1.
Rumah adat
–
Rumah adat are traditional houses built in any of the vernacular architecture styles of Indonesia. The traditional houses and settlements of the several ethnic groups of Indonesia are extremely varied. Ethnic groups in Indonesia are often associated with their own form of rumah adat. The houses are at the centre of a web of customs, social relations, traditional laws, taboos, myths, the house provides the main focus for the family and its community, and is the point of departure for many activities of its residents. Villagers build their own homes, or a community pools its resources for a structure built under the direction of a builder or carpenter. The vast majority of Indonesians no longer live in rumah adat, and the numbers have declined due to economic, technological. The earliest Austronesian structures were communal longhouses on stilts, with sloping roofs and heavy gables, as seen in the Batak rumah adat. Variations on the communal longhouse principle are found among the Dayak people of Borneo, the norm is for a post, beam and lintel structural system that take load straight to the ground with either wooden or bamboo walls that are non-load bearing. Traditionally, rather than nails, mortis and tenon joints and wooden pegs are used, natural materials - timber, bamboo, thatch and fibre - make up rumah adat. Hardwood is generally used for piles and a combination of soft and hard wood is used for the houses upper non-load bearing walls, the thatch material can be coconut and sugar palm leaves, alang alang grass and rice straw. Traditional dwellings have developed to respond to environmental conditions, particularly Indonesias hot. As is common throughout South East Asia and the South West Pacific, most rumah adat are built on stilts, with the exception of Java, Bali, and other houses of Eastern Indonesia. The sharply inclined roof allows the heavy rain to quickly sheet off. In hot and humid low-lying coastal regions, homes can have many windows providing good cross-ventilation, whereas in cooler mountainous interior areas, homes often have a vast roof, the Minangkabau of West Sumatra build the rumah gadang, distinctive for their multiple gables with dramatically upsweeping ridge ends. The homes of Nias peoples include the omo sebua chiefs houses built on massive pillars with towering roofs. Not only are they almost impregnable to attack in former tribal warfare, rumah Melayu Malay traditional houses built on stilts of Sumatra, Borneo and Malay Peninsula. The Riau region is characterised by villages built on stilts over waterways, unlike most South East Asian vernacular homes, Javanese omah are not built on piles, and have become the Indonesian vernacular style most influenced by European architectural elements. The Bubungan Tinggi, with their steeply pitched roofs, are the homes of Banjarese royalty
2.
Balinese people
–
The Balinese are an ethnic group native to the Indonesian island of Bali. The Balinese population of 4.2 million live mostly on the island of Bali, there are also significant populations on the island of Lombok, and in the eastern-most regions of Java. The Balinese originated from three periods of migration, the first waves of immigrants came from Java and Kalimantan in prehistoric times and were of proto-Malay stock. The second wave of Balinese came slowly over the years from Java during the Hindu period and this in turn reshaped the Balinese culture into a syncretic form of classical Javanese culture mixed with many Balinese elements. A DNA study in 2005 by Karafet et al. found that 12% of Balinese Y-chromosomes are of likely Indian origin, while 84% are of likely Austronesian origin, Balinese culture is a mix of Balinese Hindu-Buddhist religion and Balinese customs. It is perhaps most known for its dance, drama and sculpture, the island is also known for its Wayang kulit or Shadow play theatre. Even in poor rural and neglected villages, beautiful temples are a common sight, even layered pieces of palm leaf and neat fruit arrangements made as offerings by Balinese women have an artistic side to them. Balinese artists are skilled in duplicating art works such as carvings that resemble Chinese deities or decorating vehicles based on what is seen in foreign magazines. The culture is noted for its use of the gamelan in music, each type of music is designated for a specific type of event. For example, music for a piodalan is different from music used for a ceremony, just as it is for weddings, Ngaben, Melasti. The diverse types of gamelan are also specified according to the different types of dance in Bali, according to Walter Spies, the art of dancing is an integral part of Balinese life as well as an endless critical element in a series of ceremonies or for personal interests. Traditionally, displaying of female breasts is not regarded as immodest, Balinese women can often be seen with bared chests, however, a display of the thigh is considered immodest. In modern Bali these customs are not strictly observed. In the Balinese naming system, a rank of birth or caste is reflected in the name. A puputan is an act of mass suicide through frontal assaults in battle, the latest act of puputan was during the Indonesian war of Independence, with Lt. Colonel I Gusti Ngurah Rai as the leader in the battle of Margarana. The airport in Bali is named after him in commemoration, the vast majority of the Balinese believe in Agama Tirta, holy-water religion. It is a Shivaite sect of Hinduism, traveling Indian priests are said to have introduced the people to the sacred literature of Hinduism and Buddhism centuries ago. The people accepted it and combined it with their own pre-Hindu mythologies, the Balinese from before the third wave of immigration, known as the Bali Aga, are mostly not followers of Agama Tirta, but retain their own animist traditions
3.
Bali
–
Bali is an island and province of Indonesia. The province includes the island of Bali and a few smaller neighbouring islands, notably Nusa Penida, Nusa Lembongan and it is located at the westernmost end of the Lesser Sunda Islands, between Java to the west and Lombok to the east. Its capital, Denpasar, is located in the part of the island. With a population of 3,890,757 in the 2010 census, and 4,225,000 as of January 2014, the island is home to most of Indonesias Hindu minority. According to the 2010 Census,83. 5% of Balis population adhered to Balinese Hinduism, followed by 13. 4% Muslim, Christianity at 2. 5%, Bali is a popular tourist destination, which has seen a significant rise in tourists since the 1980s. Tourism-related business makes up 80% of its economy and it is renowned for its highly developed arts, including traditional and modern dance, sculpture, painting, leather, metalworking, and music. The Indonesian International Film Festival is held every year in Bali, in March 2017, Tripadvisor named the island the worlds top destination in its Travelers choice award. Bali is part of the Coral Triangle, the area with the highest biodiversity of marine species, in this area alone over 500 reef building coral species can be found. For comparison, this is about 7 times as many as in the entire Caribbean, most recently, Bali was the host of the 2011 ASEAN Summit,2013 APEC and Miss World 2013. Bali is the home of the Subak Irrigation System, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Bali was inhabited around 2000 BC by Austronesian people who migrated originally from Southeast Asia and Oceania through Maritime Southeast Asia. Culturally and linguistically, the Balinese are closely related to the people of the Indonesian archipelago, Malaysia, stone tools dating from this time have been found near the village of Cekik in the islands west. In ancient Bali, nine Hindu sects existed, namely Pasupata, Bhairawa, Siwa Shidanta, Waisnawa, Bodha, Brahma, Resi, Sora, each sect revered a specific deity as its personal Godhead. Inscriptions from 896 and 911 dont mention a king, until 914 and they also reveal an independent Bali, with a distinct dialect, where Buddhism and Sivaism were practiced simultaneously. Mpu Sindoks great-granddaughter, Mahendradatta, married the Bali king Udayana Warmadewa around 989 and this marriage also brought more Hinduism and Javanese culture to Bali. Suradhipa reigned from 1115 to 1119, and Jayasakti from 1146 until 1150, jayapangus appears on inscriptions between 1178 and 1181, while Adikuntiketana and his son Paramesvara in 1204. Balinese culture was influenced by Indian, Chinese, and particularly Hindu culture. The name Bali dwipa has been discovered from inscriptions, including the Blanjong pillar inscription written by Sri Kesari Warmadewa in 914 AD. It was during this time that the people developed their complex irrigation system subak to grow rice in wet-field cultivation, some religious and cultural traditions still practiced today can be traced to this period
4.
Indonesia
–
Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a unitary sovereign state and transcontinental country located mainly in Southeast Asia with some territories in Oceania. Situated between the Indian and Pacific oceans, it is the worlds largest island country, with more than seventeen thousand islands. At 1,904,569 square kilometres, Indonesia is the worlds 14th-largest country in terms of area and worlds 7th-largest country in terms of combined sea. It has an population of over 260 million people and is the worlds fourth most populous country. The worlds most populous island, Java, contains more than half of the countrys population, Indonesias republican form of government includes an elected legislature and president. Indonesia has 34 provinces, of which five have Special Administrative status and its capital and countrys most populous city is Jakarta, which is also the most populous city in Southeast Asia and the second in Asia. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, other neighbouring countries include Singapore, Vietnam, the Philippines, Australia, Palau, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the second highest level of biodiversity. The country has abundant natural resources like oil and natural gas, tin, copper, agriculture mainly produces rice, palm oil, tea, coffee, cacao, medicinal plants, spices and rubber. Indonesias major trading partners are Japan, United States, China, the Indonesian archipelago has been an important region for trade since at least the 7th century, when Srivijaya and then later Majapahit traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries CE, Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Indonesia consists of hundreds of native ethnic and linguistic groups. The largest – and politically dominant – ethnic group are the Javanese, a shared identity has developed, defined by a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a Muslim-majority population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. Indonesias national motto, Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, articulates the diversity that shapes the country, Indonesias economy is the worlds 16th largest by nominal GDP and the 8th largest by GDP at PPP, the largest in Southeast Asia, and is considered an emerging market and newly industrialised country. Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950, Indonesia is a member of the G20 major economies and World Trade Organization. The name Indonesia derives from the Greek name of the Indós, the name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians—and, his preference, in the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago. However, Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia, they preferred Malay Archipelago, the Netherlands East Indies, popularly Indië, the East, and Insulinde
5.
