1.
Balangiga massacre
–
The Balangiga massacre was an incident in 1901 in the town of the same name during the Philippine–American War. This incident was described as the United States Armys worst defeat since the Battle of the Little Bighorn in 1876, Filipinos regard the attack as one of their bravest acts in the war. There has been much heated discussion regarding the number of Filipino casualties, reprimanded but not formally punished, Smith was forced into retirement from the service because of his conduct. The attack and the subsequent retaliation remains one of the longest-running, conflicting records from American and Filipino historians have confused the issue. According to some nationalist Filipino historians, the true Balangiga massacre was the subsequent American retaliation against the Samar population, the objective was to force the end of Filipino resistance. Part of his strategy was to close three key ports on the southern coast, Basey, Balangiga and Guiuan, Samar was a major centre for the production of Manila hemp, the trade of which was financing Filipino forces on the island. At the same time United States interests were eager to control of the hemp trade. On August 11,1901, Company C of the 9th U. S. Lukbán had been sent there in December 1898 to govern the island on behalf of the First Philippine Republic under Emilio Aguinaldo. Relations between the soldiers and the townspeople were amicable for the first month of the American presence in the town and this took the form of tuba drinking among the soldiers and male villagers, baseball games and arnis demonstrations. However, in complying with his directive, the townspeople inadvertently cut down vegetation with food value, as a consequence, on September 18,1901, around 400 guerrillas sent by Lukbán appeared in the vicinity of Balangiga. They were to mete sanctions upon the officials and local residents for violating Lukbáns orders regarding food security. The threat was defused by Captain Eugenio Daza, a staff member of Lukbáns. A few days later, Connel had the male residents rounded up. Around 80 men were kept in two Sibley tents unfed overnight, in addition, Connel had the mens bolos and the stored rice for their tables confiscated. A few days before the attack, Valeriano Abanador, the police chief. Abanador also brought in a group of tax evaders to bolster their numbers, much palm wine, locally called tuba, was brought in to ensure that the American soldiers would be drunk the day after the fiesta. Hours before the attack, women and children were sent away to safety, to mask the disappearance of the women from the dawn service in the church,34 men from Barrio Lawaan cross-dressed as women worshippers. These women, carrying small coffins, were challenged by Sergeant Scharer of the sentry post about the plaza near the church
2.
Calbayog
–
Calbayog, officially the City of Calbayog and often referred to as Calbayog City, is a 1st class city in the province of Samar, Philippines. According to the 2015 census, it has a population of 183,851 people and it lies along the coastal region of the province stretching about 60 miles from the northern tip of the island and 180 miles from southern boundaries. It is the third largest city in terms of land and water areas in the Philippines, the first crowned city of Samar and the nineteenth city of the Philippines. Calbayog is one of the trade centers in Eastern Visayas. Calbayog is subdivided into three districts, Calbayog, Tinambacan and Oquendo. Calbayogs early history has been associated with the introduction and spread of Catholicism in the country, Calbayog started as one of the small settlements in the Island of Samar, an area assigned to the Jesuit missionaries. Jesuit chroniclers, as early as the 17th century, notably Fr, ignacio Alcina, wrote many accounts about it and its people. Jesuit records and reports referred to the settlement initially as Ibatan, in the annual report of 1739 the name Calbayog appeared for the first time. Fr. de Huerta, a 19th-century Franciscan writer, noted in his work Estado Geografico that in earlier times, then it was transferred due to a flood to the shore of the Hibatang River, whose name it took. Then again the settlers transferred to the place that they permanently occupied, Hibatang had already been a small settlement at the beginning of the 17th century. It slowly occupied a prominent place among the small settlements. It became a visita of Capul under the jurisdiction of the Parish priest of that town, the church of Calbayog were built from a scree formation near Malajog, shortest distance is now the Malabungto bridge. After the expulsion of the Jesuit missionaries from the Philippines in the 18th century, Calbayog as a town and parish during the Spanish period was composed of several villages, the most populated of which are called visitas. Calbayog grew from visita size and became a pueblo and it was created a separate parish in 1785. Separated from the jurisdiction of the parish priest of Capul, it was later given its own minister. Its parish priests cared for the needs of the people living in what are now Calbayog City. By the late 19th century a number of visitas became the poblaciones when new towns were created from Calbayog, in 1878, Calbayog was hit by a cholera epidemic, killing almost one half of the total population. Sebastian Cordova was forced to leave to save himself from the disease, in Manila, Biktoy was a working student, serving the convent without sacrificing his studies
3.
Fort D.A. Russell (Wyoming)
–
The fort had been established in 1867 to protect workers for the Union Pacific Railroad. It was named in honor of David Allen Russell, a Civil War general killed at the Battle of Opequon, in 1930, the forts name was changed to Fort Francis E. Warren. In 1949, it became Francis E. Warren Air Force Base, over the years, the base served as home for numerous influential American military leaders such as Carl Spaatz, Black Jack Pershing, Billy Mitchell, Walter Reed, and Mark Clark. Units of the 30th Infantry under Colonel John D. Stevenson began building the fort, in September the first cavalry arrived, Company H of 2nd Cavalry In 1884, it became a permanent base. It was the home to three Black regiments, the 9th and 10th Cavalry and the 24th Infantry for much of the late 19th century. By the turn of the 20th century, Fort D. A. Russell was one of the largest cavalry bases in the United States, in 1919, the airfield became active and soon served as the home field for over 100 military aircraft. The last cavalry units on the post were deactivated in 1927, in 1930, the base was renamed Fort Francis E. Warren. Warren was a Medal of Honor recipient who served as Governor of Wyoming, during World War II, Fort Francis E. Warren served as a training facility for the US Army Quartermaster Corps. A prisoner of war camp was constructed on the site. In 1949, the base was redesignated the Francis E. Warren Air Force Base, the base became the headquarters for the 90th Strategic Missile Wing in 1963. The wing controlled over 200 ICBMs during the Cold War, the base was the only missile wing to have Peacekeeper missiles which were deactivated in October 2005. On October 1,1993, the Twentieth Air Force, which all of Americas ICBM wings. The fort was designated a National Historic Landmark on May 15,1975, the majority of the structures in the historic district have been maintained. At least 88 housing units have been abated for lead and asbestos materials, three buildings were renovated in accordance with standards of the U. S. Secretary of the Interior. The Air Force was tasked to restore the two porches on many buildings in the district
4.
F. E. Warren Air Force Base
–
See Francis E. Warren at the link. Francis E. Warren Air Force Base is a United States Air Force base located approximately 3 miles west of Cheyenne and it is one of three strategic missile bases in the U. S. It was named in honor of Francis E. Warren in 1930, Warren AFB is home of the 90th Missile Wing, assigned to the Twentieth Air Force, Air Force Global Strike Command. The 90 MW operates the LGM-30G Minuteman III ICBM, with facilities in Southeast Wyoming, Western Nebraska. It is also the home of Twentieth Air Force, which commands all U. S. Air Force ICBMs, Warren AFB is the oldest continuously active military installation within the Air Force, established in 1867 by the United States Army as Fort David Allen Russell. The facility came under United States Army Air Forces control on 1 June 1947, the 90th Missile Wing is commanded by Colonel Stephen Kravitsky. Twentieth Air Force, co-located at Warren AFB, has been under the command of Major General Anthony Cotton since 2015, Warren AFB is a census-designated place and had a resident population of 3,072 at the 2010 census. Unlike most Air Force Bases, Warren AFB has no runway for fixed-wing aircraft, the only conventional airfield ever located at F. E. Warren AFB was a single dirt strip. This field, never used by pilots, was made famous by World War I ace Captain Eddie Rickenbacker who crashed his plane on the field. The airfield was used in 1919 by the Western Flying Circus, due to extensive soil and groundwater contamination, the Warren AFB has been a superfund site listed on the National Priorities List since February 21,1990. As of 2014, the DOD has spent $15, a Restoration Advisory Board is established. The extent of the underground TCE plume is unknown, data analysis due to be completed 2015 will inform about its size, Atlas missile site No.3 was acquired in the late 70s and used as a car salvage yard. It was not until 2001 when the Corps began investigating Cheyenne missile sites for TCE contamination, that a 1. 5-mile-long contamination plume at the site, the clean up is expected to cost $175 million. In August 15, the Corps stated that it wants to more data before recommending a remedy. The history of the dates back to the Railroad Act of 1862. This included an installation on the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains in the Wyoming Territory. On 4 July 1867, the railroad established its mountain region headquarters at Crow Creek Crossing, a few weeks later, the U. S. Cavalry moved from temporary headquarters in Cheyenne to a point 3 miles west and established Fort D. A. Russell. Thus,1867 was the beginning of a city and a fort, detachments of the 30th Infantry formed the first garrison, under the command of Colonel John D. Stevenson
5.
