1.
Viceroyalty of Peru
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The Viceroyalty of Peru was a Spanish colonial administrative district, created in 1542, that originally contained most of Spanish-ruled South America, governed from the capital of Lima. The Viceroyalty of Peru was one of the two Spanish Viceroyalties in the Americas from the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries, the Spanish did not resist the Portuguese expansion of Brazil across the meridian established by the Treaty of Tordesillas. The treaty was rendered meaningless between 1580 and 1640 while Spain controlled Portugal, eventually, the viceroyalty would dissolve, as with much of the Spanish empire, when challenged by national independence movements at the beginning of the nineteenth century. From September 2,1564 to November 26,1569 he was viceroy of Peru. In 1542, the Spanish created the Viceroyalty of New Castile, in 1544, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V named Blasco Núñez Vela Perus first viceroy, but the viceroyalty was not organized until the arrival of Viceroy Francisco Álvarez de Toledo. Toledo made a tour of inspection of the colony. He improved the safety in the viceroyalty with fortifications, bridges, still, Luis Jerónimo de Cabrera, 4th Count of Chinchón sent out the third expedition to explore the Amazon River, under Cristóbal de Acuña. Many Pacific islands were visited by Spanish ships in the sixteenth century and these included New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands and the Marquesas Islands by Álvaro de Mendaña de Neira. These groups had the advantage of remote geography and river access from the mouth of the Amazon, meanwhile, the Spanish were barred by their laws from slaving of indigenous people, leaving them without a commercial interest deep in the interior of the basin. One famous attack upon a Spanish mission in 1628 resulted in the enslavement of 60,000 indigenous people, in fact as time passed they were used as a self funding occupation force by the Portuguese authorities in what was effectively a low level war of territorial conquest. In 1617, Francisco de Borja y Aragón divided the government of Río de la Plata into two, Buenos Aires and Paraguay, both dependencies of the Viceroyalty of Peru. Viceroy Borja y Aragón also established the Tribunal del Consulado, a special court, Diego Fernández de Córdoba, Marquis of Guadalcázar reformed the fiscal system and stopped the interfamily rivalry that was bloodying the domain. Fernández de Cabrera suppressed an insurrection of the Uru and Mapuche Indians, viceroys had to protect the Pacific coast from French contraband and English and Dutch pirates. They expanded the naval forces, fortified the ports of Valdivia, Valparaíso, Arica and Callao and constructed city walls in Lima, nevertheless, the famous English privateer Henry Morgan took Chagres and captured and sacked the city of Panama in the early part of 1670. Also Peruvian forces repelled the attacks by Edward David, Charles Wager, the Peace of Utrecht allowed the British to send ships and merchandise to the fair at Portobello. In this period, revolts were common, around 1656, Pedro Bohórquez crowned himself Inca of the Calchaquí Indians, inciting the indigenous population to revolt. From 1665 until 1668, the rich mineowners José and Gaspar Salcedo revolted against the colonial government, the clergy were opposed to the nomination of prelates from Spain. Viceroy Diego Ladrón de Guevara had to take measures against an uprising of slaves at the hacienda of Huachipa de Lima, there were terrible earthquakes and epidemics, too
2.
History of Peru
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The history of Peru spans 4 million millennia, extending back through several stages of cultural development in the mountain region and the coastal desert. Peruvian territory was home to the Norte Chico civilization, one of the six oldest in the world, and to the Inca Empire and it was conquered by the Spanish Empire in the 16th century, which established a Viceroyalty with jurisdiction over most of its South American domains. The nation declared independence from Spain in 1821, but consolidated only after the Battle of Ayacucho, hunting tools dating back to more than 11,000 years ago have been found inside the caves of Pachacamac, Telarmachay, Junin and Lauricocha. Some of the oldest civilizations appeared circa 6000 BC in the provinces of Chilca and Paracas. Over the following three years, inhabitants switched from nomadic lifestyles to cultivating land, as evidence from sites such as Jiskairumoko, Kotosh. Cultivation of plants such as corn and cotton began, as well as the domestication of such as the wild ancestors of the llama, the alpaca. Inhabitants practiced spinning and knitting of cotton and wool, basketry and pottery, as these inhabitants became sedentary, farming allowed them to build settlements and new societies emerged along the coast and in the Andean mountains. The first known city in the Americas was Caral, located in the Supe Valley 200 km north of Lima and it was built in approximately 2500 BC. What is left from the civilization, also called Norte Chico, is about 30 pyramidal structures built up in receding terraces ending in a flat roof, Caral is one of the world centers of the rise of civilization. In the early 21st century, archeologists