglas Sirk-directed period drama starring Charles Coburn, both films featured Lucille Ball. He is listed as one of the writers for Captain Newman, other films, Mechanized Patrolling, They Got Me Covered, All Through the Night, The Conspirators, The Velvet Touch, Sleep, My Love, Double Dynamite, Walk East on Beacon, and Mister Cory. Rosten is best remembered for his stories about the night-school prodigy Hyman Kaplan and they were published in The New Yorker from 1935 and collected in two volumes published 1937 and 1959, The Education of H*Y*M*A*N K*A*P*L*A*N and The Return of H*Y*M*A*N K*A*P*L*A*N. The Education was a second for one U. S. National Book Award in 1938. The second collection was one of eighteen National Book Award for Fiction finalists in 1960 and he is also well known for his encyclopedic The Joys of Yiddish, a guide to Yiddish language and to Jewish culture including anecdotes and Jewish humor. It was followed by O K*A*P*L*A*N and my K*A*P*L*A*N. a reworking of the two 1930s collections, and Hooray for Yiddish. A humorous lexicon of the American language as influenced by Jewish culture, another Rosten work is Leo Rostens Treasury of Jewish Quotations. It is to be useful, to be honorable and it is to matter, to have it make some difference that you lived. At a tribute dinner to fellow humorist W. C, Fields, Rosten came up with the remark about Fields that any man who hates dogs and babies cant be all bad. This statement is often misattributed to Fields himself, in his novel Silky, he defines nebbish as The kind of person, when he leaves a room, you have the feeling someone fascinating just walked in. On March 30,1935, Rosten married Priscilla Ann Pam Mead, Rostens marriage to Mead also made him a brother-in-law of William Steig and the uncle of Jeremy Steig and Mary Catherine Bateson. They had two daughters, Madeline Rosten and Margaret Ramsey Rosten, and a son, Philip Rosten, and six grandchildren, Josh and Ben Lee, Seth Muir, and Alexander, Carrie and Pamela Rosten. Carrie followed in her grandfathers footsteps and has written three books, including a young adult novel, Chloe Leiberman
21.
Polish cuisine
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Polish cuisine is a style of cooking and food preparation originating in or widely popular in Poland. Polish cuisine has evolved over the centuries to become very eclectic due to Polands history, Polish cuisine shares many similarities with other Slavic countries, especially Czech, Slovak, Russian and Ukrainian. It has also widely influenced by other Central European cuisines, namely German, Austrian and Hungarian cuisines as well as Jewish, French, Turkish. It is rich in meat, especially pork, chicken and beef, winter vegetables, spices and it is also characteristic in its use of various kinds of noodles the most notable of which are kluski as well as cereals such as kasha. Generally speaking, Polish cuisine is hearty and uses a lot of cream, the traditional dishes are often demanding in preparation. The main meal might be eaten about 2 p. m. or later and it is larger than the North American lunch. The main course usually includes a serving of meat, such as roast or kotlet schabowy, vegetables, currently replaced by leafy green salads, were not very long ago most commonly served as surówka – shredded root vegetables with lemon and sugar or sauerkraut. The side dishes are boiled potatoes, rice or more traditionally kasza. Meals often conclude with a such as makowiec, a poppy seed pastry, or drożdżówka. Other Polish specialities include chłodnik, golonka, kołduny, zrazy, salceson and flaki. Polish cuisine in the Middle Ages was based on dishes made of agricultural produce and cereal crops, meats of wild and farm animals, fruits, forest berries and game, honey, herbs and local spices. It was known above all for abundant use of salt from Wieliczka, a high calorific value of dishes and drinking beer or mead as a basic drink was typical of Middle Ages Polish cuisine. During the Middle Ages the cuisine of Poland was heavy and spicy, two main ingredients were meat and cereal. The latter consisted initially of proso millet, but later in the Middle Ages other types of cereal became widely used. Most commoners did not use bread and instead consumed cereals in the forms of kasza or various types of flatbread, apart from cereals, a large portion of the daily diet of mediaeval Poles consisted of beans, mostly broad beans and peas. As the territory of Poland was densely forested, usage of mushrooms, forest berries, nuts, among the delicacies of the Polish nobility were honey-braised bear paws served with horseradish-flavoured salad, smoked bear tongue and bear bacon. Thanks to close relations with Turkey and the countries in the Caucasus. The usage of two basic sauces remained widespread at least until the 18th century, the daily beverages included milk, whey, buttermilk and various herb infusions
22.
