1.
Nasi kuning
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Nasi Kuning, or sometimes called Nasi Kunyit, is an Indonesian fragrant rice dish cooked with coconut milk and turmeric, hence the name nasi kuning. In Indonesian culture, nasi kuning has favorable symbolic meanings, Nasi kuning is quite widespread and commonly found in Indonesian culture. It can be found from Java to Sumatra, Bali and Sulawesi, however, it is most strongly associated with Javanese and Minahasa traditions. In Java, nasi kuning might come in the form of a cone called a tumpeng and is eaten during special events. The top of the tumpeng is given to the most senior person in attendance. One of the most popular nasi kuning variant is came from Manado of North Sulawesi, Nasi kuning is usually served with a variety of side dishes such as shredded omelette, serundeng, urap, teri kacang, sambal goreng, ayam goreng, balado udang, or perkedel. More elaborate nasi kuning might include fried cows brain, fried cows lung, beef and it is common to serve nasi kuning with kerupuk udang or emping chips and a decoratively cut cucumber and tomato. List of rice dishes Nasi bogana Nasi campur Nasi goreng Nasi kucing Nasi lemak Nasi liwet Nasi pecel Nasi tim Nasi uduk Nasi ulam Food portal Nasi Tumpeng - Its Meaning and Function
2.
Lawar (food)
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Lawar is a dish created from a mixture of vegetables, coconut and minced meat mixed with rich herbs and spices, originating from Bali, Indonesia. This dish is found in restaurants and warungs in Bali. Despite its rich mixture, lawar is not a vegetarian dish. Lawar consists of beans, beaten eggs, vegetable oil, kaffir lime leaves, coconut milk, palm sugar, fresh grated coconut. Lawar is named according to its additional ingredients, for example lawar with chicken is called lawar ayam. Lawar which uses young jackfruit is called lawar nangka, some types of lawar might add the blood of butchered animal mixed with spices to add taste. Sometimes lawar is named according to its color, lawar merah refer to its blood content, lawar padamare is the type of combination of several types of lawars. Lawar is served with steamed rice and other meat such as babi guling. Urap a Javanese version similar to lawar Gado-gado Karedok Pecel
3.
Sambal
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Sambal is an Indonesian loan-word of Javanese origin. It is native to the cuisines of Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Brunei and it has also spread through overseas Indonesian populations to the Netherlands and Suriname. Various recipes of sambals usually are served as hot and spicy condiments for dishes, such as lalab, ikan bakar, ikan goreng, ayam goreng, ayam penyet, iga penyet, traditional sambals are freshly made using traditional tools, such as a stone pestle and mortar. Sambal can be served raw or cooked, the chili pepper, garlic, shallot and tomato are often freshly ground using a mortar, while the terasi or belacan is fried or burned first to kill its pungent smell as well as to release its aroma. Sambal might be prepared in bulk, as it can be stored in a well-sealed glass jar in the refrigerator for a week to be served with meals as a condiment. However, some households and restaurants insist on making freshly-prepared sambal just a few prior to consuming in order to ensure its freshness and flavor. Nevertheless, in most warung and restaurants, most sambal is prepared daily in bulk and offered as a hot, today some brands of prepared, prepacked, instant, or ready-to-use sambal are available in warung, traditional markets, supermarkets and convenience stores. Most are bottled sambal, with a few available in plastic or aluminum sachet packaging. Traditionally made sambals ground in a pestle and mortar usually have a coarse texture, the most common kinds of peppers used in sambal are, Adyuma, also known as habanero, a very spicy, yellow, and block-shaped pepper. Cayenne pepper, a shiny, red, and elongated pepper, Madame Jeanette, a yellow–light green, elongated, irregularly-shaped pepper. Birds eye chili, also known as cabe rawit in Javanese, Chili peppers known as lombok in Javanese, a mild, green–red, elongated pepper. Green chili peppers are milder than red ones, in the Indonesian archipelago, there are as many as 300 varieties of sambal. The intensity ranges from mild to very hot, some varieties include, Sambal andaliman Similar to sambal lado mudo but with the addition of andaliman pepper. Sambal asam This is similar to sambal terasi with an addition of tamarind concentrate, asam means tamarind or sour in Indonesian. Chili fried with oil, garlic, terasi, candlenuts and other condiments and this is darker and richer in flavor than sambal asam. Chili pepper or green chili is blended together with garlic, shallot, red or green tomato, salt and lemon or lime juice, Sambal buah specialty of Palembang, made from the mixture of chili, shrimp paste, kemang and pineapple. Sambal cibiuk a sambal recipe specialty of Cibiuk village, Garut Regency and it consist of coarsely chopped and ground green birds eye chili, green raw tomato, shallot, galangal, lemon basil, shrimp paste and salt. Sambal colo-colo From Ambon, it consists of Indonesian kecap manis, chili, tomatoes bits, shallots and it is suitable for barbecue dishes
4.
Balinese people
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The Balinese are an ethnic group native to the Indonesian island of Bali. The Balinese population of 4.2 million live mostly on the island of Bali, there are also significant populations on the island of Lombok, and in the eastern-most regions of Java. The Balinese originated from three periods of migration, the first waves of immigrants came from Java and Kalimantan in prehistoric times and were of proto-Malay stock. The second wave of Balinese came slowly over the years from Java during the Hindu period and this in turn reshaped the Balinese culture into a syncretic form of classical Javanese culture mixed with many Balinese elements. A DNA study in 2005 by Karafet et al. found that 12% of Balinese Y-chromosomes are of likely Indian origin, while 84% are of likely Austronesian origin, Balinese culture is a mix of Balinese Hindu-Buddhist religion and Balinese customs. It is perhaps most known for its dance, drama and sculpture, the island is also known for its Wayang kulit or Shadow play theatre. Even in poor rural and neglected villages, beautiful temples are a common sight, even layered pieces of palm leaf and neat fruit arrangements made as offerings by Balinese women have an artistic side to them. Balinese artists are skilled in duplicating art works such as carvings that resemble Chinese deities or decorating vehicles based on what is seen in foreign magazines. The culture is noted for its use of the gamelan in music, each type of music is designated for a specific type of event. For example, music for a piodalan is different from music used for a ceremony, just as it is for weddings, Ngaben, Melasti. The diverse types of gamelan are also specified according to the different types of dance in Bali, according to Walter Spies, the art of dancing is an integral part of Balinese life as well as an endless critical element in a series of ceremonies or for personal interests. Traditionally, displaying of female breasts is not regarded as immodest, Balinese women can often be seen with bared chests, however, a display of the thigh is considered immodest. In modern Bali these customs are not strictly observed. In the Balinese naming system, a rank of birth or caste is reflected in the name. A puputan is an act of mass suicide through frontal assaults in battle, the latest act of puputan was during the Indonesian war of Independence, with Lt. Colonel I Gusti Ngurah Rai as the leader in the battle of Margarana. The airport in Bali is named after him in commemoration, the vast majority of the Balinese believe in Agama Tirta, holy-water religion. It is a Shivaite sect of Hinduism, traveling Indian priests are said to have introduced the people to the sacred literature of Hinduism and Buddhism centuries ago. The people accepted it and combined it with their own pre-Hindu mythologies, the Balinese from before the third wave of immigration, known as the Bali Aga, are mostly not followers of Agama Tirta, but retain their own animist traditions
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Bali
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Bali is an island and province of Indonesia. The province includes the island of Bali and a few smaller neighbouring islands, notably Nusa Penida, Nusa Lembongan and it is located at the westernmost end of the Lesser Sunda Islands, between Java to the west and Lombok to the east. Its capital, Denpasar, is located in the part of the island. With a population of 3,890,757 in the 2010 census, and 4,225,000 as of January 2014, the island is home to most of Indonesias Hindu minority. According to the 2010 Census,83. 5% of Balis population adhered to Balinese Hinduism, followed by 13. 4% Muslim, Christianity at 2. 5%, Bali is a popular tourist destination, which has seen a significant rise in tourists since the 1980s. Tourism-related business makes up 80% of its economy and it is renowned for its highly developed arts, including traditional and modern dance, sculpture, painting, leather, metalworking, and music. The Indonesian International Film Festival is held every year in Bali, in March 2017, Tripadvisor named the island the worlds top destination in its Travelers choice award. Bali is part of the Coral Triangle, the area with the highest biodiversity of marine species, in this area alone over 500 reef building coral species can be found. For comparison, this is about 7 times as many as in the entire Caribbean, most recently, Bali was the host of the 2011 ASEAN Summit,2013 APEC and Miss World 2013. Bali is the home of the Subak Irrigation System, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Bali was inhabited around 2000 BC by Austronesian people who migrated originally from Southeast Asia and Oceania through Maritime Southeast Asia. Culturally and linguistically, the Balinese are closely related to the people of the Indonesian archipelago, Malaysia, stone tools dating from this time have been found near the village of Cekik in the islands west. In ancient Bali, nine Hindu sects existed, namely Pasupata, Bhairawa, Siwa Shidanta, Waisnawa, Bodha, Brahma, Resi, Sora, each sect revered a specific deity as its personal Godhead. Inscriptions from 896 and 911 dont mention a king, until 914 and they also reveal an independent Bali, with a distinct dialect, where Buddhism and Sivaism were practiced simultaneously. Mpu Sindoks great-granddaughter, Mahendradatta, married the Bali king Udayana Warmadewa around 989 and this marriage also brought more Hinduism and Javanese culture to Bali. Suradhipa reigned from 1115 to 1119, and Jayasakti from 1146 until 1150, jayapangus appears on inscriptions between 1178 and 1181, while Adikuntiketana and his son Paramesvara in 1204. Balinese culture was influenced by Indian, Chinese, and particularly Hindu culture. The name Bali dwipa has been discovered from inscriptions, including the Blanjong pillar inscription written by Sri Kesari Warmadewa in 914 AD. It was during this time that the people developed their complex irrigation system subak to grow rice in wet-field cultivation, some religious and cultural traditions still practiced today can be traced to this period
6.
Indonesian cuisine
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Indonesian cuisine is one of the most vibrant and colourful cuisines in the world, full of intense flavour. Many regional cuisines exist, often based upon indigenous culture and foreign influences, Indonesia has around 5,350 traditional recipes, with 30 of them considered the most important. Indonesia cuisine may include rice, noodle and soup dishes in local modest shops to street-side snacks, rendang top the list as the number one, followed closely by nasi goreng in number two, and satay in number fourteen. Indonesian cuisine varies greatly by region and has different influences. The cuisines of Eastern Indonesia are similar to Polynesian and Melanesian cuisine, elements of Chinese cuisine can be seen in Indonesian cuisine, foods such as noodles, meat balls, and spring rolls have been completely assimilated. Throughout its history, Indonesia has been involved in due to its location. Additionally, Indonesia’s indigenous techniques and ingredients were influenced by India, the Middle East, China, Spanish and Portuguese traders brought New World produce even before the Dutch came to colonise most of the archipelago. The Indonesian islands The Moluccas, which are famed as the Spice Islands, also contributed to the introduction of native spices, such as cloves and nutmeg, to Indonesian, Indonesian cuisine often demonstrates complex flavour, acquired from certain ingredients and bumbu spices mixture. Indonesian dishes have rich flavours, most often described as savory, hot and spicy, seven main Indonesian cooking methods are frying, roasting, grilling, sautéing, roasted, boiling and steaming. Some popular Indonesian dishes such as nasi goreng, gado-gado, Satay, today, some popular dishes that originated in Indonesia are now common to neighbouring countries, Malaysia and Singapore. Indonesian dishes such as satay, beef rendang, and sambal are favoured in Malaysia, soy-based dishes, such as variations of tofu and tempeh, are also very popular. Tempeh is regarded as a Javanese invention, a adaptation of soy-based food fermentation and production. Another fermented food is oncom, similar in ways to tempeh but using a variety of bases, created by different fungi. Indonesian traditional meals usually consists of steamed rice as staple, surrounded by vegetables and soup, in a typical family meal, the family members gather around the table filled with steamed rice and several other dishes. Each dish is placed in a separate communal large plate or in bowls, each of these dishes has its own serving spoons, used only to take parts of the dishes from the communal plate into ones own personal plate. Each of the members has their own personal plate that is first filled with steamed rice. Usually the oldest family member or the husband has the right to initiate the meal, each of them take some portion of dishes from the communal plates into their own individual plates. On their personal plate, the rice will soon be surrounded by two, three or more dishes, vegetables and fish or meat, and maybe some fried dishes, sambal
7.