Sackets Harbor, New York
–
Sackets Harbor is a village in Jefferson County, New York, United States. The population was 1,450 at the 2010 census, the village was named after land developer and owner Augustus Sackett, who founded it in the early 19th century. The Village of Sackets Harbor is within the part of the Town of Hounsfield and is west of Watertown. To support the War of 1812, the US Navy built a major shipyard, within a short period, more than 3,000 men worked at the shipyard. The Army constructed earthworks, forts, barracks and supporting infrastructure to defend the village and navy shipyard, the thousands of military personnel made it seem like a city. By the fall of 1814, this was the third-largest population center in the state, after Albany. With its strategic protected harbor on Lake Ontario and military installations, soon after the war, the Army strengthened its defenses on the northern frontier by constructing Madison Barracks. The village also developed a shipyard and many business connections to communities around the Great Lakes. Its businessmen were also connected to bases in the markets of Louisville, Kentucky. In 1817 a consortium of local businessmen supported construction of the 240-ton Ontario, in July 1834, the commercial schooner Illinois from Sackets Harbor was the first to enter the harbor of the new settlement of Chicago. Sackets Harbor Battlefield State Historic Site commemorates a battle during the War of 1812, prior to the American Revolutionary War, this area had been inhabited for thousands of years by differing cultures of indigenous peoples. The historic tribes were the Iroquoian-speaking Onondaga, part of the Haudenosaunee, long trading with the French and English, most of the Six Nations allied with the British during the Revolution, hoping to dislodge the American colonists. Following the war, they were forced to make major cessions of most of their land in New York to the United States, most of the Iroquois went to Canada and settled on land granted by Great Britain. In the large-scale sales of 5 million acres of lands in the postwar period, Sackets Harbor was founded in 1801 by Augustus Sackett. He and others had high hopes for trade across Lake Ontario with Kingston, Sackets Harbor was the most significant community in the area until the founding of the City of Watertown. The area attracted migrants from New England, as well as immigrants from Great Britain, the latter were fleeing the turmoil of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars. They cleared heavy forest and gradually constructed houses for a village center, Edmund Luff, a young English immigrant, constructed a non-denominational meetinghouse, where all Christians met until they built their own churches in later decades. By the 1810 census, there were 943 qualified voters in the village, during the War of 1812, Sackets Harbor incorporated as a village in 1814
6.
New York (state)
–
New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
7.
Camp Red Cloud
–
Camp Red Cloud is a United States Army camp located in the city of Uijeongbu, between Seoul and the Korean Demilitarized Zone. The installation was renamed after Medal of Honor recipient Corporal Mitchell Red Cloud, Camp Red Cloud covers over 164 acres of land in the northwestern edge of the city of Uijeongbu and serves as the Headquarters of 2nd Infantry Division. D-company, HQ-company, and the 122d Signal Battalion were retired in 2005, and it is a support battalion made up of A CO, and B CO, HHSC, and 2X. The 2nd Infantry Division Band was deactivated in August 2015, in the summer of 1998, the region of South Korea where CRC lies was subjected to severe rains that caused deadly flooding and damage to CRC. Although no US service members lost their lives during the floods, many Korean nationals, a large portion of the hill behind CRC washed away. A massive mudslide devastated the southern half of CRC, for weeks, Camp Red Cloud went without a main PX as it was destroyed by the floods. Several barracks were leveled in the destruction along with the golf Pro Shop located adjacent to the helipad, the 2ID museum also suffered severe damage in the torrent of mud and water. Camp Red Cloud has been the site of protests and demonstrations against the US presence in Korea. The largest such protest was in 2002 when Korean protesters tossed molotov cocktails and this demonstration was in reaction to the Yangju highway incident in which a US military vehicle had run over two school girls. Fences around the post have since replaced with concrete walls. Current commander is COL Mike Haefner, list of United States Army installations in South Korea Official website facebook. com, Camp Red Cloud & Area I Facebook page Camp Red Cloud, US Army Garrison Red Cloud entry at GlobalSecurity. org
8.
History of the Philippines
–
The history of the Philippines is believed to have begun with the arrival of the first humans using rafts or boats at least 67,000 years ago as the 2007 discovery of Callao Man suggested. Negrito tribes first inhabited the isles, groups of Austronesians later migrated to the islands. These small maritime states flourished from the 1st millennium and these kingdoms traded with what are now called China, India, Japan, Thailand, Vietnam, and Indonesia. The remainder of the settlements were independent barangays allied with one of the larger states, the first recorded visit by Europeans is the arrival of Ferdinand Magellan. He sighted Samar Island on March 16,1521 and landed the next day on Homonhon Island, now part of Guiuan, Spanish colonization began with the arrival of Miguel López de Legazpis expedition on February 13,1565 from Mexico. He established the first permanent settlement in Cebu, much of the archipelago came under Spanish rule, creating the first unified political structure known as the Philippines. Spanish colonial rule saw the introduction of Christianity, the code of law, the Philippines was ruled under the Mexico-based Viceroyalty of New Spain until Mexican independence. After which, the colony was governed by Spain. Spanish rule ended in 1898 with Spains defeat in the Spanish–American War, the Philippines then became a territory of the United States. The Philippine–American War ensued, with damage and death. The United States established the Insular Government to rule the Philippines, in 1907, the elected Philippine Assembly was convened as the lower house of a bicameral legislature and in 1916 the U. S. Federal Government formally promised independence in the Jones Act. The Philippine Commonwealth was established in 1935, as a 10-year interim step prior to full independence, before independence, World War II began and Japan occupied the Philippines. After the end of the war, the Treaty of Manila established an independent Philippine Republic, in 1972, Philippine President Ferdinand Marcos imposed martial law. There are several opposing theories regarding the origins of ancient Filipinos, F. Landa Jocano theorizes that the ancestors of the Filipinos evolved locally. The Austronesian Expansion Theory states that Malayo-Polynesians coming from Taiwan began migrating to the Philippines around 4000 BC, the Negritos were early settlers, but their appearance in the Philippines has not been reliably dated. During this neolithic period, a culture is said to have existed as evidenced by tens of thousands of exquisitely crafted jade artifacts found in the Philippines dated to 2000 BC. The jade is said to have originated nearby in Taiwan and is found in many other areas in insular. These artifacts are said to be evidence of long range communication between prehistoric Southeast Asian societies, the Sa Huyun culture showed evidence of an extensive trade network
9.
Prehistory of the Philippines
–
The prehistory of the Philippines covers the events prior to the written history of what is now the Philippines. Filipino anthropologist F. Landa Jocano refers to the earliest noticeable stage in the development of societies as the Formative Phase. By about 30,000 BC, the Negritos, who became the ancestors of todays aboriginal Filipinos, no evidence has survived which would indicate details of ancient Filipino life such as their crops, culture, and architecture. Historian William Henry Scott noted any theory which describes such details for the period must be pure hypothesis, the earliest known human remains in the Philippines are the fossilised remains discovered in 2007 in the Callao Caves in Cagayan. The 67, 000-year-old find predates the 47, 000-year-old Tabon Man, the find consisted of a single 61 millimeter metatarsal which, when dated using uranium series ablation, was found to be its current age. If definitively proven to be remains of Homo sapiens, it would also be one of the oldest human remains in the Asia-Pacific, fossilized fragments of a skull and jawbone of three individuals had been discovered on May 28,1962 by Dr. Robert B. Fox, an American anthropologist of the National Museum and these fragments are collectively called Tabon Man after the place where they were found on the west coast of Palawan. Tabon Cave appears to be a kind of a Stone Age factory, charcoal left from three assemblages of cooking fires there has been Carbon-14 dated to roughly 7,000,20,000, and 22,000 BC. It is indicated that half of the 3,000 specimens recovered from the cave are discarded cores of a material which had to be transported from some distance. The Tabon man fossils are considered to have come from the group of inhabitants who inhabited the cave between 22,000 and 20,000 BC. An earlier cave level lies so far below the level containing cooking fire assemblages that it must represent Upper Pleistocene dates from 45 or 50 thousand years ago. Physical anthropologists who have examined the Tabon Man skullcap have agreed that it belonged to a modern man and this indicates that Tabon Man was Pre-Mongoloid. Two experts have given the opinion that the mandible is Australian in physical type, nothing can be concluded about Tabon mans physical appearance from the recovered skull fragments except that he was not a Negrito. The custom of Jar Burial, which ranges from Sri Lanka, to the Plain of Jars, in Laos, to Japan, secondary burial was practiced across all the islands of the Philippines during this period, with the bones reburied, some in the burial jars. Seventy-eight earthenware vessels were recovered from the Manunggul cave, Palawan, There have been many models of early human migration to the Philippines. Since H. Otley Beyer first proposed his wave theory, numerous scholars have approached the question of how. The question of whether the first humans arrived from the south or from the north has been a subject of heated debate for decades, as new discoveries come to light, past hypotheses are reevaluated and new theories constructed. The first, and most widely known theory of the peopling of the Philippines is that of H. Otley Beyer, founder of the Anthropology Department of the University of the Philippines
10.
Paleolithic
–
It extends from the earliest known use of stone tools, probably by Homo habilis initially,2.6 million years ago, to the end of the Pleistocene around 10,000 BP. The Paleolithic era is followed by the Mesolithic, the date of the Paleolithic–Mesolithic boundary may vary by locality as much as several thousand years. During the Paleolithic period, humans grouped together in small societies such as bands, the Paleolithic is characterized by the use of knapped stone tools, although at the time humans also used wood and bone tools. Other organic commodities were adapted for use as tools, including leather and vegetable fibers, however, due to their nature, surviving artifacts of the Paleolithic era are known as paleoliths. About 50,000 years ago, there was a increase in the diversity of artifacts. For the first time in Africa, bone artifacts and the first art appear in the archaeological record, the first evidence of human fishing is also noted, from artifacts in places such as Blombos cave in South Africa. The new technology generated an explosion of modern humans which is believed to have led to the extinction of the Neanderthals. Humankind gradually evolved from members of the genus Homo—such as Homo habilis. The climate during the Paleolithic consisted of a set of glacial and interglacial periods in which the climate periodically fluctuated between warm and cool temperatures, by c. 50,000 – c. 40,000 BP, the first humans set foot in Australia. By c. 45,000 BP, humans lived at 61°N latitude in Europe, by c. 30,000 BP, Japan was reached, and by c. 27,000 BP humans were present in Siberia, above the Arctic Circle. At the end of the Upper Paleolithic, a group of humans crossed Beringia, the term Paleolithic was coined by archaeologist John Lubbock in 1865. It derives from Greek, παλαιός, palaios, old, and λίθος, lithos, stone, human evolution is the part of biological evolution concerning the emergence of anatomically modern humans as a distinct species. The Paleolithic Period coincides almost exactly with the Pleistocene epoch of geologic time and this epoch experienced important geographic and climatic changes that affected human societies. During the preceding Pliocene, continents had continued to drift from possibly as far as 250 km from their present locations to positions only 70 km from their current location. South America became linked to North America through the Isthmus of Panama, most of Central America formed during the Pliocene to connect the continents of North and South America, allowing fauna from these continents to leave their native habitats and colonize new areas. Africas collision with Asia created the Mediterranean Sea, cutting off the remnants of the Tethys Ocean, climates during the Pliocene became cooler and drier, and seasonal, similar to modern climates. The formation of an Arctic ice cap around 3 million years ago is signaled by a shift in oxygen isotope ratios and ice-rafted cobbles in the North Atlantic. Mid-latitude glaciation probably began before the end of the epoch, the global cooling that occurred during the Pliocene may have spurred on the disappearance of forests and the spread of grasslands and savannas
11.