have discovered new evidence of ancient pre-Ceramic complex cultures, in 2006, Robert Benfer and a research team discovered a 4, 200-year-old observatory at Buena Vista, a site in the Andes several kilometers north of present-day Lima. They believe the observatory was related to the reliance on agriculture. The site includes the oldest three-dimensional sculptures found thus far in South America, in 2007 the archeologist Walter Alva and his team found a 4, 000-year-old temple with painted murals at Ventarrón, in the northwest Lambayeque region. The temple contained ceremonial offerings gained from exchange with Peruvian jungle societies, many other civilizations developed and were absorbed by the most powerful ones such as Kotosh, Chavin, Paracas, Lima, Nasca, Moche, Tiwanaku, Wari, Lambayeque, Chimu and Chincha, among others. The Paracas culture emerged on the southern coast around 300 BC and they are known for their use of vicuña fibers instead of just cotton to produce fine textiles—innovations that did not reach the northern coast of Peru until centuries later. These coastal cultures eventually began to decline as a result of recurring el Niño floods, in consequence, the Huari and Tiwanaku, who dwelt inland in the Andes became the predominant cultures of the region encompassing much of modern-day Peru and Bolivia. Around 700 BC, they appear to have developed systems of organization that were the precursors of the Inca civilization. Not all Andean cultures were willing to offer their loyalty to the Incas as the Incas expanded their empire, the people of the Chachapoyas culture were an example of this, but the Inca eventually conquered and integrated them into their empire. The Incas built the largest empire and dynasty of pre-Columbian America, the Tahuantinsuyo—which is derived from Quechua for The Four United Regions—reached its greatest extension at the beginning of the 16th century
3.
Islamic architecture
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Islamic architecture encompasses a wide range of both secular and religious styles from the foundation of Islam to the present day. What today is known as Islamic architecture was influenced by Persian, Roman, Byzantine, further east, it was also influenced by Chinese and Indian architecture as Islam spread to Southeast Asia. The principal Islamic architectural types are, the Mosque, the Tomb, the Palace, from these four types, the vocabulary of Islamic architecture is derived and used for other buildings such as public baths, fountains and domestic architecture. Symbolic views of scholars on Islamic architecture have consistently been criticized by historians for lacking historical evidence. The Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem is one of the most important buildings in all of Islamic architecture and it is patterned after the nearby Church of the Holy Sepulchre and Byzantine Christian artists were employed to create its elaborate mosaics against a golden background. The great epigraphic vine frieze was adapted from the pre-Islamic Syrian style, the Dome of the Rock featured interior vaulted spaces, a circular dome, and the use of stylized repeating decorative arabesque patterns. Desert palaces in Jordan and Syria served the caliphs as living quarters, reception halls, and baths, the horseshoe arch became a popular feature in Islamic structures. After the Moorish invasion of Spain in 711 AD the form was taken by the Umayyads who accentuated the curvature of the horseshoe. The Great Mosque of Damascus, built on the site of the basilica of John the Baptist after the Islamic invasion of Damascus, certain modifications were implemented, including expanding the structure along the transversal axis which better fit with the Islamic style of prayer. The Abbasid dynasty witnessed the movement of the capital from Damascus to Baghdad, the shift to Baghdad influenced politics, culture, and art. The Great Mosque of Samarra, once the largest in the world, was built for the new capital, other major mosques built in the Abbasid Dynasty include the Mosque of Ibn Tulun in Cairo, Abu Dalaf in Iraq, the great mosque in Tunis. Abbasid architecture in Iraq as exemplified in the Fortress of Al-Ukhaidir demonstrated the despotic, the Great Mosque of Kairouan is considered the ancestor of all the mosques in the western Islamic world. Its original marble columns and sculptures were of Roman workmanship brought in from Carthage and it is one of the best preserved and most significant examples of early great mosques, founded in 670 AD and dating in its present form largely from the Aghlabid period. The Great Mosque of Kairouan is constituted of a square minaret, a large courtyard surrounded by porticos. The Great Mosque of Samarra in Iraq, completed in 847 AD, the Hagia Sophia in Istanbul also influenced Islamic architecture. When the Ottomans captured the city from the Byzantines, they converted the basilica to a mosque, the Hagia Sophia also served as a model for many Ottoman mosques such as the Shehzade Mosque, the Suleiman Mosque, and the Rüstem Pasha Mosque. Domes are a structural feature of Islamic architecture. Domes remain in use, being a significant feature of many mosques, the distinctive pointed domes of Islamic architecture, also originating with the Byzantines and Persians, have remained a distinguishing feature of mosques into the 21st century
4.