Hindu
–
Hindu refers to any person who regards themselves as culturally, ethnically, or religiously adhering to aspects of Hinduism. It has historically used as a geographical, cultural, or religious identifier for people indigenous to South Asia. The historical meaning of the term Hindu has evolved with time, by the 16th century, the term began to refer to residents of India who were not Turks or Muslims. The historical development of Hindu self-identity within the Indian population, in a religious or cultural sense, is unclear, competing theories state that Hindu identity developed in the British colonial era, or that it developed post-8th century CE after the Islamic invasion and medieval Hindu-Muslim wars. A sense of Hindu identity and the term Hindu appears in texts dated between the 13th and 18th century in Sanskrit and regional languages. The 14th- and 18th-century Indian poets such as Vidyapati, Kabir and Eknath used the phrase Hindu dharma, the Christian friar Sebastiao Manrique used the term Hindu in religious context in 1649. In the 18th century, the European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of Indian religions collectively as Hindus, in contrast to Mohamedans for Mughals, scholars state that the custom of distinguishing between Hindus, Buddhists, Jains and Sikhs is a modern phenomenon. Hindoo is a spelling variant, whose use today may be considered derogatory. At more than 1.03 billion, Hindus are the third largest group after Christians. The vast majority of Hindus, approximately 966 million, live in India, according to Indias 2011 census. After India, the next 9 countries with the largest Hindu populations are, in decreasing order, Nepal, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, United States, Malaysia, United Kingdom and Myanmar. These together accounted for 99% of the worlds Hindu population, the word Hindu is derived from the Indo-Aryan and Sanskrit word Sindhu, which means a large body of water, covering river, ocean. It was used as the name of the Indus river and also referred to its tributaries, the Punjab region, called Sapta Sindhava in the Vedas, is called Hapta Hindu in Zend Avesta. The 6th-century BCE inscription of Darius I mentions the province of Hidush, the people of India were referred to as Hinduvān and hindavī was used as the adjective for Indian in the 8th century text Chachnama. The term Hindu in these ancient records is an ethno-geographical term, the Arabic equivalent Al-Hind likewise referred to the country of India. Among the earliest known records of Hindu with connotations of religion may be in the 7th-century CE Chinese text Record of the Western Regions by the Buddhist scholar Xuanzang, Xuanzang uses the transliterated term In-tu whose connotation overflows in the religious according to Arvind Sharma. The Hindu community occurs as the amorphous Other of the Muslim community in the court chronicles, wilfred Cantwell Smith notes that Hindu retained its geographical reference initially, Indian, indigenous, local, virtually native. Slowly, the Indian groups themselves started using the term, differentiating themselves, the poet Vidyapatis poem Kirtilata contrasts the cultures of Hindus and Turks in a city and concludes The Hindus and the Turks live close together, Each makes fun of the others religion
6.
Thatching
–
Thatching is the craft of building a roof with dry vegetation such as straw, water reed, sedge, rushes, heather, or Palm fronds, layering the vegetation so as to shed water away from the inner roof. Since the bulk of the vegetation stays dry, and is densely packed - trapping air - thatching also functions as a quite significant insulation material and it is a very old roofing method and has been used in both tropical and temperate climates. Thatch is still employed by builders in developing countries, usually with low-cost, in some equatorial countries, thatch is the prevalent local material for roofs, and often walls. There are diverse building techniques from the ancient Hawaiian hale shelter made from the local ti leaves, Palm leaves are also often used. For example, in Na Bure, Fiji, thatchers combine fan palm leave roofs with layered reed walls, feathered palm leaf roofs are used in Dominica. Alang-alang thatched roofs are used in Hawaii and Bali, in Southeast Asia, mangrove nipa palm leaves are used as thatched roof material known as attap dwelling. In Bali, Indonesia, the fibres of Arenga pinnata called ijuk is also used as thatched roof materials, usually used in Balinese temple roof. Sugar cane leaf roofs are used in Kikuyu tribal homes in Kenya, many indigenous people, such as the Maya, the Inca, and the Triple Alliance, lived in thatched buildings. Evidence of the complex buildings with fiber-based roofing material was not rediscovered until the early 2000s. French and British settlers built temporary thatched dwellings with local vegetation as soon as arrived in New France and New England. In most of England, thatch remained the only roofing material available to the bulk of the population in the countryside, in towns and villages. Commercial production of Welsh slate began in 1820, and the mobility provided by canals, gradually, thatch became a mark of poverty, and the number of thatched properties gradually declined, as did the number of professional thatchers. Thatch has become more popular in the UK over the past 30 years. Although thatch is popular in Germany, The Netherlands, Denmark, parts of France, Sicily, Belgium and Ireland, good quality straw thatch can last for more than 50 years when applied by a skilled thatcher. Traditionally, a new layer of straw was simply applied over the surface. The straw is bundled into yelms before it is taken up to the roof and then is attached using staples, known as spars, almost all of these roofs are thatched with wheat, rye, or a maslin mixture of both. Medieval wheat grew to almost 6 feet tall in very poor soils and produced durable straw for the roof, technological change in the farming industry significantly affected the popularity of thatching. The availability of good quality thatching straw declined in England after the introduction of the harvester in the late 1930s and 1940s
7.
Arenga pinnata
–
Arenga pinnata is an economically important feather palm native to tropical Asia, from eastern India east to Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines in the east. Common names include sugar palm, arenga palm, areng palm, black-fiber palm, gomuti palm, aren, enau, irok and it is a medium-sized palm, growing to 20 m tall, with the trunk remaining covered by the rough old leaf bases. The leaves are 6–12 m long and 1.5 m broad, pinnate, with the pinnae in 1–6 rows, the fruit is subglobose,7 cm diameter, green maturing black. It is not a species, though it is locally rare in some parts of its range. It serves as an important part of the diet of several endangered species, the sap is harvested for commercial use in southeast Asia, yielding a sugar known in India as gur or in Indonesia as gula aren. The sap is collected and made as lahang, a traditional cold sweet drink, edmund Roberts talks about drinking an alcoholic beverage made in the Cavite area. He described it as a fermented and intoxicating liquor and he said that it was the pith furnished with sugar – when the liquor was properly boiled down, a farina. and of the inside of its triangular-shaped fruit a sweetbread was made. The raw juice and pulp are caustic and this crop may develop into a major resource of biofuel. The immature fruits are consumed in the Philippines and Indonesia and are made into canned fruits after boiling them in sugar syrup. The dark fibrous bark is manufactured into cordage, in Indonesia the black fibres surrounding the trunk, called ijuk fibres, are used as the organic roof material common in Indonesian vernacular architecture. According to the study on bas-reliefs of Javanese ancient temples such as Borobudur and it can be found today in Balinese temple roof architecture and Minangkabau Rumah Gadang gonjong horn-like curved roof architecture, such as those found in Pagaruyung Palace. The ijuk fibres can also be made into rope, used in brooms, according to Sundanese folklore the spirit known as Wewe Gombel dwells in the Arenga pinnata palm, where she also has her nest and keeps the children she abducts. Kew Palms Checklist, Arenga pinnata Germplasm Resources Information Network, Arenga pinnata Global Compendium of Weeds, Arenga pinnata PACSOA, Arenga pinnata Sugar palm entry on Bioenergy Wiki
8.
Metroxylon sagu
–
Metroxylon sagu is a species of palm in the genus Metroxylon, native to tropical southeastern Asia, namely Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, Malaysia and possibly also the Philippines. It is also naturalised in Thailand, in the Indonesian islands of Java, Kalimantan, Sumatra, true sago palm is a suckering palm, each stem only flowering once with a large upright terminal inflorescence. A stem grows 7–25 m tall before it ends in an inflorescence, before flowering, a stem bears about 20 pinnate leaves up to 10 m long. Each leaf has about 150-180 leaflets up to 175 cm long, the inflorescence, 3-7.5 m tall and wide, consists of the continuation of the stem and 15-30 upwardly-curving branches spirally arranged on it. Each first-order branch has 15-25 rigid, distichously arranged second-order branches, each branch has 10-12 rigid. Flower pairs are arranged on the third-order branches, each pair consisting of one male. The fruit is drupe-like, about 5 cm in diameter, covered in scales which turn bright green to straw-coloured upon ripening. The tree is of importance as the main source of sago. This starch is used in cooking for puddings, noodles, breads, in the Sepik River region of New Guinea, pancakes made from sago are a staple food, often served with fresh fish. Its leaflets are used as thatching which can remain intact for up to five years. The dried petioles are used to make walls and ceilings, they are very light, the sago palm reproduces by fruiting. Each stem in a sago palm clump flowers and fruits at the end of its life, to harvest the starch in the stem, it is felled shortly before or early during this final flowering stage when starch content is highest. Sago palm is propagated by man by collecting and replanting young suckers rather than by seed, recent research indicates that the sago palm was an important food source for the ancient people of coastal China, in the period prior to the cultivation of rice
9.
Sandstone
–
Sandstone is a clastic sedimentary rock composed mainly of sand-sized minerals or rock grains. Most sandstone is composed of quartz or feldspar because these are the most common minerals in the Earths crust, like sand, sandstone may be any color, but the most common colors are tan, brown, yellow, red, grey, pink, white, and black. Since sandstone beds often form highly visible cliffs and other topographic features, quartz-bearing sandstone is converted into quartzite through heating and pressure, usually related to tectonic compression within orogenic belts. They are formed from cemented grains that may either be fragments of a rock or be mono-minerallic crystals. The cements binding these grains together are typically calcite, clays, grain sizes in sands are defined within the range of 0.0625 mm to 2 mm. The formation of sandstone involves two principal stages, first, a layer or layers of sand accumulates as the result of sedimentation, either from water or from air. Typically, sedimentation occurs by the settling out from suspension. The most common cementing materials are silica and calcium carbonate, which are derived either from dissolution or from alteration of the sand after it was buried. Colours will usually be tan or yellow, a predominant additional colourant in the southwestern United States is iron oxide, which imparts reddish tints ranging from pink to dark red, with additional manganese imparting a purplish hue. Red sandstones are seen in the Southwest and West of Britain, as well as central Europe. The regularity of the latter favours use as a source for masonry, either as a building material or as a facing stone. These physical properties allow the grains to survive multiple recycling events. Quartz grains evolve from rock, which are felsic in origin. Feldspathic framework grains are commonly the second most abundant mineral in sandstones, Feldspar can be divided into two smaller subdivisions, alkali feldspars and plagioclase feldspars. The different types of feldspar can be distinguished under a petrographic microscope, below is a description of the different types of feldspar. Alkali feldspar is a group of minerals in which the composition of the mineral can range from KAlSi3O8 to NaAlSi3O8. Plagioclase feldspar is a group of solid solution minerals that range in composition from NaAlSi3O8 to CaAl2Si2O8. Lithic framework grains are pieces of ancient source rock that have yet to weather away to individual mineral grains, accessory minerals are all other mineral grains in a sandstone, commonly these minerals make up just a small percentage of the grains in a sandstone
10.