Neolithic
–
It ended when metal tools became widespread. The Neolithic is a progression of behavioral and cultural characteristics and changes, including the use of wild and domestic crops, the beginning of the Neolithic culture is considered to be in the Levant about 10, 200–8800 BC. It developed directly from the Epipaleolithic Natufian culture in the region, whose people pioneered the use of wild cereals, which then evolved into true farming. The Natufian period was between 12,000 and 10,200 BC, and the so-called proto-Neolithic is now included in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic between 10,200 and 8800 BC. By 10, 200–8800 BC, farming communities arose in the Levant and spread to Asia Minor, North Africa, Mesopotamia is the site of the earliest developments of the Neolithic Revolution from around 10,000 BC. Early Neolithic farming was limited to a range of plants, both wild and domesticated, which included einkorn wheat, millet and spelt, and the keeping of dogs, sheep. By about 6900–6400 BC, it included domesticated cattle and pigs, the establishment of permanently or seasonally inhabited settlements, not all of these cultural elements characteristic of the Neolithic appeared everywhere in the same order, the earliest farming societies in the Near East did not use pottery. Early Japanese societies and other East Asian cultures used pottery before developing agriculture, unlike the Paleolithic, when more than one human species existed, only one human species reached the Neolithic. The term Neolithic derives from the Greek νέος néos, new and λίθος líthos, stone, the term was invented by Sir John Lubbock in 1865 as a refinement of the three-age system. In the Middle East, cultures identified as Neolithic began appearing in the 10th millennium BC, early development occurred in the Levant and from there spread eastwards and westwards. Neolithic cultures are attested in southeastern Anatolia and northern Mesopotamia by around 8000 BC. The total excavated area is more than 1,200 square yards, the Neolithic 1 period began roughly 10,000 years ago in the Levant. A temple area in southeastern Turkey at Göbekli Tepe dated around 9500 BC may be regarded as the beginning of the period. This site was developed by nomadic tribes, evidenced by the lack of permanent housing in the vicinity. At least seven stone circles, covering 25 acres, contain limestone pillars carved with animals, insects, Stone tools were used by perhaps as many as hundreds of people to create the pillars, which might have supported roofs. Other early PPNA sites dating to around 9500–9000 BC have been found in Jericho, Israel, Gilgal in the Jordan Valley, the start of Neolithic 1 overlaps the Tahunian and Heavy Neolithic periods to some degree. The major advance of Neolithic 1 was true farming, in the proto-Neolithic Natufian cultures, wild cereals were harvested, and perhaps early seed selection and re-seeding occurred. The grain was ground into flour, emmer wheat was domesticated, and animals were herded and domesticated
12.
Tabon Man
–
Tabon Man refers to remains discovered in the Tabon Caves in Lipuun Point in Quezon, Palawan in the Philippines. These were discovered by Dr. Robert B, Fox, an American anthropologist of the National Museum of the Philippines on May 28,1962. The Tabon fragments are collectively called Tabon Man after Tabon Cave, Tabon Cave appears to be a kind of Stone Age factory, with both finished stone flake tools and waste core flakes having been found at four separate levels in the main chamber. Charcoal left from three assemblages of cooking fires there has been Carbon-14 dated to roughly 7,000,20,000, the right mandible of a Homo sapien, which dates 29,000 BC, was discovered together with a skull-cap. The Tabon Skull Cap is considered the earliest skull cap of modern man found in the Philippines, the Tabon Mandible is the earliest evidence of human remains showing archaic characteristics of mandible and teeth. The Tabon Tibia Fragment, a bone from the leg, was found during the re-excavation of the Tabon Cave by the National Museum of the Philippines. The bone was sent to the National Museum of Natural History in France to be studied, accelerated carbon dating technique revealed a dating of 47,000 +/- 11-10,000 years ago, making it the oldest human fossil recovered in the complex. About half of the 3,000 recovered specimens examined were discarded cores of a material which had to be transported some distance. This indicates that the inhabitants were engaged in tool manufacture. The Tabon Man fossils are considered to have come from a group of inhabitants. An earlier cave level lies so far below the level containing cooking fire assemblages that it must represent Upper Pleistocene dates like 45 or 50 thousand years ago. Anthropologist Robert Fox, who directed the excavations, deduced that the Tabon Cave was a habitation of man for a period of 40,000 years, from 50,000 to 9,000 years ago. Physical anthropologists who have examined the Tabon Man skullcap are agreed that it belonged to modern man, Homo sapiens and this indicates that Tabon Man was pre-Mongoloid. Two experts have given the opinion that the mandible is Australian in physical type, nothing can be concluded about Tabon Mans physical appearance from the recovered skull fragments except that he was not a Negrito. The Tabon Cave Complex is a series of caves situated in a promontory at Lipuun Point in Southwestern Palawan. It spans 138-hectares and it used to be an island but now, there are roughly 218 caves,38 of which are rich with archaeological and anthropological finds. Lipuun Point is made up of 25 million year old limestone and is composed of large domes, deep cliffs. In this area, cave occupation of a sporadic or temporary nature by humans seems to be indicated into the early Holocene
13.
Negrito
–
The Negrito are several ethnic groups who inhabit isolated parts of Southeast Asia. The Negrito peoples show strong similarities with the Pygmy peoples of Africa but are genetically closer to surrounding Southeast Asian populations. They may be descended from ancient Australoid-Melanesian settlers of Southeast Asia, the word Negrito is the Spanish diminutive of negro, used to mean little black person. Many on-line dictionaries give the plural in English as either negritos or negritoes, the plural in Spanish is negritos. The appropriateness of using the label Negrito to bundle together peoples of different ethnicity based on similarities in stature, Haplogroup O-P31 is also common among Austroasiatic-speaking Negrito peoples, such as the Maniq and the Semang. Aeta men are of great interest to genetic, anthropological and historical researchers because at least 83% of them belong to haplogroup K2b, in the form of its rare primary clades K2b1* and P*. Most Aeta males carry K-P397, which is uncommon in the Philippines and is strongly associated with the indigenous peoples of Melanesia and Micronesia. Basal P* is rare outside the Aeta and some groups within Maritime South East Asia. The use of single-nucleotide polymorphism shows the genomes of Andamanese people to be closest to those of South Asians and this suggests a relation between Andaman islanders and South Asians. Bulbeck likewise noted that the Andamaneses nuclear DNA clusters with that of other Andamanese Islanders, as they carry Haplogroup D-M174, however, this is a subclade of the D haplogroup which has not been seen outside of the Andamans, a fact that underscores the insularity of these tribes. Analysis of mtDNA, which is inherited exclusively by maternal descent, all Onge belong to M32 mtDNA, a subgroup of M, which is unique to Onge people. Their parental Y-DNA is exclusively Haplogroup D, which is only found in Asia. These were specific mtDNA mutations that are shared exclusively by Australian aborigines and these Indian tribes, a study of human blood group systems and proteins in the 1950s suggested that the Andamanese peoples were more closely related to Oceanic peoples than African Pygmy peoples. Genetic studies on Philippine Negritos, based on polymorphic blood enzymes and antigens, Negrito peoples may descend from Australoid-Melanesian settlers of Southeast Asia. Despite being isolated, the different peoples do share similarities with their neighboring populations. They also show relevant phenotypic variations which require explanation, in contrast, a recent genetic study found that unlike other early groups in Malesia, Andamanese Negritos lack the Denisovan hominin admixture in their DNA. Denisovan ancestry is found among indigenous Melanesian and Aboriginal Australian populations between 4–6%, indeed this sentiment is echoed in a more recent work from 2013 which concludes that at the current level of genetic resolution. There is no evidence of an ancestral population for the different groups traditionally defined as “negritos. ”A number of features would seem to suggest a common origin for the Negritos and Negrillos
14.
Models of migration to the Philippines
–
There have been several models of early human migration to the Philippines. Since H. Otley Beyer first proposed his wave theory, numerous scholars have approached the question of how. The question of whether the first humans arrived from the south or from the north has been a subject of heated debate for decades, as new discoveries have come to light, past hypotheses have been reevaluated and new theories constructed. The most widely known theory of the peopling of the Philippines is that of H. Otley Beyer, founder of the Anthropology Department of the University of the Philippines. The aboriginal pygmy group, the Negritos, who arrived between 25,000 and 30,000 years ago via land bridges. The seafaring tool-using Indonesian group who arrived about 5,000 to 6,000 years ago and were the first immigrants to reach the Philippines by sea. The seafaring, more civilized Malays who brought the Iron age culture and were the real colonizers, unfortunately, there is no definite evidence, archaeological or historical, to support this migration theory. On the contrary, the passage of time has made it more unlikely. Writing in 1994, Philippine historian William Scott concluded that it is safe to say that no anthropologist accepts the Beyer Wave Migration Theory today. A less rigid version of the earlier wave migration theory is the Core Population Theory first proposed by anthropologist Felipe Landa Jocano of the University of the Philippines and this theory holds that there werent clear discrete waves of migration. Jocano contends that what fossil evidence of ancient men show is that not only migrated to the Philippines, but also to New Guinea, Borneo. He says that there is no way of determining if they were Negritos at all, however, what is sure is that there is evidence the Philippines was inhabited tens of thousands of years ago. In 1962, a cap and a portion of a jaw. The nearby charcoal from cooking fires have been dated to c. 22,000 years ago, while Palawan was connected directly to Sundaland during the last ice age, Callao Mans still-older remains were discovered in northern Luzon. Some have argued that this may show settlement of the Philippines earlier than that of the Malay Peninsula, Jocano further believes that the present Filipinos are products of the long process of cultural evolution and movement of people. This not only true for Filipinos, but for the Indonesians. No group among the three is culturally or genetically dominant, hence, Jocano says that it is not correct to attribute the Filipino culture as being Malayan in orientation.9 million years ago. The claimed evidence for this is fossil material found in different parts of the region and he states that these ancient men cannot be categorized under any of the historically identified ethnic groups of today
15.
