1.
Indonesia
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Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a unitary sovereign state and transcontinental country located mainly in Southeast Asia with some territories in Oceania. Situated between the Indian and Pacific oceans, it is the worlds largest island country, with more than seventeen thousand islands. At 1,904,569 square kilometres, Indonesia is the worlds 14th-largest country in terms of area and worlds 7th-largest country in terms of combined sea. It has an population of over 260 million people and is the worlds fourth most populous country. The worlds most populous island, Java, contains more than half of the countrys population, Indonesias republican form of government includes an elected legislature and president. Indonesia has 34 provinces, of which five have Special Administrative status and its capital and countrys most populous city is Jakarta, which is also the most populous city in Southeast Asia and the second in Asia. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, other neighbouring countries include Singapore, Vietnam, the Philippines, Australia, Palau, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the second highest level of biodiversity. The country has abundant natural resources like oil and natural gas, tin, copper, agriculture mainly produces rice, palm oil, tea, coffee, cacao, medicinal plants, spices and rubber. Indonesias major trading partners are Japan, United States, China, the Indonesian archipelago has been an important region for trade since at least the 7th century, when Srivijaya and then later Majapahit traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries CE, Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Indonesia consists of hundreds of native ethnic and linguistic groups. The largest – and politically dominant – ethnic group are the Javanese, a shared identity has developed, defined by a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a Muslim-majority population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. Indonesias national motto, Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, articulates the diversity that shapes the country, Indonesias economy is the worlds 16th largest by nominal GDP and the 8th largest by GDP at PPP, the largest in Southeast Asia, and is considered an emerging market and newly industrialised country. Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950, Indonesia is a member of the G20 major economies and World Trade Organization. The name Indonesia derives from the Greek name of the Indós, the name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians—and, his preference, in the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago. However, Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia, they preferred Malay Archipelago, the Netherlands East Indies, popularly Indië, the East, and Insulinde
2.
Bali
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Bali is an island and province of Indonesia. The province includes the island of Bali and a few smaller neighbouring islands, notably Nusa Penida, Nusa Lembongan and it is located at the westernmost end of the Lesser Sunda Islands, between Java to the west and Lombok to the east. Its capital, Denpasar, is located in the part of the island. With a population of 3,890,757 in the 2010 census, and 4,225,000 as of January 2014, the island is home to most of Indonesias Hindu minority. According to the 2010 Census,83. 5% of Balis population adhered to Balinese Hinduism, followed by 13. 4% Muslim, Christianity at 2. 5%, Bali is a popular tourist destination, which has seen a significant rise in tourists since the 1980s. Tourism-related business makes up 80% of its economy and it is renowned for its highly developed arts, including traditional and modern dance, sculpture, painting, leather, metalworking, and music. The Indonesian International Film Festival is held every year in Bali, in March 2017, Tripadvisor named the island the worlds top destination in its Travelers choice award. Bali is part of the Coral Triangle, the area with the highest biodiversity of marine species, in this area alone over 500 reef building coral species can be found. For comparison, this is about 7 times as many as in the entire Caribbean, most recently, Bali was the host of the 2011 ASEAN Summit,2013 APEC and Miss World 2013. Bali is the home of the Subak Irrigation System, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Bali was inhabited around 2000 BC by Austronesian people who migrated originally from Southeast Asia and Oceania through Maritime Southeast Asia. Culturally and linguistically, the Balinese are closely related to the people of the Indonesian archipelago, Malaysia, stone tools dating from this time have been found near the village of Cekik in the islands west. In ancient Bali, nine Hindu sects existed, namely Pasupata, Bhairawa, Siwa Shidanta, Waisnawa, Bodha, Brahma, Resi, Sora, each sect revered a specific deity as its personal Godhead. Inscriptions from 896 and 911 dont mention a king, until 914 and they also reveal an independent Bali, with a distinct dialect, where Buddhism and Sivaism were practiced simultaneously. Mpu Sindoks great-granddaughter, Mahendradatta, married the Bali king Udayana Warmadewa around 989 and this marriage also brought more Hinduism and Javanese culture to Bali. Suradhipa reigned from 1115 to 1119, and Jayasakti from 1146 until 1150, jayapangus appears on inscriptions between 1178 and 1181, while Adikuntiketana and his son Paramesvara in 1204. Balinese culture was influenced by Indian, Chinese, and particularly Hindu culture. The name Bali dwipa has been discovered from inscriptions, including the Blanjong pillar inscription written by Sri Kesari Warmadewa in 914 AD. It was during this time that the people developed their complex irrigation system subak to grow rice in wet-field cultivation, some religious and cultural traditions still practiced today can be traced to this period
3.
