1.
Predation
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In an ecosystem, predation is a biological interaction where a predator feeds on its prey. Predators may or may not kill their prey prior to feeding on it, but the act of predation often results in the death of the prey, thus predation is often, though not always, carnivory. Other categories of consumption are herbivory, fungivory, and detritivory, all of these are consumer-resource systems. It can often be difficult to separate various types of feeding behaviors. For example, some parasites prey on their host and then lay their eggs on it, for their offspring to feed on it while it continues to live, the key characteristic of predation is the predators direct impact on the prey population. Selective pressures imposed on one another leads to an evolutionary arms race between prey and predator, resulting in various antipredator adaptations. Ways of classifying predation include grouping by trophic level or diet, by specialization, Predators can be classified by their interactions with their prey. Two factors are considered here, how close the predator and prey are, and whether the prey is killed by the predator. A true predator is one that kills and eats another living thing, Predators may hunt actively for prey in pursuit predation, or sit and wait for prey to approach within striking distance, as in ambush predators. Some predation entails venom that subdues a prey before the predator ingests it, as in the box jellyfish, or disables it, in some cases, the venom contributes to the digestion of the prey, as in rattlesnakes and some spiders. In contrast, baleen whales eat millions of microscopic plankton at once, seed and egg predation are true predation, as seeds and eggs are potential organisms. Predators need not eat prey entirely, for example, some predators cannot digest bones, some may eat only part of an organism, but still consistently cause its death. Grazing organisms do not often kill their prey, while some herbivores like zooplankton live on unicellular phytoplankton and therefore, by the individualized nature of the organism, kill their prey, many others only eat a small part of the plant. Grazing livestock may pull some grass out at the roots, but most is simply grazed upon, kelp is frequently grazed in subtidal kelp forests, but regrows at the base of the blade continuously to cope with browsing pressure. Animals may also be grazed upon, female mosquitos land on hosts briefly to gain sufficient proteins for the development of their offspring, starfish may be grazed on, being capable of regenerating lost arms. Parasites can at times be difficult to distinguish from grazers and their feeding behavior is similar in many ways, however they are noted for their close association with their host species. This close living arrangement may be described by the symbiosis, living together. Parasitic organisms range from the mistletoe, a parasitic plant
2.
Mousetrap
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A mousetrap is a specialised type of animal trap designed primarily to catch mice, however, it may also trap other small animals. Mousetraps are usually set in a location where there is a suspected infestation of rodents. Larger traps are designed to other species of animals, such as rats, squirrels, other small rodents. The trap that is credited as the first patented lethal mousetrap was a set of spring-loaded and it was patented on 4 November 1879 by James M. Keep of New York, US patent 221,320, from the patent description, it is clear that this is not the first mousetrap of this type, but the patent is for this simplified, easy to manufacture, design. It is the industrial age development of the trap. The jaws of this type are operated by a coiled spring, the trip snaps the jaws shut, killing the rodent. Lightweight traps of this style are now constructed from plastic and these traps do not have a powerful snap like other types. They are safer for the fingers of the person setting them than other lethal traps, the classic spring-loaded mousetrap was first patented by William C. Hooker of Abingdon, Illinois, who received US patent 528671 for his design in 1894. A British inventor, James Henry Atkinson, patented a similar trap called the Little Nipper in 1898, including variations that had a weight-activated treadle as the trip. In 1899, Atkinson patented a modification of his design that transformed it from a trap that goes off by a step on the treadle into one that goes off by a pull on the bait. The similarity of the design with Hookers of 1894 may have contributed to a common mistake of giving priority to Atkinson. It is a device with a heavily spring-loaded bar and a trip to release it. Cheese may be placed on the trip as bait, but other such as oats, chocolate, bread, meat, butter. The spring-loaded bar swings down rapidly and with force when anything, usually a mouse. The design is such that the neck or spinal cord will be broken, or its ribs or skull crushed. The trap can be held over a bin and the dead mouse released into it by pulling the bar, in the case of rats, which are much larger than mice, a much larger version of the same type of trap is used to kill them. Some spring mousetraps have an extended trip
3.