Angono Petroglyphs
–
The Angono Petroglyphs is the oldest known work of art in the Philippines located in the province of Rizal. There are 127 human and animal figures engraved on the rockwall probably carved during the late Neolithic, the engravings are mostly symbolic representations and are associated with healing and sympathetic magic. The site has been declared by the National Museum of the Philippines as a National Cultural Treasure in 1973, the existence of a rock shelter was reported to the National Museum by the late National Artist of the Philippines Carlos V. Francisco in March 1965 during a trip with several boy scouts along the boundaries of Angono, Binangonan. Since then, some rock carvings have been damaged due to neglect, in 1973, by virtue of Presidential Decree No. 260, it was declared as a cultural treasure by the Philippine government. It was included in the list of National Cultural Treasures in 1973, the site is also on the tentative list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites of the Philippines. The Angono Petroglyphs of Binangonan is located in a rock shelter. It measures 63 meters wide,8 meters deep and a height of 5 meters. It has been created due to faulting and formed in soil during the Quaternary period. Only 51 of the total 127 drawings are distinct, due to the complexity and plurality of the drawings, it is suggested that the drawings on the rock were not only created by a single individual. From October to November 1965, archaeological excavations, headed by Alfredo Evangelista, was done on the area of the rock shelter, the artifacts suggest that the site was used during the Neolithic age. The site of the Angono Petroglyphs is developed as the Angono Branch of the National Museum in 1998 showcasing the cultural and its collections include remains of giant turtle, tusks, fossils, molar of Elephas sp. tradeware ceramics and paintings
16.
Iron Age
–
The Iron Age is an archaeological era, referring to a period of time in the prehistory and protohistory of the Old World when the dominant toolmaking material was iron. It is commonly preceded by the Bronze Age in Europe and Asia with exceptions, meteoric iron has been used by humans since at least 3200 BC. Ancient iron production did not become widespread until the ability to smelt ore, remove impurities. The start of the Iron Age proper is considered by many to fall between around 1200 BC and 600 BC, depending on the region, the earliest known iron artifacts are nine small beads dated to 3200 BC, which were found in burials at Gerzeh, Lower Egypt. They have been identified as meteoric iron shaped by careful hammering, meteoric iron, a characteristic iron–nickel alloy, was used by various ancient peoples thousands of years before the Iron Age. Such iron, being in its metallic state, required no smelting of ores. Smelted iron appears sporadically in the record from the middle Bronze Age. While terrestrial iron is abundant, its high melting point of 1,538 °C placed it out of reach of common use until the end of the second millennium BC. Tins low melting point of 231, similarly, recent archaeological remains of iron working in the Ganges Valley in India have been tentatively dated to 1800 BC. By the Middle Bronze Age, increasing numbers of smelted iron objects appeared in the Middle East, Southeast Asia, African sites are turning up dates as early as 1200 BC. Modern archaeological evidence identifies the start of iron production in around 1200 BC. Between 1200 BC and 1000 BC, diffusion in the understanding of iron metallurgy and use of objects was fast. As evidence, many bronze implements were recycled into weapons during this time, more widespread use of iron led to improved steel-making technology at lower cost. Thus, even when tin became available again, iron was cheaper, stronger, and lighter, and forged iron implements superseded cast bronze tools permanently. Increasingly, the Iron Age in Europe is being seen as a part of the Bronze Age collapse in the ancient Near East, in ancient India, ancient Iran, and ancient Greece. In other regions of Europe, the Iron Age began in the 8th century BC in Central Europe, the Near Eastern Iron Age is divided into two subsections, Iron I and Iron II. Iron I illustrates both continuity and discontinuity with the previous Late Bronze Age, during the Iron Age, the best tools and weapons were made from steel, particularly alloys which were produced with a carbon content between approximately 0. 30% and 1. 2% by weight. Steel weapons and tools were nearly the same weight as those of bronze, however, steel was difficult to produce with the methods available, and alloys that were easier to make, such as wrought iron, were more common in lower-priced goods
17.
Igorot society
–
The Igorot Society is the term for the collection of several ethnic groups in the Philippines that come from the Cordillera Administrative Region of Luzon. They inhabit the six provinces of Abra, Apayao, Benguet, Kalinga, Ifugao and they are a pre-Hispanic highland society that has survived through Spanish colonization. This Prehispanic state is the oldest in the Philippines and this society predates the other prehispanic states in the Philippines which are maritime civilizations, in contrast to this society which is a mountainous high-land society. This society is composed of tribes, mainly the Bontoc, Ibaloi, Isnag, Kalinga
18.
Balangay
–
The Balangay is a plank boat adjoined by a carved-out plank edged through pins and dowels. It was first mentioned in the 16th Century in the Chronicles of Pigafetta, the balangay was the first wooden watercraft excavated in Southeast Asia and is evidence of early Filipino craftsmanship and their seamanship skills during pre-colonial times. The Balanghai Festival is also a celebration in Butuan, Agusan del Norte to commemorate the coming of the early migrants settled the Philippines. When the first Spaniards arrived in the 16th century, they found the Filipinos living in well-organized independent villages called barangays, the name barangay originated from balangay, the Austronesian word for sailboat. Barangay, or Balangay, was one of the first native words the Spaniards learned in the Philippines, when Antonio Pigafetta went ashore to parley with the ruler of Limasawa, they sat together in a boat drawn up on shore which Pigafetta called a balangai. On the other hand, when the Spaniards reached Luzon, they found this word for boat also being used for the smallest political unit of Tagalog society and this article is restricted on the terms Balangay or Barangay referring to the boat only and not the ‘barangay’ as community. As in Northern Luzon particularly in the province of Cagayan, balangay is used as a medium in getting food for the Ibanags. The Cagayan river system and the Babuyan Channel provided the Ibanags with fish as well as avenues of trade as far as Ilocos coast, the common word for boat was barangay, a term sometimes extended to the crew. Large vessels were called Biray or Biwong, the Visayans had a different way of using balangay compared to that of the people of Northern Luzon. Large ones were used for carrying cargo and were called bidok, biroko, biray, with the balangay’s size, it was used for cargo and raiding purposes giving proof that Butuan played a central role in trade throughout the region of the Philippine islands and with neighboring area. Today, Balanghai Festival is a celebration in Butuan, Agusan del Norte, it is to commemorate the coming of the early migrants settled in the Philippines. It is also held that the balangay also helped spread the settlement of the Austronesian people around the Philippines and neighboring regions of Maritime Southeast Asia, the Tao people of Taiwan have traditionally been adept at crafting balangays, which are held as a symbol of their people. The balangay was the first wooden watercraft excavated in Southeast Asia, the well known barangay was an edge-pegged, plank-built boat constructed on a keel. The balangay was basically a plank boat put together by joining the carved out planks edge to edge, rib like structures made of lengths of wood were then lashed against these lugs to provide a flexible bulkhead, to reinforce and literally sew the boat together. Cordage known as cabo negro was used for the purpose, the hull, measuring about 15 meters long and 4 meters wide, was ordinarily semicircular in cross section and with no marked keel. Provided with huge outriggers, the boat was propelled either by a sail or by paddling, since the 10th century, Butuan appeared to have been in good relations with the Srivijaya. Various goods, extending to the statue of Avalokiteśvara and the Golden Tara of Butuan, were traded across Maritime Southeast Asia, the balangay boats were discovered in the late 1970s in Butuan City, Agusan del Norte. A total of nine boats were accidentally found by locals searching for alluvial gold on land near the Masao River
19.
Manunggul Jar
–
The Manunggul Jar is a secondary burial jar excavated from a Neolithic burial site in Manunggul cave of Tabon Caves at Lipuun Point at Palawan dating from 890–710 B. C. The two prominent figures at the top handle of its cover represent the journey of the soul to the afterlife, the Manunggul Jar is widely acknowledged to be one of the finest Philippine pre-colonial artworks ever produced and is a considered a masterpiece. It is denoted a national treasure and it is designated as item 64-MO-74 by the National Museum of the Philippines and it is now housed at the National Museum of Anthropology and is one of the most popular exhibits there. It is made from clay with some sand soil, the Manunggul Jar was found by Dr. Robert B. Fox and Miguel Antonio in 1962 and it was found alongside the discovery of the remains of Tabon Man. It was recovered by Dr. Fox in Chamber A of Manunggul Cave in Southwestern Palawan, Manunggul Cave is one of the Tabon Caves in Lipuun Point. In the expansion, the Tabon Caves is known to be a site of jar burials with artefacts dating a range from 4250-2000 BP, Chamber A dates as a Late Neolithic burial site. Seventy-eight jars and earthenwares, including the Manunggul Jar, was discovered on the subsurface and surface of Chamber A, each artifact varied in design and form but was evidently types of funerary pottery. As mentioned earlier, the first ever excavation that gave way to the discovery of this burial jar is on the year 1964 by Dr. Robert Fox, during that time, he and his team were excavating the Tabon Cave Complex, specifically in the Lipuun Point. In Fox’s excavation, it is yet the most unusual in all angles, the inside of the jar contains human bones which are covered in red paint. Like the Egyptian burial practice, the jar was found to be equipped with numerous bracelets. “. is perhaps unrivaled in Southeast Asia, the work of an artist, the Manunggul Jar shows that the Filipinos maritime culture is paramount that it reflected its ancestors religious beliefs. Many epics around the Philippines would tell how souls go to the life, aboard boats, pass through the rivers. This belief is connected with the Austronesian belief of the anito, the fine lines and intricate designs of the Manunggul Jar reflect the artistry of early Filipinos. These designs are proof of the Filipinos common heritage from the Austronesian-speaking ancestors despite the diversity of the cultures of the Filipinos, the upper part of the Manunggul jar, as well as the cover, is carved with curvilinear scroll designs which are painted with hematite. The depiction of sea-waves on the lid places this Manunggul jar in the Sa Huỳnh culture pottery tradition and these are people that migrated in an East to West migration from the Borneo-Palawan area to Southern Vietnam. Early Filipinos believed that a man is composed of a body, a force called ginhawa. This explains why the design of the cover of the Manunggul Jar features three faces - the soul, the boatman, and the boat itself
20.