West Nusa Tenggara
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West Nusa Tenggara is a province of Indonesia. It comprises the portion of the Lesser Sunda Islands, with the exception of Bali which is its own province. Mataram, on Lombok, is the capital and largest city of the province, the 2010 census recorded the population at 4,496,855, the latest estimate is 4,702,389. The provinces area is 19,708.79 km2, the two largest islands in the province are Lombok in the west and the larger Sumbawa island in the east. The islands of Flores and Sumba are part of East Nusa Tenggara, based on analysis of prehistoric objects found, shows that West Nusa Tenggara had previously been inhabited by people who come from Southeast Asia. The natives in this region is called the Sasak people, most of live on the island of Lombok. Meanwhile, on the island of Sumbawa are also natives consisting of two groups, namely ethnic Sumbawa and Bima. However, with the wave of migrants from Bali, Makassar, Java, Kalimantan, Nusa Tenggara, Maluku and East Nusa Tenggara, the indigenous people entered the farm and then stay in the interior. The existence of this region can not be separated from the heyday of Majapahit Empire in the 14th century who conquered all the kingdoms both located on the island of Lombok and Sumbawa. In the early reign of the kings in West Nusa Tenggara and it can not be separated from the influence of the Majapahit empire expansion into the region. But with the collapse of the Majapahit kingdom makes the influence of Hinduism began to decrease with the onset of the influence of Islam in the coastal communities. The advent of the Demak Sultanate in Central Java has huge impact on the spread of the teachings of Islam in the West Nusa Tenggara, the influence of Islam in the West Nusa Tenggara are generally brought by the Malays. The influence of Islam in the Bima Sultanate emerged since the reign of King Manuru Salehi around 1605 and began to grow rapidly during the reign of King Abdul Kahir. King Abdul Kahir is also known as the Sultan of Bima I, because he is the king who first embraced Islam in Bima, Islam became the official religion of the Kings in West Nusa Tenggara. The Europeans who first came to the land of Nusa Tenggara is the Portuguese who landed on the island of Solor and Timor 1605, at the same time the Dutch have also come to the island Hitu and Ambon in Maluku. The first Dutch ship who entered the area is the Ter Ver which docked in Kupang in 1611, the arrival of the Dutch led to a long dispute between the Portuguese and the Dutch in Nusa Tenggara. The Dutch provide assistance to the kings who resisted to the Portuguese. The Netherlands then expand its influence in Nusa Tenggara, to perform a variety of agreements with small kings around the island of Sumbawa, the penetration of the Dutch colonial administration that was so strong in Indonesia are increasingly bringing real impact on the survival of Indonesian society in general
4.
Central Sulawesi
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Central Sulawesi is a province of Indonesia located at the centre of the island of Sulawesi. Its capital and largest city is Palu, the 2010 census recorded a population of 2,633,420 for the province, while the latest official estimate is 2,839,290. Established in 1964, Central Sulawesi has an area of 61,841.29 km2. It is bordered by the provinces of Gorontalo to the north, West Sulawesi, South Sulawesi and South East Sulawesi to the south, by Maluku to the east, and by the Makassar Strait to the west. There are over 400 granite megaliths in the area of the Lore Lindu National Park and they vary in size from a few centimetres to approximately 4.5 metres. The original purpose of the megaliths is unknown, other megaliths are in form of large pots and stone plates. Various archaeological studies have dated the carvings from between 3000 BC to 1300 AD, islam reached the region in the 17th century, shortly after the Islamic avowal of Gowa, the powerful kingdom at the south part of the Sulawesi island. The Dutch colonial rule was established in the 18th century and began the protestantic missionary of the population, about a quarter of them are now Protestant, which is the highest percentage of the Indonesien archipelago. After the Japanese occupation in the Second World War, the region belonged to the Province North Sulawesi, between 1999 and 2001 the region has been plagued by inter-religious violence between Muslims and Christians, where over 1,000 people were killed. The Malino II Accord was thus made in 2001, the riots appeared to be aimed at government authorities, not Muslims. Central Sulawesi is divided into regencies and one city, which are listed below with their populations at the 2010 Census. * The 2000 Census populations for Parigi Moutong Regency and Sigi Regency are included in the figure for Donggala Regency, # The 2000 Census population for Tojo Una-Una Regency is included in the figure for Poso Regency. Palu is the capital and the provinces largest city. Other towns include Ampana, Banggai, Bungku, Buol, Donggala, Kolonodale, Luwuk, Parigi, Poso, and Toli-toli. The decennial 2010 census recorded a population of 2,633,420 for the province, the population grew an average of 1. 94% annually from the previous census. There is some sort of religion interaction problems in this area Most of the population are Muslims, average annual population growth between 1990 and 2000 was 2. 57% and 1. 96% from 2000 to 2010. Morowali Regency, Central Sulawesi, is projected to be the biggest seaweed producer in Indonesia for the near future, the seaweed farming types are glaciria. In 2010, Central Sulawesi produced nearly 800,000 tons of seaweed, Lore Lindu National Park is in the highlands south of Palu, Lindu, a group of four indigenous communities
5.