Fishing bait
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Fishing bait is any substance used to attract and catch fish, e. g. on the end of a fishing hook, or inside a fish trap. Traditionally, nightcrawlers, insects, and smaller fish have been used for this purpose. Fishermen have also begun using plastic bait and more recently, electronic lures, studies show that natural baits like croaker and shrimp are more recognized by the fish and are more readily accepted. Which of the various techniques a fisher may choose is dictated mainly by the target species, bait can be separated into two main categories, artificial baits and natural baits. Using lures is a method for catching predatory fish. Lures are artificial baits designed to resemble the appearance and/or the movement of prey, the lure may require a specialised presentation to impart an enticing action as, for example, in fly fishing. A common way to fish a soft plastic worm is the Texas Rig, the natural bait angler, with few exceptions, will use a common prey species of the fish as an attractant. The natural bait used may be alive or dead, common natural baits include worms, leeches, minnows, frogs, salamanders, and insects. Natural baits are effective due to the texture, odour and colour of the bait presented. Cheese has been known to be a very successful due to its strong smell. The common earthworm is a bait for fresh water angling. Grubs and maggots are also excellent bait when trout fishing, grasshoppers, bees and even ants are also used as bait for trout in their season, although many anglers believe that trout or salmon and many other fresh water fish roe is superior to any other bait. In lakes in southern climates such as Florida, United States, bread bait is a small amount of bread, often moistened by saliva, balled up to a small size that is bite size to small fish. Most common earthworm species, such as Lumbricus terrestris, which can often be dug up in the garden, are suitable for freshwater fishing. However, on a scale they are not really candidates for worm farming for providing fishing bait. The greyish brown common earthworms are deep burrowing and do not readily breed in the shallow worm farm bins, the red compost worms, such as the well known red wiggler or the exotic European nightcrawler, are better candidates, as they are epigeic or surface dwellers. This is the reason that red worms are usually available commercially for bait worms. Their natural home is just below the surface in rotting leaves, dung heaps and they are called detritivourous because they eat detritus
4.
Fish
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A fish is any member of a group of animals that consist of all gill-bearing aquatic craniate animals that lack limbs with digits. They form a group to the tunicates, together forming the olfactores. Included in this definition are the living hagfish, lampreys, and cartilaginous, tetrapods emerged within lobe-finned fishes, so cladistically they are fish as well. However, traditionally fish are rendered obsolete or paraphyletic by excluding the tetrapods, because in this manner the term fish is defined negatively as a paraphyletic group, it is not considered a formal taxonomic grouping in systematic biology. The traditional term pisces is considered a typological, but not a phylogenetic classification, the earliest organisms that can be classified as fish were soft-bodied chordates that first appeared during the Cambrian period. Although they lacked a true spine, they possessed notochords which allowed them to be more agile than their invertebrate counterparts, fish would continue to evolve through the Paleozoic era, diversifying into a wide variety of forms. Many fish of the Paleozoic developed external armor that protected them from predators, the first fish with jaws appeared in the Silurian period, after which many became formidable marine predators rather than just the prey of arthropods. Fish are abundant in most bodies of water and they can be found in nearly all aquatic environments, from high mountain streams to the abyssal and even hadal depths of the deepest oceans. With 33,100 described species, fish exhibit greater species diversity than any group of vertebrates. Fish are an important resource for humans worldwide, especially as food, commercial and subsistence fishers hunt fish in wild fisheries or farm them in ponds or in cages in the ocean. They are also caught by fishers, kept as pets, raised by fishkeepers. Fish have had a role in culture through the ages, serving as deities, religious symbols, fish do not represent a monophyletic group, and therefore the evolution of fish is not studied as a single event. Early fish from the record are represented by a group of small, jawless. Jawless fish lineages are mostly extinct, an extant clade, the lampreys may approximate ancient pre-jawed fish. The first jaws are found in Placodermi fossils, the diversity of jawed vertebrates may indicate the evolutionary advantage of a jawed mouth. It is unclear if the advantage of a hinged jaw is greater biting force, improved respiration, fish may have evolved from a creature similar to a coral-like sea squirt, whose larvae resemble primitive fish in important ways. The first ancestors of fish may have kept the form into adulthood. Fish are a group, that is, any clade containing all fish also contains the tetrapods
5.