Maitum Anthropomorphic Pottery
–
In 1991, the National Museum archaeological team discovered anthropomorphic secondary burial jars in Ayub Cave, Barangay Pinol, Maitum, Sarangani Province, Mindanao, Philippines. The jars are commonly known today as Maitum jars and they are made of earthenware, and are characterized by their design that suggests human figures with complete or partial facial features of the first inhabitants in Mindanao. Furthermore, they give emphasis to the Filipinos’ popular belief of life after death, according to Dr. Eusebio Dizon, head of the archaeological team, this type of burial jars are “remarkably unique and intriguing” because they have not been found elsewhere in Southeast Asia. These jars have characteristics that belong to the Developed Metal Age Period in the Philippines, according to the laboratory results determined through radiocarbon dating, these secondary burial jars date back to the Metal Age. Two conventional dates were 1830 +/-60 B. P. and 1920 +/-50 B. P, experts used soot samples taken from the walls of a small earthenware vessel found inside one of the larger burial jars. Three days after, the archaeologist received photographs of artifacts collected by local residents. The artifacts have high probability of not only to the history of Maguindanao. That’s why when they found a sponsor for Dr. Dizon’s trip to Mindanao, he still went despite the unpredictable climate. The Maitum Archaeological Project of the National Museum team formally started on November 6,1991, Ayub Cave, now referred to as Pinol Cave, is a Miocene limestone formation located approximately 1,000 meters due south of the Mindanao shoreline with an elevation of 6 meters. The site is on the area of Pinol, Maitum. The first phase of the ended on December 1991, the second was from April 8 to May 3,1992. Unfortunately, the conflict between the Armed Forces of the Philippines and the Moro Islamic Liberation Front during the 70’s resulted in casualties in this historical site. It threatened future discoveries and prevented preservation, no complete Maitum jar in the form of a female has survived, but there are still evidence of its existence such as the many pottery shards of female breasts. This is an indication of equality in terms of the practice of jar burials, altogether, a total of 29 burial jars and approximately 33 baskets or about 4 cubic meters of archaeological material have been collected. Most of them are now in the possession and care of the National Museum while some are on display at the level of Maitum Municipal Hall in an exhibit called as The Treasures of Maitum. And because of its significance the Pinol Cave was declared by the National Museum of the Philippines as an “Important Cultural Property” on May 5,2009, while there are three types of heads, Plain, Perforated, and Painted red and black from hematite and organic material. The black paint may indicate where the hair of the dead has once been, some jars are decorated with glass beads and shell scoops, spoons and pendants. All of these features represent and reflect the Maitum potters’ creativity, the heads of the anthropomorphic covers portray different facial expressions and emotions, ranging from happiness and contentment to sadness and grief
21.
Ilocos Sur
–
Ilocos Sur is a province in the Philippines located in the Ilocos Region in Luzon. Vigan City, located on the mouth of the Mestizo River is the provincial capital, Ilocos Sur is bordered by Ilocos Norte and Abra to the north, Mountain Province to the east, La Union and Benguet to the south and the South China Sea to the west. Ilocos Sur was founded by the Spanish conquistador, Juan de Salcedo in 1572 and it was formed when the north split from the south. At that time it included parts of Abra and the half of present-day La Unión. The current boundary of the province was defined through Act 2683. Before the arrival of the Spaniards, the plains in northwestern Luzón. This region lies in between the China Sea in the west and Northern Cordilleras on the east, the inhabitants built their villages near the small bays on coves called looc in the dialect. These coastal inhabitants were referred to as Ylocos which literally meant from the lowlands, the entire region was then called by the ancient name Samtoy from sao mi ditoy which in Ilocano mean our dialect. The region was called by the Spaniards as Ylocos or Ilocos. Forthwith, they made Cabigbigaan, the heart of the Ylokos settlement their headquarters which Salcedo called Villa Fernandina, Salcedo declared the whole Northern Luzón as an encomienda, or a land grant. Subsequently, he became the encomendero of Vigan and Lieutenant Governor of the Ylokos until his death in July 1574, augustinian missionaries came to conquer the region through evangelization. They established parishes and built churches that still stand today, three centuries later, Vigan became the seat of the Archdiocese of Nueva Segovia. A royal decree of February 2,1818 separated Ilocos Norte from Ilocos Sur, the sub-province of Lepanto and Amburayan in Mountain Province were annexed to Ilocos Sur. The passage of Act 2683 by the Philippine Legislature in March 1917 defined the present geographical boundary of the province, the ancient land of Ylokos or Samtoy extended from Bangui in the north to Aringay in the south. Situated between the coast of the South China Sea and the mountain ranges of the Cordillera is a long narrow strip of coastal plain. On the western China Sea side, the land is sandy, on the eastern side, near the slopes of the mountains that separates the region from the Mountain Province, the land is rocky, leaving just a narrow strip of plain here and there for cultivation. In places, the mountains come so close to the sea that the highway has to wind along the steep mountain. The pressure of increasing population and consequent land hunger has made the people of this region thrifty
22.
Caboloan
–
Caboloan, referred to Chinese records as Feng-chia-hsi-lan, was a sovereign pre-colonial Philippine polity located in the fertile Agno River basin and delta, with Binalatongan as the capital. It traded with the Kingdom of Ryukyu, Ashikaga shogunate and for trading with and sending tribute to Ming dynasty, specializing in the export of seashells, horses and silver. The Chinese records of this began when the first tributary King, Kamayin, sent an envoy offering horses. Around the same period, the Srivijaya and Majapahit empires rose in Indonesia and Malaysia, urduja, a mythical woman warrior, is believed to have ruled in Pangasinan around the 14th century. In the 16th century, Pangasinan was called the Port of Japan by the Spanish, the locals wore apparel typical of other maritime Southeast Asian ethnic groups in addition to Japanese and Chinese silks. Even common people were clad in Chinese and Japanese cotton garments and they also blackened their teeth and were disgusted by the white teeth of foreigners, which were likened to that of animals. They used porcelain jars typical of Japanese and Chinese households, japanese-style gunpowder weapons were also encountered in naval battles in the area. In exchange for goods, traders from all over Asia would come to trade primarily for gold and slaves. Other than a more extensive trade network with Japan and China, they were culturally similar to other Luzon groups to the south. Limahong, a Chinese corsair and warlord, briefly invaded the wangdom after his failure in the Battle of Manila and he then set up an enclave of wokou in Pangasinan. Pangasinan History of the Philippines Pangasinan people Cultural achievements of pre-colonial Philippines
23.
Tondo (historical polity)
–
It is one of the settlements mentioned by the Philippines earliest historical record, the Laguna Copperplate Inscription. Thus, it became a force in trade throughout Southeast Asia. Tondos regional prominence further culminated during the period of its associated trade, and by around 1500, the kingdom reached its peak as a thalassocratic force in the northern part of the archipelago. Following contact with the Spanish Empire beginning in 1570 and the defeat of local rulers in the Manila Bay area in 1571, Tondo was ruled from Manila. The kingdoms absorption into the Spanish Empire effectively ended its status as an independent kingdom, numerous theories on the origin of the name Tondo have been put forward. Filipino National Artist Nick Joaquin suggested that it might be a reference to high ground, french linguist Jean-Paul Potet, however, has suggested that the River Mangrove, Aegiceras corniculatum, which at the time was called tundok, is the most likely origin of the name. The bay area in which Tondo can be found was named Lusong or Lusung and this name was eventually used as the modern name of the entire island of Luzon. Rajah Alon, King of Tondo and son of Lakan Timamanukum, expanded the Kingdom of Tondo by conquering neighboring territories such as Kapampangan chiefdoms, Kumintang and he was succeeded by his grandson Rajah Gambang. The Tondo Dynasty lasted until the end of the 15th century, the first reference to Tondo occurs in the Philippines oldest historical record — the Laguna Copperplate Inscription. This legal document was written in Kawi, and dates back to Saka 822, the article mentioned that other places in the Philippines and their Rulers, Pailah, Puliran Kasumuran, Binwangan. While the document does not describe the relationship of the King of Tundun with these other rulers. The next historical reference to Ancient Tondo can be found in the Ming Shilu Annals and her rulers, based in their capital, Tondo were acknowledged not as mere chieftains, but as kings. This reference places Tondo into the context of Chinese trade with the aboriginals of the Philippine archipelago. But the earliest archeological evidence of trade between the Philippine aborigines and China takes the form of pottery and porcelain pieces dated to the Tang and Song Dynasties and it is believed that the people of Tondo kingdom were related to Malay of Malay peninsula and Sumatra. They belonged to the nobility class similar to the Timawa of the Visayan people. In modern Filipino, however, the term itself has come to mean royal nobility. The different type of culture prevalent in Luzon gave a stable and more complex social structure to the pre-colonial Tagalog barangays of Manila, Pampanga. The more complex structure of the Tagalogs was less stable during the arrival of the Spaniards because it was still in a process of differentiating
24.