Chinese cuisine
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Chinese cuisine is an important part of Chinese culture, which includes cuisines originating from the diverse regions of China, as well as from Chinese people in other parts of the world. The preference for seasoning and cooking techniques of Chinese provinces depend on differences in historical background, imperial, royal and noble preference also plays a role in the change of Chinese cuisines. Because of imperial expansion and trading, ingredients and cooking techniques from other cultures are integrated into Chinese cuisines over time, the most praised Four Major Cuisines are Chuan, Lu, Yue and Huaiyang, represents West, North, South and East China cuisine correspondingly. Modern Eight Cuisines of China are Anhui, Cantonese, Fujian, Hunan, Jiangsu, Shandong, Sichuan, the color, smell and taste are the three traditional aspects to describe Chinese food, also the meaning, shape and nutrition. While, cooking should be appraised from ingredients, cuttings, cooking time and it is considered inappropriate to use knives on dining table. Chopsticks are the eating utensils for Chinese food, which can be used to cut. Chinese society greatly valued gastronomy and developed a study of the subject based on its traditional medical beliefs. Chinese culture initially centered around the North China Plain, the first domesticated crops seem to have been the foxtail and broomcorn varieties of millet, while rice was cultivated in the south. By 2000 BC, wheat had arrived from western Asia and these grains were typically served as warm noodle soups, however, instead of baked into bread as in Europe. Nobles hunted various wild game and consumed mutton, pork, dog, grain was stored against famine and flood and meat was preserved with salt, vinegar, curing, and fermenting. The flavor of the meat was enhanced by cooking it in animal fats though this practice was restricted to the wealthy. By the time of Confucius in the late Zhou, gastronomy has become a high art and he was recorded discussing about the principles of dining, The rice would never be too white, the meat would never be too finely cut. When it was not cooked right, man would not eat, when it was cooked bad, man would not eat. When the meat was not cut properly, man would not eat, when the food was not prepared with the right sauce, man would not eat. Although there are plenty of meat, they should not be cooked more than staple food, there is no limit for alcohol, before a man get drunk. During Shi Huangdis Qin dynasty, the empire expanded into the south, by the time of the Han Dynasty, the different regions and cuisines of Chinas peoples were linked by major canals and leading to greater complexity in the different regional cuisines. Not only is seen as giving qi, energy, but food is also about maintaining yin. Salt was used as a preservative from early times, but in cooking was added in the form of soy sauce, and not at the table
8.
Indian cuisine
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Indian cuisine encompasses a wide variety of regional and traditional cuisines native to India. Indian food is heavily influenced by religious and cultural choices. Also, Middle Eastern and Central Asian influences have occurred on North Indian cuisine from the years of Mughal rule, Indian cuisine is still evolving, as a result of the nations cultural interactions with other societies. Historical incidents such as invasions, trade relations, and colonialism have played a role in introducing certain foods to the country. For instance, the potato, a staple of the diet in some regions of India, was brought to India by the Portuguese, Indian cuisine has shaped the history of international relations, the spice trade between India and Europe was the primary catalyst for Europes Age of Discovery. Spices were bought from India and traded around Europe and Asia, Indian cuisine has influenced other cuisines across the world, especially those from the Middle East, North Africa, sub-Saharan Africa, Southeast Asia, the British Isles, Fiji, and the Caribbean. Indian cuisine reflects an 8, 000-year history of groups and cultures interacting with the subcontinent, leading to diversity of flavours. Later, trade with British and Portuguese influence added to the already diverse Indian cuisine, early diet in India mainly consisted of legumes, vegetables, fruits, grains, dairy products, honey, and sometimes fish, eggs, and meat. Staple foods eaten today include a variety of lentils, whole-wheat flour, rice, and pearl millet, over time, segments of the population embraced vegetarianism during Śramaṇa movement while an equitable climate permitted a variety of fruits, vegetables, and grains to be grown throughout the year. A food classification system that categorised any item as saatvic, raajsic, the Bhagavad Gita proscribes certain dietary practices. Consumption of beef is taboo, due to cows being considered sacred in Hinduism, beef is generally not eaten by Hindus in India except for Kerala and the north east. During the Middle Ages, several Indian dynasties were predominant, including the Gupta dynasty, travellers to India during this time introduced new cooking methods and products to the region, including tea. India was later invaded by tribes from Central Asian cultures, which led to the emergence of Mughlai cuisine, hallmarks include seasonings such as saffron. Staple foods of Indian cuisine include pearl millet, rice, whole-wheat flour, and a variety of lentils, such as masoor, toor, urad, lentils may be used whole, dehusked—for example, dhuli moong or dhuli urad—or split. Split lentils, or dal, are used extensively, some pulses, such as channa or cholae, rajma, and lobiya are very common, especially in the northern regions. Channa and moong are also processed into flour, many Indian dishes are cooked in vegetable oil, but peanut oil is popular in northern and western India, mustard oil in eastern India, and coconut oil along the western coast, especially in Kerala. Gingelly oil is common in the south since it imparts a fragrant, in recent decades, sunflower, safflower, cottonseed, and soybean oils have become popular across India. Hydrogenated vegetable oil, known as Vanaspati ghee, is another popular cooking medium, butter-based ghee, or deshi ghee, is used frequently, though less than in the past
9.
Hindu
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Hindu refers to any person who regards themselves as culturally, ethnically, or religiously adhering to aspects of Hinduism. It has historically used as a geographical, cultural, or religious identifier for people indigenous to South Asia. The historical meaning of the term Hindu has evolved with time, by the 16th century, the term began to refer to residents of India who were not Turks or Muslims. The historical development of Hindu self-identity within the Indian population, in a religious or cultural sense, is unclear, competing theories state that Hindu identity developed in the British colonial era, or that it developed post-8th century CE after the Islamic invasion and medieval Hindu-Muslim wars. A sense of Hindu identity and the term Hindu appears in texts dated between the 13th and 18th century in Sanskrit and regional languages. The 14th- and 18th-century Indian poets such as Vidyapati, Kabir and Eknath used the phrase Hindu dharma, the Christian friar Sebastiao Manrique used the term Hindu in religious context in 1649. In the 18th century, the European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of Indian religions collectively as Hindus, in contrast to Mohamedans for Mughals, scholars state that the custom of distinguishing between Hindus, Buddhists, Jains and Sikhs is a modern phenomenon. Hindoo is a spelling variant, whose use today may be considered derogatory. At more than 1.03 billion, Hindus are the third largest group after Christians. The vast majority of Hindus, approximately 966 million, live in India, according to Indias 2011 census. After India, the next 9 countries with the largest Hindu populations are, in decreasing order, Nepal, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, United States, Malaysia, United Kingdom and Myanmar. These together accounted for 99% of the worlds Hindu population, the word Hindu is derived from the Indo-Aryan and Sanskrit word Sindhu, which means a large body of water, covering river, ocean. It was used as the name of the Indus river and also referred to its tributaries, the Punjab region, called Sapta Sindhava in the Vedas, is called Hapta Hindu in Zend Avesta. The 6th-century BCE inscription of Darius I mentions the province of Hidush, the people of India were referred to as Hinduvān and hindavī was used as the adjective for Indian in the 8th century text Chachnama. The term Hindu in these ancient records is an ethno-geographical term, the Arabic equivalent Al-Hind likewise referred to the country of India. Among the earliest known records of Hindu with connotations of religion may be in the 7th-century CE Chinese text Record of the Western Regions by the Buddhist scholar Xuanzang, Xuanzang uses the transliterated term In-tu whose connotation overflows in the religious according to Arvind Sharma. The Hindu community occurs as the amorphous Other of the Muslim community in the court chronicles, wilfred Cantwell Smith notes that Hindu retained its geographical reference initially, Indian, indigenous, local, virtually native. Slowly, the Indian groups themselves started using the term, differentiating themselves, the poet Vidyapatis poem Kirtilata contrasts the cultures of Hindus and Turks in a city and concludes The Hindus and the Turks live close together, Each makes fun of the others religion
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Betutu
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Betutu is a Balinese dish of steamed or roasted chicken or duck in rich bumbu betutu. This highly seasoned and spiced dish is a dish in Bali and Lombok. An even spicier version is available using extra-spicy sauce made from uncooked onion slices mixed with red chili peppers, Betutu is a richly spiced Balinese poultry dish. It is often called according to its ingredients, ayam betutu is chicken betutu. This traditional dish is very popular nowadays and it can be found in the menu of luxury hotels or restaurants in Bali. It takes at least 24 hours to cook, many travelers from other regions of Indonesia brought Betutu dishes as Balinese-gift for their families. This dish is popular among tourists who travel to Bali. The betutu spice paste is the sauteed with oil to release its aroma. Common side dishes may include plecing kangkung, crispy-fried peanuts and sambal terasi, in Bali, betutus tastes and ways of cooking are different according to regions, Klungkung’s betutu chicken is stuffed with cooking-spices. Gianyar’s betutu is cooked with plantain leaf wrapping, gilimanuk’s betutu is also very popular with its hot and spicy flavors such as garlic, onion, red chili peppers, turmeric, ginger, black pepper, and coconut oil. Ayam Betutu Gilimanuk, “Nak Seken Nee…” KOMPAS, January 21,2007, cuisine of Indonesia Kapampangan cuisine which has Betute and Nasing biringyi
11.
Rice
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Rice is the seed of the grass species Oryza sativa or Oryza glaberrima. As a cereal grain, it is the most widely consumed staple food for a part of the worlds human population. It is the agricultural commodity with the third-highest worldwide production, after sugarcane and maize, wild rice, from which the crop was developed, may have its native range in Australia. Chinese legends attribute the domestication of rice to Shennong, the emperor of China. Genetic evidence has shown that rice originates from a single domestication 8, previously, archaeological evidence had suggested that rice was domesticated in the Yangtze River valley region in China. From East Asia, rice was spread to Southeast and South Asia, Rice was introduced to Europe through Western Asia, and to the Americas through European colonization. There are many varieties of rice and culinary preferences tend to vary regionally, in some areas such as the Far East or Spain, there is a preference for softer and stickier varieties. Rice, a monocot, is grown as an annual plant, although in tropical areas it can survive as a perennial. The rice plant can grow to 1–1.8 m tall, occasionally more depending on the variety and it has long, slender leaves 50–100 cm long and 2–2.5 cm broad. The small wind-pollinated flowers are produced in a branched arching to pendulous inflorescence 30–50 cm long, the edible seed is a grain 5–12 mm long and 2–3 mm thick. Rice cultivation is well-suited to countries and regions with low costs and high rainfall, as it is labor-intensive to cultivate. However, rice can be grown practically anywhere, even on a hill or mountain area with the use of water-controlling terrace systems. Although its parent species are native to Asia and certain parts of Africa, centuries of trade, the traditional method for cultivating rice is flooding the fields while, or after, setting the young seedlings. The name wild rice is used for species of the genera Zizania and Porteresia. The Greek word is the source of all European words, the origin of the Greek word is unclear. It is sometimes held to be from the Tamil word அரிசி, however, Krishnamurti disagrees with the notion that Old Tamil arici is the source of the Greek term, and proposes that it was borrowed from descendants of Proto-Dravidian *wariñci instead. The varieties of rice are typically classified as long-, medium-, the grains of long-grain rice tend to remain intact after cooking, medium-grain rice becomes more sticky. Medium-grain rice is used for dishes, for risotto in Italy
12.
Pork
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Pork is the culinary name for meat from the domestic pig. It is the most commonly consumed meat worldwide, with evidence of pig husbandry dating back to 5000 BC, Pork is eaten both freshly cooked and preserved. Curing extends the life of the pork products. Ham, smoked pork, gammon, bacon and sausage are examples of preserved pork, charcuterie is the branch of cooking devoted to prepared meat products, many from pork. Pork is the most popular meat in East and Southeast Asia and it is highly prized in Asian cuisines for its fat content and pleasant texture. Consumption of pork is forbidden by Jewish and Muslim dietary law, the sale of pork is illegal or severely restricted in Israel and in certain Muslim countries, particularly those where sharia law is part of their constitution. The pig is one of the oldest forms of livestock, having been domesticated as early as 5000 BC and it is believed to have been domesticated either in the Near East or in China from the wild boar. The adaptable nature and omnivorous diet of this creature allowed early humans to domesticate it much earlier than other forms of livestock. Pigs were mostly used for food, but people also used their hides for shields and shoes, their bones for tools and weapons, and their bristles for brushes. Charcuterie is the branch of cooking devoted to prepared meat products such as bacon, ham, sausage, terrines, galantines, pâtés, and confit, primarily from pork. Originally intended as a way to preserve meats before the advent of refrigeration, in 15th century France, local guilds regulated tradesmen in the food production industry in each city. The guilds that produced charcuterie were those of the charcutiers, the members of this guild produced a traditional range of cooked or salted and dried meats, which varied, sometimes distinctively, from region to region. The only raw meat the charcutiers were allowed to sell was unrendered lard, the charcutier prepared numerous items, including pâtés, rillettes, sausages, bacon, trotters, and head cheese. Due to the nature of the meat in Western culinary history. The year-round availability of meat and fruits has not diminished the popularity of this combination on Western plates, Pork is the most widely eaten meat in the world, accounting for about 38% of meat production worldwide. Consumption varies widely from place to place, the meat is taboo to eat in the Middle East and most of the Muslim world because of Jewish kosher and Islamic Halal dietary restrictions. But pork is widely consumed in East and Southeast Asia, Europe, Sub-Saharan Africa, as the result, large numbers of pork recipes are developed throughout the world. Feijoada for example, the dish of Brazil, is traditionally prepared with pork trimmings, ears, tail
13.