Lumbricus terrestris
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Lumbricus terrestris is a large, reddish worm species widely distributed around the world. In some areas where it is a species, some people consider it a serious pest for outcompeting native worms. Through much of Europe, it is the largest naturally occurring species of earthworm, in September 2012, a specimen was found in SW China measuring roughly 50 cm in length. In May 2016 a worm was found that was about 2 feet long and it has an unusual habit of copulating on the surface at night, which makes it more visible than most other earthworms. Because it is known, Lumbricus goes under a variety of common names. In Britain, it is called the common earthworm or lob worm. In North America, the term nightcrawler is also used, in Canada, it is also called the dew worm, or Grandaddy Earthworm. In the rest of the world, most references are just to the scientific name and it is also used as the example earthworm for millions of biology students around the world, even in areas where the species does not exist. However, earthworm can be a source of confusion, since in most of the world, L. terrestris is an anecic worm. That is, it forms temporary deep burrows and comes to the surface to feed, an unusual habit of this species is to pull leaves into the mouth of its burrow where they partially decay before being eaten. While they generally feed on plant material, they have been observed feeding on dead insects, the natural lifespan of L. terrestris is unknown, though individuals have lived for six years in captivity. These predators are very efficient earthworm eaters, being able to survive for periods with no food. In some areas, this is having an adverse effect on the soil structure. The soil aeration and organic material mixing previously done by the earthworms has ceased in some areas, L. terrestris is considered invasive in the north central United States. It does not do well in tilled fields because of exposure, physical injuries from farm equipment. It thrives in fence rows and woodlots and can lead to reductions in native herbaceous, mcTavish, Michael J. Basiliko, Nathan, Sackett, Tara E. Environmental Factors Influencing Immigration Behaviors of the Invasive Earthworm Lumbricus terrestris. Biologists trying to figure why giant earthworm grew so big
6.
Insect
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Insects are a class of hexapod invertebrates within the arthropod phylum that have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body, three pairs of jointed legs, compound eyes and one pair of antennae. They are the most diverse group of animals on the planet, including more than a million described species, the number of extant species is estimated at between six and ten million, and potentially represent over 90% of the differing animal life forms on Earth. Insects may be found in all environments, although only a small number of species reside in the oceans. The life cycles of insects vary but most hatch from eggs, insect growth is constrained by the inelastic exoskeleton and development involves a series of molts. The immature stages can differ from the adults in structure, habit and habitat, Insects that undergo 3-stage metamorphosis lack a pupal stage and adults develop through a series of nymphal stages. The higher level relationship of the Hexapoda is unclear, fossilized insects of enormous size have been found from the Paleozoic Era, including giant dragonflies with wingspans of 55 to 70 cm. The most diverse insect groups appear to have coevolved with flowering plants, adult insects typically move about by walking, flying or sometimes swimming. As it allows for rapid yet stable movement, many insects adopt a tripedal gait in which they walk with their legs touching the ground in alternating triangles, Insects are the only invertebrates to have evolved flight. Many insects spend at least part of their lives under water, with adaptations that include gills. Some species, such as water striders, are capable of walking on the surface of water, Insects are mostly solitary, but some, such as certain bees, ants and termites, are social and live in large, well-organized colonies. Some insects, such as earwigs, show maternal care, guarding their eggs, Insects can communicate with each other in a variety of ways. Male moths can sense the pheromones of female moths over great distances, other species communicate with sounds, crickets stridulate, or rub their wings together, to attract a mate and repel other males. Lampyridae in the beetle order communicate with light, humans regard certain insects as pests, and attempt to control them using insecticides and a host of other techniques. Some insects damage crops by feeding on sap, leaves or fruits, a few parasitic species are pathogenic. Some insects perform complex ecological roles, blow-flies, for example, help consume carrion, Many other insects are considered ecologically beneficial as predators and a few provide direct economic benefit. Silkworms and bees have been used extensively by humans for the production of silk and honey, in some cultures, people eat the larvae or adults of certain insects. Insect first appears documented in English in 1601 in Hollands translation of Pliny, translations of Aristotles term also form the usual word for insect in Welsh, Serbo-Croatian, Russian, etc. The evolutionary relationship of insects to other animal groups remains unclear, in the Pancrustacea theory, insects, together with Entognatha, Remipedia, and Cephalocarida, make up a natural clade labeled Miracrustacea
7.