Lampung
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Lampung is a province of Indonesia. It is located on the tip of the island of Sumatra and borders the provinces of Bengkulu. Lampung is the home of the Lampung people, who speak their own language and have their own alphabet. The province had a population of 7,596,115 at the 2010 census, three quarters of the current population of Lampung is descended from migrants from Java, Madura, and Bali. Lampung is commonly known for its instability in terms of earthquakes and volcanoes. On 10 May 2005, an earthquake measuring 6.4 on the Richter scale struck the province, the historical volcano blast of Krakatau which occurred in 1883, had disastrous consequences. In the 7th century, words have spread in China about a region located in the far south there is a kingdom called Tolang Pohwang. To in Lampung language means people while Lang Pohwang is the region in what is now called Lampung, there is strong evidence that Lampung is part of the kingdom of Srivijaya, based in Jambi and controlled most parts of Southeast Asia including Lampung and prevail to the 11th century. Srivijaya came to Lampung as this area was once a source of gold, other smaller kingdoms Tulang Bawang and Scale Brak also once stood at Lampung in about 7-8 century. The center of the Tulang Bawang kingdom was estimated around the Tulang Bawang river, the entry of the Banten Sultanate in Lampung at the 16th century marked the beginning of the spread of Islam in the region. Since the past, Lampung is known for pepper which at time were much in demand. At that time the Dutch began pressing for control of the region, the control of pepper production exercised by the Banten Sultanate has made Lampung as one of the greatest and most prosperous harbor in the archipelago. Similarly pepper plants that attract foreign immigrants from Europe as trading companies of the Dutch East India Company. The trading company in the late 17th century to build a plant in Menggala. But the efforts finally Dutch managed to control 1856, the colonial government for the first time introduced the transmigration program to residents on the island of Java, which involved the migration of people from Java to Lampung. The transmigration program was well received and many residents of the island of Java origin who moved to the transmigration sites located in the eastern region of Lampung. The transmigration program is then increased again at the time of independence in the 1960s and 1970s, a native of the island of Java have brought along their culture device to Lampung like gamelan and wayang. People on the island of Bali then also came to Lampung to follow this transmigration program, the presence of migrants from other regions in Lampung has made this region as an area with diverse cultures
6.
Southeast Sulawesi
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The capital is Kendari, on the east coast of the peninsula. From the seventeenth century until the twentieth century, the region was the site of the Buton sultanate. The two major ranges in Southeast Sulawesi are the Tanggeasinua Range and the Mekongga Range. The major rivers are the Lalinda, the Lasolo, and the Sampara. The unrevised population of the province was 1,771,951 in the Indonesia 2000 census, increasing to 2,230,569 for the 2010 decennial censuscomprising 1,120,225 males, kolaka, Muna and Konawe Selatan were the 3 most populous regencies. The latest official estimate is 2,417,962. Islam is predominant religion, most of the population is centered on Buton and Muna islands off the south coast of Sulawesi, and in and around Kendari. The main ethnic groups in Southeast Sulawesi are Tolaki, Buton, Muna etc.1 – Bombana Regency is partly peninsula, south Buton Regency Central Buton Regency West Muna Regency Under discussion is a proposal to create an additional municipality of Raha. These five new regencies created since 2010, and the potential extra municipality, are not separated in the table above
7.