Andesite
–
For the extinct cephalopod genus, see Andesites. Andesite is an igneous, volcanic rock, of intermediate composition. In a general sense, it is the type between basalt and dacite, and ranges from 57 to 63% silicon dioxide as illustrated in TAS diagrams. The mineral assemblage is dominated by plagioclase plus pyroxene or hornblende. Magnetite, zircon, apatite, ilmenite, biotite, and garnet are common accessory minerals, alkali feldspar may be present in minor amounts. The quartz-feldspar abundances in andesite and other rocks are illustrated in QAPF diagrams. Classification of andesites may be refined according to the most abundant phenocryst, example, hornblende-phyric andesite, if hornblende is the principal accessory mineral. Andesite can be considered as the equivalent of plutonic diorite. Characteristic of subduction zones, andesite represents the dominant rock type in island arcs, the average composition of the continental crust is andesitic. Along with basalts they are a component of the Martian crust. The name andesite is derived from the Andes mountain range, magmatism in island arc regions comes from the interplay of the subducting plate and the mantle wedge, the wedge-shaped region between the subducting and overriding plates. During subduction, the oceanic crust is submitted to increasing pressure and temperature. Hydrous minerals such as amphibole, zeolites, chlorite etc. dehydrate as they change to more stable, anhydrous forms, releasing water, fluxing water into the wedge lowers the solidus of the mantle material and causes partial melting. Due to the density of the partially molten material, it rises through the wedge until it reaches the lower boundary of the overriding plate. Basalt thus formed can contribute to the formation of andesite through fractional crystallization, partial melting of crust, or magma mixing, andesite is typically formed at convergent plate margins but may occur in other tectonic settings. Intermediate volcanic rocks are created via several processes, Fractional crystallization of a mafic parent magma and this removal can take place in a variety of ways, but most commonly this occurs by crystal settling. The first minerals to crystallize and be removed from a parent are olivines and amphiboles. These mafic minerals settle out of the magma, forming mafic cumulates, there is geophysical evidence from several arcs that large layers of mafic cumulates lie at the base of the crust
11.
Sculpture
–
Sculpture is the branch of the visual arts that operates in three dimensions. It is one of the plastic arts, a wide variety of materials may be worked by removal such as carving, assembled by welding or modelling, or molded, or cast. However, most ancient sculpture was painted, and this has been lost. Those cultures whose sculptures have survived in quantities include the cultures of the ancient Mediterranean, India and China, the Western tradition of sculpture began in ancient Greece, and Greece is widely seen as producing great masterpieces in the classical period. During the Middle Ages, Gothic sculpture represented the agonies and passions of the Christian faith, the revival of classical models in the Renaissance produced famous sculptures such as Michelangelos David. Relief is often classified by the degree of projection from the wall into low or bas-relief, high relief, sunk-relief is a technique restricted to ancient Egypt. Relief sculpture may also decorate steles, upright slabs, usually of stone, techniques such as casting, stamping and moulding use an intermediate matrix containing the design to produce the work, many of these allow the production of several copies. The term sculpture is used mainly to describe large works. The very large or colossal statue has had an enduring appeal since antiquity, another grand form of portrait sculpture is the equestrian statue of a rider on horse, which has become rare in recent decades. The smallest forms of life-size portrait sculpture are the head, showing just that, or the bust, small forms of sculpture include the figurine, normally a statue that is no more than 18 inches tall, and for reliefs the plaquette, medal or coin. Sculpture is an important form of public art, a collection of sculpture in a garden setting can be called a sculpture garden. One of the most common purposes of sculpture is in form of association with religion. Cult images are common in cultures, though they are often not the colossal statues of deities which characterized ancient Greek art. The actual cult images in the innermost sanctuaries of Egyptian temples, of which none have survived, were rather small. The same is true in Hinduism, where the very simple. Some undoubtedly advanced cultures, such as the Indus Valley civilization, appear to have had no monumental sculpture at all, though producing very sophisticated figurines, the Mississippian culture seems to have been progressing towards its use, with small stone figures, when it collapsed. Other cultures, such as ancient Egypt and the Easter Island culture, from the 20th century the relatively restricted range of subjects found in large sculpture expanded greatly, with abstract subjects and the use or representation of any type of subject now common. Today much sculpture is made for intermittent display in galleries and museums, small sculpted fittings for furniture and other objects go well back into antiquity, as in the Nimrud ivories, Begram ivories and finds from the tomb of Tutankhamun
12.
Balinese temple
–
A Pura is a Balinese Hindu temple. And the place of worship for the adherents of Balinese Hinduism in Indonesia, Puras are built in accordance to rules, style, guidance and rituals found in Balinese architecture. Mother Temple of Besakih is the most important, the largest and holiest temple in Bali, a large number of puras have been built in Bali, leading it to be titled the Island of a Thousand Puras. The term pura originates from the Sanskrit word, meaning city, walled city, towered city and this walled compounds contains several shrines, meru, and bale. The design, plan and layout of the pura follows the concept of Balinese space allocation. Three mandala zones arranged according to a hierarchy, Nista mandala, the outer zone, which directly connects the pura compound with the outer realm. This zone usually takes the form of a field or a garden that can be used for religious dance performances. Madya mandala, the zone of the temple, where the activity of adherents takes place. In this zone usually several pavilions are built, such as the bale kulkul, bale gong, wantilan, bale pesandekan, and bale perantenan, Utama mandala, the holiest and the most sacred zone within the pura. However, the rules for arrangements the facilities of the two outer zones, nista mandala and madya mandala, are somewhat flexible. Several structures, such as the bale kulkul, could be built as outer corner tower, also, there are two types of gates within Balinese architecture, the split gate, known as candi bentar, and the roofed tower gate known as paduraksa or kori agung. Both types of gates have specific roles in Balinese architectural design, Candi bentar is the gate used in the nista mandala, while the kori agung is employed as the gate between the madya mandala and Utama mandala inner compounds. The rules for gate types are valid for non-religious compounds such as puri, nobles. There are several types of pura, each serving certain functions of Balinese rituals throughout the Balinese calendar, Pura kahyangan jagad, pura that are located in the mountainous region of the island, built upon mountain or volcano slopes. The mountains are considered as the realm, the abode of gods or hyang. The most important pura kahyangan in Bali is Mother Temple of Besakih complex on the slopes of Mount Agung, Pura tirta, water temples, a type of pura that other than religious function, also have water management function as part of Subak irrigation system. The priests in these temples have authority to manage the water allocation among rice paddies in the villages surrounds the temple, some tirta temples are noted for its sacred water and having petirtaan or sacred bathing pool for cleansing ritual. Other water temple are built within lakes, such as Pura Ulun Danu Bratan, the example of this type of temple are Pura Taman Ayun and Pura Tirta Empul
13.
Dvarapala
–
A dvarapala is a door or gate guardian often portrayed as a warrior or fearsome giant, usually armed with a weapon - the most common being the gadha mace. The dvarapala statue is an architectural element throughout Hindu and Buddhist cultures. In most southeast Asian languages, these figures are referred to as dvarapala. Dvara means gate or door, and pala means guard or protector, the related name in Bahasa Indonesia and Bahasa Malaysia is dwarapala. Equivalent door guardians in northern Asian languages are Kongōrikishi or Niō in Japanese, Heng Ha Er Jiang in Chinese, dvarapalas as an architectural feature have their origin in tutelary deities, like Yaksha and warrior figures, such as Acala, of the local popular religion. Today some dvarapalas are even figures of policemen or soldiers standing guard and these statues were traditionally placed outside Hindu or Buddhist temples, as well as other structures like royal palaces, to protect the holy places inside. A dvarapala is usually portrayed as an armed fearsome guardian looking like a demon, in other instances a fierce-looking nāga snake figure may perform the same function. The sculptures in Java and Bali, usually carved from stone, portray the dvarapala as fearsome giants with a rather bulky physique in semi kneeling position. The largest dvarapala stone statue in Java, a dvarapala of the Singhasari period, is 3.7 meters tall, the traditional dvarapalas of Cambodia and Thailand, on the other hand, are leaner and portrayed in a standing position holding the club downward in the center. The ancient sculpture of dvarapala in Thailand is made of a stoneware clay covered with a pale. Ceramic sculptures of this type were produced in Thailand, during the Sukhothai and Ayutthaya periods, depending on the size and wealth of the temple, the guardians could be placed singly, in pairs or in larger groups. Smaller structures may have had only one dvarapala, often there was a pair placed on either side of the threshold to the shrine. Some larger sites may have had four, eight, or 12, in some cases only the fierce face or head of the guardian is represented, a figure very common in the kratons in Java. Tutelary deity Buddhist architecture Hindu architecture Lokapālas Yaksha Dharmapala Nio Between Worlds, Guardians in Tibet as Agents of Transformation Glossary of Southeast Asian Art
14.
Pura Ulun Danu Bratan
–
Pura Ulun Danu Beratan, or Pura Bratan, is a major Shivaite and water temple on Bali, Indonesia. The temple complex is located on the shores of Lake Bratan in the mountains near Bedugul, water temples serve the entire region in the outflow area, downstream there are many smaller water temples that are specific to each irrigation association. Built in 1633, this temple is used for offerings ceremony to the Balinese water, lake and river goddess Dewi Danu, the 11 stories of pelinggih meru dedicated for Shiva and his consort Parvathi. Buddha statue also present inside this temple, Lake Bratan is known as the Lake of Holy Mountain due to the fertility of this area. Located 1200 m above sea level, it has a tropical climate. Bali, Indonesias Hindu Realm, A short history of, Bedugul travel guide from Wikivoyage Guide to Ulun Danu Bratan temple Official website
15.
Balinese Hinduism
–
Balinese Hinduism is the form of Hinduism practiced by the majority of the population of Bali. Although the population of Indonesia is predominantly Muslim and Christian, 83% of the people on Bali identify as Hindu, Hinduism came to Indonesia from India in the first century CE. It was gradually replaced by Buddhism, which was the religion of Sumatra and Java. However, due to cultural barriers, Bali became the part of Indonesia to remain predominantly Hindu. The populations of the islands off the east coast of Bali are also mostly Hindu, the fundamental principle underlying Hinduism is that there is order in the cosmos, known as dharma. There is also a force, adharma. Hindus seek balance and harmony between two forces, thus freeing themselves from the never-ending cycle of reincarnation, attaining a state called moksa. Balinese Hinduism divides the cosmos into three layers, the highest level is heaven, or suarga, the abode of the gods. Next is the world of man, buwah, below this is hell or bhur, where the demons live and where peoples spirits are punished for misdeeds on earth. This tripartite division is mirrored in the body and the shrines found outside Balinese buildings. Along with the traditional Hindu gods such as Brahma, Vishnu and Siva, Sang Hyang Widhi is the designation for one God in Balinese Hinduism. In the concept of Balinese tradition of Hinduism, Acintya or Sang Hyang Widhi is associated with the concept of Brahman, Balinese Hindu belief in a single God is in line with the first principle of the Indonesian state philosophy Pancasila. These ceremonies mark major events in a life, including birth, puberty, tooth filing. A baby must not touch the ground until it is 105 days old. Once the child reaches puberty, the six upper canine teeth are filed until they are even, marriage is seen as obligatory for Balinese Hindus, both for the establishment of a family and for the enhanced position in the village social structure accorded to the husband. Giving birth to children guarantees the patrilineal line, as well as ensuring there is somebody to perform the appropriate rituals essential for reincarnation and it marks the attainment of adulthood. The most important ceremonies take place after death, and result in the soul being freed to be eventually reincarnated. Unlike the death rites of other religions, the body is not the focus, as it is seen as nothing more than a temporary container of the soul
16.