Austrian German
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Austrian German, Austrian Standard German, Standard Austrian German or Austrian High German, is the variety of Standard German written and spoken in Austria and North Italy. It has the highest sociolinguistic prestige locally, as it is the used in the media. In less formal situations, Austrians tend to use forms closer to or identical with the Bavarian and Alemannic dialects, traditionally spoken –, at the time, the written standard was Oberdeutsche Schreibsprache, which was highly influenced by the Bavarian and Alemannic dialects of Austria. Another option was to create a new standard based on the Southern German dialects, thus Standard Austrian German has the same geographic origin as the Standard German of Germany and Swiss High German. The process of introducing the new standard was led by Joseph von Sonnenfels. As German is a language, Austrian German is merely one among several varieties of Standard German. Much like the relationship between British English and American English, the German varieties differ in minor respects but are recognizably equivalent, the official Austrian dictionary, das Österreichische Wörterbuch, prescribes grammatical and spelling rules defining the official language. The 1996 spelling reform is somewhat practiced in Austria, the sharp s is used in Austria, as in Germany. It differed from other dialects in vocabulary and pronunciation, it appears to have spoken with a slight degree of nasality. This was not a standard in a technical sense, as it was just the social standard of upper-class speech. For many years, Austria had a form of the language for official government documents. This form is known as Österreichische Kanzleisprache, or Austrian chancellery language and it is a very traditional form of the language, probably derived from medieval deeds and documents, and has a very complicated structure and vocabulary generally reserved for such documents. For most speakers, this form of the language is difficult to understand, as it contains many highly specialised terms for diplomatic, internal, official. There are no variations, because this special written form has mainly been used by a government that has now for centuries been based in Vienna. Österreichische Kanzleisprache is now used less and less, thanks to various reforms that reduced the number of traditional civil servants. As a result, Standard German is replacing it in government, when Austria became a member of the European Union, the Austrian variety of the German language — limited to 23 agricultural terms — was protected in Protocol no. 10, regarding the use of Austrian-specific terms in the framework of the European Union, Austrian German is the only variety of a pluricentric language recognized under international law or EU primary law. All facts concerning “Protocol no. 10” are documented in Markhardts Das österreichische Deutsch im Rahmen der EU, Peter Lang,2005
23.
Old High German
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Old High German is the earliest stage of the German language, conventionally covering the period from around 700 to 1050. Coherent written texts do not appear until the half of the 8th century. There are, however, a number of Elder Futhark inscriptions dating to the 6th century, as well as single words, during the migration period, the Elbe Germanic tribes settled in what became Alamannia, the Duchy of Bavaria and the Kingdom of Lombardy. Old High German comprises the dialects of these groups which underwent the Second Sound Shift during the 6th Century, namely all of Elbe Germanic, in the south, the Langobards, who had settled in Northern Italy, maintained their dialect until their conquest by Charlemagne in 774. This area did not become German-speaking again until the German eastward expansion of the early 12th century, though there was some attempt at conquest, Old High German literacy is a product of the monasteries, notably at St. Gallen, Reichenau and Fulda. Its origins lie in the establishment of the German church by Boniface in the mid 8th century, einhard tells how Charlemagne himself ordered that the epic lays should be collected for posterity. It was the neglect or religious zeal of later generations that led to the loss of these records, thus, it was Charlemagnes weak successor, Louis the Pious, who destroyed his fathers collection of epic poetry on account of its pagan content. Hrabanus Maurus, a student of Alcuins and abbot at Fulda from 822, was an important advocate of the cultivation of German literacy, among his students were Walafrid Strabo and Otfrid of Weissenburg. Notker Labeo towards the end of the Old High German period was among the greatest stylists in the language, the main difference between Old High German and the West Germanic dialects from which it developed is that it underwent the High German consonant shift. This is generally dated approximately to the late 5th and early 6th centuries—hence dating its start to around 500, the result of this sound change is that the consonantal system of German remains different from all other West Germanic languages, including English and Low German. Grammatically, however, Old High German remained very similar to Old English, Old Dutch, by the mid 11th century the many different vowels found in unstressed syllables had all been reduced to /ə/. Since these vowels were part of the endings in the nouns and verbs. For these reasons,1050 is seen as the start of the Middle High German period, for this reason the dialects may be termed monastery dialects. It declined after the conquest of the Lombard Kingdom by the Franks in 774 and it is classified as Upper German on the basis of evidence of the Second Sound Shift. The continued existence of a West Frankish dialect in the Western, claims that this might have been the language of the Carolingian court or that it is attested in the Ludwigslied, whose presence in a French manuscript suggests bilingualism, are controversial. The charts show the vowel and consonant systems of the East Franconian dialect in the 9th century and this is the dialect of the monastery of Fulda, and specifically of the Old High German Tatian. Old High German had five long vowels and six phonemic short vowels. Both occurred in stressed and unstressed syllables, notes, All back vowels likely had front-vowel allophones as a result of Umlaut
24.