South Sumatra
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South Sumatra Province is a province of Indonesia. It is located in the part of Sumatra Island, east of the Bukit Barisan Mountains. It spans 91,592.43 km2 and had a population of 7,450,394 at the 2010 Census, the capital of the province is Palembang. South Sumatra has been settled by humans since the Palaeolithic era, the evidence of those settlements is proven by some discoveries of Palaeolithic tools in the riverbed of Saling and Kikim rivers in Bungamas Village, Lahat Regency. Relics of seven stone chambers believed to be about 2,500 years old were found near a plantation in Kotaraya Lembak. Around 300 BC, the Deutero-Malay people arrived in this region, around 7th century AD, an ancient Buddhist kingdom of Srivijaya was established in an area known today as Palembang. It once controlled a part of what is now Indonesia, Malaysia and Southern Thailand, effectively ruled the Malacca Strait. In 1025, it was defeated by the Chola Empire of southern India, srivijayas capital eventually moved northward to Jambi. After its eventual fall in 14th century AD, some kingdoms were established in South Sumatra. However, there was virtually a power vacuum in the region there was no prominent power to hold the region except for the waning Majapahit Empire. The vacuum allowed pirates to flourish in the region, in the 16th century AD, the Palembang Sultanate was established by Ki Gede Ing Suro, a politician who fled from Demak Sultanate. Clashes with the Dutch had occurred since the 17th century until the sultanate was abolished in 1825 when the Dutch gave a blow to the final Sultan of Palembang. Southern Sumatra was occupied by the Japanese in January 15,1942 after the Battle of Palembang in World War II, after the Proclamation of Indonesian Independence, South Sumatra became a part of Sumatra Province as a residency with Adnan Kapau Gani as the resident. On January 1,1947, the Dutch tried to gain its sovereignty over South Sumatra by invading Palembang, since then, fighting ensued across South Sumatra until Indonesias independence was recognized by the Dutch on December 27,1949. The province is located in the portion of the island of Sumatra. The majority of its area consists of low-lying plains filled with plantations, forest, the natural environment of South Sumatra is hot and humid tropical rain forest. However, most of these forest has been cleared out to make way for oil palm plantation for palm oil production, the Bukit Barisan mountain range is located on the western edge of the province and forms the border with the neighbouring Bengkulu province. The mountains are the source of systems that drain eastward to the Bangka Strait
8.
South Sulawesi
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South Sulawesi is a province in the southern peninsula of Sulawesi. The Selayar Islands archipelago is part of the province. The 2010 census estimated the population as 8,032,551 which makes South Sulawesi the most populous province on the island, South Sulawesi is located at 4°20S 120°15E and covers an area of 45,764.53 square kilometres. The province is bordered by Central Sulawesi and West Sulawesi to the north, the Gulf of Bone and Southeast Sulawesi to the east, Makassar Strait to the west, and Flores Sea to the south. Five years after independence, the government issued Law No.21 of 1950, ten years later, the government passed Law No.47 of 1960 which endorsed the formation of the South/Southeast Sulawesi province. Four years after that, with Act No.13 of 1964, the remaining South Sulawesi Province is divided into 21 regencies and three independent cities, listed below with their populations as of the 2010 Census. # The 2000 Census population for Palopo city is included in the figure for Luwu Regency. 68/Pres/12/2007 on 10 December 2007, regarding the expansion of the original districts. *** The 2000 Census population for East Luwu Regency is included in the figure for North Luwu Regency, South Sulawesi has a diverse range of ethnic groups. These are the three, The Buginese are the largest ethnic group in South Sulawesi. These people inhabit the middle of the peninsula of South Sulawesi. Many of these people have migrated to the islands around Sulawesi. The Makassarese are the second largest ethnic group in South Sulawesi, Makassar people inhabit the southern part of the southern peninsula of South Sulawesi including the Jeneponto, Takalar, Bulukumba, Bantaeng, Gowa, Maros, and Makassar. The total population is around 3 million people, the Torajan are the indigenous ethnic group which inhabits the mountainous region of South Sulawesi. Their population is approximately 650,000,450,000 of which live in the regency of Tana Toraja. There are various languages and dialects spoken in South Sulawesi, majority of them belongs to Malayo-Polynesian branch of Austronesian languages. Below is the list of languages spoken in the province. Makassarese language is a language spoken in Makassar and surrounding areas and it has a total of 2.1 million speakers. Bugis language is one of the languages spoken in the region up to Pinrang Bone and this language is the predominant language used by many communities in South Sulawesi
9.