Guardians of the directions
–
The Guardians of the Directions are the deities who rule the specific directions of space according to Hinduism and Vajrayāna Buddhism—especially Kālacakra. As a group of eight deities, they are called Aṣṭa-Dikpāla and they are often augmented with two extra deities for the ten directions, when they are known as the Daśa-Dikpāla. In Hinduism it is traditional to represent their images on the walls, ancient Java and Bali Hinduism recognize Nava-Dikpāla, literally meaning guardians of nine directions, that consist of eight directions with one addition in the center. The nine guardian gods of directions is called Dewata Nawa Sanga, the diagram of these guardian gods of directions is featured in Surya Majapahit, the emblem of Majapahit empire. The names of the Dikpālas vary slightly, but generally include the following, Directions in Hindu tradition are called as Diśā, there are four primary directions and a total of 10 directions. In Hinduism, the guardians of the directions are called the Lokapālas. Origin and Early Development in Art and Literature, Berlin, Dietrich Reimer 2001 by Corinna Wessels-Mevissen
17.
Majapahit
–
The Majapahit Empire was a vast thalassocracy based on the island of Java from 1293 to around 1500. Majapahit reached its peak of glory during the era of Hayam Wuruk and his achievement is also credited to his prime minister, Gajah Mada. Its influence extended beyond the territory of Indonesia and has been the subject of many studies. The name Majapahit derives from local Javanese, meaning bitter maja, german orientalist Berthold Laufer suggested that maja came from the Javanese name of Aegle marmelos, an Indonesian tree. The name originally referred to the area in and around Trowulan, the cradle of Majapahit and it was said that the workers clearing the Tarik timberland encountered some bael trees and consumed its bitter-tasting fruit that subsequently become the villages name. In ancient Java it is common to refer the kingdom with its capitals name, Majapahit is also known by other names, Wilwatikta, although sometimes the natives refer to their kingdom as Bhumi Jawa or Mandala Jawa instead. Little physical evidence of Majapahit remains, and some details of the history are rather abstract, nevertheless, local Javanese people did not forget Majapahit completely, as Mojopait is mentioned vaguely in Babad Tanah Jawi, a Javanese chronicle composed in the 18th century. Majapahit did produce physical evidence, the ruins dating from the Majapahit period are clustered in the Trowulan area. The Trowulan archaeological site was discovered in the 19th century by Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles and he reported the existence of ruins of temples. Scattered about the country for miles, and referred to Trowulan as this pride of Java. By the early 20th century, Dutch colonial historians began to study old Javanese and Balinese literature to explore the past of their colony, two primary sources were available to them, the Pararaton manuscript was written in the Kawi language c. 1600, and Nagarakretagama was composed in Old Javanese in 1365, Pararaton focuses on Ken Arok, the founder of Singhasari, but includes a number of shorter narrative fragments about the formation of Majapahit. The Nagarakretagama is an old Javanese epic poem written during the Majapahit golden age under the reign of Hayam Wuruk, the Dutch acquired the manuscript in 1894 during their military expedition against the Cakranegara royal house of Lombok. There are also inscriptions in Old Javanese and Chinese. The Javanese sources incorporate some poetic mythological elements, and scholars such as C. C, berg, an Indonesia-born Dutch naturalist, have considered the entire historical record to be not a record of the past, but a supernatural means by which the future can be determined. Most scholars do not accept this view, as the record corresponds with Chinese materials that could not have had similar intention. The list of rulers and details of the structure show no sign of being invented. The Chinese historical sources on Majapahit, mainly owed to Zheng Hes account — a Ming Dynasty admiral reports during his visit to Majapahit, Zheng Hes translator Ma Huan wrote a detailed description of Majapahit and where the king of Java lived
18.
Surya Majapahit
–
Surya Majapahit is the emblem commonly found in ruins dated from the Majapahit era. The emblem commonly took the form of a sun ray with the rounded part in the center depicting Hindu deities. The emblem might have taken the form of a cosmological diagram haloed by typical Surya Majapahit sun rays, because of the popularity of this sun emblem during the Majapahit era, it is suggested that the sun emblem served as the imperial symbol or emblem of the Majapahit empire. The most common depiction of Surya Majapahit consists of the images of nine deities, the round center of the sun depicting nine Hindu gods called Dewata Nawa Sanga. The major gods in the center is arranged in eight points around one god in the center. The deities in the sun arranged as cosmological diagram in the form of a mandala, another variation of Surya Majapahit is the eight pointed sun rays with the god of sun Surya in the center riding celestial horse or chariot. The carving of Surya Majapahit usually can be found on the ceiling of the Garbhagriha of the temple such as Bangkal, Sawentar. Surya Majapahit also can be found on the Stella, carving of halo or aura at the back of the statues head, the carving of Surya Majapahit also commonly found in gravestone dating from Majapahit era, such as the Troloyo cemetery in Trowulan. Exhibit of Kejayaan Kerajaan-kerajaan Kuno Indonesia at Istana Anak-anak Indonesia, Taman Mini Indonesia Indah, displayed Majapahit artifacts the collection of Trowulan Museum, East Java
19.
Shiva
–
Shiva is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme God within Shaivism, one of the three most influential denominations in contemporary Hinduism, Shiva is the transformer within the Trimurti, the Hindu trinity that includes Brahma and Vishnu. In Shaivism tradition, Shiva is the Supreme being who creates, protects, in the goddess tradition of Hinduism called Shaktism, the goddess is described as supreme, yet Shiva is revered along with Vishnu and Brahma. A goddess is stated to be the energy and creative power of each and he is one of the five equivalent deities in Panchayatana puja of the Smarta tradition of Hinduism. At the highest level, Shiva is regarded as formless, limitless, transcendent and unchanging absolute Brahman, Shiva has many benevolent and fearsome depictions. In benevolent aspects, he is depicted as an omniscient Yogi who lives a life on Mount Kailash as well as a householder with wife Parvati. In his fierce aspects, he is depicted slaying demons. Shiva is also known as Adiyogi Shiva, regarded as the god of yoga, meditation. Shiva is usually worshipped in the form of Lingam. Shiva is a deity, revered widely by Hindus, in India, Nepal. The Sanskrit word Śiva means, states Monier Williams, auspicious, propitious, gracious, benign, kind, benevolent, the roots of Śiva in folk etymology is śī which means in whom all things lie, pervasiveness and va which means embodiment of grace. The word Shiva is used as an adjective in the Rig Veda, as an epithet for several Rigvedic deities, the term Shiva also connotes liberation, final emancipation and the auspicious one, this adjective sense of usage is addressed to many deities in Vedic layers of literature. The term evolved from the Vedic Rudra-Shiva to the noun Shiva in the Epics, Sharma presents another etymology with the Sanskrit root śarv-, which means to injure or to kill, interprets the name to connote one who can kill the forces of darkness. The Sanskrit word śaiva means relating to the god Shiva, and it is used as an adjective to characterize certain beliefs and practices, such as Shaivism. Some authors associate the name with the Tamil word śivappu meaning red, noting that Shiva is linked to the Sun, the Vishnu sahasranama interprets Shiva to have multiple meanings, The Pure One, and the One who is not affected by three Guṇas of Prakṛti. Shiva is known by names such Viswanathan, Mahadeva, Mahesha, Maheshvara, Shankara, Shambhu, Rudra, Hara, Trilochana, Devendra, Neelakanta, Subhankara, Trilokinatha. The highest reverence for Shiva in Shaivism is reflected in his epithets Mahādeva, Maheśvara, Sahasranama are medieval Indian texts that list a thousand names derived from aspects and epithets of a deity. There are at least eight different versions of the Shiva Sahasranama, the version appearing in Book 13 of the Mahabharata provides one such list
20.
Vishnu
–
Vishnu is one of the principal deities of Hinduism, and the Supreme Being in its Vaishnavism tradition. Along with Brahma and Shiva, Vishnu forms a Hindu trinity, however and his avatars most notably include Krishna in the Mahabharata and Rama in the Ramayana. He is also known as Narayana, Jagannath, Vasudeva, Vithoba and he is one of the five equivalent deities worshipped in Panchayatana puja of the Smarta Tradition of Hinduism. In Hindu inconography, Vishnu is usually depicted as having a dark, or pale blue complexion and having four arms. He holds a padma in his left hand, Kaumodaki gada in his lower right hand, Panchajanya shankha in his upper left hand. A traditional depiction is Lord Vishnu reclining on the coils of Ananta, accompanied by his consort devi Lakshmi, yaska, the mid 1st-millennium BCE Vedanga scholar, in his Nirukta, defines Vishnu as viṣṇur viṣvater vā vyaśnoter vā, one who enters everywhere. He also writes, atha yad viṣito bhavati tad viṣnurbhavati, that which is free from fetters, the medieval Indian scholar Medhātithi suggested that the word Vishnu has etymological roots in viś, meaning to pervade, thereby connoting that Vishnu is one who is everything and inside everything. Vishnu is a Vedic deity, but not a prominent one when compared to Indra, Agni, just 5 out of 1028 hymns of the Rigveda, a 2nd millennium BCE Hindu text, are dedicated to Vishnu, and he finds minor mention in the other hymns. Though a minor mention and with overlapping attributes in the Vedas, he has important characteristics in various hymns of Rig Veda and he is also described in the Vedic literature as the one who supports heaven and earth. In the Vedic hymns, Vishnu is invoked alongside other deities, especially Indra and his distinguishing characteristic in Vedas is his association with light. Two Rigvedic hymns in Mandala 7 refer to Vishnu, in section 7.99 of the Rgveda, Vishnu is addressed as the god who separates heaven and earth, a characteristic he shares with Indra. In the Vedic texts, the deity or god referred to as Vishnu is Surya or Savitr, in hymn 7.99 of Rigveda, Indra-Vishnu are equivalent and produce the sun, with the verses asserting that this sun is the source of all energy and light for all. In other hymns of the Rigveda, Vishnu is a friend of Indra. In the Yajurveda, Taittiriya Aranyaka, Narayana sukta, Narayana is mentioned as the supreme being, the first verse of Narayana Suktam mentions the words paramam padam, which literally mean highest post and may be understood as the supreme abode for all souls. This is also known as Param Dhama, Paramapadam or Vaikuntha, Rig Veda 1.22.20 a also mentions the same paramam padam. In the Atharvaveda, the mythology of a boar who raises goddess earth from the depths of cosmic ocean appears, in post-Vedic mythology, this legend becomes one of the basis of many cosmogonic myth called the Varaha legend, with Varaha as an avatar of Vishnu. Several hymns of the Rigveda repeat the mighty deed of Vishnu called the Trivikrama and it is an inspiration for ancient artwork in numerous Hindu temples such as at the Ellora Caves, which depict the Trivikrama legend through the Vamana avatar of Vishnu. Trivikrama refers to the three steps or three strides of Vishnu
21.