Namayan
–
Namayan was one of three major polities that dominated the banks of the Pasig River and the coast of Laguna de Bay in the Philippines prior to the Spanish conquest in the 16th century. Namayan is said to be one of the oldest of the three Mandalas, predating the historical polities of Tondo and Maynila, formed by a confederation of barangays, it is said to have achieved its peak in 1175. Namayan was a pre-colonial Indianized kingdom and his description of Namayan included important details such as the extent of Namayans territories, and the lineage of its rulers. Three present-day locations are identified as the centres of Namayan. Two of these are within todays Santa Ana, Manila, the site most associated with the kingdom is the town proper of Santa Ana, which grew around the Our Lady of the Abandoned Parish. This site did not become the centre of the settlement until 1578, local referred to the site as Maysapan, or more simply, Sapa. Sapa is the Tagalog and Kapampangan word for a small creek, however, old Santa Ana was known for being criss-crossed by brooks and creeks, and any number of these creeks could have been obscured by eventual urbanization. Christianised into Santa Ana de Sapa, the name eventually encompassed the district of the City of Manila now known as Santa Ana, instead of the Nasapan site, local traditions say that an area called Lamayan, on the banks of the Pasig itself. It was the site of the ancient capital from which Lakan Tagkan and Buwan once ruled and it is still recognisable today because the modern street still bears its name. Namayans territory has been described bordering Manila Bay, the Pasig river, Namayan citizens called by the Army of Datu Makitan shortened in bisaya dialect means Inilad equivalent to deceived. Namayan, like Tondo, are using the Piloncitos, a small gold ingots that some of the size of a corn kernel—and weigh from 0.09 to 2.65 grams of fine gold, large Piloncitos weighing 2.65 grams approximate the weight of one mass. Piloncitos have been excavated from Mandaluyong, Bataan, the banks of the Pasig River. Other than Piloncitos, the people of Namayan are also using the Gold rings, barter rings were circulated in the Philippines up to 16th century. Fr. Huerta also recorded the history of Namayans rulers and it had been ruled from Sapa by Lakan Tagkan, and Lady Buan. Their known issue was five individuals of whom the principal was named Palaba, Palaba sired a son named Laboy who, in turn, had a son named Calamayin whose own son was christened Martín when he converted to Catholicism. Of greater interest in this topic, is Tagkans child by his Bornean slave-wife, the child, named Pasay, inherited the territory known today the barangays of Pio del Pilar and Bangkál, Baclaran, and the modern city which still bears the name of this individual. There is, however, some disagreement as to whether Pasay was a son or daughter, Dayang-dayang is a term only given to daughters of Sultan, Datu, Raha, and Lakan. Raha/Siptin/Tribu-ulonhon Kandula LakanDula Bangsa-rasula Olonhon-Arahan Solundon-Darahan When the parish of Sta, Ana de Sapa was founded in 1578, Franciscan missionaries chose to build their church, and eventually another settlement, some distance away from the ancient town
25.
Rajahnate of Maynila
–
It is one of the settlements mentioned by the Philippines earliest historical record, the Laguna Copperplate Inscription. Thus, it became a force in trade throughout Southeast Asia. Tondos regional prominence further culminated during the period of its associated trade, and by around 1500, the kingdom reached its peak as a thalassocratic force in the northern part of the archipelago. Following contact with the Spanish Empire beginning in 1570 and the defeat of local rulers in the Manila Bay area in 1571, Tondo was ruled from Manila. The kingdoms absorption into the Spanish Empire effectively ended its status as an independent kingdom, numerous theories on the origin of the name Tondo have been put forward. Filipino National Artist Nick Joaquin suggested that it might be a reference to high ground, french linguist Jean-Paul Potet, however, has suggested that the River Mangrove, Aegiceras corniculatum, which at the time was called tundok, is the most likely origin of the name. The bay area in which Tondo can be found was named Lusong or Lusung and this name was eventually used as the modern name of the entire island of Luzon. Rajah Alon, King of Tondo and son of Lakan Timamanukum, expanded the Kingdom of Tondo by conquering neighboring territories such as Kapampangan chiefdoms, Kumintang and he was succeeded by his grandson Rajah Gambang. The Tondo Dynasty lasted until the end of the 15th century, the first reference to Tondo occurs in the Philippines oldest historical record — the Laguna Copperplate Inscription. This legal document was written in Kawi, and dates back to Saka 822, the article mentioned that other places in the Philippines and their Rulers, Pailah, Puliran Kasumuran, Binwangan. While the document does not describe the relationship of the King of Tundun with these other rulers. The next historical reference to Ancient Tondo can be found in the Ming Shilu Annals and her rulers, based in their capital, Tondo were acknowledged not as mere chieftains, but as kings. This reference places Tondo into the context of Chinese trade with the aboriginals of the Philippine archipelago. But the earliest archeological evidence of trade between the Philippine aborigines and China takes the form of pottery and porcelain pieces dated to the Tang and Song Dynasties and it is believed that the people of Tondo kingdom were related to Malay of Malay peninsula and Sumatra. They belonged to the nobility class similar to the Timawa of the Visayan people. In modern Filipino, however, the term itself has come to mean royal nobility. The different type of culture prevalent in Luzon gave a stable and more complex social structure to the pre-colonial Tagalog barangays of Manila, Pampanga. The more complex structure of the Tagalogs was less stable during the arrival of the Spaniards because it was still in a process of differentiating
26.
Ma-i
–
Its existence was first documented in 971 AD, in the Song Dynasty documents known as the History of Song, and it was also mentioned in the 10th century records of the Sultanate of Brunei. Based on these and other mentions until the early 14th century, contemporary scholars believe Ma-i was located either in Bay, for many years, scholars believed that Ma-i was likely to have been on the island of Mindoro. But recent scholarship casts doubt on this theory, arguing that historical descriptions better match Bay, Laguna, both sites have names which sound similar to Ma-i. The pre-colonial name of Mindoro was Ma-it, whereas historical variants of the name of Bay, Laguna include Bae, Bai, an earlier theory, put forward in 1914 by Craig 1914 and asserted by local historians, also suggested Malolos, Bulacan as a potential site of Ma-i. The Chinese and Bruneian records both describe trade relations with Ma-i, Ma-i is first mentioned in Volume 186 of official history of the Song Dynasty, which lists Ma-i among the southern sea nations with whom Chinese merchants traded in the year 971 AD. The document describes governments efforts regulate and tax this luxurious trade, historian W. H. Scott describes this entry as the first positive reference to political states in or near the Philippines. W. H. Scott notes that of the documents describing Ma-i, only the Zu Fan Zhi, Filipino Chinese historian Bon Juan Go, in turn, notes that only the Wenxian Tongkao and Volumes 186 and 489 of the History of Song provide definitive dates. Because all of these are Chinese Imperial documents, historiographers have to consider the Sinocentric nature of the sources whenever conducting their analysis, Chinese travellers accounts from the early second millenium AD are considered rich sources of information on the political economy of the early polities. However, they are heavily biased because of the worldview of the Chinese Empire as the center of the universe. The context of these Chinese sources about the nature of Philippine polities must be analyzed carefully, in 1225, the Zhu Fan Zhi noted that the country of Ma-i is to the north of Borneo and added that few pirates reach these shores. It also noted that the people of Ma-i live in villages on the opposite banks of a stream. The 1349 document Daoyi Zhilüe also noted that the settlement of Ma-i consisted of houses arranged on the two banks of a stream and it also noted that its mountain range is flat and broad, the fields are fertile, and the climate is rather hot. Because all the documents describing Ma-I were primarily concerned with trade, both the Song Dynasty records, and Yuan Dynasty records describe the local products as kapok cotton, yellow bees-wax, tortoise shell, medicinal betel nuts and cloth of various patterns. The Zhu Fan Zhi notes that in exchange, the locals accepted products such as porcelain, trade gold, iron pots, lead, colored glass beads, and iron needles. The Daoyi Zhilüe later lists caldrons, pieces of iron, red cloth or taffetas of various stripes, ivory. Since the local officials make a habit of using white umbrellas, if at first they cant tell who they are, gradually they come to know those who remove the goods so in the end nothing is actually lost. The savage traders then take the goods around to the islands for barter. Indeed, there are some who dont come back even then, the Chinese vessels traders are trustworthy
27.