Old English
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Old English or Anglo-Saxon is the earliest historical form of the English language, spoken in England and southern and eastern Scotland in the early Middle Ages. It was brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers probably in the mid 5th century, Old English developed from a set of Anglo-Frisian or North Sea Germanic dialects originally spoken by Germanic tribes traditionally known as the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. As the Anglo-Saxons became dominant in England, their language replaced the languages of Roman Britain, Common Brittonic, a Celtic language, Old English had four main dialects, associated with particular Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, Mercian, Northumbrian, Kentish and West Saxon. It was West Saxon that formed the basis for the standard of the later Old English period, although the dominant forms of Middle. The speech of eastern and northern parts of England was subject to strong Old Norse influence due to Scandinavian rule, Old English is one of the West Germanic languages, and its closest relatives are Old Frisian and Old Saxon. Like other old Germanic languages, it is different from Modern English. Old English grammar is similar to that of modern German, nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and verbs have many inflectional endings and forms. The oldest Old English inscriptions were using a runic system. Old English was not static, and its usage covered a period of 700 years, from the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain in the 5th century to the late 11th century, some time after the Norman invasion. While indicating that the establishment of dates is a process, Albert Baugh dates Old English from 450 to 1150, a period of full inflections. Perhaps around 85 per cent of Old English words are no longer in use, Old English is a West Germanic language, developing out of Ingvaeonic dialects from the 5th century. It came to be spoken over most of the territory of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms which became the Kingdom of England and this included most of present-day England, as well as part of what is now southeastern Scotland, which for several centuries belonged to the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Northumbria. Other parts of the island – Wales and most of Scotland – continued to use Celtic languages, Norse was also widely spoken in the parts of England which fell under Danish law. Anglo-Saxon literacy developed after Christianisation in the late 7th century, the oldest surviving text of Old English literature is Cædmons Hymn, composed between 658 and 680. There is a corpus of runic inscriptions from the 5th to 7th centuries. The Old English Latin alphabet was introduced around the 9th century, with the unification of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms by Alfred the Great in the later 9th century, the language of government and literature became standardised around the West Saxon dialect. In Old English, typical of the development of literature, poetry arose before prose, a later literary standard, dating from the later 10th century, arose under the influence of Bishop Æthelwold of Winchester, and was followed by such writers as the prolific Ælfric of Eynsham. This form of the language is known as the Winchester standard and it is considered to represent the classical form of Old English
25.
Croissant
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A croissant is a buttery, flaky, viennoiserie-pastry named for its well-known crescent shape. Croissants and other viennoiserie are made of a layered yeast-leavened dough, the dough is layered with butter, rolled and folded several times in succession, then rolled into a sheet, in a technique called laminating. The process results in a layered, flaky texture, similar to a puff pastry, crescent-shaped food breads have been made since the renaissance, and crescent-shaped cakes possibly since antiquity. Croissants have long been a staple of Austrian and French bakeries and pâtisseries, in the late 1970s, the development of factory-made, frozen, pre-formed but unbaked dough made them into a fast food which can be freshly baked by unskilled labor. The croissanterie was explicitly a French response to American-style fast food, croissants are a common part of continental breakfast. The Kipferl, ancestor of the croissant, has documented in Austria going back at least as far as the 13th century. The Kipferl can be plain or with nuts or other fillings. This bakery, which served Viennese specialities including the Kipferl and the Vienna loaf, quickly became popular, the French version of the Kipferl was named for its crescent shape and has become an identifiable shape across the world. However, early recipes for non-laminated croissants can be found in the 19th century and it was typically used not on its own but for shells holding other ingredients. It does not appear to be mentioned in relation to the croissant until the 20th century, stories of how the Kipferl — and so, ultimately, the croissant — was created are widespread and persistent culinary legends, going back to the 19th century. However, there are no sources for any of these stories. The baker asked no reward other than the right to bake crescent-shaped pastries commemorating the incident. He was duly rewarded in this way, and the croissant was born and this has led to croissants being banned by some Islamic fundamentalists. Uncooked croissant dough can also be wrapped around any praline, almond paste, or chocolate before it is baked and it may be flavoured with dried fruit such as sultanas or raisins, or other fruits such as apples. In France and Spain, croissants are sold without filling and eaten without added butter. In the United States, sweet fillings or toppings are sometimes used, in the Levant, croissants are sold plain or filled with chocolate, cheese, almonds, or zaatar. In Germany, croissants are sometimes filled with Nutella or persipan, in southern Germany, in the German-speaking part of Switzerland, the croissant is typically called a Gipfeli, this usually has a crisper crust and is less buttery than the French-style croissant. Croissants are commonly served alongside coffee as a breakfast or merienda and these are referred to as medialunas because of their famous shape and are typically coated with a sweet glaze
26.