Beef
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Beef is the culinary name for meat from cattle, particularly skeletal muscle. Humans have been eating beef since prehistoric times, Beef is a complete source of protein, and provides many of the essential fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals that humans need. Beef skeletal muscle meat can be cut into roasts, short ribs or steak, Some cuts are processed, and trimmings, usually mixed with meat from older, leaner cattle, are ground, minced or used in sausages. The blood is used in varieties of blood sausage. Some intestines are cooked and eaten as-is, but are often cleaned and used as natural sausage casings. The bones are used for making beef stock, Beef from steers and heifers is very similar. According to the most recent National Beef Quality Audit, heifer carcasses had slightly more marbling than steer carcasses, depending on economics, the number of heifers kept for breeding varies. The meat from older bulls is usually tougher, so it is used for mince. Beef is the third most widely consumed meat in the world, accounting for about 25% of meat production worldwide, after pork and poultry at 38% and 30% respectively. According to the data from OECD, the average Uruguayan ate over 42 kg of beef or veal in 2014, cattle are considered sacred in the culture of India and there is prohibition on selling and consumption of beef in much of India. Though India is the largest producer and exporter of meat in the world. In 2015, the worlds largest exporters of beef including the meat, were India, Brazil. Beef production is important to the economies of Uruguay, Canada, Paraguay, Mexico, Argentina, Belarus. The word beef is from the Latin bōs, in contrast to cow which is from Middle English cou, after the Norman Conquest, the French-speaking nobles who ruled England naturally used French words to refer to the meats they were served. Thus, various Anglo-Saxon words were used for the animal by the peasants, Beef is cognate with bovine through the Late Latin bovīnus. People have eaten the flesh of bovines from prehistoric times, some of the earliest known paintings, such as those of Lascaux. People domesticated cattle around 8000 BC to provide access to beef, milk. Most cattle originated in the Old World, with the exception of bison hybrids, examples include the Wagyū from Japan, Ankole-Watusi from Egypt, and longhorn Zebu from the Indian subcontinent
14.
Warung
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A warung is a type of small family-owned business — often a casual shop, a modest small restaurant or café — in Indonesia, and to a lesser extent, Malaysia. A warung is an part of daily life in Indonesia. There are establishments on the touristy island of Bali and elsewhere that attach the term warung in their business to indicate their Indonesian nature, traditionally, warung is indeed a family-owned business, run by the family members, mostly by women. Traditional warungs are made from wooden, bamboo or thatched materials, more permanent warungs are made from bricks and concrete, some family-owned businesses are attached to their homes. Some smaller portable warungs are made from tin, zinc or some modern version might use fiberglass mold, Warung tenda ia a portable tent warung, covered with canvas, fabric or plastic sheet tent for roofing. The term warung simply denote a wide category of small businesses and it is widely used in Java and most of Indonesia, while in Sumatra and Malay Peninsula its synonym kedai is used instead. In Javanese culture areas, such as in Yogyakarta, Semarang and Surakarta, on the other hand, the term toko is used to a larger and more established shop. The term can also be used to refer to many other types of shops, including the wartel. A warung that sells food typically sells local food, pisang goreng and many kinds of gorengan, nasi goreng, in resort island of Bali and Lombok, a warung might refer to a touristy cabana cafe that sells locals favourites as well as Asian or western food. Other than Indonesian dishes, on their menu there might be a selection of soups, steaks, some types of warung are, Warung rokok or common warung is a very small street side shop, constructed from wood, bamboo or tin. Most of them measuring not more than 2 x 1 meters and they sells rokok, cold bottled drinks, snacks and candies, krupuk, soap, tooth paste and other daily necessities. This is the most commonly distributed warung, sprung in residential areas, slums, street sides, warkop or warung kopi is a small humble cafe or coffeeshop, they sells coffee and snacks, such as roasted peanuts, rempeyek, krupuk, pisang goreng and bread. Recently in Indonesia, the Malaysian and Singaporean counterpart kopi tiam, Warung nasi is a humble small restaurant that sells nasi with other Indonesian dishes. Usually they did not provides separate tables and chairs, but a long communal bar, warteg or warung tegal is a more specific warung nasi, established by Javanese people from the town Tegal in Central Java. They sells favourite Javanese dishes and rice, the array of pre-cooked dishes are arranged in glass windowed cupboard. They are well known on selling modestly-priced meals, popular among working class such as low-skilled labours in the cities, Warung padang is a small scaled Padang restaurant. Usually provides bar and bench instead of tables and chairs for seating, larger scale are more established Padang eateries are referred to as rumah makan padang or Padang restaurant instead. Warung jamu specifically selling jamu traditional herbal medicine, warnet or warung internet is an internet cafe
15.
Pasar pagi
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Pasar pagi is a type of traditional market found in Indonesia and Malaysia, quite similar to a wet market. Pasar pagi mostly operate from early morning to the afternoon, nevertheless, there is also a related traditional market called pasar malam. The difference between pasar pagi and pasar malam is in its operating hours — pasar pagi opens early in the morning from dawn to the every day. While pasar malam opens at night, approximately from 17,00 to 22,00, the type of goods being sold is also quite different. Pasar pagi is where many housewives, domestic helps and local folks appear to shop their daily needs, the things which are on sale are usually fresh daily produce, including fruits, vegetables, spices, fish, meat, eggs, and all kinds of daily products. While pasar malam is more to cater a leisurely shopping and eating-out activity, selling ready to eat food, snacks, clothings, in Indonesia, practically all traditional markets are pasar pagi, open from early in the dawn to mid day. Often the stalls are temporarily overflow occupying nearby streets around the marketplace — which normally open for traffic in other hours of the day and they sell fresh produces, such as vegetables, fruits, chicken, meat and fish. The major pasar pagi in Jakarta are Pasar Pagi Mangga Dua, Pasar Induk Kramat Jati, Pasar Minggu and Pasar Senen. Pasar Minggu specialized on fruits and vegetables, while Pasar Kue Subuh in Senen specialized on selling kue, as they offer a variety of traditional Indonesian snack. In Malaysia, one of the biggest pasar pagi is at Jalan Pasar, Pasar malam Wet market Bazaar Bazaar
16.
Cooked rice
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Cooked rice refers to rice that has been cooked either by steaming or boiling. The terms steamed rice or boiled rice are commonly used. Any variant of Asian rice, African rice or wild rice, glutinous or non-glutinous, long-, medium-, or short-grain, of any colour, Rice for cooking can be whole grain or milled. Cooked rice is used as a base for various fried rice dishes, rice bowls/plates, rice porridges, rice balls/rolls, as well as rice cakes and desserts. Rice is a food in not only Asia and Latin America, but across the globe. The U. S. Rice is often rinsed and soaked before cooked, unpolished brown rice requires longer soaking time than the milled white rice does. The amount of water added can vary depending on many factors, newly harvested rice usually requires less water, and softer varieties need more water than firmer varieties. Rice can be boiled in a heavy-bottomed cookware or steamed in a food steamer, some boiling methods dont require precise water measurements, as the rice is strained after boiling. This draining method is suitable for the less glutinous varieties such as basmati rice, optionally, small amount of salt can be added before cooking. If not drained, boiled rice is cooked on high heat until a rolling boil, then simmered with the lid on. Nowadays, electric rice cooker are also used to cook rice. During cooking, rice absorbs water and increase in volume and mass, in East Asia, cooked rice is most commonly served in individual bowls, with each diner receiving one. Food from communal dishes is placed upon the rice, and is then eaten, cooked or boiled rice is used as an ingredient in many dishes. Leftover steamed rice is used to make porridge or fried rice dishes. C, sato Sonti Non-alcoholic Sikhye Most common is plain, steamed white rice, however, a number of varieties and are served, many with specific cooking methods. This is typical in most Dim Sum presentations throughout the Philippines and it was believed to be brought by Chinese immigrants from outside the country during the early 1900s and was considered to start in Cebu City. It is uncommon to the traditional Dim Sum that originated in China, bap Food steamer List of rice dishes List of steamed foods Steamed rice at dmoz. org
17.
Brahmin
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Brahmin is a varna in Hinduism specialising as priests of sacred learning across generations. However, Indian texts suggest that Brahmins were often agriculturalists in medieval India, the Gautama Dharmasutra states in verse 10.3 that it is obligatory on a Brahmin to learn and teach the Vedas. The text forbids a Brahmin from engaging in the trade of animals for slaughter, meat, medicines, the Apastamba Dharmasutra asserts in verse 1.20.10 that trade is generally not sanctioned for Brahmins, but in the times of adversity he may do so. The chapter 1.20 of Apastamba, states Olivelle, forbids the trade of the following under any circumstances, human beings, meat, skins, weapons, barren cows, sesame seeds, pepper, and merits. The 1st millennium CE Dharmasastras, that followed the Dharmasutras contain similar recommendations on occupations for a Brahmin, both in prosperous or normal times, and in the times of adversity. The widely studied Manusmriti, for example, states, Except during a time of adversity and he should gather wealth just sufficient for his subsistence through irreproachable activities that are specific to him, without fatiguing his body. –4. 2–4.3 He must never follow a worldly occupation for the sake of livelihood, one who seeks happiness should become supremely content and self controlled, for happiness is rooted in contentment and its opposite is the root of unhappiness. –4. 11–4.12 The Manusmriti recommends that a Brahmins occupation must never involve forbidden activities such as producing or trading poison, weapons, meat, trapping birds and others. It also lists six occupations that it deems proper for a Brahmin, teaching, studying, offering yajna, officiating at yajna, giving gifts, of these, states Manusmriti, three which provide a Brahmin with a livelihood are teaching, officiating at yajna, and accepting gifts. The text states that teaching is best, and ranks the accepting of gifts as the lowest of the six, in the times of adversity, Manusmriti recommends that a Brahmin may live by engaging in the occupations of the warrior class, or agriculture or cattle herding or trade. Of these, Manusmriti in verses 10. 83–10, the term Brahmin in Indian texts has signified someone who is good and virtuous, not just someone of priestly class. Both Buddhist and Brahmanical literature, states Patrick Olivelle, repeatedly define Brahmin not in terms of family of birth and these virtues and characteristics mirror the values cherished in Hinduism during the Sannyasa stage of life, or the life of renunciation for spiritual pursuits. Brahmins, states Olivelle, were the class from which most ascetics came. The earliest inferred reference to Brahmin as a social class is in the Rigveda, occurs once. Ancient texts describing community-oriented Vedic yajna rituals mention four to five priests, the hotar, the adhvaryu, the udgatar, the functions associated with the priests were, The Hotri recites invocations and litanies drawn from the Rigveda. The Adhvaryu is the assistant and is in charge of the physical details of the ritual like measuring the ground. The Udgatri is the chanter of hymns set to melodies and music drawn from the Samaveda, the udgatar, like the hotar, chants the introductory, accompanying and benediction hymns. The Brahmin recites from the Atharvaveda, the Ritvij is the chief operating priest
18.
Kshatriya
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Kshatriya is one of the four varna of the Hindu society. The Sanskrit term kshatriya is used in the context of Vedic society wherein members organised themselves into four classes, brahmin, kshatriya, vaishya, traditionally, the kshatriya constituted the ruling and military elite. Their role was to protect society by fighting in wartime and governing in peacetime, the Prakrit derivative of Kshatriya is Khatri. The administrative machinery in the Rig Vedic period functioned with a chief called Rajan whose position was not hereditary. The king was elected in an assembly, which included women. The Rajan protected the tribe and cattle, was assisted by a priest, the concept of fourfold varna system was non-existent. The hymn Purusha Sukta to the Rigveda describes the history of the four varna. Since not all dark-skinned Indians was fully regulated under the varna in the vedic society, the term rajanya unlike the word kshatriya essentially denoted the status within a lineage. Whereas kshatra, means ruling, one of the ruling order, jaiswal points out the term Brahman rarely occurs in the Rig-veda with the exception of the Purusha Sukta and may not have been used for the priestly class. Based on the authority of Panini, Patanjali, Katyayana and the Mahabharata, Jayaswal believes that Rajanya was the name of a people and that the Rajanyas were, therefore. Some examples were the Andhaka and Vrsni Rajanyas who followed the system of elected rulers and this later gave rise to the idea of kingship. In the period of the Brahmanas there was ambiguity in the position of the varna, in the Panchavimsha Brahmana, the Rajanya are placed first, followed by Brahmana then Vaishya. In Shatapatha Brahmana 13.8.3.11, the Kshatriya are placed second, in Shatapatha Brahmana 1.1.4.12 the order is—Brahmana, Vaishya, Rajanya, Shudra. The order of the brahmanical tradition—Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra—became fixed from the time of dharmasutras, the kshatriya were often considered pre-eminent in Buddhist circles. Even among Hindu societies they were sometimes at rivalry with the Brahmins, the kshatriya caste constituted an aristocracy but were not always necessarily wealthy. Kings usually belonged to this caste and it was considered their duty to acquire a knowledge of weapons in addition to cultivating their aptitude for command, the science of weaponry was one of the 13 branches of learning which every educated kshatriya male was expected to study. Both the kings suite and the army were recruited from among this caste. Many kshatriya were authorised to take up a craft or trade rather than gaining their living as professional warriors and these families still retained the privileges accorded to their caste however, which included special forms of marriage which were their prerogative
19.