Mario Vargas Llosa
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Vargas Llosa is one of Latin Americas most significant novelists and essayists, and one of the leading writers of his generation. He writes prolifically across an array of genres, including literary criticism and journalism. His novels include comedies, murder mysteries, historical novels, several, such as Captain Pantoja and the Special Service and Aunt Julia and the Scriptwriter, have been adapted as feature films. Many of Vargas Llosas works are influenced by the perception of Peruvian society. Increasingly- however- he has expanded his range, and tackled themes that arise from other parts of the world, in his essays, Vargas Llosa has made many criticisms of nationalism in different parts of the world. Another change over the course of his career has been a shift from a style and approach associated with literary modernism, while he initially supported the Cuban revolutionary government of Fidel Castro, Vargas Llosa later became disenchanted with his policies. He ran for the Peruvian presidency in 1990 with the center-right Frente Democrático coalition, advocating classical liberal reforms, Mario Vargas Llosa was born to a middle-class family on March 28,1936, in the Peruvian provincial city of Arequipa. He was the child of Ernesto Vargas Maldonado and Dora Llosa Ureta. Shortly after Marios birth, his father revealed that he was having an affair with a German woman, consequently, Vargas Llosa lived with his maternal family in Arequipa until a year after his parents divorce, when his maternal grandfather was named honorary consul for Peru in Bolivia. With his mother and her family, Vargas Llosa then moved to Cochabamba, Bolivia and his maternal family, the Llosas, were sustained by his grandfather, who managed a cotton farm. As a child, Vargas Llosa was led to believe that his father had died—his mother and her family did not want to explain that his parents had separated, while in Piura, Vargas Llosa attended elementary school at the religious academy Colegio Salesiano. In 1946, at the age of ten, he moved to Lima and his parents re-established their relationship and lived in Magdalena del Mar, a middle-class Lima suburb, during his teenage years. While in Lima, he studied at the Colegio La Salle, when Vargas Llosa was fourteen, his father sent him to the Leoncio Prado Military Academy in Lima. At the age of 16, before his graduation, Vargas Llosa began working as an amateur journalist for local newspapers, in 1953, during the government of Manuel A. Odría, Vargas Llosa enrolled in Limas National University of San Marcos, to study law and literature. He married Julia Urquidi, his maternal uncles sister-in-law, in 1955 at the age of 19, Vargas Llosa began his literary career in earnest in 1957 with the publication of his first short stories, The Leaders and The Grandfather, while working for two Peruvian newspapers. Upon his graduation from the National University of San Marcos in 1958, despite Mario and Julias unexpected financial status, the couple decided to remain in Paris where he began to write prolifically. Their marriage lasted only a few years, ending in divorce in 1964. As of 2015, he is in a relationship with Filipina Spanish socialite and TV personality Isabel Preysler, Vargas Llosas first novel, The Time of the Hero, was published in 1963
5.
Bay window
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A bay window is a window space projecting outward from the main walls of a building and forming a bay in a room. Bay window is a term for all protruding window constructions. The most common inside angles are 90,135 and 150 degrees, a bay window with a flat front and angled sides is called canted. A bay window supported by a corbel, bracket or similar is called an oriel window, most medieval bay windows and up to the baroque era are oriel windows. They frequently appear as a highly ornamented addition to the rather than an organic part of it. Particularly during the Gothic period they frequently contain small house chapels, with the oriel window containing an altar, especially in Nuremberg these are even called Chörlein with the most famous example being the one from the parsonage of St. Sebaldus Church. Oriental oriel windows such as the Arab Mashrabiya are frequently made of wood, because there is a close similarity to the use of a balcony, it is difficult to define if they are indeed oriel windows or a special type of balcony. Bay windows became a popular feature of residential Victorian architecture in the British Isles from about the 1870s. They can be found in terraced houses, semis and detached houses as well as in blocks of flats, based on British models, their use spread to other English speaking countries like the USA, Canada and Australia. Bretèche Bay window caboose Oriel window Bow window Gagnon, Jerome, gaining bonus space and light with bay windows
6.