Brick Lane
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Brick Lane is a street in east London, England, in the London Borough of Tower Hamlets. Today, it is the heart of the citys Bangladeshi-Sylheti community and is known to some as Banglatown and it is famous for its many curry houses. Winding through fields, the street was formerly called Whitechapel Lane and it derives its current name from brick and tile manufacture started in the 15th century, which used the local brick earth deposits. And featured in the 16th century Woodcut map of London as a partially-developed crossroad leading north from the citys most easterly edge, by the 17th century, the street was being developed northwards from the Barres as a result of expanding population. Brewing came to Brick Lane before 1680, with water drawn from deep wells, one brewer was Joseph Truman, first recorded in 1683. His family, particularly Benjamin Truman, went on to establish the sizeable Black Eagle Brewery on Brick Lane, the Brick Lane Market first developed in the 17th century for fruit and vegetables sold outside the City. Successive waves of immigrants settled in the area, in the 17th century, French Huguenots expanded into the area for housing, starting with the Huguenots, the area became a centre for weaving, tailoring and the developing clothing industry. It continued to attract immigrants, who provided semi- and unskilled labour, in the 19th century, Irish people and Ashkenazi Jews immigrated to the area. Jewish immigration continued into the early 20th century, the Sunday market, like the ones on Petticoat Lane and nearby Columbia Road, dates from a dispensation given by the government to the Jewish community in the 19th century. At the time, there were no Sunday markets open because of the Christian observance of Sabbath, located at the junction of Cheshire and Sclater streets, the market sells bric-a-brac as well as fruit, vegetables and many other items. In 2015 it was identified by police as the point of a trade in stolen bicycles and bicycle parts. Alongside seven arrests, the police also warned purchasers that buying bicycles or parts in deals too good to be true could make them guilty of handling stolen goods, near the junction with Hanbury Street are two indoor markets, Upmarket and Backyard Market. In 2010, the Brick Lane Farmers Market opened, intended to be held every Sunday in nearby Bacon Street, in the later 20th century, Bangladeshis comprised the major group of immigrants and gradually predominated in the area. Many Bangladeshi immigrants to Brick Lane were from the Greater Sylhet region and these settlers helped shape Bangladeshi migration to Britain, many families from Jagannathpur and Bishwanath tend to live in the Brick Lane area. In 1742, La Neuve Eglise, a Huguenot chapel, was built on the corner of Brick Lane, by 1809, it was used by missionaries as The Jews’ Chapel, where they promoted Christianity to the expanding Jewish population. It was adapted as a Methodist Chapel in 1819 for Protestant residents, reflecting the changing demographics of the area, in 1898, the building was consecrated as the Machzikei HaDath, or Spitalfields Great Synagogue. After decades of change in the area, with Jews moving out, the building is Grade II* listed. In the 20th century the Brick Lane area was important in the wave of development of Anglo-Indian cuisine
27.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
28.
Cream cheese
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Cream cheese is a soft, mild-tasting fresh cheese made from milk and cream. Stabilizers such as carob bean gum and carrageenan are typically added in industrial production. The U. S. Food and Drug Administration defines cream cheese as containing at least 33% milk fat with a content of not more than 55%. In other countries, it is defined differently and may need a higher fat content. Cream cheese is not naturally matured and is meant to be consumed fresh, so it differs from other soft cheeses such as Brie and it is more comparable in taste, texture, and production methods to Boursin and Mascarpone. Early prototypes of cream cheese are mentioned in England as early as 1583, recipes are recorded soon after 1754, particularly from Lincolnshire and the southwest of England. Recipes for cream cheese can be found in U. S. cookbooks, by the 1820s, the dairy farms in and around Philadelphia and New York City had gained a reputation for producing the best examples of this cheese. Cream cheese was produced on farms throughout the country, so quantities made. Around 1873, William A. Lawrence, a Chester, New York, in 1872, he purchased a Neufchâtel factory and shortly thereafter, by adding cream to the process, was able to create a richer cheese that he called “cream cheese”. In 1877, he created the first brand of cheese, its logo was a silhouette of a cow followed by the words. In 1879, to create a factory, Lawrence entered into an arrangement with another Chester merchant. In 1880, Alvah Reynolds, a New York cheese distributor, began to sell the cheese of Lawrence & Durland, some of Green’s cheese was now also sold under the Philadelphia label. In 1892, Reynolds bought the Empire Cheese Co. of South Edmeston, New York, when the Empire factory burned down in 1900, he asked the newly formed Phenix Cheese Company to create his cheese, instead. In 1903, Reynolds sold rights to the Philadelphia brand name to Phenix Cheese Company under the direction of Jason F. Whitney, by the early 1880s, Star cream cheese had emerged as Lawrence & Durlands brand and Green’s made World and Globe brands of the cheese. At the turn of the 20th century, New York dairymen were producing cream cheese under a number of brands, as well, Triple Cream, Eagle, Empire, Mohican, Monroe Cheese Co. Cream cheese is easy to make at home, and many methods, consistent, reliable, commercial manufacture is more difficult. Lactic acid bacteria are added to pasteurized and homogenized milk, during the fermentation around 22 °C, the pH of the milk decreases. Amino acids at the surface of the proteins begin losing charge and become neutral, turning the fat micelles from hydrophilic to hydrophobic state and causing the liquid to coagulate
29.