Madja-as
–
It was established by 10 leaders called Datus. They were connected with the court of Indianized native kingdoms of Brunei and Srivijaya, who were forced to leave that land on account of enmity with the Rajah, the local folklore says that the name of the Bornean Rajah was Makatunao. They embarked on sailing rafts of the used by the Visayans in Sumatra. The semi-democratic confederation or Kedatuan was integrated to the Spanish Empire through pacts and treaties by Miguel López de Legazpi, during the time of their hispanization, the principalities of the Confederation were already developed settlements with distinct social structure, culture, customs, and religion. Among the archaeological proofs of the existence of this Hiligaynon nation are the found in pre-Hispanic tombs from many parts of the island. There are also recent discoveries of artifacts of eight-foot inhabitants of Isla de Gigantes, including extra-large Lungon. One of these Westerners accounts says that the tales regarding adventures of this ancient hero of Panay were being retold during wedding celebrations in form of songs, Madja-as was a pre-colonial Indianized kingdom. The polity of Pannai was a militant-nation allied under the Sri-Vijaya Mandala that defended the conflict-ridden Strait of Malacca, the Chola invaders eventually destroyed the polity of Pannai and its surviving soldiers, royals and scholars were said to have been secreted-out eastwards. In their 450 years of occupying Sumatra, they refused to be enslaved to Islam, the people who stayed behind in Pannai, themselves, have an oral tradition wherein they said that the high-borne scholars, soldiers and nobles of Pannai, fled to other islands. The following is the account of P. Francisco Colin. One of these groups was subjugated there and they were unable to flee for various circumstances. Someone speaking pampango found out that they were not speaking pampango among themselves, but they donned the old pampango ethnic costume. And when he addressed an old man among them, the replied, You are descendants of the lost, that in times past left this place to settle in other lands, and nothing was heard about them again. Colins experience in Sumatra resonates the local tradition in the Visayan island of Panay, recorded in the Maragtas and it is good to note that the word maragtas in the Hiligaynon language means history. The local Panay tradition recounts that sailing northward from Borneo along the coast of Palawan, the ten Datus from Borneo crossed the intervening sea and they landed at the point, which is near the present town of San Joaquin. They had been able to reach the place directly because their small fleet was piloted by a sailor who had visited these regions on a ship engaged in commerce. Soon after the expedition had landed, the Malay migrants from Borneo came in contact with the people of the Island. Some writers have interpreted these Atis as Negritos, other sources present evidence that they were not at all a dwarfed primitive people of Negrito type, but were rather tall, dark-skinned Indonesian type
28.
Taytay, Palawan
–
Taytay is a first class municipality in the province of Palawan, an island of the Philippines. According to the 2010 census, it has a population of 70,837 people, since 2002, its Cathedral of St. Joseph the Worker is the episcopal see of the pre-diocesan missionary Apostolic Vicariate of Taytay. Before the Spanish colonization, The Kingdom of Taytay was ruled by a noted as followed everywhere at any given time by ten scribes. The crew of Ferdinand Magellan held the Taytay king and queen for ransom after escaping the Battle of Mactan where Magellan was slain and they intended to secure more supplies as they plan to cross into the Moluccas where the Portuguese were so help can be sought. The native king and his subjects complied with the demands and even added more food supplies than what they asked for and this was duly recorded by Antonio Pigafetta, Magellans chronicler, who was on board in one of the ships when these events took place. Pigafetta also took note of one thing in the kingdom. He found the natives fond of cockfighting, long before this pastime was seen or even heard of in the Western Hemisphere, during the Spanish colonization of the Philippines, Taytay was formally founded in 1623. Taytay became the capital of the province of Calamianes, the territory of Paragua, in 1818, and the province of Castilla. No other sovereign royal datu after him ruled in his kingdom, king Cabaylos descendants include the present clans of Cabaylo-Manlavi-Gabinete-Macolor as main genealogical roots. During the American era, Taytay ceased being Palawans capital, and this famous relic was completed in 1738. It was mainly used to defend against Muslim warrior-raiders in their war boats while the Spanish soldiers fire at them with their huge cannons. The forts small chapel and cannons are still intact, the fort is now under the supervision of the National Museum. The Moro action must be not as an act of piracy but as a showdown of power. It can be viewed as the Tausugs efforts to recover what was once theirs, similar raids were also carried out against Christian converts in Spanish Cuyo, Dumaran, Linapacan and Culion. In 1957, the Island of Dibangan was constituted into a barrio, Taytay is politically subdivided into 31 barangays. Philippine Standard Geographic Code Philippine Census Information Local Governance Performance Management System
29.
Rajahnate of Cebu
–
The Rajahnate of Cebu was an Indianized monarchical polity on the island of Cebu in the Philippines prior to the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors. It was founded by Sri Lumay or Rajamuda Lumaya, a prince of the Chola dynasty which occupied Sumatra. He was sent by the Maharajah to establish a base for expeditionary forces, according to Visayan folklore, Sri Lumay was a half-Tamil & half-Malay from Sumatra, who settled in the Visayas, and had several sons. One of his sons was Sri Alho, who ruled a land known as Sialo which included the towns of Carcar. Sri Ukob ruled a polity known as Nahalin in the north and he died in battle, fighting with the Muslim Moro pirates known as magalos from Mindanao. The islands they were in were collectively known as Pulua Kang Dayang or Kangdaya, Sri Lumay was noted for his strict policies in defending against Moro Muslim raiders and slavers from Mindanao. His use of scorched earth tactics to repel invaders gave rise to the name Kang Sri Lumayng Sugbu to the town, which was later shortened to Sugbu. Sri Lumay was succeeded by the youngest of his sons, Sri Bantug, who ruled from a known as Singhapala. Sri Bantug had a brother called Sri Parang who was slated to succeed Sri Bantug. But he was a cripple and could not govern his polity because of his infirmity, Parang handed his throne to Sri Bantugs son and his nephew, Sri Humabon, who became the Rajah of Cebu in his stead. During Rajah Humabons reign, the region had become an important trading center where agricultural products were bartered. From Japan, perfume and glass utensils were usually traded for native goods, ivory products, leather, precious and semi-precious stones and śarkarā mostly came from India traders and Burmese people traders. The harbors of Sugbu became known colloquially as sinibuayng hingpit, shortened to sibu or sibo and it was also during Humabons reign that Lapu-Lapu arrived from Borneo, and was granted by Humabon the region of Mandawili, including the island known as Opong or Opon. First contact with the Spanish also occurred during Humabons reign, resulting in the death of Ferdinand Magellan. If you give them good reception and treat them well, it will be well for you, but if you treat them ill, so much the worse it will be for you, as they have done at Calicut and at Malacca. In reality, this phrase is that of Kota Raya kita, Sri Parang, the limp, also had a young son, Sri Tupas, also known as Rajah Tupas who succeeded Rajah Humabon as king of Cebu. The Rajahnate was dissolved during the reign of Rajah Tupas by the forces of conquistador Miguel López de Legazpi in the battle of Cebu during 1565
30.
Rajahnate of Butuan
–
The Rajahnate of Butuan or Kingdom of Butuan was a Indic polity centered on the present Mindanao island city of Butuan in what is now the southern Philippines. It was known for its mining of gold, its products and its extensive trade network across the Nusantara area. The kingdom had trading relationships with the ancient civilizations of Japan, China, India, Indonesia, Persia, Cambodia, the balangay that have been found along the east and west banks of the Libertad river have revealed much about Butuans history. As a result, Butuan is considered to have been a trading port in the Caraga region during the pre-colonial era. Evidence indicates that Butuan was in contact with the Song dynasty of China by at least 1001 AD, the rajah sent an envoy under I-hsu-han, with a formal memorial requesting equal status in court protocol with the Champa envoy. The request was denied later by the Imperial court, mainly because of favoritism over Champa, a new ruler with the Indianized name Sri Bata Shaja later succeeded in attaining diplomatic equality with Champa by sending the flamboyant ambassador Likanhsieh. This display of irreverence sparked interests from China over the small Rajahnate, chinese records about the Rajahnate stopped after the reign of Rajah Calambu the last independent Rajah of Butuan. He was formally subjugated into the Spanish empire after he made a compact with Ferdinand Magellan in 1521. Numerous jars have been found in the Butuan area that indicate the wealth of the kingdom, the name Butuan is believed to have existed long before the Spanish conquistadores arrived in the Philippine archipelago. One possible indication of this is a rhinoceros ivory seal with design carved in ancient Javanese or early kawi script which, another account suggests the name derives from the word batuan, a mangosteen-related fruit common in Mindanao. Another alternative is that the name derives from Datu Bantuan, possibly a former lord of the region, Butuan History of the Philippines Butuan silver strips Flag and smbols Butuan ivory seals
31.
Sultanate of Maguindanao
–
The Sultanate of Maguindanao was a Sultanate state that ruled parts of the island of Mindanao, in southern Philippines, especially in modern-day Maguindanao province and Davao City. Its known historical influence stretches from the peninsula of Zamboanga to the bay of Sarangani, at its peak, the sultanate covered the entire island of Mindanao, and ruled over the smaller neighboring islands near and around Mindanao. During the era of European colonization, the Sultanate maintained friendly relations with British and he exiled some of his people who deviated from the Islamic faith to Cotabato. The sultanate was centered in the valley of Cotabato. Asraf Mohamad Samalan Dipatuan Qudratullah Faharuddin Nasiruddin, popularly known as Qudarat, in his island sanctuary in Sulu, he was known as Sultan Nasiruddin and was the Sultan of that island recognized by the Sulu Sultan and his grave still stands there. Abd al-Rahman, his grandson, continued increasing the Sultanates power, the island priory ceded to him by Sulu Sultan Sahabuddin. This was to have help dissuaded Spanish encroachments into the island of Maguindanao, Chinese gongs, yellow as a color of royalty and idioms originated from Chinese entered into Mindanao. Yellow color was utilized by royalty, the color yellow was used by the Sultan in Mindanao. Chinese tableware and gongs were exported to the Moros, merchant Chinese were tranquilly residing alongside the Moros in Maguindanao. SHARIF MUHAMMAD KABUNGSUWAN Tarsilas by Dr. Sleeby and Dr. Majul researched indicated of Sharif Ali Kabungsuwan was AbuBaik the brother of AbuBkr-Zein Ul-Abidin the Sulu Sultan Sharif Ul-Hashim and their father was Sultan Betatar of Taif Arabia the 9th generation progeny of Hassan. Sharif Kabungsuwan Seated in Malabang Lanao who exiled Muslims to Dulawan Cotabato who had deviated from Islamic Jurisprudence, and again drove those stubborn ones were drove to the hinterlands where they later became the Manobos. Kabungsuwans mother was a member of the Johore royalty of Singapore and it may be speculated that he arrived on the shores of Mindanao around 1515. He was the second Makdum who had come and reinforced Islam and he married the daughter of Tomoai Aliwya of the Maguindanao Family Dynasty. After his father death, the latters political authority fell on Kabungsuwan who had established the Sultanate of Maguindanao as its first Sultan reigning as Sultan Aliwya. SHARIF MAKA-ALANG He was a son of Muhammad Kabungsuwan and surnamed “Saripada” and his mother Angintabu was a daughter of an Iranun chief from the area now known as Malabang. In 1543, during the Villalobos expedition, some Spaniards were able to go to the mouth of a big river where they were informed by the inhabitants that the chief was called “Sarriparra”, DATU BANGKAYA He was a son of Sharif Maka-alang. In 1574, Guido de Lavezaris wrote to the Spanish King that the chief of Mindanao River wanted to become a friend of the Spaniards. In another Spanish report dated 1579, this chief is referred to as “Asulutan” with the information that he was a father of Diman Sankay and that he had already died
32.