Malaysia
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Malaysia is a federal constitutional monarchy located in Southeast Asia. Peninsular Malaysia shares a land and maritime border with Thailand and maritime borders with Singapore, Vietnam, East Malaysia shares land and maritime borders with Brunei and Indonesia and a maritime border with the Philippines and Vietnam. The capital city is Kuala Lumpur, while Putrajaya is the seat of the federal government, with a population of over 30 million, Malaysia is the 44th most populous country. The southernmost point of continental Eurasia, Tanjung Piai, is in Malaysia, located in the tropics, Malaysia is one of 17 megadiverse countries on earth, with large numbers of endemic species. Malaysia has its origins in the Malay kingdoms present in the area which, from the 18th century, the first British territories were known as the Straits Settlements, whose establishment was followed by the Malay kingdoms becoming British protectorates. The territories on Peninsular Malaysia were first unified as the Malayan Union in 1946, Malaya was restructured as the Federation of Malaya in 1948, and achieved independence on 31 August 1957. Malaya united with North Borneo, Sarawak, and Singapore on 16 September 1963 to become Malaysia, less than two years later in 1965, Singapore was expelled from the federation. The country is multi-ethnic and multi-cultural, which plays a role in politics. About half the population is ethnically Malay, with minorities of Malaysian Chinese, Malaysian Indians. The constitution declares Islam the state religion while allowing freedom of religion for non-Muslims, the government system is closely modelled on the Westminster parliamentary system and the legal system is based on common law. The head of state is the king, known as the Yang di-Pertuan Agong and he is an elected monarch chosen from the hereditary rulers of the nine Malay states every five years. The head of government is the prime minister, since its independence, Malaysia has had one of the best economic records in Asia, with its GDP growing at an average of 6. 5% per annum for almost 50 years. The economy has traditionally been fuelled by its resources, but is expanding in the sectors of science, tourism, commerce. Today, Malaysia has a newly industrialised market economy, ranked third largest in Southeast Asia, the name Malaysia is a combination of the word Malay and the Latin-Greek suffix -sia/-σία. The word melayu in Malay may derive from the Tamil words malai and ur meaning mountain and city, land, malayadvipa was the word used by ancient Indian traders when referring to the Malay Peninsula. Whether or not it originated from these roots, the word melayu or mlayu may have used in early Malay/Javanese to mean to steadily accelerate or run. This term was applied to describe the current of the river Melayu in Sumatra. The name was adopted by the Melayu Kingdom that existed in the seventh century on Sumatra
10.
Australia
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Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia
11.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
12.
Balinese language
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Balinese or simply Bali is a Malayo-Polynesian language spoken by 3.3 million people on the Indonesian island of Bali, as well as northern Nusa Penida, western Lombok and eastern Java. Most Balinese speakers also know Indonesian, Balinese itself is not mutually intelligible with Indonesian, but may be understood by Javanese speakers after some exposure. But in the areas outside Bali Island, Balinese language is extensively used and believed to play an important role in the survival of the language. The higher registers of the language borrow extensively from Javanese, an old form of classical Javanese, Kawi, is used in Bali as a religious, the official spelling denotes both /a/ and /ə/ by a. However, a is pronounced when it ends a word. Stress falls on the last syllable, the word order is similar to that of Indonesian, and verb and noun inflectional morphology is similarly minimal. However, derivational morphology is extensive, and suffixes are applied to indicate definite or indefinite articles, Balinese has different registers depending on the relationship and status of those speaking, low, middle, and high. Basa singgih contains many loanwords from Sanskrit and Javanese, Balinese has a decimal numeral system, but this is complicated by numerous words for intermediate quantities such as 45,175, and 1600. Balinese has been written in two different writing systems, the Balinese script, and in times the Latin script. The Balinese script, which is arranged as Hanacaraka, is an abugida, the earliest known inscriptions date from the 11th century AD. Few people today are familiar with the Balinese script, the Balinese Script is almost the same as Javanese script. Schools in Bali today teach a Latin alphabet known as Tulisan Bali, ^1 In Balinese script, sanskrit and kawi loanword has different orthography than native words. The first Balinese script is influenced by orthography of sanskrit and kawi as word basa derives from the Sanskrit word भाषा bhāṣā, meanwhile, diacritics is not written in current romanization of Balinese language. Thus, ᬪᬵᬱᬩᬮᬶ and basa Bali are the standard forms, archived from the original on 9 March 2007. Widiadana R. A. & Erviani N. K. Ancient ‘lontar’ manuscripts go digital, US scholar brings ancient Balinese scripts to digital age. Http, //unicode-table. com/en/sections/balinese/ Paradisec open access recording of Balinese song, kaipuleohones Blust collection includes materials on Balinese, including RB2-006, RB2-009
13.