Soft plastic bait
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Soft plastic bait, commonly known as just plastic bait, is any of a range of plastic-based fishing baits, termed so because of their soft, flexible rubber texture. Soft plastics are available in a range of colours, sizes. Soft plastics found their origins in the late 1950s and early 1960s, with small worms, the stiff rubber used, as well as the basic shapes produced, did not allow the flexible action and effectiveness of modern soft plastics to be observed. Additionally, Tom Moore created the Touchdown Lure in 1974 in the room of his store in Indiana. The Touchdown 6 Original was born with two hooks with naturally weedless weed guards and include a 12-inch leader with swivels and a sinker, later a Pro version was created with two larger hooks and a 36-inch leader. The diversity of soft plastic baits has enabled them to be used in configurations, rigs. The original, and still most commonly use of soft plastics is as a simple lure. The hook of the jighead is threaded through the lure so that only the gape of the hook, and the eye, are exposed. Methods vary according to the shape of the used, however is it most often cast and retrieved with short. Experienced soft plastic anglers attempt to emulate the movement of the animal the soft plastic imitates, such as a prawn. Soft plastics are also trolled and jigged in the method as metal or hardbodied lures. The many rigs, techniques and uses of soft plastic lures are as varied as the designs, colours, specialised techniques and rigging methods have evolved from anglers targeting specific fish species or in particular areas, such as the Texas rig and Carolina rig. Tandem Rigs are designed to avoid losing fish that short strike the bait, a variation of the traditional Jig Head, called a Deep Darter Head, provide a sub surface walk the dog action on the soft plastic lure. The swimming tin, designed in the late 19th century to rig dead eels, is produced today to impart great action on large style soft baits like Hogy Lures 10-18 inch soft baits, today, soft plastic lures take on many forms and hybrids. Hardbody hybrid lures, with a plastic front half and soft plastic tail for lifelike action. These hybrids often use treble hooks, diving bibs and other features once restricted to hardbody lures and these new baits are based on different polymers, namely polyvinyl alcohol, instead of the more usual polyvinyl chloride. Companies like Hogy Lures are have also developed soy based, large style, soft plastic baits contain chemicals that can soften plastic that they touch, so should be kept from long contact with plastic tackle boxes or containers
8.
Fishing lure
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A fishing lure is a type of artificial fishing bait which is designed to attract a fishs attention. The lure uses movement, vibration, flash and color to bait fish, many lures are equipped with one or more hooks that are used to catch fish when they strike the lure. Some lures are placed to attract fish so a spear can be impaled into the fish or so the fish can be captured by hand. Most lures are attached to the end of a line and have various styles of hooks attached to the body and are designed to elicit a strike resulting in a hookset. Many lures are made but some are hand made such as fishing flies. Hand tying fly lures to match the hatch is considered a challenge by many amateur entomologists, modern commercial lures usually are often used with a fishing rod and fishing reel but there are some who use a technique where they hold the line in their hands. Handlining is a technique in which the line is directly in the hands versus being fed through the guides of a fishing rod. Longlining also can employ lures to catch fish, when a lure is used for casting, it is continually cast out and retrieved, the retrieve making the lure swim or produce a popping action. A skilled angler can explore many possible hiding places for fish through lure casting such as under logs, in early time, fishing lures were made from bone or bronze. The Chinese and Egyptians used fishing rods, hooks, and lines as early as 2,000 B. C. though most of the first fishermen used handlines. The first hooks were made out of bronze, which was strong but still very thin, the Chinese were the first to make fishing line, spun from fine silk. The modern fishing lure was made commercially in the United States in the early 1900s by the firm of Heddon, before this time most fishing lures were made by individual craftsman. Commercial-made lures were based on the ideas that the individual craftsmen were making. The reel is attached to a rod, the motion of the lure is made by winding line back on to the reel, by sweeping the fishing rod, jigging movements with the fishing rod, or by being pulled behind a moving boat. Exceptions included are artificial flies, commonly called flies by fly fishers, which float on the water surface, slowly sink or float underwater. There are many types of fishing lures, in most cases they are manufactured to resemble prey for the fish, but they are sometimes engineered to appeal to a fishes sense of territory, curiosity or aggression. Most lures are made to look like dying, injured, or fast moving fish and they include the following types, A jig is a weighted hook with a lead head opposite the sharp tip. They usually have a minnow or crawfish or even a plastic worm on it to get the fishs attention, some jigs can be fished in water depths down to 300 metres
9.