Kaempferia galanga
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Kaempferia galanga, commonly known as kencur, aromatic ginger, sand ginger, cutcherry, or resurrection lily, is a monocotyledonous plant in the ginger family, and one of four plants called galangal. It is found primarily in areas in Indonesia, southern China, Taiwan, Cambodia, and India. Kaempferia galanga is used as an herb in cooking in Indonesia, where it is called kencur, beras kencur, which combines dried K. galanga powder with rice flour, is a particularly popular jamu herbal drink. Its leaves are used in the Malay rice dish, nasi ulam. Unlike the similar Boesenbergia rotunda, K. galanga is not commonly used in Thai cuisine and it is known in Thai as proh horm or waan horm, and in Khmer as prâh or prâh krâ-oup. It is also used in Chinese cooking and Chinese medicine, and is sold in Chinese groceries under the name sha jiang, kaempferia galanga has a peppery camphorous taste. K. galanga is differentiated from other galangals by the absence of stem and dark brown, rounded rhizomes, while the other varieties all have stems and it is also sometimes called lesser galangal, which properly refers to Alpinia officinarum. Extracts of the plant using methanol have shown activity against the second-stage larvae of dog roundworms. It was also found to be effective as an amebicide in vitro against three species of Acanthamoeba, which cause granulomatous amebic encephalitis and amebic keratitis, in 1999, the rhizome extract was found to inhibit activity of Epstein-Barr virus. Further research has demonstrated the extract effectively kills larvae of the mosquito Culex quinquefasciatus and repels adult Aedes aegypti mosquitoes, both of which are serious disease vectors. As a result of findings, research is underway to evaluate the plant extracts use as an insect repellent. The rhizomes of the plant, which contain essential oils, have used in traditional Chinese medicine as a decoction or powder. Its alcoholic maceration has also applied as liniment for rheumatism. The extract causes central nervous system depression, a decrease in activity. The decoctions and the sap of the leaves may have hallucinogenic properties, a purified extract of K. galanga and polyester-8 stabilize the UV-absorptive properties of sunscreen combinations containing avobenzone. The rhizomes of K. galanga contain chemicals that are potent insecticides. a similar finding was also revealed previously for Zingiber cassumunar and K. rotunda
20.
Shallot
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The shallot is a type of onion, specifically a botanical variety of the species Allium cepa. The shallot was formerly classified as a species, A. ascalonicum. Shallots probably originated in Central or Southwest Asia, travelling there to India. The name shallot comes from Ashkelon, an ancient Canaanite city, Indian names for shallots include kaanda or gandana or pyaaz, gundhun, cheriya ulli or chuvanna ulli, ଉଲ୍ଲି ପିଆଜ, chinna ullipayi and chinna vengayam. In the Kashmiri language, shallots are called praan, in Nepal, shallots are called chyapi. In Southeastern Asia, shallots are called bawang merah kecil in Malay, brambang in Java, sibuyas bombay in the Philippines, and hom in Thai. In Cambodian, shallots are called katem kror hom, where katem or ktem is a species of onion, the name shallot is also used for the Persian shallot, from the Zagros Mountains in Iran and Iraq. The term shallot is used for the French red shallot and the French gray shallot or griselle. The name shallot is used for a scallion in New Orleans while the term French shallot refers to the plant referred to on this page. The term eschalot, derived from the French word échalote, can also be used to refer to the shallot, the usage of green onion for shallot is found among English-speaking people in Quebec, but when shallot is used, stress is on the second syllable. Like garlic, shallots are formed in clusters of offsets with a composed of multiple cloves. The skin colour of shallots can vary from brown to gray to rose red. Shallots are extensively cultivated for culinary uses, propagated by offsets, in some regions, the offsets are usually planted in autumn. In some other regions, the suggested planting time for the crop is early spring. In planting, the tops of the bulbs should be kept a little ground. They come to maturity in summer, although fresh shallots can now be found year-round in supermarkets, shallots should not be planted on ground recently manured. In Africa, shallots are grown in the area around Anloga in southeastern Ghana, shallots are used in fresh cooking in addition to being pickled. Finely sliced, deep-fried shallots are used as a condiment in Asian cuisine, as a species of Allium, shallots taste somewhat like a common onion, but have a milder flavor
21.
Garlic
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Garlic is a species in the onion genus, Allium. Its close relatives include the onion, shallot, leek, chive, with a history of several thousand years of human consumption and use, garlic is native to the region between the Mediterranean and China, and has long been a common seasoning worldwide. It was known to Ancient Egyptians, and has used both as a food flavoring and as a traditional medicine. Allium sativum is a bulbous plant and it grows up to 1.2 m in height. Its hardiness is USDA Zone 8 and it is pollinated by bees and other insects. Allium sativum grows in the wild in areas where it has become naturalized, the wild garlic, crow garlic, and field garlic of Britain are members of the species Allium ursinum, Allium vineale, and Allium oleraceum, respectively. In North America, Allium vineale and Allium canadense, known as garlic or wild garlic. So-called elephant garlic is actually a wild leek, and not a true garlic, single clove garlic originated in the Yunnan province of China. A. sativum var. ophioscorodon Döll, called Ophioscorodon, or hard-necked garlic, includes porcelain garlics, rocambole garlic and it is sometimes considered to be a separate species, Allium ophioscorodon G. Don. A. sativum var. sativum, or soft-necked garlic, includes artichoke garlic, silverskin garlic, Garlic is easy to grow and can be grown year-round in mild climates. While sexual propagation of garlic is possible, nearly all of the garlic in cultivation is propagated asexually, in colder climates, cloves are planted in the autumn, about six weeks before the soil freezes, and harvested in late spring or early summer. The cloves must be planted deep enough to prevent freeze/thaw, which causes mold or white rot, Garlic plants can be grown closely together, leaving enough space for the bulbs to mature, and are easily grown in containers of sufficient depth. Garlic does well in loose, dry, well-drained soils in sunny locations, when selecting garlic for planting, it is important to pick large bulbs from which to separate cloves. Large cloves, along with proper spacing in the planting bed, Garlic plants prefer to grow in a soil with a high organic material content, but are capable of growing in a wide range of soil conditions and pH levels. There are different varieties or subspecies of garlic, most notably hardneck garlic, the latitude where the garlic is grown affects the choice of type, as garlic can be day-length sensitive. Hardneck garlic is grown in cooler climates and produces relatively large cloves, whereas softneck garlic is generally grown closer to the equator and produces small. Garlic scapes are removed to all the garlics energy into bulb growth. The scapes can be eaten raw or cooked, Garlic plants are usually hardy and not affected by many pests or diseases
22.
Turmeric
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Turmeric is a rhizomatous herbaceous perennial plant of the ginger family, Zingiberaceae. It is native to southern Asia, requiring temperatures between 20 and 30 °C and an amount of annual rainfall to thrive. Plants are gathered annually for their rhizomes and propagated from some of those rhizomes in the following season, although long-used in Ayurvedic medicine to treat various diseases, there is little high-quality clinical evidence for use of turmeric or its main constituent, curcumin, as a therapy. Turmeric has been used in Asia for thousands of years and is a part of Siddha medicine. It was first used as a dye, and then later for its medicinal properties, the origin of the name is uncertain, possibly deriving from Middle English/early modern English as turmeryte or tarmaret. Speculation exists that it may be of Latin origin, terra merita, the name of the genus, Curcuma, is from an Arabic name of both saffron and turmeric. Turmeric is a herbaceous plant that reaches up to 1 m tall. Highly branched, yellow to orange, cylindrical, aromatic rhizomes are found, the leaves are alternate and arranged in two rows. They are divided into leaf sheath, petiole, and leaf blade, from the leaf sheaths, a false stem is formed. The petiole is 50 to 115 cm long, the simple leaf blades are usually 76 to 115 cm long and rarely up to 230 cm. They have a width of 38 to 45 cm and are oblong to elliptic, in China, the flowering time is usually in August. Terminally on the stem is a 12 to 20 cm long inflorescence stem containing many flowers. The bracts are green and ovate to oblong with a blunt upper end with a length of 3 to 5 cm. At the top of the inflorescence, stem bracts are present on which no flowers occur, these are white to green and sometimes, tinged reddish-purple, the hermaphrodite flowers are zygomorphic and threefold. The three 0.8 to 1.2 cm long sepals are fused, white, have fluffy hairs, the three bright-yellow petals are fused into a corolla tube up to 3 cm long. The three corolla lobes have a length of 1.0 to 1.5 cm, and are triangular with soft-spiny upper ends, while the average corolla lobe is larger than the two lateral, only the median stamen of the inner circle is fertile. The dust bag is spurred at its base, all other stamens are converted to staminodes. The outer staminodes are shorter than the labellum, the labellum is yellowish, with a yellow ribbon in its center and it is obovate, with a length from 1.2 to 2.0 cm
23.
Ginger
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Ginger is a flowering plant whose rhizome, ginger root or simply ginger, is widely used as a spice or a folk medicine. It is a perennial which grows annual stems about a meter tall bearing narrow green leaves. Ginger is in the family Zingiberaceae, to also belong turmeric, cardamom. Ginger originated in the tropical rainforest in Southern Asia, although ginger no longer grows wild, it is thought to have originated on the Indian subcontinent because the ginger plants grown in India show the largest amount of genetic variation. Ginger was exported to Europe via India in the first century AD as a result of the spice trade and was used extensively by the Romans. The distantly related dicots in the genus Asarum are commonly called wild ginger because of their similar taste. But this may be Sanskrit folk etymology, and the word may be from an ancient Dravidian name that produced the Tamil and Malayalam name for the spice, inchi-ver. The word probably was readopted in Middle English from Old French gingibre, ginger produces clusters of white and pink flower buds that bloom into yellow flowers. Because of its appeal and the adaptation of the plant to warm climates. It is a perennial plant with annual leafy stems, about a meter tall. Traditionally, the rhizome is gathered when the stalk withers, it is scalded, or washed and scraped, to kill it. The fragrant perisperm of the Zingiberaceae is used as sweetmeats by Bantu, ginger produces a hot, fragrant kitchen spice. Young ginger rhizomes are juicy and fleshy with a mild taste. They are often pickled in vinegar or sherry as a snack or cooked as an ingredient in many dishes and they can be steeped in boiling water to make ginger tisane, to which honey is often added, sliced orange or lemon fruit may be added. Ginger can be made into candy, or ginger wine, which has been made commercially since 1740, mature ginger rhizomes are fibrous and nearly dry. Fresh ginger can be substituted for ground ginger at a ratio of six to one, although the flavors of fresh, powdered dry ginger root is typically used as a flavoring for recipes such as gingerbread, cookies, crackers and cakes, ginger ale, and ginger beer. Candied ginger, or crystallized ginger, is the root cooked in sugar until soft, fresh ginger may be peeled before eating. For longer-term storage, the ginger can be placed in a plastic bag, in Indian cuisine, ginger is a key ingredient, especially in thicker gravies, as well as in many other dishes, both vegetarian and meat-based
24.
Kaffir lime
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Its fruit and leaves are used in Southeast Asian cuisine and its essential oil is used in perfumery. Its rind and crushed leaves emit an intense citrus fragrance, in English, the fruit is known as kaffir lime or makrut lime. The etymology of the name kaffir lime is uncertain, but most likely was used by Muslims because the plant grew in an area populated by non-Muslims, the Arabic word for non-Muslims is kafir. Citrus hystrix is known as kabuyaw, or kulubot, in the Philippines, the City of Cabuyao in the Province of Laguna got its name from the said fruit. Citrus hystrix is a bush,6 to 35 feet tall, with aromatic. These hourglass-shaped leaves comprise the leaf blade plus a flattened, leaf-like stalk, the fruit is rough and green, and ripens to yellow, it is distinguished by its bumpy exterior and its small size, approximately 4 cm wide. The leaves are the most frequently used part of the plant, fresh, dried, the leaves are widely used in Thai and Lao cuisine and Cambodian cuisine. The leaves are used in Vietnamese cuisine to add fragrance to chicken dishes, the leaves are used in Indonesian cuisine for foods such as soto ayam and are used along with Indonesian bay leaf for chicken and fish. They are also found in Malaysian and Burmese cuisines and it is used widely in South Indian cuisine. The rind is used in Lao and Thai curry paste, adding an aromatic. The zest of the fruit, referred to as combava, is used in creole cuisine to impart flavor in infused rums and rougails in Martinique, Réunion, in Cambodia, the entire fruit is crystallized/candied for eating. The juice and rinds of the peel are used in medicine in some Asian countries. The juice finds use as a cleanser for clothing and hair in Thailand, lustral water mixed with slices of the fruit is used in religious ceremonies in Cambodia. Citrus hystrix is grown worldwide in suitable climates as a shrub for home fruit production. It is well suited to gardens and for large garden pots on patios, terraces. The compound responsible for the aroma was identified as --citronellal. Kaffir/Makrut lime fruit peel contains an essential oil comparable to lime fruit peel oil, calamondin - ×Citrofortunella mitis Citrus depressa Citrus hybrid
25.