Indonesian language
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Indonesian is the official language of Indonesia. It is a register of Malay, an Austronesian language that has been used as a lingua franca in the multilingual Indonesian archipelago for centuries. Indonesia is the fourth most populous nation in the world, of its large population, the majority speak Indonesian, making it one of the most widely spoken languages in the world. However, most formal education, and nearly all national mass media, governance, administration, judiciary, the Indonesian name for the language is Bahasa Indonesia or sometimes simplified as Bahasa. This term is occasionally found in English and other languages. Indonesian is a register of Riau Malay, which despite its common name is not the Malay dialect native to Riau. Originally spoken in Northeast Sumatra, Malay has been used as a lingua franca in the Indonesian archipelago for half a millennium and it might be attributed to its ancestor, the Old Malay language. The Kedukan Bukit Inscription is the oldest surviving specimen of Old Malay, trade contacts carried on by various ethnic peoples at the time were the main vehicle for spreading the Old Malay language, which was the main communications medium among the traders. Ultimately, the Old Malay language became a lingua franca and was spoken widely by most people in the archipelago, Indonesian is essentially the same language as the official Malaysian, Singaporean and Brunei standards of Malay. However, it does differ from Malaysian in several respects, with differences in pronunciation and these differences are due mainly to the Dutch and Javanese influences on Indonesian. Indonesian was also influenced by the Melayu pasar, which was the lingua franca of the archipelago in colonial times, and thus indirectly by other spoken languages of the islands. Malaysian Malay claims to be closer to the classical Malay of earlier centuries, even though modern Malaysian has been influenced, in lexicon as well as in syntax. The question of whether High Malay or Low Malay was the parent of the Indonesian language is still in debate. Some linguists have argued that it was the more common Low Malay that formed the base of the Indonesian language, however, the language had never been dominant among the population of the Indonesian archipelago as it was limited to mercantile activity. The VOC adopted the Malay language as the language of their trading outpost in the east. Following the bankruptcy of the VOC the Dutch crown took control of the colony in 1799 and it was then that education in. Even then, Dutch administrators were reluctant to promote the use of Dutch compared to other colonial regimes. Dutch thus remained the language of a elite, in 1940
14.
Balinese Hinduism
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Balinese Hinduism is the form of Hinduism practiced by the majority of the population of Bali. Although the population of Indonesia is predominantly Muslim and Christian, 83% of the people on Bali identify as Hindu, Hinduism came to Indonesia from India in the first century CE. It was gradually replaced by Buddhism, which was the religion of Sumatra and Java. However, due to cultural barriers, Bali became the part of Indonesia to remain predominantly Hindu. The populations of the islands off the east coast of Bali are also mostly Hindu, the fundamental principle underlying Hinduism is that there is order in the cosmos, known as dharma. There is also a force, adharma. Hindus seek balance and harmony between two forces, thus freeing themselves from the never-ending cycle of reincarnation, attaining a state called moksa. Balinese Hinduism divides the cosmos into three layers, the highest level is heaven, or suarga, the abode of the gods. Next is the world of man, buwah, below this is hell or bhur, where the demons live and where peoples spirits are punished for misdeeds on earth. This tripartite division is mirrored in the body and the shrines found outside Balinese buildings. Along with the traditional Hindu gods such as Brahma, Vishnu and Siva, Sang Hyang Widhi is the designation for one God in Balinese Hinduism. In the concept of Balinese tradition of Hinduism, Acintya or Sang Hyang Widhi is associated with the concept of Brahman, Balinese Hindu belief in a single God is in line with the first principle of the Indonesian state philosophy Pancasila. These ceremonies mark major events in a life, including birth, puberty, tooth filing. A baby must not touch the ground until it is 105 days old. Once the child reaches puberty, the six upper canine teeth are filed until they are even, marriage is seen as obligatory for Balinese Hindus, both for the establishment of a family and for the enhanced position in the village social structure accorded to the husband. Giving birth to children guarantees the patrilineal line, as well as ensuring there is somebody to perform the appropriate rituals essential for reincarnation and it marks the attainment of adulthood. The most important ceremonies take place after death, and result in the soul being freed to be eventually reincarnated. Unlike the death rites of other religions, the body is not the focus, as it is seen as nothing more than a temporary container of the soul