Plaza de toros de Acho
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The Plaza de Toros de Acho is the premier bullring in Lima, Peru. Located beside the center of the Rímac District, the plaza is classified as a national historic monument. It is the oldest bullring in the Americas and the second-oldest in the world after La Maestranza in Spain and it opened on 30 January 1766. Of the 56 official bullrings in Peru, the Plaza de Acho ranks most prominently and it has a seating capacity of 13,700 and was constructed of adobe and wood, both traditional materials. In 1765, Agustín Hipólito de Landaburu sought permission to construct what he called a plaza for the corridas de toros that would take place in Lima during the citys celebration of Carnival. The plaza would be constructed in the Rímac district on a site that had used for several temporary bullrings since 1754. The site was called “el Hacho, ” a Quechua word meaning “elevated place with view of the sea. ”Construction on the plaza officially began on 30 January 1766. The inaugural run took place on 30 January 1766, and showcased the bullfighters Pisí, Maestro de España, the first bull to be killed in the plaza was a white animal called El Albañil, meaning The Mason. Throughout its existence, revenues from the Plaza de Acho have been designated for the organizers of different corridas, an exception to this was during the war for independence from Spain, between the years of 1821 and 1826 all proceeds from the plaza were directed to the liberating army. The plaza was remodeled once, in 1944, due to deteriorated conditions, the bullfighting fair held in honor of the annual Señor de los Milagros festival takes place at the plaza on Sundays through October and November. During the fair, Lima brings in some of the worlds most lauded talent The best bullfighter of the year is awarded the Escapulario de Oro, torosperu. com Puiggrós, Bartolomé, ¿Y la Plaza de Hacho
7.
Walls of Lima
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The Walls of Lima were a fortification consisting mainly of walls and bastions whose purpose was to defend the city of Lima from exterior attacks. It was built between 1684 and 1687, during the Viceroy Melchor de Navarra y Rocafull s government, the wall was located on the present streets of Alfonso Ugarte, Paseo Colón and Grau and the left bank of Rímac River. The Santa Lucía bastion is a sector of the located on the edge of Barrios Altos. The old wall was built around the city to protect it from pirates attacks, as part of urban expansion programs and construction of new avenues, the wall was demolished in 1868 under José Baltas government. The wall never served the purpose for which it was built, part of the sea wall has been restored at the back of the Church of San Francisco, near the Government Palace, which has created a public space named Parque de la Muralla. In this park, the remnants of the foundations that had been the seawall are visible, the aforementioned park has a restaurant and a shop selling hand-made items from different areas of the country. The park contains a statue of Francisco Pizarro, which used to be in the Plaza Perú, there is also a museum exhibiting archaeological pieces found in the area. Construction of an expressway on Grau Avenue uncovered some of the walls remains, in Barrios Altos, the remains of the walls near the Plazuela del Cercado is in good condition. The camal de Conchucos, which was the bastion of Santa Lucía, the wall was not a paragon of beauty. Except for the portals of Maravillas in the Barrios Altos and El Callao and it is one of the most important tourist attractions, besides the houses, among others. Wall of Trujillo Defensive wall Hanke, Lewis, los virreyes españoles durante la casa de Austria. Historia de la República del Perú
8.
Government Palace (Peru)
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The Government Palace also known as House of Pizarro is the seat of the executive branch of the Peruvian Government and the official residence of the President of Peru. It was erected in 1535 over a huge huaca that had a shrine of the old Lima valleys cacique Taulichusco and it has undergone many transformations over the years. The last one was completed in the 20th century by President Oscar R. Benavides during his government in the 1930s. The Government Palace was built by Francisco Pizarro, the governor of New Castile, when the viceroyalty of Peru was established, the palace became the viceroys residence and therefore the Peruvian governments headquarters. The main architect of its last rebuilding was Ricardo de Jaxa Malachowski, the palace is a stately government building with a set of ornamental guards. It is recognizable by the wrought iron fence that surrounds the building. The Government Palace of Peru, also known as House of Pizarro, renovated in 1937, is located on the side of the Plaza Mayor, Lima. The main porch at Palacio Street shows the Pizarro Coat-of-Arms and is in the style of architectural design. It dates back to the 1920s and was designed and constructed by Claudio Sahut, the facade facing onto the Main Square is in the style of neo-baroque architectural design of a French inspiration. It dates from 1938 and was designed and constructed by Ricardo de Jaxa Malachowski, the palace has several ceremonial rooms. There is a garden in the same place that the Spanish conqueror wanted it to be. The legend affirms that a fig tree log reached Pizarros hands and it grew and the same tree, challenging time, is still alive in the place. It also has an elegant area which is the residence of the President of the Republic. Previously called Eléspuru and Choquehuanca Hall, spanish-Styled, it dates back to 1920s and is decorated. Big arches rest o marble columns, four big windows lighten the hall. While visitors continue their tour, find a chaise escorted by an Hussars of Junín Regiments dismounted trooper, in these Limousines of the past, former Presidents took rides, showing the splendor in which they lived. In this hall there is a sculpture of the General José de San Martín. His right hand shows that the artist knew an unknown phase of the Liberator, José de San Martín belonged to the Lodge of Freemasons
9.