Brahma
–
Brahma is the creator god in the Trimurti of Hinduism. Brahma is also known as Svayambhu, Vāgīśa, and the creator of the four Vedas, Brahma is identified with the Vedic god Prajapati, as well as linked to Kama and Hiranyagarbha, he is more prominently mentioned in the post-Vedic Hindu epics and the mythologies in the Puranas. In the epics, he is conflated with Purusha, Brahma, along with Vishnu and Shiva, is part of a Hindu Trinity, however, ancient Hindu texts mention other trinities of gods or goddesses which do not include Brahma. While Brahma is often credited as the creator of the universe and various beings in it, other Puranas suggest that he is born from Shiva or his aspects, or he is a supreme god in diverse versions of Hindu mythology. Brahma, along with all deities, is viewed as a form of the otherwise formless Brahman. Brahma does not enjoy popular worship in present-age Hinduism and has lesser importance than the members of the Trimurti, Vishnu. Brahma is revered in ancient texts, yet rarely worshipped as a deity in India. Very few temples dedicated to him exist in India, the most famous being the Brahma Temple, Brahma temples are found outside India, such as in Thailand at the Erawan Shrine in Bangkok. The origins of Brahma are uncertain, in part because related words such as one for Ultimate Reality. The existence of a deity named Brahma is evidenced in late Vedic text. The spiritual concept of Brahman is far older, and some scholars suggest deity Brahma may have emerged as a personal conception and visible icon of the impersonal universal principle called Brahman. In Sanskrit grammar, the noun stem brahman forms two distinct nouns, one is a neuter noun bráhman, whose singular form is brahma. Contrasted to the noun is the masculine noun brahmán, whose nominative singular form is Brahma. This noun is used to refer to a person, and as the name of a deity Brahma it is the subject matter of the present article. One of the earliest mentions of Brahma with Vishnu and Shiva is in the fifth Prapathaka of the Maitrayaniya Upanishad, Brahma is discussed in verse 5,1 also called the Kutsayana Hymn first, and expounded in verse 5,2. In the pantheistic Kutsayana Hymn, the Upanishad asserts that ones Soul is Brahman, and this Ultimate Reality, Cosmic Universal or God is within each living being. In verse 5,2 Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva are mapped into the theory of Guṇa, the post-Vedic texts of Hinduism offer multiple theories of cosmogony, many involving Brahma. Brahma is a creator as described in the Mahabharata and Puranas
22.
Macrocosm and microcosm
–
Macrocosm and microcosm refers to a vision of cosmos where the part reflects the whole and vice versa. It is a present in all esoteric schools of thinking, according to scholar Pierre A. Riffard. It is closely associated with Hermeticism and underlies practices such as astrology, alchemy, §435, pg 151 Theories of Macrocosms and Microcosms in the History of Philosophy, G. P. Conger, NY,1922, which includes a survey of critical discussions up to 1922. Cosmos - an Illustrated Dimensional Journey from microcosmos to macrocosmos - from Digital Nature Agency
23.
Hyang
–
A hyang is an unseen spiritual entity that has supernatural power in ancient Indonesian mythology. This spirit can be either divine or ancestral, the reverence for this spiritual entity can be found in Sunda Wiwitan, Kejawen, and Balinese Hinduism. In the modern Indonesian this term tends to be associated with gods, devata, the realm where the hyangs reside is called kahyangan, now a synonym for svarga or heaven in modern Indonesian. The term hyang now widely associated with Balinese Hinduism developed in ancient Java, however this term actually has an older origin, it has its root in the indigenous animism and dynamism beliefs of Austronesian people that inhabit the Indonesian archipelago. The hyang concept indigenously developed in the archipelago and not considered to have originated from Indian dharmic religions, before the adoption of Hinduism, Buddhism and Islam, the natives of the Indonesian archipelago believed in powerful but unseen spiritual entities that can be both benevolent or malevolent. They also believed that the ancestor is not gone away or disappeared completely. The ancestral spirit may gain god-like spiritual power and remain involved in their offsprings worldly affairs, in ancient Sundanese, Javanese, and Balinese society, this unseen spiritual entity is identified as hyang. These ancestral divine spirits are believed to inhabit high places, such as mountains, hills and these mountainous regions are considered sacred realms, as the abode of gods and the resting place for the soul of the ancestors. In Sundanese, the term nga-hyang means disappear or unseen and it is suggested that the word hyang has linguistic relation with the Indonesian word, hilang which means disappear. In its development, the term hyang become the word for many terms that still known and used in modern Indonesian. If the word hyang is attached with prefixes attribute Sang-, Dang-, Ra-, to form the word Sanghyang, Danghyang, or Rahyang, it is meant to honor ar revere gods or the deceased ancestors. For example, Sanghyang Sri Pohaci and Sang Hyang Widhi refer to gods, the term Danghyang or Danyang is refer to the guardian spirits of certain sacred or haunted places. The name of Srivijayan empire founder, Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa, kahyangan, from the word ka-hyang-an, is the realm where hyangs resides. Because of the belief that hyang prefer high places, some regions is considered as the abode of hyang. For example, Parahyangan refer to mountainous region of West Java, originated from combined words para-hyang-an, para indicate plural, while the suffix -an shows the place, so Parahyangan means the abode of hyangs. The term parahyangan is also used as the type of Pura or Balinese temple, Pura parahyangan is Balinese temple that located in mountainous region as the counterparts of pura segara, Balinese temple located by the sea. Dieng Plateau in Central Java also shared the same origin, it is from the combined words di-hyang which also means hyangs place, the word sembahyang in Indonesian is synonymous with the Islamic shalat ritual. It actually originated from the combined word sembah-hyang which means worship the hyang, the Balinese Sanghyang Dedari sacred dance involved some pre-pubescent girls dances in trance condition
24.
Pura Besakih
–
Pura Besakih is a temple complex in the village of Besakih on the slopes of Mount Agung in eastern Bali, Indonesia. It is the most important, the largest and holiest temple of Hindu religion in Bali, perched nearly 1000 meters up the side of Gunung Agung, it is an extensive complex of 23 separate but related temples with the largest and most important being Pura Penataran Agung. The temple is built on six levels, terraced up the slope, the entrance is marked by a candi bentar, and beyond it the Kori Agung is the gateway to the second courtyard. The precise origins of the temple are not clear but it almost certainly dates from prehistoric times, the stone bases of Pura Penataran Agung and several other temples resemble megalithic stepped pyramids, which date back at least 2000 years. It was certainly used as a Hindu place of worship from 1284 when the first Javanese conquerors settled in Bali, by the 15th century, Besakih had become a state temple of the Gelgel dynasty. It was built on the slopes of Mount Agung, the principal volcano of Bali. Pura Besakih is a made up of twenty-three temples that sit on parallel ridges. It has stepped terraces and flights of stairs ascend to a number of courtyards and brick gateways that in turn lead up to the main spire or Meru structure. All this is aligned along an axis and designed to lead the spiritual person upward. The main sanctuary of the complex is the Pura Penataran Agung, the symbolic center of the main sanctuary is the lotus throne or padmasana, which is therefore the ritual focus of the entire complex. It dates to around the seventeenth century, a series of eruptions of Mount Agung in 1963, which killed approximately 1,700 people also threatened Pura Besakih. The lava flows missed the complex by mere meters. Each year there are at least seventy festivals held at the complex and this cycle is based on the 210-day Balinese Pawukon calendar year. It had been nominated as a World Heritage Site as early as 1995, visitors to this temple should exercise caution as there is a syndicate operating in and around the premise of this temple. They target tourists by offering a tour guide at exorbitant charges. They also perform prayers and request for tips at the end of the tour, visitors who decline their services are dealt with rather aggressively. In 2013, foreign visitors count is 84,368 persons, the illegal forced donations which is actually an extortion was done by local youths from surrounding villages to visiting tourists. Usually foreign tourist are asked for additional 50 US dollar while Indonesians are asked for 200,000 rupiah and this is illegal money collection, however the local authority seems to do nothing to stop this extortion
25.