Lox
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Lox is a fillet of brined salmon. Traditionally, lox is served on a bagel with cream cheese, and is garnished with tomato, sliced red onion. The American English word lox is derived from the Yiddish word for salmon, לאַקס laks, the word lox has cognates in numerous Indo-European languages. For example, cured salmon in Scotland and Scandinavian countries is known by different versions of the name Gravlax or gravad laks, Nova or Nova Scotia salmon, sometimes called Nova lox, is cured with a milder brine and then cold-smoked. The name dates from a time much of the salmon in New York City came from Nova Scotia. Today, however, the name refers to the milder brining, as compared to regular lox, a mixture of salt and sometimes sugars, spices, and other flavorings is applied directly to the meat of the fish, this is called dry-brining or Scottish-style. The brine mixture is then rinsed off, and the fish is cold-smoked, the fish is salt-cured and cold-smoked. This is a traditional Nordic means of preparing salmon, the salmon is coated with a spice mixture, which often includes dill, sugars, salt, and spices like juniper berry. It is often served with a sweet mustard-dill sauce, Smoked fish Smoked salmon List of smoked foods
30.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
31.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
32.
Lender's Bagels
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Lenders Bagels is a brand of bagels that pioneered the pre-packaged bagel industry in the United States. Established in 1927 in New Haven, Connecticut by the Lender family, it became a North American leader in the marketing, distribution, Lenders introduced frozen bagels and sold the first packaged bagels in supermarkets, eventually becoming the worlds biggest bagel producer. The company was sold to Kraft Foods in 1984 and has part of Pinnacle Foods since 2003. Non-frozen room temperature fresh bagels began production in 1994, in 2012, Lenders revenue was about 70 million dollars. New Haven then had a population of over 162,000, many of them new immigrants, Lenders bagel bakery, called the New York Bagel Bakery, was one of the first bagel bakeries in the United States to be established outside of New York City. In 2007, the site of the first Lenders bagel bakery was dedicated as a playground, in 1934, Lender moved to a large former Italian bakery, in a multiethnic neighborhood of New Haven. Aside from sales to individuals, Lender sold his bagels to other bakeries as well as to delicatessens and restaurants. By the mid-1950s, the logistics of producing as many as 6,000 bagels for sale on Sunday morning, in contrast to low activity the rest of the week. As a result, in 1954 Lender perfected a method of freezing the bagels and this was kept secret, but after two years, the bakery accidentally delivered the frozen bagels, and the secret was revealed. To introduce bagels to a public, the Lender family would prepare. The plastic bagged, frozen six pack of pre-sliced Lenders Frozen Bagels began to market share. New varieties of bagels were invented, and production was switched over to rotary ovens, rather than labor-intensive open, in 1960, Harry Lender died, and his sons Sam and Murray, who had been running the bakery with him, continued. When youngest son Marvin graduated from college, he became a partner as well, the two brothers teamed up to expand operations, with Marvin managing the bakery and Murray in charge of sales. In 1963 the Lenders leased the very first Thompson Bagel Machine, until then, according to Thompson, “Sam Lender mixed the bagel dough and one man cut it into small slabs and fed it into an Italian breadstick machine. The Italian breadstick machine made bagel dough strips that were distributed to workstations where six to eight men rolled them by hand into bagels. With this system they averaged 50 dozen bagels per hour per man, the first Thompson machine, with three unskilled workers, was able to do the work of eight skilled workers. The Lenders began flash-freezing the bagels and produced softer and sweeter bagels than was traditional, in 1974, Lender’s had bought their major competitor, Abels Bagels in Buffalo, New York. In 1978 the family opened a restaurant in Orange, Connecticut under the name “H. Lender and Sons”
33.