Black pepper
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Black pepper is a flowering vine in the family Piperaceae, cultivated for its fruit, which is usually dried and used as a spice and seasoning. When dried, the fruit is known as a peppercorn, when fresh and fully mature, it is approximately 5 millimetres in diameter, dark red, and, like all drupes, contains a single seed. Peppercorns, and the ground pepper derived from them, may be described simply as pepper, or more precisely as black pepper, green pepper, black pepper is native to south India and is extensively cultivated there and elsewhere in tropical regions. Currently, Vietnam is the worlds largest producer and exporter of pepper, dried ground pepper has been used since antiquity for both its flavour and as a traditional medicine. Black pepper is the worlds most traded spice and it is one of the most common spices added to cuisines around the world. The spiciness of black pepper is due to the chemical piperine, black pepper is ubiquitous in the modern world as a seasoning and is often paired with salt. The word pepper has its roots in the Tamil word for long pepper, todays pepper derives from the Old English pipor. and from Latin which was the source of Romanian piper, Italian pepe, Dutch peper, German Pfeffer, French poivre, and other similar forms. In the 16th century, pepper started referring to the unrelated New World chili pepper as well, Pepper was used in a figurative sense to mean spirit or energy at least as far back as the 1840s, in the early 20th century, this was shortened to pep. Black pepper is produced from the still-green, unripe drupes of the pepper plant. The drupes are cooked briefly in hot water, both to them and to prepare them for drying, the heat ruptures cell walls in the pepper. The drupes are dried in the sun or by machine for several days, during which the pepper around the seed shrinks and darkens into a thin, once dried, the spice is called black peppercorn. On some estates, the berries are separated from the stem by hand, once the peppercorns are dried, pepper spirit and oil can be extracted from the berries by crushing them. Pepper spirit is used in medicinal and beauty products. Pepper oil is used as an ayurvedic massage oil and used in certain beauty. White pepper consists solely of the seed of the pepper plant and this is usually accomplished by a process known as retting, where fully ripe red pepper berries are soaked in water for about a week, during which the flesh of the pepper softens and decomposes. Rubbing then removes what remains of the fruit, and the seed is dried. Sometimes alternative processes are used for removing the outer pepper from the seed, ground white pepper is used in Chinese and Thai cuisine, but also in salads, cream sauces, light-coloured sauces, and mashed potatoes. White pepper has a different flavour from black pepper, it lacks certain compounds present in the layer of the drupe
26.
Coriander
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Coriander, also known as cilantro or Chinese parsley, is an annual herb in the family Apiaceae. All parts of the plant are edible, but the fresh leaves, Coriander is native to regions spanning from southern Europe and northern Africa to southwestern Asia. It is a plant growing to 50 cm tall. The leaves are variable in shape, broadly lobed at the base of the plant, the flowers are borne in small umbels, white or very pale pink, asymmetrical, with the petals pointing away from the center of the umbel longer than those pointing toward it. The fruit is a globular, dry schizocarp 3–5 mm in diameter, the earliest attested form of the word is the Mycenaean Greek ko-ri-ja-da-na written in Linear B syllabic script which later evolved to koriannon or koriandron. Cilantro is the Spanish word for coriander, also deriving from coriandrum and it is the common term in North American English for coriander leaves, due to their extensive use in Mexican cuisine. Coriander grows wild over an area of Western Asia and southern Europe, prompting the comment, It is hard to define exactly where this plant is wild. Fifteen desiccated mericarps were found in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B level of the Nahal Hemar Cave in Israel, Coriander seems to have been cultivated in Greece since at least the second millennium BC. Coriander was brought to the British colonies in North America in 1670, all parts of the plant are edible, but the fresh leaves and the dried seeds are the parts most traditionally used in cooking. Coriander is used in cuisines throughout the world, the leaves are variously referred to as coriander leaves, fresh coriander, dhania, Chinese parsley, or cilantro. Coriander potentially may be confused with culantro, an Apiaceae like coriander, culantro has a distinctly different spiny appearance, a more potent volatile leaf oil and a stronger aroma. The leaves have a different taste from the seeds, with citrus overtones, however, some people find the leaves to have an unpleasant soapy taste or a rank smell and avoid them. Chopped coriander leaves are a garnish on Indian dishes such as dal, as heat diminishes their flavour, coriander leaves are often used raw or added to the dish immediately before serving. In Indian and Central Asian recipes, coriander leaves are used in large amounts, the leaves spoil quickly when removed from the plant, and lose their aroma when dried or frozen. The dry fruits are known as coriander seeds, the word coriander in food preparation may refer solely to these seeds, rather than to the plant. The seeds have a citrus flavour when crushed, due to terpenes linalool. It is described as warm, nutty, spicy, and orange-flavoured and they are used extensively for grinding and blending purposes in the spice trade. Types with smaller fruit are produced in regions and usually have a volatile oil content around 0. 4-1. 8%
27.
Cumin
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Cumin is a flowering plant in the family Apiaceae, native from the east Mediterranean to South Asia. Its seeds are used in the cuisines of different cultures. It also has uses as a traditional medicinal plant. The English cumin is derived from the Old English via Latin cuminum from the Greek κύμινον, Cumin is the dried seed of the herb Cuminum cyminum, a member of the parsley family. The cumin plant grows to 30–50 cm tall and is harvested by hand and it is an annual herbaceous plant, with a slender, glabrous, branched stem that is 20–30 cm tall and has a diameter of 3–5 cm. Each branch has two to three sub-branches, all the branches attain the same height, therefore the plant has a uniform canopy. The stem is coloured grey or dark green, the leaves are 5–10 cm long, pinnate or bipinnate, with thread-like leaflets. The flowers are small, white or pink, and borne in umbels, each umbel has five to seven umbellts. The fruit is a lateral fusiform or ovoid achene 4–5 mm long, containing two mericarps with a single seed, Cumin seeds have eight ridges with oil canals. They resemble caraway seeds, being oblong in shape, longitudinally ridged, and yellow-brown in colour, like members of the Umbelliferae family such as caraway, parsley. Cumin has been in use since ancient times, seeds excavated at the Syrian site Tell ed-Der have been dated to the second millennium BC. They have also reported from several New Kingdom levels of ancient Egyptian archaeological sites. In the ancient Egyptian civilization, cumin was used as spice, originally cultivated in Iran and the Mediterranean region, cumin is mentioned in the Bible in both the Old Testament and the New Testament. The ancient Greeks kept cumin at the table in its own container. Cumin was also used heavily in ancient Roman cuisine, in India, it has been used for millennia as a traditional ingredient in innumerable recipes, and forms the basis of many other spice blends. Cumin was introduced to the Americas by Spanish and Portuguese colonists, several different types of cumin are known, but the most famous ones are black and green cumin, both of which are used in Persian cuisine. Today, the plant is grown in Pakistan, India, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Iran, Turkey, Morocco, Egypt, Syria, Mexico, Chile. Since cumin is used as part of birdseed and exported to many countries
28.
Clove
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Cloves are the aromatic flower buds of a tree in the family Myrtaceae, Syzygium aromaticum. They are native to the Maluku Islands in Indonesia, and are used as a spice. Cloves are commercially harvested primarily in Bangladesh, Indonesia, India, Madagascar, Zanzibar, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, cloves are available throughout the year. The clove tree is an evergreen that grows up to 8–12 m tall, with large leaves, the flower buds initially have a pale hue, gradually turn green, then transition to a bright red when ready for harvest. Cloves are harvested at 1. 5–2.0 cm long, and consist of a calyx that terminates in four spreading sepals. Cloves are used in the cuisine of Asian, African, and the Near and Middle East countries, lending flavor to meats, curries, cloves may be used to give aromatic and flavor qualities to hot beverages, often combined with other ingredients such as lemon and sugar. They are an element in spice blends such as pumpkin pie spice. In Mexican cuisine, cloves are best known as clavos de olor and they are also used in Peruvian cuisine, in a wide variety of dishes as carapulcra and arroz con leche. A major component of clove taste is imparted by the chemical eugenol, and it pairs well with cinnamon, allspice, vanilla, red wine and basil, as well as onion, citrus peel, star anise, or peppercorns. The spice is used in a type of cigarette called kretek in Indonesia, clove cigarettes have been smoked throughout Europe, Asia and the United States. Starting in 2009, clove cigarettes must be classified as cigars in the US, because of the bioactive chemicals of clove, the spice may be used as an ant repellent. Cloves can be used to make a fragrance pomander when combined with an orange, when given as a gift in Victorian England, such a pomander indicated warmth of feeling. Cloves are used in Indian Ayurvedic medicine, Chinese medicine, and western herbalism, cloves are used as a carminative, to increase hydrochloric acid in the stomach and to improve peristalsis. Cloves are also said to be a natural anthelmintic, the essential oil is used in aromatherapy when stimulation and warming are needed, especially for digestive problems. Topical application over the stomach or abdomen are said to warm the digestive tract, applied to a cavity in a decayed tooth, it also relieves toothache. Because the herb is so warming, it is contraindicated in any persons with fire symptoms, the U. S. Food and Drug Administration has reclassified eugenol, downgrading its effectiveness rating. The FDA now believes not enough evidence indicates clove oil or eugenol is effective for toothache pain or a variety of types of pain. Studies to determine its effectiveness for fever reduction, as a mosquito repellent and it remains unproven whether clove may reduce blood sugar levels
29.
Nutmeg
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Nutmeg is one of the two spices – the other being mace – derived from several species of tree in the genus Myristica. The most important commercial species is Myristica fragrans, a tree indigenous to the Banda Islands in the Moluccas of Indonesia. The first harvest of nutmeg trees takes place 7–9 years after planting, Nutmeg is usually used in powdered form. This is the tropical fruit that is the source of two different spices, obtained from different parts of the plant. Several other commercial products are produced from the trees, including essential oils, extracted oleoresins. The common or fragrant nutmeg, Myristica fragrans, is native to the Banda Islands in the Moluccas, other species used to adulterate the spice include Papuan nutmeg M. argentea from New Guinea, and M. malabarica from India. In the 17th-century work Hortus Botanicus Malabaricus, Hendrik van Rheede records that Indians learned the usage of nutmeg from the Indonesians through ancient trade routes, Nutmeg trees are dioecious plants which are propagated sexually and asexually, the latter being the standard. Sexual propagation by seedling yields 50% male seedlings, which are unproductive, epicotyl grafting, approach grafting, and patch budding have proved successful, with epicotyl grafting being the most widely adopted standard. Air-layering, or marcotting, is an alternative though not preferred method because of its low success rate, Nutmeg and mace have similar sensory qualities, with nutmeg having a slightly sweeter and mace a more delicate flavour. Mace is often preferred in light dishes for the bright orange, Nutmeg is used for flavouring many dishes, usually in ground or grated form, and is best grated fresh in a nutmeg grater. In Indonesian cuisine, nutmeg is used in dishes, mainly in many spicy soups, such as some variant of soto, konro, oxtail soup, sup iga, bakso. It is also used in gravy for meat dishes, such as beef stew, ribs with tomato, to European derived dishes such as bistik, rolade. Sliced nutmeg fruit flesh could be made as manisan, either wet, in Penang cuisine, dried, shredded nutmeg rind with sugar coating is used as toppings on the uniquely Penang ais kacang. Nutmeg rind is also blended or boiled to make iced nutmeg juice, in Indian cuisine, nutmeg is used in many sweet, as well as savoury, dishes. It is also added in quantities as a medicine for infants. It may also be used in quantities in garam masala. Ground nutmeg is also smoked in India, in Middle Eastern cuisine, ground nutmeg is often used as a spice for savoury dishes. In traditional European cuisine, nutmeg and mace are used especially in dishes and in processed meat products, they are also used in soups, sauces
30.