Cultural heritage
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Cultural heritage includes tangible culture, intangible culture, and natural heritage. Objects are a part of the study of history because they provide a concrete basis for ideas. Their preservation demonstrates a recognition of the necessity of the past, in The Past is a Foreign Country, David Lowenthal observes that preserved objects also validate memories. This unfortunately poses a danger as places and things are damaged by the hands of tourists, the required to display them. Similarly changing is the value each generation may place on the past, classical civilizations, and especially the Indian, have attributed supreme importance to the preservation of tradition. Its central idea was that institutions, scientific knowledge and technological applications need to use a heritage as a resource. Using contemporary language, we could say that ancient Indians considered, as social resources, ethics considered that what had been inherited should not be consumed, but should be handed over, possibly enriched, to successive generations. This was an imperative for all, except in the final life stage of sannyasa. What one generation considers cultural heritage may be rejected by the next generation, Cultural property includes the physical, or tangible cultural heritage, such as artworks. These are generally split into two groups of movable and immovable heritage, immovable heritage includes buildings, large industrial installations or other historic places and monuments. Moveable heritage includes books, documents, moveable artworks, machines, clothing, and other artifacts and these include objects significant to the archaeology, architecture, science or technology of a specified culture. The concept includes the ways and means of behavior in a society, and these include social values and traditions, customs and practices, aesthetic and spiritual beliefs, artistic expression, language and other aspects of human activity. The significance of artifacts can be interpreted against the backdrop of socioeconomic, political, ethnic, religious. Naturally, intangible heritage is more difficult to preserve than physical objects. These kind of heritage sites often serve as an important component in a countrys tourist industry, Heritage can also include cultural landscapes. As of 2011, there are 936 World Heritage Sites,725 cultural,183 natural, each of these sites is considered important to the international community. The underwater cultural heritage is protected by the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage and this convention is a legal instrument helping states parties to improve the protection of their underwater cultural heritage. In additional, UNESCO has begun designating masterpieces of the Oral, international Institute for Conservation Much of heritage preservation work is done at the national, regional, or local levels of society
10.
Francisco Pizarro
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Francisco Pizarro González was a Spanish conquistador who led an expedition that conquered the Inca Empire. He captured and killed Incan emperor Atahualpa and claimed the lands for Spain, Francisco Pizarro was born in Trujillo, Spain in modern-day Extremadura, Spain. He was the son of infantry colonel Gonzalo Pizarro and Francisca González. His date of birth is uncertain, but it is believed to be sometime in the 1470s, little attention was paid to his education and he grew up illiterate. His father was a colonel of infantry who served in Navarre and his mother married late in life and had a son Francisco Martín de Alcántara, who was at the conquest of Peru with his half-brother from its inception. Through his father, Francisco was a cousin, once removed. On 10 November 1509, Pizarro sailed from Spain to the New World with Alonso de Ojeda on an expedition to Gulf of Urabá in Tierra Firme, Pizarro became a participant in Ojedas failed colony, commanding the remnants until he abandoned it with the survivors. He sailed to Cartagena and joined the fleet of Martín Fernández de Enciso in 1513, in 1513, Pizarro accompanied Vasco Núñez de Balboa in his crossing of the Isthmus of Panama to the Pacific coast. The following year, Pedrarias Dávila became the appointed governor of Castilla de Oro. During the next five years, Pizarro became an associate of Dávila. When Dávila decided to get rid of Balboa out of distrust, he instructed Pizarro to personally arrest him, Balboa was beheaded in January 1519. For his loyalty to Dávila, Pizarro was rewarded with the positions of mayor, on 10 November 1509, Pizarro sailed from Spain to the New World with Alonso de Ojeda on an expedition to Urabá. He sailed to Cartagena and joined the fleet of Martín Fernández de Enciso and, in 1513, reports of Perus riches and Cortéss success in Mexico tantalized Pizarro. He undertook two expeditions to conquer the Incan Empire in 1524 and in 1526, both failed as a result of native hostilities, bad weather and lack of provisions. Pedro de los Ríos, the Governor of Panama, made an effort to recall Pizarro, in April 1528, he reached northern Peru and found the natives rich with precious metals. This discovery gave Pizarro the motivation to plan an expedition to conquer the area. He returned to Panama to make arrangements, but the Governor refused to grant permission for the project, Pizarro returned to Spain to appeal directly to King Charles I. His plea was successful and he received not only a license for the proposed expedition and he was joined by family and friends and the expedition left Panama in 1530