Confederation of sultanates in Lanao
–
The Sultanates of Lanao in Mindanao, Philippines were founded in the 16th century through the influence of Shariff Kabungsuan, who was enthroned as first Sultan of Maguindanao in 1520. Unlike in Sulu and Maguindanao, the Sultanate system in Lanao was uniquely decentralized and they had maintained and had successfully defended their Sultanate from all Spanish attempts. After the last attempt, the Spanish never again ventured in all their duration in the Archipelago for 333 years, legally, the state does not recognise the Sultanate system. The Sultanate system in Lanao has survived colonialism and non-recognition by state authorities, in Lanao region, the Sultanate system has remained important as an integral part of the Maranao society, symbolizing royal authority, cultural heritage and Islamic influence. At present, Maranaos trace their lineage, legitimacy and authority through their Salsila that has chronicled the origins of the Lanao royal houses, Shariff Bangkaya begot two children from his 3rd wife Bae sa Matampay namely, Dakeneq of Malabang and Shariff Laut Buisan. Sharif Laut Buisan was installed as 6th Sultan of Maguindanao in 1597, Shariff Laut Buisan begot Gayang and Muhammad Dipatuan Kudarat. In 1656, Sultan Kudarat declared a jihad against the Spanish colonialist and his Sultanate was felt as far as Ternate in Indonesia and Borneo, and in fact, its power reached the shores of Bohol, Cebu, Panay, Mindoro and Manila in north. In 1637, Sebastean Hurtado-de Curcuera decided to send an expedition to subdue the Datus, as early as September 1637, he had promised the lake area to the Jesuits, who would get the same the moment it was conquered. The conquest of the Maranaos was entrusted to Captain Francesco Atienza, with fifty Spaniards and five hundred Caragans, the captain landed in Bayug, then proceeded to the Maranao territory, reaching the lake on 4, April 1639. There were about 2,000 families or 800 inhabitants, the Spaniards brought with them six collapsible boats that they fitted out in the lake. The Datus of Lanao initially stalled the Spaniards and they promised tribute and to accepted the missionaries. The allies of the Spaniards observed the movement of inhabitants into the interior, the Maranaos could easily muster 6,000 warriors from among the four confederation of Lanao. Lack of firearms though was their disadvantage although they have their traditional weapons, Governor Almonte dispatched Major Pedro Fernandez del Rio with 70 Spaniards and 500 Visayans to join with the forces of Atienza. After a most difficult passage made by the resistance of Shariff Matonding. In the middle of April, Capt Atienza and part of his troops left for Bayug and fortified it with a stockade, Sultan Kudarat visited his sons-in-law in Lanao, Balindong Bsar and Dianaton Naim of Butig. He gathered all the Datus of Lanao and delivered the now legendary speech in this form, The Maranaos and they used indigenous means to get at the fort and set it on fire. Three of the Spanish boats, brought from Bayug were captured, Atienza formed a relief expedition and saved the Spaniards. The Maranao warriors after 29 days of siege left their position, afraid to experience once more the starvation and horrors of siege warfare, the Spaniards proceeded to burn their own fort and made a retreat back to Iligan
33.
Sultanate of Sulu
–
The Sultanate of Sulu was a Muslim state that ruled the islands in the Sulu Archipelago, parts of Mindanao, certain portions of Palawan and north-eastern Borneo. The sultanate was founded on 17 November 1405, by a Johore-born explorer and religious scholar Sharif ul-Hashim. Paduka Mahasari Maulana al Sultan Sharif ul-Hashim became his full regnal name, after the marriage of Abu Bakr and a local dayang-dayang Paramisuli, he founded the sultanate. The Sultanate gained its independence from the Bruneian Empire in 1578, at its peak, it stretched over the islands that bordered the western peninsula of Mindanao in the east to Palawan in the north. It also covers the area in northeastern side of Borneo, stretching from Marudu Bay, while another source stated the area stretching from Kimanis Bay which also overlaps with the boundaries of the Bruneian Sultanate. In 1962, Philippine Government under the leadership of President Diosdado Macapagal officially recognised the existence of the Sultanate of Sulu. On 24 May 1974, Sultan Mohammad Mahakuttah Kiram, was the last officially recognized Sulu Sultan in the Philippines, the present area of the Sultanate of Sulu was once under the influence of the Bruneian Empire before it gained its own independence in 1578. Later, the earliest known settlement in this soon to be occupied by the sultanate who was in Maimbung. During these times, Sulu was called Lupah Sug, the Principality of Maimbung, populated by Buranun people, was first ruled by a certain rajah who assumed the title Rajah Sipad the Older. According to Majul, the origins of the title rajah sipad originated from the Hindu sri pada, the Principality was instituted and governed using the system of rajahs. Sipad the Older was succeeded by Sipad the Younger, during the reign of Sipad the Younger, a mystic named Tuan Mashā′ikha arrived in Jolo in 1280 AD. Other reports, however, insisted that Tuan Mashā′ikha together with his parents, Jamiyun Kulisa, however, Saleeby dismisses this claim by concluding that Jamiyun Kulisa and Indra Suga were mythical names. According to tarsila, during the coming of Tuan Mashā′ikha, the people of Maimbung worshipped tombs, after he preached Islam in the area, he married Sipad the Youngers daughter, Idda Indira Suga and bore three children, Tuan Hakim, Tuan Pam and Aisha. Tuan Hakim, in turn, begot five children, from the genealogy of Tuan Mashā′ikha, another titular system of aristocracy called tuanship started in Sulu. Apart from the Idda Indira Suga, Tuan Mashā′ikha also married into another unidentified woman, Tuan Mashā′ikha died in 710 A. H. and was buried in Bud Dato near Jolo, with an inscription of Tuan Maqbālū. A descendant of Tuan Mashā′ikha named Tuan May also begot a son named Datu Tka, the descendants of Tuan May did not assume the title tuan, instead, they started to use datu. It is the first time datu was used as a political institution, during the coming of Tuan Mashā′ikha, the Tagimaha people coming from Basilan and several places in Mindanao, also arrived and settled in Buansa. After the Tagimaha came the Baklaya people, believed to be originated from Sulawesi, after these came the Bajau people from Johor
34.
Suvarnabhumi
–
Suvarṇabhūmi is the name of a land mentioned in many ancient sources such as the Mahavamsa, some stories of the Jataka tales, and Milinda Panha. Suvaṇṇabhumī means Golden Land or Land of Gold and might be a region named Aurea Regio in India beyond the Ganges of Ptolemy, there lies a very great inland city called Thina”. Dionysius Periegetes mentioned, “The island of Chryse, situated at the rising of the Sun”. Avienus referred to the Insula Aurea located where the Scythian seas give rise to the Dawn, josephus speaks of the Aurea Chersonesus, which he equates with the Biblical Ophir, whence the ships of Tyre and Israel brought back gold for the Temple of Jerusalem. The city of Thina was described by Ptolemys Geography as the city of the country on the eastern shores of the Magnus Sinus. Some have speculated that this refers to the Kingdom of Funan. The main port of Funan was Cattigara Sinarum statio, there is a common misunderstanding that the Edicts of Ashoka mention this name. The truth is the edicts relate only the names and never reference Suvarnabhumi in the text. Moreover, all of the kings referenced in the text reigned their cities in the region that located beyond the Sindhu to the west, the misunderstanding might come from a mixing of the story of Ashoka sending his Buddhist missionaries to Suvarnabhumi in Mahavamsa and his edicts. The location of Suvarnabhumi has been the subject of much debate and it remains one of the most mythified and contentious toponyms in the history of Asia. Scholars have identified two regions as possible locations for the ancient Suvarnabhumi, Insular Southeast Asia or Southern India, the term Suvarnabhumi, is commonly thought to refer to the Southeast Asian Peninsula, including lower Burma and the Malay Peninsula. However there is another gold-referring term Suvarnadvipa, which may correspond to the Indonesian Archipelago, both terms might refer to a powerful coastal or island kingdom in present-day Indonesia and Malaysia, possibly centered on Sumatra or Java. This is corresponds to the production areas traditionally known in Minangkabau highlands in Barisan Mountains, Sumatra. These pointing out to the direction of western part of insular Southeast Asia, especially Sumatra, Malay Peninsula, Borneo, the kingdom referred as the center of maritime trade between China and India was Srivijaya. Hendrik Kern concluded that Sumatra was the Suvarnadvipa mentioned in ancient Hindu texts, the interpretation of early travel records is not always easy. The Javanese embassies to China in 860 and 873 CE refer to Java as rich in gold, Javanese would have had to import its gold possibly from neighbouring Malaya, Sumatra or Borneo, where gold was still being mined into the 19th century and where ancient mining sites located. Many claim that Suvarnabhumi was actually situated in central Bengal, Bengal has also been described in ancient Indian and Southeast Asian chronicles as a seafaring country, enjoying trade relations with Dravidian kingdoms, Sri Lanka, Java and Sumatra. Sinhalese tradition holds that the first king of Sri Lanka, Vijaya Singha, moreover the region is commonly associated with gold- the soil of Bengal is known for its golden color, golden harvest, golden fruits, golden minerals and yellow skinned people