Sanskrit
–
Sanskrit is the primary liturgical language of Hinduism, a philosophical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, and a literary language and lingua franca of ancient and medieval South Asia. As a result of transmission of Hindu and Buddhist culture to Southeast Asia and parts of Central Asia, as one of the oldest Indo-European languages for which substantial written documentation exists, Sanskrit holds a prominent position in Indo-European studies. The body of Sanskrit literature encompasses a rich tradition of poetry and drama as well as scientific, technical, philosophical, the compositions of Sanskrit were orally transmitted for much of its early history by methods of memorization of exceptional complexity, rigor, and fidelity. Thereafter, variants and derivatives of the Brahmi script came to be used, Sanskrit is today one of the 22 languages listed in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India, which mandates the Indian government to develop the language. It continues to be used as a ceremonial language in Hindu religious rituals and Buddhist practice in the form of hymns. The Sanskrit verbal adjective sáṃskṛta- may be translated as refined, elaborated, as a term for refined or elaborated speech, the adjective appears only in Epic and Classical Sanskrit in the Manusmṛti and the Mahabharata. The pre-Classical form of Sanskrit is known as Vedic Sanskrit, with the language of the Rigveda being the oldest and most archaic stage preserved, Classical Sanskrit is the standard register as laid out in the grammar of Pāṇini, around the fourth century BCE. Sanskrit, as defined by Pāṇini, evolved out of the earlier Vedic form, the present form of Vedic Sanskrit can be traced back to as early as the second millennium BCE. Scholars often distinguish Vedic Sanskrit and Classical or Pāṇinian Sanskrit as separate dialects, although they are quite similar, they differ in a number of essential points of phonology, vocabulary, grammar and syntax. Vedic Sanskrit is the language of the Vedas, a collection of hymns, incantations and theological and religio-philosophical discussions in the Brahmanas. Modern linguists consider the metrical hymns of the Rigveda Samhita to be the earliest, for nearly 2000 years, Sanskrit was the language of a cultural order that exerted influence across South Asia, Inner Asia, Southeast Asia, and to a certain extent East Asia. A significant form of post-Vedic Sanskrit is found in the Sanskrit of Indian epic poetry—the Ramayana, the deviations from Pāṇini in the epics are generally considered to be on account of interference from Prakrits, or innovations, and not because they are pre-Paninian. Traditional Sanskrit scholars call such deviations ārṣa, meaning of the ṛṣis, in some contexts, there are also more prakritisms than in Classical Sanskrit proper. There were four principal dialects of classical Sanskrit, paścimottarī, madhyadeśī, pūrvi, the predecessors of the first three dialects are attested in Vedic Brāhmaṇas, of which the first one was regarded as the purest. In the 2001 Census of India,14,035 Indians reported Sanskrit to be their first language, in India, Sanskrit is among the 14 original languages of the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution. The state of Uttarakhand in India has ruled Sanskrit as its official language. In October 2012 social activist Hemant Goswami filed a petition in the Punjab. More than 3,000 Sanskrit works have been composed since Indias independence in 1947, much of this work has been judged of high quality, in comparison to both classical Sanskrit literature and modern literature in other Indian languages
26.
Mandala
–
A mandala is a spiritual and ritual symbol in Hinduism and Buddhism, representing the universe. In common use, mandala has become a term for any diagram, chart or geometric pattern that represents the cosmos metaphysically or symbolically. The basic form of most mandalas is a square with four gates containing a circle with a center point, each gate is in the general shape of a T. Mandalas often exhibit radial balance. The term appears in the Rigveda as the name of the sections of the work, a yantra is a two- or three-dimensional geometric composition used in sadhanas, puja or meditative rituals. It is considered to represent the abode of the deity, each yantra is unique and calls the deity into the presence of the practitioner through the elaborate symbolic geometric designs. Yantras are not representations, but are lived, experiential, nondual realities, as Khanna describes, Despite its cosmic meanings a yantra is a reality lived. The Rajamandala was formulated by the Indian author Kautilya in his work on politics and it describes circles of friendly and enemy states surrounding the kings state. In historical, social and political sense, the mandala is also employed to denote traditional Southeast Asian political formations. It was adopted by 20th century Western historians from ancient Indian political discourse as a means of avoiding the term state in the conventional sense, empires such as Bagan, Ayutthaya, Champa, Khmer, Srivijaya and Majapahit are known as mandala in this sense. The mandala can be found in the form of the stupa and in the Atanatiya Sutta in the Digha Nikaya, Mandalas are traditionally found in large amounts in Buddhist Monasteries all over the world. One can also buy Mandalas and Thankas/Pauva in places like Thamel, in the Tibetan branch of Vajrayana Buddhism, mandalas have been developed into sandpainting. They are also a key part of Anuttarayoga Tantra meditation practices, the mandala can be shown to represent in visual form the core essence of the Vajrayana teachings. The mind is a microcosm representing various divine powers at work in the universe, the mandala represents the nature of the Pure Land, Enlightened mind. A mandala can also represent the universe, which is traditionally depicted with Mount Meru as the axis mundi in the center. In the mandala, the circle of fire usually symbolises wisdom. Inside these rings lie the walls of the palace itself, specifically a place populated by deities. One well-known type of mandala is the mandala of the Five Buddhas, such Buddhas are depicted depending on the school of Buddhism, and even the specific purpose of the mandala. A common mandala of this type is that of the Five Wisdom Buddhas, when paired with another mandala depicting the Five Wisdom Kings, this forms the Mandala of the Two Realms
27.
Lotus position
–
The Padmasana or Lotus Position is a cross-legged sitting asana originating in meditative practices of ancient India, in which the feet are placed on the opposing thighs. It is an asana, commonly used for meditation, in the Yoga, Jain. The asana is said to resemble a lotus, to encourage breathing properly through associated meditative practice, shiva, the meditating ascetic God of Hinduism, Siddhartha Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, and the Tirthankaras in Jainism have been depicted in the lotus position. Padmāsana means Lotus throne and is also a term for actual thrones, often decorated with foliage motifs. The Hindu Goddess of Prosperity, Sri Lakshmi, sits atop a lotus flower, in Chinese Buddhism, the lotus position is also called the vajra position. The traditions of Tibetan Buddhism also refer to the position as the vajra position. From the common sitting down on the position, one foot is placed on top of the opposite thigh with its sole facing upward. The other foot is lifted up slowly and placed on the opposite thigh in a symmetrical way. The knees are in contact with the ground, the torso is placed in balance and alignment such that the spinal column supports it with minimal muscular effort. The torso is centered above the hips, to relax the head and neck, the jaw is allowed to fall towards the neck and the back of the neck to lengthen. The shoulders move backwards and the ribcage lifts, the tongue rests on the roof of the mouth. The hands may rest on the knees in chin or jnana mudra, the arms are relaxed with the elbows slightly bent. The eyes may be closed, the relaxed, with awareness of the overall asana. Adjustments are made until balance and alignment are experienced, alignment that creates relaxation is indicative of a suitable position for the asana. The asana should be natural and comfortable, without any sharp pains, in most cases, a cushion or mat is necessary in order to achieve this balance. One sits on the edge of the cushion or mat in order to incline ones pelvis forward, making it possible to center the spine. Only the most flexible people can achieve this asana without a support under their pelvis, in Jainism, a Tirthankara is represented either seated in Lotus posture or standing in the Kayotsarga posture. In Balinese Hinduism, a prominent feature of temples is a form of padmasana shrine, with empty thrones mounted on a column, for deities
28.
Padma (attribute)
–
Padma is an aquatic plant that plays a central role in Indian religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, and Jainism. The lotus flower has many different names such as the Indian Lotus, the Sacred Lotus, the lotus is an ancient and polyvalent symbol in Asian culture. Hindus revere it with the gods Vishnu, Brahma and to a lesser degree Kubera, often used as an example of divine beauty and purity, Vishnu is often described as the Lotus-Eyed One. The lotus springs from the navel of Vishnu while he is in Yoga Nidra, the lotus blooms uncovering the creator god Brahma in lotus position. Its unfolding petals suggest the expansion of the soul, the growth of its pure beauty from the mud of its origin holds a benign spiritual promise. Particularly Brahma and Lakshmi, the divinities of potency and wealth, have the symbol associated with them. The lotus flower is one of the Ashtamangala of Buddhism, representative of creation and cosmic renewal and primordial purity and shares in the chakra and mandala symbolism of the Dharmacakra. This has also taken root in Chinese cultures with a statement made by the 11th century Confucian scholar Zhou Dunyi, I love the lotus because while growing from mud. The padma is held to be a flower with a thousand petals and is associated with the Sahasrara. The padma appears as a dais upon which deities rest. It is also symbolic of detachment as drops of water easily slide off its petals and it is also to be noted that many Asian deities are depicted seated on a lotus flower. According to legend, Gautama Buddha was born with the ability to walk and everywhere he stepped, nelumbo nucifera Lotus Ashtamangala Dallapiccola, Anna L. Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend, voices Of The First Day, Awakening in the Aboriginal Dreamtime. Rochester, Vermont, Inner Traditions International, Ltd, plant Myths and Traditions in India
29.
Acintya
–
Acintya, also Atintya, also Tunggal is the supreme god of Indonesian Hinduism, especially on the island of Bali. He is equivalent to the concept of Brahman, and is the Supreme God in traditional wayang theatre and he is also known to most modern Balinese as Sang Hyang Widhi Wasa, also Sanghyang Widi Wasa, a concept introduced by Dang Hyang Dwijendra. Acintya corresponds to a recent trend towards monism in Bali, according to which there is one supreme god. Acinthya is emptiness, and considered as the origin of the Universe and he is often associated to the sun god, and depicted in human form with flames around him. His nakedness expresses that his consciousness is no longer carried away by his sense-faculties, prayers and offerings are not made directly to Acintya, but only to the other manifestations of the deity. He is often not even represented, in case he is only evoked by an empty throne on top of a pillar. Dang Hyang Nirartha built temples in Bali, and added the Padmasana shrines to the temples he visited, since the end of World War II and the Indonesian War of Independence, the Republic of Indonesia has adopted the political philosophy of Pancasila, which allows for freedom of religion. The statute, however, requires that the religion in question be monotheistic, i. e. based upon the belief in a single, under this system, five religions are recognised, Islam, Buddhism, Catholicism, Protestantism and Hinduism. To comply with regulations, Balinese Hindus have felt the need to reinforce the monotheistic component of their faith and this is thus the name which is now more commonly used by modern Balinese. Sekala and Niskala Periplus Editions ISBN 0-945971-03-6
30.
Sang Hyang Widhi Wasa
–
Acintya, also Atintya, also Tunggal is the supreme god of Indonesian Hinduism, especially on the island of Bali. He is equivalent to the concept of Brahman, and is the Supreme God in traditional wayang theatre and he is also known to most modern Balinese as Sang Hyang Widhi Wasa, also Sanghyang Widi Wasa, a concept introduced by Dang Hyang Dwijendra. Acintya corresponds to a recent trend towards monism in Bali, according to which there is one supreme god. Acinthya is emptiness, and considered as the origin of the Universe and he is often associated to the sun god, and depicted in human form with flames around him. His nakedness expresses that his consciousness is no longer carried away by his sense-faculties, prayers and offerings are not made directly to Acintya, but only to the other manifestations of the deity. He is often not even represented, in case he is only evoked by an empty throne on top of a pillar. Dang Hyang Nirartha built temples in Bali, and added the Padmasana shrines to the temples he visited, since the end of World War II and the Indonesian War of Independence, the Republic of Indonesia has adopted the political philosophy of Pancasila, which allows for freedom of religion. The statute, however, requires that the religion in question be monotheistic, i. e. based upon the belief in a single, under this system, five religions are recognised, Islam, Buddhism, Catholicism, Protestantism and Hinduism. To comply with regulations, Balinese Hindus have felt the need to reinforce the monotheistic component of their faith and this is thus the name which is now more commonly used by modern Balinese. Sekala and Niskala Periplus Editions ISBN 0-945971-03-6
31.