Murray Lender
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Murray Isaac Lender was an American businessman and entrepreneur who helped expand his fathers small, Connecticut bagel bakery, Lenders Bagels, into a nationwide brand. Murray Lender served as the executive officer of Lenders, while his brother, Marvin. Under Murray Lender, Lenders Bagels began selling frozen bagels to supermarkets in 1960, the Washington Post called Lender the most important man in the modern history of bagels. Murray Lender also became known to the public for appearing in a series of commercials for Lenders Bagels. Murray Lenders father, Harry Lender, immigrated from Lublin, Poland and that same year, Harry opened a small bagel bakery in New Haven, Connecticut, which catered to the citys Eastern European Jewish community. His wife, Rose Braighter Lender, and their two oldest children, Hyman and Sam, followed Harry Lender to the United States in 1929, Murray Lender was born in New Haven, Connecticut, on October 29,1930. That’s a proof of how important this story is to all immigrants, all four brothers - Hyman, Sam, Harry and Marvin - entered the familys bagel business, called H. Harry Lender died in 1958 and the brothers began freezing bagels for sale in 1960, Murray also came up with the idea of pre-slicing bagels. Murray Lender and his family sold Lenders Bagels to Kraft Foods in 1984, the brand was acquired by the Pinnacle Foods Group in 2003. Murray Lender died at a hospital in Miami, Florida, on March 21,2012 and he had suffered injuries in a fall ten weeks earlier at his home in Aventura, Florida. He was survived by his children Carl Lender, Haris Lender and Jay Lender and 6 grandchildren
34.
Caper
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Capparis spinosa, the caper bush, also called Flinders rose, is a perennial plant that bears rounded, fleshy leaves and large white to pinkish-white flowers. The plant is best known for the flower buds, often used as a seasoning. Other species of Capparis are also picked along with C. spinosa for their buds or fruits, other parts of Capparis plants are used in the manufacture of medicines and cosmetics. Capparis spinosa is found in the wild in the Mediterranean, East Africa, Madagascar, South-Western and Central Asia, the Himalayas, the Pacific Islands, Indomalaya, and Australia. It is present in almost all the countries, and is included in the flora of most of them. Although the flora of the Mediterranean region has considerable endemism, the caper bush could have originated in the tropics, the taxonomic status of the species is controversial and unsettled. Species within the genus Capparis are highly variable, and interspecific hybrids have been throughout the evolutionary history of the genus. The shrubby plant is many-branched, with leaves, thick and shiny. The caper bush requires a semiarid or arid climate, the caper bush has developed a series of mechanisms that reduce the impact of high radiation levels, high daily temperature, and insufficient soil water during its growing period. The caper bush has a reaction to sudden increases in humidity. This is apparently harmless, as the plant quickly adjusts to the new conditions and it also shows characteristics of a plant adapted to poor soils. This shrub has a high ratio and the presence of mycorrhizae serves to maximize the uptake of minerals in poor soils. Different nitrogen-fixing bacterial strains have been isolated from the caper bush rhizosphere, the caper bush has been introduced as a specialized culture in some European countries in the last four decades. The economic importance of the plant led to a significant increase in both the area under cultivation and production levels during the late 1980s. The main production areas are in harsh environments found in Morocco, the southeastern Iberian Peninsula, Turkey, a harvest duration of at least three months is necessary for profitability. Intense daylight and a growing period are necessary to secure high yields. The caper bush can withstand temperatures over 40 °C in summer, a caper bush is able to survive low temperatures in the form of stump, as happens in the foothills of the Alps. Caper plants are found even 3,500 m above sea level in Ladakh, some Italian and Argentine plantings can withstand strong winds without problems, due to caper bush decumbent architecture and the coriaceous consistency of the leaves in some populations
35.