Sesame seed
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Sesame is a flowering plant in the genus Sesamum, also called benne. Numerous wild relatives occur in Africa and a number in India. It is widely naturalized in regions around the world and is cultivated for its edible seeds. The world harvested 4.2 million metric tonnes of seeds in 2013, with India. Sesame seed is one of the oldest oilseed crops known, domesticated well over 3000 years ago, Sesame has many species, most being wild and native to sub-Saharan Africa. Sesame indicum, the type, originated in India and is tolerant to drought-like conditions. Sesame has one of the highest oil contents of any seed, with a rich, nutty flavor, it is a common ingredient in cuisines across the world. Like other nuts and foods, it can trigger allergic reactions in some people, sometimes sold with its seed coat removed, this variety is often present on top of baked goods in many countries. The word sesame is from Latin sesamum or Greek sēsamon, it also has derivation from Arabic semsem, from these roots, words with the generalized meaning “oil, liquid fat” were derived. Sesame names vary among numerous languages, Sesame seed is considered to be the oldest oilseed crop known to humanity. The genus has many species, and most are wild, most wild species of the genus Sesamum are native to sub-Saharan Africa. Sesame indicum, the type, originated in India. Some reports claim sesame was cultivated in Egypt during the Ptolemiac period, records from Babylon and Assyria, dating about 4000 years ago, mention sesame. Egyptians called it sesemt, and it is included in the list of drugs in the scrolls of the Ebers Papyrus dated to be over 3600 years old. Archeological reports from Turkey indicate that sesame was grown and pressed to extract oil at least 2750 years ago in the empire of Urartu, the historic origin of sesame was favored by its ability to grow in areas that do not support the growth of other crops. It was a crop that could be grown by farmers at the edge of deserts. Sesame has been called a survivor crop, the flowers are yellow, tubular,3 to 5 cm long, with a four-lobed mouth. The flowers may vary in colour, with some being white, blue, Sesame seeds occur in many colours depending on the cultivar
31.
Aleurites moluccanus
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Its native range is impossible to establish precisely because of early spread by humans, and the tree is now distributed throughout the New and Old World tropics. It grows to a height of 15–25 m, with spreading or pendulous branches. The leaves are green, simple, and ovate, or trilobed or rarely five-lobed, with an acute apex. The nut is round, 4–6 cm in diameter, the seed inside has a hard seed coat and a high oil content. The nut is often used cooked in Indonesian and Malaysian cuisine, on the island of Java in Indonesia, it is used to make a thick sauce that is eaten with vegetables and rice. In the Philippines, the fruit and tree are known as lumbang after which Lumban. Before the intrusion of non-native species, it was used as a property-line manager. Outside of Southeast Asia, macadamia seeds are substituted for candlenuts when they are not available, as they have a similarly high oil content. The flavor, however, is different, as the candlenut is much more bitter. At least one cultivar in Costa Rica has no bitterness, a Hawaiian condiment known as ʻinamona is made from roasted kukui mixed into a paste with salt. ʻInamona is a key ingredient in traditional Hawaiian poke, in ancient Hawaiʻi, kukui nuts were burned to provide light. The nuts were strung in a row on a leaf midrib, lit on one end. This led to their use as a measure of time, hawaiians also extracted the oil from the nut and burned it in a stone oil lamp called a kukui hele po with a wick made of kapa cloth. A red-brown dye made from the bark was used on kapa. A coating of kukui oil helped preserve ʻupena, the nohona waʻa, pale of waʻa were made from the wood. The trunk was used to make smaller canoes used for fishing. Kukui was named the tree of Hawaii on 1 May 1959 due to its multitude of uses. It also represents the island of Molokaʻi, whose color is the silvery green of the kukui leaf
32.
Palm sugar
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Palm sugar was originally made from the sap of the Palmyra palm, the date palm or the sugar date palm. Now it is made from the sap of Arenga pinnata and the nipa palm. Palm sugar is often labelled under various other names reflecting the different species of palm utilised and its wide production area across Africa. Palm sugar is produced by tapping the sap from the inflorescence of the tree and boiling it down to produce a syrup, in some instances the tree itself is tapped rather than the flowering spikes, but this is an isolated production method. Often the distinction is made between coconut sugar and palm sugar, but this reflects the different species from which the sugar is sourced. The differences are semantic, as all the sugars under their various names are produced from the sucrose-rich sap of a palm species. In Thai cuisine, palm sugar is used in sweets and desserts
33.
Fish paste
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Fish paste is fish which has been chemically broken down by a fermentation process until it reaches the consistency of a soft creamy purée or paste. Alternatively it refers to cooked fish which has been broken down by pounding, grinding, pressing, mincing, blending, and/or sieving. The term can be applied also to shellfish pastes, such as shrimp paste or crab paste, fish paste is used as a condiment or seasoning to add flavour to food, or in some cases to complement a dish. Generally, fish paste is reduced to a thick, rich concentrate, preservation of marine products is of great importance to the coastal poor. Preserved fish products ensure adequate protein during low fishing periods, subsistence fishers use their abundant catch of small fish to make fermented fish paste and smoked fish with the assistance of family members. Adult penguins crush and process fish into a paste which is stored in their throat pouch, fish sauce List of fish sauces List of condiments List of sauces
34.
Basa gede
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Indonesian cuisine is one of the most vibrant and colourful cuisines in the world, full of intense flavour. Many regional cuisines exist, often based upon indigenous culture and foreign influences, Indonesia has around 5,350 traditional recipes, with 30 of them considered the most important. Indonesia cuisine may include rice, noodle and soup dishes in local modest shops to street-side snacks, rendang top the list as the number one, followed closely by nasi goreng in number two, and satay in number fourteen. Indonesian cuisine varies greatly by region and has different influences. The cuisines of Eastern Indonesia are similar to Polynesian and Melanesian cuisine, elements of Chinese cuisine can be seen in Indonesian cuisine, foods such as noodles, meat balls, and spring rolls have been completely assimilated. Throughout its history, Indonesia has been involved in due to its location. Additionally, Indonesia’s indigenous techniques and ingredients were influenced by India, the Middle East, China, Spanish and Portuguese traders brought New World produce even before the Dutch came to colonise most of the archipelago. The Indonesian islands The Moluccas, which are famed as the Spice Islands, also contributed to the introduction of native spices, such as cloves and nutmeg, to Indonesian, Indonesian cuisine often demonstrates complex flavour, acquired from certain ingredients and bumbu spices mixture. Indonesian dishes have rich flavours, most often described as savory, hot and spicy, seven main Indonesian cooking methods are frying, roasting, grilling, sautéing, roasted, boiling and steaming. Some popular Indonesian dishes such as nasi goreng, gado-gado, Satay, today, some popular dishes that originated in Indonesia are now common to neighbouring countries, Malaysia and Singapore. Indonesian dishes such as satay, beef rendang, and sambal are favoured in Malaysia, soy-based dishes, such as variations of tofu and tempeh, are also very popular. Tempeh is regarded as a Javanese invention, a adaptation of soy-based food fermentation and production. Another fermented food is oncom, similar in ways to tempeh but using a variety of bases, created by different fungi. Indonesian traditional meals usually consists of steamed rice as staple, surrounded by vegetables and soup, in a typical family meal, the family members gather around the table filled with steamed rice and several other dishes. Each dish is placed in a separate communal large plate or in bowls, each of these dishes has its own serving spoons, used only to take parts of the dishes from the communal plate into ones own personal plate. Each of the members has their own personal plate that is first filled with steamed rice. Usually the oldest family member or the husband has the right to initiate the meal, each of them take some portion of dishes from the communal plates into their own individual plates. On their personal plate, the rice will soon be surrounded by two, three or more dishes, vegetables and fish or meat, and maybe some fried dishes, sambal
35.
Rambutan
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The rambutan is a medium-sized tropical tree in the family Sapindaceae. The name also refers to the fruit produced by this tree. The rambutan is native to the Malay-Indonesian region, and other regions of tropical Southeast Asia and it is closely related to several other edible tropical fruits including the lychee, longan, and mamoncillo. The name rambutan is derived from the Malay-Indonesian languages word for rambut or hair, in Vietnam, it is called chôm chôm due to the spines covering the fruits skin. Native to tropical Southeast Asia, rambutan is commonly grown among various countries throughout the region and it has spread from there to various parts of Asia, Africa, Oceania and Central America. The widest variety of cultivars, wild and cultivated, are found in Indonesia and Malaysia, around the 13th to 15th centuries, Arab traders that played a major role in Indian Ocean trade introduced rambutan into Zanzibar and Pemba of East Africa. There are limited plantings in some parts of India. In the 19th century, the Dutch introduced rambutan from their colony in Southeast Asia, subsequently, the plant spread to tropical Americas, planted in the coastal lowlands of Colombia, Ecuador, Honduras, Costa Rica, Trinidad and Cuba. In 1912, rambutan was introduced to the Philippines from Indonesia, further introductions were made in 1920 and 1930, but until the 1950s its distribution was limited. There was an attempt to introduce rambutan to the southeastern United States, with seeds imported from Java in 1906 and it is an evergreen tree growing to a height of 12–20 m. The leaves are alternate, 10–30 cm long, pinnate, with three to 11 leaflets, each leaflet 5–15 cm wide and 3–10 cm broad, with an entire margin. The flowers are small,2. 5–5 mm, apetalous, discoidal, Rambutan trees can be male, female, or hermaphroditic. The fruit is a round to oval single-seeded berry, 3–6 cm long and 3–4 cm broad, the leathery skin is reddish, and covered with fleshy pliable spines, hence the name, which means hairs. The fruit flesh, which is actually the aril, is translucent, whitish or very pale pink, with a sweet, the single seed is glossy brown, 1–1.3 cm, with a white basal scar. Soft and containing equal portions of saturated and unsaturated fats, the seeds may be cooked, the peeled fruits can be eaten raw, or cooked and eaten, first, the grape-like fleshy aril, then the nutty seed, with no waste. Aromatic rambutan flowers are attractive to many insects, especially bees. Flies, bees, and ants are the main pollinators, among the Diptera, Lucilia spp. are abundant, and among the Hymenoptera, honey bees and the stingless bee genus Trigona are the major visitors. A. cerana colonies foraging on rambutan flowers produce large quantities of honey, bees foraging for nectar routinely contact the stigma of male flowers and gather significant quantities of the sticky pollen from male blossoms
36.
Mango
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Mangoes are juicy stone fruit from numerous species of tropical trees belonging to the flowering plant genus Mangifera, cultivated mostly for their edible fruit. The majority of species are found in nature as wild mangoes. The genus belongs to the cashew family Anacardiaceae, mangoes are native to South Asia, from where the common mango or Indian mango, Mangifera indica, has been distributed worldwide to become one of the most widely cultivated fruits in the tropics. Other Mangifera species are grown on a more localized basis. It is the fruit of India, Pakistan, and the Philippines. Mango trees grow to 35–40 m tall, with a radius of 10 m. The trees are long-lived, as some specimens still fruit after 300 years, in deep soil, the taproot descends to a depth of 6 m, with profuse, wide-spreading feeder roots, the tree also sends down many anchor roots, which penetrate several feet of soil. The leaves are evergreen, alternate, simple, 15–35 cm long, and 6–16 cm broad, when the leaves are young they are orange-pink, rapidly changing to a dark, glossy red, then dark green as they mature. The flowers are produced in terminal panicles 10–40 cm long, each flower is small and white with five petals 5–10 mm long, with a mild, over 400 varieties of mangoes are known, many of which ripen in summer, while some give double crop. The fruit takes three to six months to ripen, the ripe fruit varies in size and color. Cultivars are variously yellow, orange, red, or green, and carry a single flat, oblong pit that can be fibrous or hairy on the surface, ripe, unpeeled mangoes give off a distinctive resinous, sweet smell. Inside the pit 1–2 mm thick is a thin lining covering a single seed, the seed contains the plant embryo. Mangoes have recalcitrant seeds, they do not survive freezing and drying, the English word mango originated from the Malayalam word māṅṅa via Portuguese during spice trade with Kerala in 1498. The origin of the -o ending in English is unclear, when mangoes were first imported to the American colonies in the 17th century, they had to be pickled because of lack of refrigeration. Other fruits were also pickled and came to be called mangoes, especially bell peppers, and by the 18th century, in Mandarin Chinese, mango is 芒果, or mángguǒ in Pinyin. This is most likely a loanword from English, mangoes have been cultivated in South Asia for thousands of years and reached Southeast Asia between the fifth and fourth centuries BCE. By the 10th century CE, cultivation had begun in East Africa, the 14th-century Moroccan traveler Ibn Battuta reported it at Mogadishu. Cultivation came later to Brazil, Bermuda, the West Indies, and Mexico, the mango is now cultivated in most frost-free tropical and warmer subtropical climates, almost half of the worlds mangoes are cultivated in India alone, with the second-largest source being China
37.