Chinese architecture
–
Chinese architecture is a style of architecture that has taken shape in East Asia over many centuries. The structural principles of Chinese architecture have remained unchanged, the main changes being only the decorative details. Since the Tang Dynasty, Chinese architecture has had a influence on the architectural styles of Korea, Vietnam. The architecture of China is as old as Chinese civilization, throughout the 20th Century, Western-trained Chinese architects have attempted to combine traditional Chinese designs into modern architecture, with only limited success. A very important feature in Chinese architecture is its emphasis on articulation and bilateral symmetry, bilateral symmetry and the articulation of buildings are found everywhere in Chinese architecture, from palace complexes to humble farmhouses. When possible, plans for renovation and extension of a house will often try to maintain this symmetry provided that there is enough capital to do so, secondary elements are positioned either side of main structures as two wings to maintain overall bilateral symmetry. The buildings are planned to contain an even number of columns in a structure to produce an odd number of bays. With the inclusion of a door to a building in the center bay. In contrast to the buildings, Chinese gardens are an exception which tend to be asymmetrical. The principle underlying the composition is to create enduring flow. In much of traditional Chinese architecture, buildings or building complexes take up an entire property and these enclosed spaces come in two forms, the, Courtyard, The use of open courtyards is a common feature in many types of Chinese architectures. This is best exemplified in the Siheyuan, which has consisted of an empty space surrounded by buildings connected with one another either directly or through verandas. This structure is essentially an enclosed courtyard formed from the intersections of closely spaced buildings. These enclosures serve in temperature regulation and in venting the building complexes, northern courtyards are typically open and facing the south to allow the maximum exposure of the building windows and walls to the sun while keeping the cold northern winds out. Southern sky wells are relatively small and serves to collect water from the roof tops. They perform the duties as the Roman impluvium while restricting the amount of sunlight that enters the building. Sky wells also serve as vents for rising hot air, which cool air from the lower stories of the house. The projected hierarchy and importance and uses of buildings in traditional Chinese architecture are based on the placement of buildings in a property/complex
32.
Japanese architecture
–
Japanese architecture has traditionally been typified by wooden structures, elevated slightly off the ground, with tiled or thatched roofs. Sliding doors were used in place of walls, allowing the configuration of a space to be customized for different occasions. People usually sat on cushions or otherwise on the floor, traditionally, chairs, the earliest Japanese architecture was seen in prehistoric times in simple pit-houses and stores that were not adapted to a hunter-gatherer population. Influence from Han Dynasty China via Korea saw the introduction of more complex grain stores, the introduction of Buddhism in Japan during the sixth century was a catalyst for large-scale temple building using complicated techniques in wood. Influence from the Chinese Tang and Sui Dynasties led to the foundation of the first permanent capital in Nara and its checkerboard street layout used the Chinese capital of Changan as a template for its design. A gradual increase in the size of buildings led to units of measurement as well as refinements in layout. The introduction of the tea ceremony emphasised simplicity and modest design as a counterpoint to the excesses of the aristocracy, during the Meiji Restoration of 1868 the history of Japanese architecture was radically changed by two important events. Second, it was then that Japan underwent a period of intense Westernization in order to compete with developed countries. Initially architects and styles from abroad were imported to Japan but gradually the country taught its own architects, Architects returning from study with western architects introduced the International Style of modernism into Japan. Much in the architecture of Japan is not native, but was imported from China. First of all is the choice of materials, always wood in various forms for almost all structures, unlike both Western and some Chinese architecture, the use of stone is avoided except for certain specific uses, for example temple podia and pagoda foundations. The general structure is almost always the same, posts and lintels support a large and gently curved roof, while the walls are paper-thin, often movable, arches and barrel roofs are completely absent. Gable and eave curves are gentler than in China and columnar entasis limited, the roof is the most visually impressive component, often constituting half the size of the whole edifice. The slightly curved eaves extend far beyond the walls, covering verandas, simpler solutions are adopted in domestic structures. The oversize eaves give the interior a characteristic dimness, which contributes to the buildings atmosphere, the interior of the building normally consists of a single room at the center called moya, from which depart any other less important spaces. Inner space divisions are fluid, and room size can be modified through the use of screens or movable paper walls, the large, single space offered by the main hall can therefore be divided according to the need. For example, some walls can be removed and different rooms joined temporarily to make space for some more guests, the separation between inside and outside is itself in some measure not absolute as entire walls can be removed, opening a residence or temple to visitors. Verandas appear to be part of the building to an outsider, structures are therefore made to a certain extent part of their environment
33.
Pagoda
–
Some pagodas are used as Taoist houses of worship. Most pagodas were built to have a function, most commonly Buddhist. In some countries, the term may refer to other religious structures, the modern pagoda is an evolution of the Stupa which originated in Ancient India. Stupas are a structure where sacred relics could be kept safe. The architectural structure of the stupa has spread across Asia, taking on diverse forms as details specific to different regions are incorporated into the overall design. Another proposed etymology is Persian butkada, from but, idol and kada, temple, another etymology, found in many English language dictionaries, is modern English pagoda from Portuguese, from Sanskrit bhavati, feminine of bhagavatt, blessed from bhag, good fortune. The origin of the pagoda can be traced to the stupa, the stupa, a dome shaped monument, was used as a commemorative monument associated with storing sacred relics. In East Asia, the architecture of Chinese towers and Chinese pavilions blended into pagoda architecture, the pagodas original purpose was to house relics and sacred writings. This purpose was popularized due to the efforts of Buddhist missionaries, pilgrims, rulers, and ordinary devotees to seek out, distribute, on the other side, the stupa emerged as a distinctive style of Newari architecture of Nepal and was adopted in Southeast and East Asia. Nepali architect Araniko visited China and shared his skills to build stupa buildings in China and these buildings became prominent as Buddhist monuments used for enshrining sacred relics. Chinese iconography is noticeable in Chinese pagoda as well as other East Asian pagoda architectures, the image of the Shakyamuni Buddha in the abhaya mudra is also noticeable in some Pagodas. Buddhist iconography can be observed throughout the pagoda symbolism, Pagodas attract lightning strikes because of their height. Many pagodas have a decorated finial at the top of the structure, and when made of metal, also Pagodas come in many different sizes, as some may be small and others may be large. Pagodas traditionally have an odd number of levels, an exception being the eighteenth century pagoda folly designed by Sir William Chambers at Kew Gardens in London. The pagodas in Burma, Thailand, Laos and Cambodia are very different from Chinese and Japanese pagodas, Pagodas in those countries are derived from South Indian Dravidian architecture. Tiered towers with eaves, Songyue Pagoda on Mount Song, Henan, China. Miruksa Temple Pagoda at Iksan, Korea, built in the early 7th century, bunhwangsa at Gyeongju, Korea, built in 634. Xumi Pagoda at Zhengding, Hebei, China, built in 636, daqin Pagoda in China, built in 640
34.
Vedas
–
The Vedas are a large body of knowledge texts originating in the ancient Indian subcontinent. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature, Hindus consider the Vedas to be apauruṣeya, which means not of a man, superhuman and impersonal, authorless. Vedas are also called śruti literature, distinguishing them from religious texts. The Veda, for orthodox Indian theologians, are considered revelations seen by ancient sages after intense meditation, in the Hindu Epic the Mahabharata, the creation of Vedas is credited to Brahma. The Vedic hymns themselves assert that they were created by Rishis, after inspired creativity. There are four Vedas, the Rigveda, the Yajurveda, the Samaveda, each Veda has been subclassified into four major text types – the Samhitas, the Aranyakas, the Brahmanas, and the Upanishads. Some scholars add a fifth category – the Upasanas, the various Indian philosophies and denominations have taken differing positions on the Vedas. Schools of Indian philosophy which cite the Vedas as their authority are classified as orthodox. Other śramaṇa traditions, such as Lokayata, Carvaka, Ajivika, Buddhism and Jainism, despite their differences, just like the texts of the śramaṇa traditions, the layers of texts in the Vedas discuss similar ideas and concepts. The Sanskrit word véda knowledge, wisdom is derived from the root vid- to know and this is reconstructed as being derived from the Proto-Indo-European root *u̯eid-, meaning see or know. The noun is from Proto-Indo-European *u̯eidos, cognate to Greek εἶδος aspect, not to be confused is the homonymous 1st and 3rd person singular perfect tense véda, cognate to Greek οἶδα oida I know. Root cognates are Greek ἰδέα, English wit, etc, the Sanskrit term veda as a common noun means knowledge. The term in some contexts, such as hymn 10.93.11 of the Rigveda, means obtaining or finding wealth, property, a related word Vedena appears in hymn 8.19.5 of the Rigveda. It was translated by Ralph T. H. Griffith as ritual lore, as studying the Veda by the 14th century Indian scholar Sayana, as bundle of grass by Max Müller, Vedas are called Maṛai or Vaymoli in parts of South India. Marai literally means hidden, a secret, mystery, in some south Indian communities such as Iyengars, the word Veda includes the Tamil writings of the Alvar saints, such as Divya Prabandham, for example Tiruvaymoli. The Vedas are among the oldest sacred texts, the Samhitas date to roughly 1700–1100 BC, and the circum-Vedic texts, as well as the redaction of the Samhitas, date to c. 1000-500 BC, resulting in a Vedic period, spanning the mid 2nd to mid 1st millennium BC, or the Late Bronze Age, Michael Witzel gives a time span of c.1500 to c. Witzel makes special reference to the Near Eastern Mitanni material of the 14th century BC the only record of Indo-Aryan contemporary to the Rigvedic period
35.