Japan
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Japan is a sovereign island nation in Eastern Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies off the eastern coast of the Asia Mainland and stretches from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea, the kanji that make up Japans name mean sun origin. 日 can be read as ni and means sun while 本 can be read as hon, or pon, Japan is often referred to by the famous epithet Land of the Rising Sun in reference to its Japanese name. Japan is an archipelago consisting of about 6,852 islands. The four largest are Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku, the country is divided into 47 prefectures in eight regions. Hokkaido being the northernmost prefecture and Okinawa being the southernmost one, the population of 127 million is the worlds tenth largest. Japanese people make up 98. 5% of Japans total population, approximately 9.1 million people live in the city of Tokyo, the capital of Japan. Archaeological research indicates that Japan was inhabited as early as the Upper Paleolithic period, the first written mention of Japan is in Chinese history texts from the 1st century AD. Influence from other regions, mainly China, followed by periods of isolation, from the 12th century until 1868, Japan was ruled by successive feudal military shoguns who ruled in the name of the Emperor. Japan entered into a period of isolation in the early 17th century. The Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937 expanded into part of World War II in 1941, which came to an end in 1945 following the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan is a member of the UN, the OECD, the G7, the G8, the country has the worlds third-largest economy by nominal GDP and the worlds fourth-largest economy by purchasing power parity. It is also the worlds fourth-largest exporter and fourth-largest importer, although Japan has officially renounced its right to declare war, it maintains a modern military with the worlds eighth-largest military budget, used for self-defense and peacekeeping roles. Japan is a country with a very high standard of living. Its population enjoys the highest life expectancy and the third lowest infant mortality rate in the world, in ancient China, Japan was called Wo 倭. It was mentioned in the third century Chinese historical text Records of the Three Kingdoms in the section for the Wei kingdom, Wa became disliked because it has the connotation of the character 矮, meaning dwarf. The 倭 kanji has been replaced with the homophone Wa, meaning harmony, the Japanese word for Japan is 日本, which is pronounced Nippon or Nihon and literally means the origin of the sun. The earliest record of the name Nihon appears in the Chinese historical records of the Tang dynasty, at the start of the seventh century, a delegation from Japan introduced their country as Nihon
36.
Einstein Bros. Bagels
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Bagels is an American bagel and coffee chain. Einstein Bros. was created by the chain restaurant corporation Boston Chicken in 1995, the chain is now owned by Einstein and Noah Corp. a wholly owned subsidiary of Einstein Noah Restaurant Group, Inc. These companies included Offerdahls Bagel Gourmet, Incorporated, Bagel & Bagel, Incorporated, Baltimore Bagel, each found that their stores were similar in that they offered both original and new bagel flavors in rich neighborhoods where the customers had relatively little previous exposure to bagels. Noahs Bagels was founded by Noah Alper on College Avenue in Berkeley, in 1996, the chain of 38 stores was sold to Einstein Bros. for $100 million. New World Coffee was founded in the early 1990s by Ramin Kamfar and it bought Manhattan Bagel out of bankruptcy in 1998. The combined company purchased Washington, D. C. -based Chesapeake Bagel Bakery in 1999 when that chain had 89 stores, by 2000, Einstein Bros. was in financial trouble, having loaned too much money to franchisees. After it declared bankruptcy, New World Coffee, which had attempted an unsuccessful hostile takeover. In 2014, Einstein Noah Restaurant Group was acquired by JAB Holding Company, list of bakery cafés http, //secfilings. nasdaq. com/edgar_conv_html%2f2012%2f03%2f02%2f0001193125-12-092597. html#FIS_BUSINESS Official website
37.
Costco
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As of 2016, Costco was the worlds no.1 retailer of choice and prime beef, organic foods, rotisserie chicken, and wine. Costcos worldwide headquarters are in Issaquah, Washington, but the company opened its first warehouse in nearby Seattle in 1983, through mergers, Costcos overall corporate history dates back to 1976, when its former competitor Price Club was founded in San Diego, California. As of 9 February 2017, Costco had a total of 727 warehouses, spread throughout the United States, Canada, Mexico, United Kingdom, Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Australia, and Spain. Costco is known for offering low-price, limited-selection retail treasure hunts with expensive luxury goods next to cheap bulk goods, Costco opened its first warehouse in Seattle, Washington, on September 15,1983, by James Sinegal and Jeffrey H. Brotman. In 1993, Costco and Price Club agreed to merge operations themselves after Price declined an offer from Sam Walton and Walmart to merge Price Club with their warehouse store chain, Sams Club. Costcos business model and size were similar to those of Price Club, the combined company took the name PriceCostco, and memberships became universal, meaning that a Price Club member could use their membership to shop at Costco and vice versa. PriceCostco boasted 206 locations generating $16 billion in annual sales, in 1997, the company changed its name to Costco Wholesale Corporation and all remaining Price Club locations were rebranded as Costco. In 2014, Costco was the third largest retailer in the United States and that year Costco announced plans to open an online store in China using Alibaba Group. Costco today In the United States, Costcos main competitors operating membership warehouses are Sams Club, Costco employs about 174,000 full and part-time employees. In 2016, Costco had 85 million members, Costco was the first company to grow from zero to $3 billion in sales in under six years. For the fiscal year ending on August 31,2012, the companys sales totaled $97.062 billion, Costco is 18th on the 2015 Fortune 500. The ACSI named Costco number one in the specialty retail store industry with a score of 84 in 2014. As of December 2013, Costcos board of directors is chaired by co-founder Jeffrey H. Brotman, Costco focuses on selling products at low prices, often at very high volume. These goods are usually bulk-packaged and marketed primarily to families and businesses. Furthermore, Costco does not carry multiple brands or varieties where the item is essentially the same except when it has a brand to sell. This results in a volume of sales from a vendor, allowing further reductions in price. A typical Costco warehouse carries only 3,700 distinct products, if Costco management feels the wholesale price of a product is too high, they will refuse to stock the product. For example, on November 16,2009, Costco announced that it would stop selling Coca-Cola products because the soft-drink maker refused to lower its wholesale prices, Costco resumed selling Coca-Cola products on December 14,2009
38.