Purple mangosteen
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The purple mangosteen, colloquially known simply as mangosteen, is a tropical evergreen tree believed to have originated in the Sunda Islands and the Moluccas of Indonesia. It grows mainly in Southeast Asia, southwest India and other areas such as Puerto Rico and Florida. The tree grows from 6 to 25 m tall, the fruit of the mangosteen is sweet and tangy, juicy, somewhat fibrous, with fluid-filled vesicles, with an inedible, deep reddish-purple colored rind when ripe. In each fruit, the fragrant edible flesh that surrounds each seed is botanically endocarp, the purple mangosteen belongs to the same genus as the other, less widely known, mangosteens, such as the button mangosteen or the charichuelo. Mangosteen is a plant to Sunda Islands and the Moluccas of Indonesia. The 15th-century Chinese record Yingyai Shenglan described mangosteen as mang-chi-shih, a plant of Java of white flesh with delectable sweet. A description of mangosteen was included in the Species Plantarum by Linnaeus in 1753, the mangosteen was introduced into English greenhouses in 1855. Subsequently its culture was introduced into the Western Hemisphere, where it established in West Indies islands. It was later established on the Americas mainland in Guatemala, Honduras, Panama, the mangosteen tree generally does not grow well outside the tropics. There is a legend about Queen Victoria offering a reward of 100 pounds sterling to anyone who could deliver to her the fresh fruit, in his publication, Hortus Veitchii, James Herbert Veitch says he visited Java in 1892, to eat the Mangosteen. It is necessary to eat the Mangosteen grown within three or four degrees of latitude of the equator to realize at all the attractive and curious properties of this fruit. Since 2006, private small-volume orders for fruits grown in Puerto Rico were sold to American specialty food stores, Mangosteen is usually propagated by seedlings. Vegetative propagation is difficult and seedlings are more robust and reach fruiting earlier than vegetative propagated plants, Mangosteen produces a recalcitrant seed which is not a true seed strictly defined, but rather described as a nucellar asexual embryo. As seed formation involves no sexual fertilization, the seedling is genetically identical to the mother plant. If allowed to dry, a seed dies quickly, but if soaked, seed germination takes between 14 and 21 days when the plant can be kept in a nursery for about 2 years growing in a small pot. When the trees are approximately 25–30 cm, they are transplanted to the field at a spacing of 20–40 m, after planting, the field is mulched in order to control weeds. Transplanting takes place in the season because young trees are likely to be damaged by drought. Because young trees need shade, intercropping with banana, plantain, coconut palms are mainly used in areas with a long dry season, as palms also provide shade for mature mangosteen trees
38.
Banana
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The banana is an edible fruit – botanically a berry – produced by several kinds of large herbaceous flowering plants in the genus Musa. In some countries, bananas used for cooking may be called plantains, in contrast to dessert bananas. The fruit is variable in size, color and firmness, but is elongated and curved, with soft flesh rich in starch covered with a rind which may be green, yellow, red, purple. The fruits grow in clusters hanging from the top of the plant, almost all modern edible parthenocarpic bananas come from two wild species – Musa acuminata and Musa balbisiana. The scientific names of most cultivated bananas are Musa acuminata, Musa balbisiana, the old scientific name Musa sapientum is no longer used. Musa species are native to tropical Indomalaya and Australia, and are likely to have been first domesticated in Papua New Guinea. They are grown in 135 countries, primarily for their fruit, worldwide, there is no sharp distinction between bananas and plantains. Especially in the Americas and Europe, banana usually refers to soft, sweet, dessert bananas, particularly those of the Cavendish group, by contrast, Musa cultivars with firmer, starchier fruit are called plantains. In other regions, such as Southeast Asia, many kinds of banana are grown and eaten. The term banana is used as the common name for the plants which produce the fruit. This can extend to members of the genus Musa like the scarlet banana, pink banana. It can also refer to members of the genus Ensete, like the snow banana, both genera are classified under the banana family, Musaceae. The banana plant is the largest herbaceous flowering plant, all the above-ground parts of a banana plant grow from a structure usually called a corm. Plants are normally tall and fairly sturdy, and are mistaken for trees. Bananas grow in a variety of soils, as long as the soil is at least 60 cm deep, has good drainage and is not compacted. The leaves of plants are composed of a stalk and a blade. The base of the petiole widens to form a sheath, the tightly packed sheaths make up the pseudostem, the edges of the sheath meet when it is first produced, making it tubular. As new growth occurs in the centre of the pseudostem the edges are forced apart, cultivated banana plants vary in height depending on the variety and growing conditions
39.
Jackfruit
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The jackfruit, also known as jack tree, jakfruit, or sometimes simply jack or jak, is a species of tree in the fig, mulberry, and breadfruit family. It is native to parts of South and Southeast Asia and is believed to have originated in the rain forests of the Western Ghats in the Indian subcontinent. The jackfruit tree is suited to tropical lowlands, and its fruit is the largest tree-borne fruit, reaching as much as 35 kg in weight,90 cm in length. The jackfruit tree can produce about 100 to 200 fruits in a year, the jackfruit is a multiple fruit, composed of hundreds to thousands of individual flowers, and it is the fleshy petals that are eaten. The jackfruit tree is a cultivated and popular food item throughout the tropical regions of the world. Jackfruit is the fruit of Bangladesh. The word jackfruit comes from Portuguese jaca, which in turn is derived from the Malayalam language term chakka. When the Portuguese arrived in India at Kozhikode on the Malabar Coast in 1498, henry Yule translated the book in Jordanus Catalanis Mirabilia descripta, the wonders of the East. The common English name jackfruit was used by physician and naturalist Garcia de Orta in his 1563 book Colóquios dos simples e drogas da India. Centuries later, botanist Ralph Randles Stewart suggested it was named after William Jack, a Scottish botanist who worked for the East India Company in Bengal, Sumatra, the jackfruit has played a significant role in Indian agriculture for centuries. Archeological findings in India have revealed that jackfruit was cultivated in India 3000 to 6000 years ago and it has also been widely cultivated in southeast Asia. Stingless bees such as Tetragonula iridipennis are jackfruit pollinators, and as such, the jackfruit also provides a potential solution to countries facing problems with food security, such as in several countries of Africa. In terms of taking care of the plant, minimal pruning is required, in addition, twigs bearing fruit must be twisted or cut down to the trunk to induce growth for the next season. Branches may also be cut off every three to four years to maintain its productivity, Jackfruit have a distinctive sweet and fruity aroma. A fully ripe and unopened jackfruit is known to emit an aroma, with the inside of the fruit described as smelling of pineapple. After roasting, the seeds may be an alternative to chocolate aroma. The flesh of the jackfruit is starchy and fibrous and is a source of dietary fiber, the flavor is comparable to a combination of apple, pineapple, mango, and banana. Varieties are distinguished according to characteristics of the fruits flesh, Jackfruit is commonly used in South and Southeast Asian cuisines
40.
Passiflora edulis
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Passiflora edulis is a vine species of passion flower that is native to southern Brazil through Paraguay to northern Argentina. Its common names include passion fruit or passionfruit, maracuya, grenadille or fruit de la passion, maracujá and it is cultivated commercially in tropical and subtropical areas for its sweet, seedy fruit. The passion fruit is a pepo, a type of berry, round to oval, either yellow or dark purple at maturity, with a soft to firm, the fruit is both eaten and juiced, passion fruit juice is often added to other fruit juices to enhance aroma. The passion fruit is so called because it is one of the species of passion flower, leading to the English translation of the Latin genus name. There are two varieties in the species of Passiflora edulis. One is a shallow-rooted, woody, perennial that possesses many tendrils, the young tendrils are finely-toothed and typically have a red or purple hue. Usually the vine produces a single flower 5-7.5 cm wide at each node, the flower has 5 oblong, green sepals and 5 white petals. The sepals and petals are 4-6mm in length and form a fringe. The base of the flower is a rich purple with 5 stamens, an ovary, the styles bend backward and the anthers, which are located on top of the styles, have a very distinct head. The berry produced is fleshy and spherical and it is 1-1.4 cm long and 9-13 mm thick with a thick layer of pith. The outside color of the ranges from hues of dark-purple to black with fine white specks light yellow in color. Within the berry, there is typically 250 black seed 2.4 mm in length, the seeds are surrounded by a membranous sac filled with pulpy juice. The flavor of the juice is acidic and musky. The passion fruits flavor can be compared to that of the guava fruit, the yellow form of the passion fruit flower is self-sterile. Pollination of flowers is most effective when done by the carpenter bee, there are three types of passion fruit flower classified by curvature of style. To help assure the presence of carpenter bees, place decaying logs near the vines, Passion fruit is widely grown in tropical and semitropical regions of the world. Within the United States, it is grown in Florida and California, certain cultivars are resilient against light frosts, and thus can survive perennially, even in more temperate climates such as that of Great Britain. Passion fruit flower is the flower of Paraguay. Several distinct varieties of fruit with clearly differing exterior appearances exist
41.
Pineapple
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The pineapple is a tropical plant with an edible multiple fruit consisting of coalesced berries, also called pineapples, and the most economically significant plant in the Bromeliaceae family. Pineapples may be cultivated from a cutting of the fruit, possibly flowering in 5-10 months. Pineapples do not ripen significantly after harvest, pineapples can be consumed fresh, cooked, juiced, or preserved. They are found in an array of cuisines. The fiber is used as a component for wallpaper and other furnishings. The word pineapple in English was first recorded to describe the organs of conifer trees. When European explorers discovered this tropical fruit in the Americas, they called them pineapples, other members of the Ananas genus are often called pine, as well, in other languages. In Spanish, pineapples are called piña, or ananá, the pineapple is a herbaceous perennial, which grows to 1.0 to 1.5 m tall, although sometimes it can be taller. In appearance, the plant has a short, stocky stem with tough, when creating its fruit, it usually produces up to 200 flowers, although some large-fruited cultivars can exceed this. Once it flowers, the fruits of the flowers join together to create what is commonly referred to as a pineapple. After the first fruit is produced, side shoots are produced in the axils of the main stem. These may be removed for propagation, or left to produce additional fruits on the original plant, commercially, suckers that appear around the base are cultivated. It has 30 or more long, narrow, fleshy, trough-shaped leaves with sharp spines along the margins that are 30 to 100 cm long, surrounding a thick stem, in the first year of growth, the axis lengthens and thickens, bearing numerous leaves in close spirals. After 12 to 20 months, the stem grows into an inflorescence up to 15 cm long with over 100 spirally arranged, trimerous flowers. Flower colors vary, depending on variety, from lavender, through light purple to red, the ovaries develop into berries, which coalesce into a large, compact, multiple fruit. The fruit of a pineapple is arranged in two interlocking helices, eight in one direction,13 in the other, each being a Fibonacci number. The pineapple carries out CAM photosynthesis, fixing carbon dioxide at night and storing it as the acid malate, seed formation needs pollination, but the presence of seeds harms the quality of the fruit. In Hawaii, where pineapple is cultivated on an agricultural scale, certain bat-pollinated wild pineapples open their flowers only at night
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Salak
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It can also refer to the kakasillo. Salak is a species of tree native to Java and Sumatra in Indonesia. It is cultivated in regions as a food crop, and reportedly naturalized in Bali, Lombok, Timor, Malaysia, Maluku. It is a very short-stemmed palm, with leaves up to 6 metres long, each leaf has a 2-metre long petiole with spines up to 15 centimetres long, and numerous leaflets. The fruits grow in clusters at the base of the palm and they are about the size and shape of a ripe fig, with a distinct tip. The fruit can be peeled by pinching the tip, which should cause the skin to slough off so it can be pulled away, the fruit inside consists of three lobes with the two larger ones, or even all three, containing a large inedible seed. The lobes resemble, and have the consistency of, large peeled garlic cloves, the taste is usually sweet and acidic, with a strong astringent edge, but its apple-like texture can vary from very dry and crumbly to moist and crunchy. The salak tree has been cultivated throughout Indonesia, and there are at least 30 cultivars, two popular cultivars are salak pondoh from Yogyakarta province and salak Bali from Bali island. Salak pondoh is an important fruit in the Yogyakarta province on the island of Java, in the five years to 1999, the annual production in Yogyakarta doubled to 28,666 tons. Its popularity among local Indonesian consumers is mainly due to the intensity of its aroma, salak pondoh has three more superior variations, namely pondoh super, pondoh hitam, and pondoh gading. Salak Bali is commonly sold all over the island of Bali, the fruit is roughly the size of a large fig, and has a crunchy and moist consistency. The fruit has a starchy mouth feel, and a flavour reminiscent of dilute pineapple, the most expensive cultivar of the Bali salak is the gula pasir, which is smaller than the normal salak and is the sweetest of all salak. The price in Bali is Rp 15, 000-30,000 per kilogram depending on time of year, supriyadi, Suhardi, M. Suzuki, K. Yoshida, T. Muto, A. Fujita & N. Watanabe. Changes in the Volatile Compounds and in the Chemical and Physical Properties of Snake Fruit Cv
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Lansium parasiticum