Pendopo
–
A pendopo or pendapa is a fundamental element of Javanese architecture, a large pavilion-like structure built on columns. Either square or rectangular in plan, it is open on all sides and provides shelter from the sun and rain, the word pendopo is a variant on the Sanskrit word mandapa. Pendopo can be constructed as a structure or, attached to walled inner structure called dalem, it formed the front part of the omah. The oldest surviving images of ancient Java vernacular architecture appears in Borobudur reliefs and they once sheltered the institutions of ancient Javanese kingdoms, such as law courts, clergy, palaces, and for public appearances of the king and his ministers. In 9th century Ratu Boko complex near Prambanan, there is traces of square elevated stone bases with umpaks, the similar structures also can be found in 14th century Trowulan dated from Majapahit era, where square brick bases with umpak stones suggest that some pendopos once stood there. Because the pillars and the roof was made from organic material. The pendopo with faithful Majapahit brick-base style can be found in 16th century Kraton Kasepuhan, Cirebon, as well as 17th century Kota Gede and these evidences suggests that the design has not changed much for over a millennia. They remain fundamental components of Javanese kraton with European influences often being incorporated since the 18th century, the majority of pendopo are constructed from timber but masonry versions are in existence such as used in the Kraton Kanoman in Cirebon. Joglo Indonesian architecture Kraton Schoppert, P. Damais, S. Java Style,1997, Didier Millet, Paris,207 pages, max Havelaar, Or the Coffee Auctions of the Dutch Trading Company
36.
Cockfight
–
A cockfight is a blood sport between two roosters, or more accurately gamecocks, held in a ring called a cockpit. The history of raising fowl for fighting goes back 6,000 years, the combatants, referred to as gamecocks, are specially bred birds, conditioned for increased stamina and strength. The comb and wattle are cut off in order to show standards of the American Gamefowl Society. Cocks possess congenital aggression toward all males of the same species, cocks are given the best of care until near the age of two years. They are conditioned, much like professional athletes prior to events or shows, wagers are often made on the outcome of the match. Cockfighting is a sport due in some part to the physical trauma the cocks inflict on each other. While not all fights are to the death, the cocks may endure significant physical trauma, in some areas around the world, cockfighting is still practiced as a mainstream event, in some countries it is regulated by law, or forbidden outright. Advocates of the age old sport often list cultural and religious relevance as reasons for perpetuation of cockfighting as a sport, two owners place their gamecock in the cockpit. The cocks fight until one of them dies or is critically injured. Historically, this was in a cockpit, a term which was used in the 16th century to mean a place of entertainment or frenzied activity. William Shakespeare used the term in Henry V to specifically mean the area around the stage of a theatre, in Tudor times, the Palace of Westminster had a permanent cockpit, called the Cockpit-in-Court. Cockfighting is an ancient spectator sport, there is evidence that cockfighting was a pastime in the Indus Valley Civilization. The Encyclopædia Britannica holds, The sport was popular in ancient times in India, China, Persia, based on his analysis of a Mohenjo-daro seal, Iravatham Mahadevan speculates that the citys ancient name could have been Kukkutarma. However, according to a recent study, it is not known whether these birds made much contribution to the domestic fowl. Chickens from the Harappan culture of the Indus Valley may have been the source of diffusion throughout the world. Within the Indus Valley, indications are that chickens were used for sport and not for food, an early image of a fighting rooster has been found on a 6th-century BC seal of Jaazaniah from the biblical city of Mizpah in Benjamin, near Jerusalem. The anthropologist Clifford Geertz wrote the influential essay Deep Play, Notes on the Balinese Cockfight, in some regional variations, the birds are equipped with either metal spurs or knives, tied to the leg in the area where the birds natural spur has been partially removed. A cockspur is a bracelet with a curved, sharp spike which is attached to the leg of the bird, the spikes typically range in length from short spurs of just over an inch to long spurs almost two and a half inches long
37.
Slit drum
–
A slit drum is a hollow percussion instrument. In spite of the name, it is not a drum but an idiophone. Most slit drums have one slit, though two and three slits occur, if the resultant tongues are different width or thicknesses, the drum will produce two different pitches. It is used throughout Africa, Southeast Asia, and Oceania, in Africa such drums, strategically situated for optimal acoustic transmission, have been used for long-distance communication. The ends of a drum are closed so that the shell becomes the resonating chamber for the sound vibrations created when the tongues are struck. The resonating chamber increases the volume of the produced by the tongue. The people of Vanuatu cut a log with totem type carvings on the outer surface. This hollowed out log gives the deep resonance of drums when hit on the outside with sticks, planet Drum, A Celebration of Percussion and Rhythm. ISBN9780062504142, ISBN9780062503978, ISBN9780062504623
38.
Pura Taman Ayun
–
Pura Taman Ayun is a compound of Balinese temple and garden with water features located in Mengwi subdistrict in Badung Regency, Bali, Indonesia. Henk Schulte Nordholt wrote in his book Negara Mengwi that Taman Ayun was renovated in 1750, the architect’s name is given as Hobin Ho. The temple garden was featured on the television program Around the World in 80 Gardens, tan Hu Cin Jin Taman Ayun in Bali Island journal
39.
Tirta Gangga
–
Tirta Gangga is a former royal palace in eastern Bali, Indonesia, about 5 kilometres from Karangasem, near Abang. It is noted for its palace, owned by Karangasem Royal. Tirta Gangga literally means water from the Ganges and it is a site of some reverence for the Hindu Balinese, strictly, the name refers to the water palace built in 1948 by the Raja of Karangasem, Anak Agung Agung Anglurah Ketut Karangasem. It is, however, the widely used to refer to the general area which includes the water palace. Tirta Gangga water palace is a maze of pools and fountains surrounded by a garden and stone carvings. The one hectare complex was built in 1946 by the late King of Karangsem but was destroyed almost entirely by the eruption of nearby Mount Agung in 1963 and it has been lovingly re-built and restored and has an air of authentic royal magnificence. The centrepiece of the palace is a tiered fountain and there are many beautiful carvings. The area around Tirta Gangga is noted for its rice paddy terraces, Tirta Gangga travel guide from Wikivoyage Official website
40.
Goa Gajah
–
Goa Gajah, or Elephant Cave, is located on the island of Bali near Ubud, in Indonesia. Built in the 9th century, it served as a sanctuary, at the façade of the cave is a relief of various menacing creatures and demons carved right into the rock at the cave entrance. The primary figure was thought to be an elephant, hence the nickname Elephant Cave. The site is mentioned in the Javanese poem Desawarnana written in 1365, an extensive bathing place on the site was not excavated until the 1950s. These appear to have built to ward off evil spirits. This site was added to the UNESCO World Heritage Tentative List on October 19,1995, central Bali travel guide from Wikivoyage Elephant Cave - UNESCO World Heritage Centre Accessed 2009-03-06. Bali, Indonesias Hindu Realm, A short history of, davison, J. Nengah Enu, Bruce Granquist, Luca Invernizzi Tettoni
41.
Tirta Empul
–
Tirta Empul temple is a Hindu Balinese water temple located near the town of Tampaksiring, Bali, Indonesia. The temple compound consists of a petirtaan or bathing structure, famous for its spring water. The temple pond has a spring which gives out fresh water regularly, Tirta Empul means Holy Spring in Balinese. Tirta Empul Temple was founded around a water spring in 962 A. D. during the Warmadewa dynasty. The name of the temple comes from the water source named Tirta Empul. The spring is the source of the Pakerisan river, the temple is divided into three sections, Jaba Pura, Jaba Tengah and Jeroan. Jaba Tengah contains 2 pools with 30 showers which are named accordingly, Pengelukatan, Pebersihan, the temple is dedicated to Vishnu, another Hindu god name for the supreme consciousness Narayana. On a hill overlooking the temple, a villa was built for President Sukarnos visit in 1954. The villa is currently a rest house for important guests, Balinese Hinduism List of Hindu temples in Indonesia Bali Handbook by Bill Dalton - Moon Travel Handbooks, First Edition December 1989, pag. Seeing it on a day adds even more mystery to the site
42.
Taman Mini Indonesia Indah
–
Taman Mini Indonesia Indah or Beautiful Indonesia Miniature Park is a culture-based recreational area located in East Jakarta, Indonesia. It has an area of about 250 acres, since 2007 Taman Mini Indonesia Indah launched new logo with branding slogan Pesona Indonesia. On December 31,2014 World Peace Committee decided TMII as International Civilization Park, the idea of presenting Indonesia in a small scale was conceived by former Indonesian first lady, Siti Hartinah, better known as Tien Suharto. It came about at a convention on 8 Cendana Street at March 13,1970, through this recreational site, she hoped to cultivate national pride in more Indonesian people. A project called Indonesian Miniature Project was started by Harapan Kita Foundation in 1972, the concept of this culture-based recreational area was inspired by Indonesias unparalleled natural riches and local folk diversity. TMII was originally located on an area of 145 ha, as farms. Later, the team was able to convert these fields into a location for the construction. The topography of TMII is rather hilly, consistent with what the builders required, since each Indonesian province maintains its own unique and distinct cultures, shelters, attire and dialects, TMII built a model of each of the houses from Indonesian provinces. TMII attempted not only to reconstruct the homes of the various provinces, each pavilions featured in typical vernacular Indonesian architecture of each provinces. Some of these pavilions also equipped with cafeterias featuring traditional Indonesian cuisines and also souvenir shops offering various handicrafts, T-shirts, since 1975 until the 2000s, the original design of TMII consist of a model of the houses from the 27 provinces of Indonesia, including East Timor. But after the secession of East Timor from Indonesia in 2002, after the recognition of Indonesian Chinese culture as the integral part of Indonesian culture in 2000, the new Indonesian Chinese pavilion and a Confucian temple was built within the park. The religious buildings of several official faiths is meant to showcase the inter-faiths tolerance, a fully grown Komodo dragon nicknamed Bima resides in the reptile park near the eastern gate, which you can pet and take pictures with for Rp.5,000. Pusat peragaan Iptek or Science and Technology Display Centre is under coordination of Research, at the end of 2011 has 15 sites with about 300 science tools and visited by 341,000 visitor in a year. The sites are Robotic, Electric and Magnet, Mechanics, Mathematics, as of 2011 the operator planned to disburse $35 million for building a new Discovery World theme park. A 2-hectare area was to be built and it was predicted to be operated before the end of 2012 and it would serve 100 venues/rides and was predicted to attract 1.2 million visitors from Indonesia and Southeast Asia
.jpg)
_voorstellend_een_episode_uit_een_hindoe%C3%AFstisch_heldendicht_TMnr_60025463.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