Myxobolus cerebralis
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Myxobolus cerebralis is a myxosporean parasite of salmonids that causes whirling disease in farmed salmon and trout and also in wild fish populations. It was first described in rainbow trout in Germany a century ago, but its range has spread and it has appeared in most of Europe, in the 1980s, M. cerebralis was found to require a tubificid oligochaete to complete its life cycle. The parasite infects its hosts with its cells after piercing them with polar filaments ejected from nematocyst-like capsules, Whirling disease afflicts juvenile fish and causes skeletal deformation and neurological damage. Fish whirl forward in an awkward, corkscrew-like pattern instead of swimming normally, find feeding difficult, the mortality rate is high for fingerlings, up to 90% of infected populations, and those that do survive are deformed by the parasites residing in their cartilage and bone. They act as a reservoir for the parasite, which is released into water following the fishs death, M. cerebralis is one of the most economically important myxozoans in fish, as well as one of the most pathogenic. It was the first myxosporean whose pathology and symptoms were described scientifically, the parasite is not transmissible to humans. The taxonomy and naming of both M. cerebralis, and of myxozoans in general, have complicated histories and it was originally thought to infect fish brains and nervous systems, though it soon was found to primarily infect cartilage and skeletal tissue. Attempts to change the name to Myxobolus chondrophagus, which would more accurately describe the organism, similarly, other actinosporeans were folded into the life cycles of various myxosporeans. Today, the myxozoans, previously thought to be protozoans, are considered animals by most scientists. Recent molecular studies suggest they are related to Bilateria or Cnidaria, M. cerebralis has many diverse stages ranging from single cells to relatively large spores, not all of which have been studied in detail. The stages that infect fish, called triactinomyxon spores, are made of a style that is about 150 micrometers long. A sporoplasm packet at the end of the style contains 64 germ cells surrounded by a cellular envelope, there are also three polar capsules, each of which contains a coiled polar filament between 170 and 180 µm long. Polar filaments in both stage and in the myxospore stage rapidly shoot into the body of the host. Upon contact with fish hosts and firing of the polar capsules, firstly, this sporoplasm undergoes mitosis to produce more amoeboid cells, which migrate into deeper tissue layers, to reach the cerebral cartilage. Myxospores, which develop from sporogonic cell stages inside fish hosts, are lenticular and they have a diameter of about 10 micrometers and are made of six cells. Two of these cells form polar capsules, two merge to form a binucleate sporoplasm, and two form protective valves, myxospores are infective to oligochaetes, and are found among the remains of digested fish cartilage. They are often difficult to distinguish from related species because of morphological similarities across genera, though M. cerebralis is the only myxosporean ever found in salmonid cartilage, other visually similar species may be present in the skin, nervous system, or muscle. Myxobolus cerebralis has a two-host life cycle involving a salmonid fish, so far, the only worm known to be susceptible to M. cerebralis infection is Tubifex tubifex, though what scientists currently call T. tubifex may in fact be more than one species