St-Viateur Bagel
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St-Viateur Bagel is a famous Montreal-style bagel bakery located in the neighbourhood of Mile End in the borough of Le Plateau Mont-Royal. Established in 1957 by Myer Lewkowicz, the bakery takes its name from its street, the bagel shop operates 24 hours a day,7 days a week, and serves over 12,000 bagels a day. In addition to the location, there are six other locations. Today, the bakery is owned by Joe Morena, and competes with the nearby Fairmount Bagel for the title of Montreals best bagel, historic Jewish Quarter, Montreal Wilenskys Schwartzs St-Viateur Bagel
39.
Cereal germ
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The germ of a cereal is the reproductive part that germinates to grow into a plant, it is the embryo of the seed. Along with bran, germ is often a by-product of the milling that produces refined grain products. Cereal grains and their components, such as wheat germ oil, rice bran oil, the germ is retained as an integral part of whole-grain foods. Non-whole grain methods of milling are intended to isolate the endosperm, removal of bran is aimed at producing a flour with a white rather than a brown color, and eliminating fiber, which reduces nutrition. The germ is rich in polyunsaturated fats and so germ removal improves the qualities of flour. It is a source of fiber. White bread is made using flour that has had the germ, Wheat germ can be added to protein shakes, casseroles, muffins, pancakes, cereals, yogurt, smoothies, cookies, and other goods. Wheat germ can become rancid if not properly stored in a refrigerator or freezer, some manufacturers prevent rancidity by storing wheat germ in vacuum sealed glass containers. Wheat germ is also useful in biochemistry, as it contains lectins that bind strongly to certain glycoproteins, endosperm Health food Wheat germ oil Samanu
40.
Bran
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Bran, also known as millers bran, is the hard outer layers of cereal grain. It consists of the combined aleurone and pericarp, along with germ, it is an integral part of whole grains, and is often produced as a byproduct of milling in the production of refined grains. When bran is removed from grains, the grains lose a portion of their nutritional value, bran is present in and may be in any cereal grain, including rice, corn, wheat, oats, barley, rye and millet. Bran is not the same as chaff, coarser scaly material surrounding the grain, bran is particularly rich in dietary fiber and essential fatty acids and contains significant quantities of starch, protein, vitamins, and dietary minerals. It is also a source of acid, an antinutrient that prevents nutrient absorption. The high oil content of bran makes it subject to rancidification, bran is often heat-treated to increase its longevity. Rice bran is a byproduct of the milling process. A major rice bran fraction contains 12%-13% oil and highly unsaponifiable components and this fraction contains tocotrienols, gamma-oryzanol and beta-sitosterol, all these constituents may contribute to the lowering of the plasma levels of the various parameters of the lipid profile. Rice bran also contains a level of dietary fibres. In addition, it also contains ferulic acid, which is also a component of the structure of nonlignified cell walls, however, some research suggests there are levels of inorganic arsenic present in rice bran. One study found the levels to be 20% higher than in drinking water, other types of bran contain less arsenic than rice bran, and are just as nutrient-rich. Bran is often used to enrich breads and breakfast cereals, especially for the benefit of those wishing to increase their intake of dietary fiber, bran may also be used for pickling as in the tsukemono of Japan. In Romania and Moldova, the wheat bran is usually used when preparing borș soup. Rice bran in particular finds many uses in Japan, where it is known as nuka, besides using it for pickling, Japanese people also add it to the water when boiling bamboo shoots, and use it for dish washing. In Kitakyushu City, it is called jinda and used for stewing fish, rice bran and rice bran oil are also widely used in Japan as a natural beauty treatment. In Myanmar, rice bran, called phwei-bya, is mixed with ash, rice bran is also stuck to commercial ice blocks to hinder them from melting. It is also burned for fuel for mills in the rice growing regions of the Irrawaddy delta. Bran oil may be extracted for use by itself for industrial purposes, or as a cooking oil
Cookbook: Bagel 
Media: Bagel