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Lansium parasiticum, also known as langsat or lanzones, is a species of tree in the Mahogany family. The plant, which originates from western Southeast Asia, bears edible fruit and it is the provincial flower for the Indonesian province of South Sumatra. The tree is average sized, reaching 30 metres in height and 75 centimetres in diameter, seedling trees 30 years old planted at 8 x 8 meter spacing can have a height of 10 meters and diameter of 25 cm. The trunk grows in a manner, with its buttress roots showing above ground. The trees bark is a colour, with light and dark spots. Its resin is thick and milk coloured, the pinnately compound leaves are odd numbered, with thin hair, and 6 to 9 buds at intervals. The buds are long and elliptical, approximately 9 to 21 centimetres by 5 to 10 centimetres in size, the upper edge shines, and the leaves themselves have pointed bases and tips. The stems of the buds measure 5 to 12 millimetres, the flowers are located in inflorescences that grow and hang from large branches or the trunk, the bunches may number up to 5 in one place. They are often branched at their base, measure 10 to 30 centimetres in size, the flowers are small, with short stems, and have two genders. The sheathe is shaped like a five lobed cup and is coloured a greenish-yellow, the corona is egg-shaped and hard, measuring 2 to 3 millimetres by 4 to 5 millimetres. There is one stamen, measuring 2 millimetres in length, the top of the stamen is round. The pistil is short and thick, the fruit can be elliptical, ovoid or round, measuring 2 to 7 centimetres by 1.5 to 5 centimetres in size. Fruits look much like potatoes and are borne in clusters similar to grapes. The larger fruits are on the variety known as duku and it is covered by thin, yellow hair giving a slightly fuzzy aspect. The skin thickness varies with the varieties, from 2 millimetres to approximately 6 millimetres, the fruit contains 1 to 3 seeds, flat, and bitter tasting, the seeds are covered with a thick, clear-white aril that tastes sweet and sour. The taste has been likened to a combination of grape and grapefruit and is considered excellent by most, the sweet juicy flesh contains sucrose, fructose, and glucose. For consumption, cultivars with small or undeveloped seeds and thick aril are preferred, overall, there are two main groups of cultivars, those named duku and those named langsat. There are also mixed duku-langsat varieties and those called duku generally have a large crown, thick with bright green leaves, with short bunches of few fruit
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Longan
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Dimocarpus longan, commonly known as the longan, is a tropical tree that produces edible fruit. It is one of the better-known tropical members of the soapberry family, included in the soapberry family are the lychee, rambutan, guarani, koran, pitomba, Spanish lime and ackee. Longan is commonly associated with lychee, which is similar in structure but more aromatic in taste and it is native to Southern Asia. The longan, is so named because it resembles an eyeball when its fruit is shelled, the seed is small, round and hard, and of an enamel-like, lacquered black. The fully ripened, freshly harvested fruit has a shell, thin. When the shell has more content and is more tender. The tenderness of the shell due to either premature harvest, variety, weather conditions. Depending upon climate and soil type the tree may grow over 100 feet in height, but it typically stands 30-40 ft in height, the trunk is 2.5 ft thick with corky bark. The branches are long and thick, typically drooping, the leaves are oblong and blunt-tipped, usually 4 to 8 in long and 2 in wide. The leaves are pinnately compounded and alternate, there are 6 to 9 pairs of leaflets per leaf and the upper surface is wavy and a dark, glossy-green. The Longan tree produces light-yellow inflorescences located at the end of branches, the inflorescence is commonly called a panicle and are 4 to 18 in long, and widely-branched. The small flowers have 5 to 6 sepals and petals that are brownish-yellow, the flower has a two-lobed pistil and 8 stamen. There are three types, distributed throughout the panicle, staminate, pistillate, and hermaphroditic flowers. The fruit hangs in drooping clusters that are circular and about 1 in wide, the peel is tan, thin, and leathery with tiny hairs. The flesh is translucent, and the seed is large and black with a white spot at the base. This gives the illusion of an eye, the flesh has a musky, sweet taste, which can be compared to the flavor the lychee fruit. The Lognan tree is sensitive to frost. While the species prefers temperatures that do not typically fall below 4.5 °C, longans usually bear fruit slightly later than lychees
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Papaya
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The papaya, papaw, or pawpaw is the plant Carica papaya, one of the 22 accepted species in the genus Carica of the family Caricaceae. It is native to the tropics of the Americas, perhaps from southern Mexico and it was first cultivated in Mexico several centuries before the emergence of the Mesoamerican classical civilizations. The papaya is a small, sparsely branched tree, usually with a stem growing from 5 to 10 m tall. The lower trunk is conspicuously scarred where leaves and fruit were borne, the leaves are large, 50–70 cm in diameter, deeply palmately lobed, with seven lobes. All parts of the plant contain latex in articulated laticifers, unusually for such large plants, the trees are dioecious. The flowers are 5-parted and highly dimorphic, the flowers with the stamens fused to the petals. The female flowers have a superior ovary and five contorted petals loosely connected at the base, male and female flowers are borne in the leaf axils, the males in multiflowered dichasia, the female flowers is few-flowered dichasia. The flowers are sweet-scented, open at night and are moth-pollinated, the fruit is a large berry about 15–45 cm long and 10–30 cm in diameter. It is ripe when it feels soft and its skin has attained an amber to orange hue, Papaya is native to Mexico and extends to South America and has become naturalized throughout the Caribbean Islands, Florida and several countries of Africa. Additional crops are grown in India, Australia, Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, Thailand, Papaya plants grow in three sexes, male, female, hermaphrodite. The male produces only pollen, never fruit, the female will produce small, inedible fruits unless pollinated. The hermaphrodite can self-pollinate since its flowers contain both male stamens and female ovaries, almost all commercial papaya orchards contain only hermaphrodites. Originally from southern Mexico, Central America, and northern South America, in cultivation, it grows rapidly, fruiting within three years. It is, however, highly frost-sensitive, limiting its production to tropical climates, temperatures below −2 °C are greatly harmful if not fatal. In Florida and California, growth is limited to southern parts of the states. It prefers sandy, well-drained soil, as standing water will kill the plant within 24 hours, India and Brazil are the major producers of papaya, together providing 57% of the world total of 12.4 million tons in 2013. Gaining in popularity among tropical fruits worldwide, papaya is now ranked fourth in total tropical fruit production after bananas, oranges, global papaya production has grown significantly over the last few years, mainly as a result of increased production in India. Papaya has become an important agricultural export for developing countries, where export revenues of the fruit provide a livelihood for thousands of people, especially in Asia, Carica papaya was the first transgenic fruit tree to have its genome sequenced
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Melon
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A melon is any of various plants of the family Cucurbitaceae with sweet edible, fleshy fruit. The word melon can refer to either the plant or specifically to the fruit, botanically, a melon is a kind of berry, specifically a pepo. The word melon derives from Latin melopepo, which is the latinization of the Greek μηλοπέπων, meaning melon, itself a compound of μῆλον, apple and πέπων, many different cultivars have been produced, particularly of muskmelons. Melons originated in Africa and southwest Asia, but they began to appear in Europe toward the end of the Roman Empire. Melons were among the earliest plants to be domesticated in both the Old and New Worlds, early European settlers in the New World are recorded as growing honeydew and casaba melons as early as the 1600s. Organizations like Native Seeds/SEARCH have made an effort to collect and preserve these, winter melon is the only member of the genus Benincasa. The mature winter melon is a vegetable that is widely used in Asia and India. The immature melons are used as a culinary fruit, egusi is a wild melon, similar in appearance to the watermelon. The flesh is inedible, but the seeds are a food source in Africa. Other species that have the same role, and that are also called egusi include Cucumeropsis mannii. Watermelon originated in Africa, where evidence indicates that it has been cultivated for over 4,000 years and it is a popular summer fruit in all parts of the world. Melons in genus Cucumis are culinary fruits, and include the majority of culinary melons, all but a handful of culinary melon varieties belong to the species Cucumis melo L. Horned melon, a traditional food plant in Africa with distinctive spikes. Now grown in California, Chile, Australia and New Zealand as well, muskmelon C. melo cantalupensis, with skin that is rough and warty, not netted. The European cantaloupe, with lightly ribbed, pale skin, was domesticated in the 18th century, in Cantalupo in Sabina, Italy. Varieties include the French Charentais and the Burpee Seeds hybrid Netted Gem, the Yubari King is a highly prized Japanese cantaloupe cultivar. The Persian melon resemble a large cantaloupe with a darker green rind, C. melo inodorus, casabas, honeydew, and Asian melons Argos, a large, oblong, with orange wrinkled skin, orange flesh, strong aroma. A characteristic is its pointed ends, growing in some areas of Greece, from which it was named. Canary melon, a large, bright-yellow melon with a green to white inner flesh
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Orange (fruit)
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The orange is the fruit of the citrus species Citrus × sinensis in the family Rutaceae. It is also called orange, to distinguish it from the related Citrus × aurantium. The sweet orange reproduces asexually, varieties of sweet orange arise through mutations, the orange is a hybrid between pomelo and mandarin. It has genes that are ~25% pomelo and ~75% mandarin, however, it is not a simple backcrossed BC1 hybrid, the chloroplast genes, and therefore the maternal line, seem to be pomelo. The sweet orange has had its genome sequenced. Earlier estimates of the percentage of pomelo genes varying from ~50% to 6% have been reported, sweet oranges were mentioned in Chinese literature in 314 BC. As of 1987, orange trees were found to be the most cultivated fruit tree in the world, orange trees are widely grown in tropical and subtropical climates for their sweet fruit. The fruit of the tree can be eaten fresh, or processed for its juice or fragrant peel. As of 2012, sweet oranges accounted for approximately 70% of citrus production, in 2014,70.9 million tonnes of oranges were grown worldwide, with Brazil producing 24% of the world total followed by China and India. All citrus trees belong to the single genus Citrus and remain almost entirely interfertile and this includes grapefruits, lemons, limes, oranges, and various other types and hybrids. The fruit of any citrus tree is considered a hesperidium, a kind of modified berry, different names have been given to the many varieties of the genus. Orange applies primarily to the sweet orange – Citrus sinensis Osbeck, the orange tree is an evergreen, flowering tree, with an average height of 9 to 10 m, although some very old specimens can reach 15 m. Its oval leaves, alternately arranged, are 4 to 10 cm long and have crenulate margins, when unripe, the fruit is green. The grainy irregular rind of the fruit can range from bright orange to yellow-orange. Like all other fruits, the sweet orange is non-climacteric. The Citrus sinensis group is subdivided into four classes with distinct characteristics, common oranges, blood or pigmented oranges, navel oranges, other citrus groups also known as oranges are, Bitter orange, also known as Seville orange, sour orange, bigarade orange and marmalade orange. Like the sweet orange, it is a pomelo x mandarin hybrid, bergamot orange, grown mainly in Italy for its peel, producing a primary essence for perfumes, also used to flavor Earl Grey tea. It is a hybrid, probably bitter orange x limetta, trifoliate orange, sometimes included in the genus
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Coconut
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The coconut tree is a member of the family Arecaceae and the only species of the genus Cocos. The term coconut can refer to the coconut palm or the seed, or the fruit. The spelling cocoanut is a form of the word. The term is derived from the 16th-century Portuguese and Spanish word coco meaning head or skull, coconuts are known for their great versatility, as evidenced by many traditional uses, ranging from food to cosmetics. They form a part of the diets of many people in the tropics and subtropics. Coconuts are distinct from other fruits for their quantity of water. When mature, they can be used as seed nuts or processed to give oil from the kernel, charcoal from the hard shell, the endosperm is initially in its nuclear phase suspended within the coconut water. As development continues, cellular layers of endosperm deposit along the walls of the coconut, when dried, the coconut flesh is called copra. The oil and milk derived from it are used in cooking and frying, as well as in soaps. The husks and leaves can be used as material to make a variety of products for furnishing and decorating, the coconut also has cultural and religious significance in certain societies, particularly in India, where it is used in Hindu rituals. Cocos nucifera is a palm, growing up to 30 m tall, with pinnate leaves 4–6 m long. Coconuts are generally classified into two types, tall and dwarf. On fertile soil, a coconut palm tree can yield up to 75 fruits per year. Given proper care and growing conditions, coconut palms produce their first fruit in six to ten years, botanically, the coconut fruit is a drupe, not a true nut. Like other fruits, it has three layers, the exocarp, mesocarp, and endocarp, the exocarp and mesocarp make up the husk of the coconuts. Coconuts sold in the shops of nontropical countries often have had the exocarp removed, the mesocarp is composed of a fiber, called coir, which has many traditional and commercial uses. The shell has three germination pores or eyes that are visible on its outside surface once the husk is removed. A full-sized coconut weighs about 1.44 kg and it takes around 6,000 full-grown coconuts to produce a tonne of copra
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