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Javanese people
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The Javanese are an ethnic group native to the Indonesian island of Java. With approximately 100 million people, they form the largest ethnic group in Indonesia and they are predominantly located in the central to eastern parts of the island. There are also significant numbers of people of Javanese descent in most Provinces of Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Suriname, Saudi Arabia, the Javanese ethnic group has many sub-groups, such as the Mataram, Cirebonese, Osing, Tenggerese, Samin, Naganese, Banyumasan, etc. A majority of the Javanese people identify themselves as Muslims, with a minority identifying as Christians, Hindu and Buddhist influences arrived through trade contacts with the Indian subcontinent. Hindu and Buddhist - traders and visitors, arrived in the 5th century, the Hindu, Buddhist and Javanese faiths blended into a unique local philosophy. The cradle of Javanese culture is described as being in Kedu. The earliest Sanjaya and Sailendra dynasties had their base there. The move was most likely caused by the eruption of Merapi and/or invasion from Srivijaya. The major spread of Javanese influence occurred under King Kertanegara of Singhasari in the late 13th century, the expansionist king launched several major expeditions to Madura, Bali in 1284, Borneo and most importantly to Sumatra in 1275. Following the defeat of the Melayu Kingdom, Singhasari controlled trade in the Strait of Malacca, Singhasari dominance was cut short in 1292 by Kediris rebellion under Jayakatwang, killing Kertanegara. However, Jayakatwangs reign as king of Java soon ended as he was defeated by Kertanegaras son-in-law, Raden Wijaya would later establish Majapahit near the delta of the Brantas River in modern-day Mojokerto, East Java. Kertanegara policies were continued by the Majapahits under King Hayam Wuruk. Various kingdoms of Java were actively involved in the trade in the sea route of the Silk Road. Although not major producers, these kingdoms were able to stockpile spice by trading for it with rice. Majapahit is usually regarded as the greatest of these kingdoms and it was both an agrarian and a maritime power, combining wet-rice cultivation and foreign trade. The ruin of their capital can be found in Trowulan, Islam gained its foothold in port towns on Javas northern coast such as Gresik, Ampel Denta, Tuban, Demak and Kudus. The spread and proselytising of Islam among the Javanese was traditionally credited to Wali Songo, Java underwent major changes as Islam spread. Following succession disputes and civil wars, Majapahit power collapsed, after this collapse, its various dependencies and vassals broke free
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Bali Aga
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The Bali Aga, Baliaga or Bali Mula are the indigenous people of Bali, predominantly located in the eastern part of the island, in Karangasem. They can also be found in north-western and central regions, the original inhabitants of Bali are said to have come from Bedulu village long before the Hindu-Javanese immigration wave. The legend is, there lived the last king of the Pejeng, Sri Aji Asura Bumibanten and he could cut off his head without feeling pain and put it back on again. One day, though, his head fell into a river and was swept away. One of his servants panicked and decided to quickly decapitate a pig, embarrassed, the king hid in a tall tower, denying any visitors. A small child discovered the secret and since then, the became known as Dalem Bedulu. Another explanation is that the name comes from the name Badahulu or the village upstream, after the Pejeng kingdom, the Majapahit Empire rose to power. The Bali Aga live in isolated areas in the mountains and their relative isolation compared to the lowland Balinese had preserved some of the original Austronesian element, apparent in the Bali Aga architecture. Tourists wishing to visit certain villages must be due to the geography of the area. While visiting, it is important to be respectful and quietly observe the preserved way of life the Bali Aga have. In Tenganan, where tourism is more easily embraced and the people are said to be more friendly and it is also to be noted that Tenganan prohibits divorce and polygamy, unlike other villages. The Bali Aga speak their own dialect of the Balinese language and it dates back thousands of years and varies from village to village, the version spoken in the Tenganan village is different from the Trunyan village. An important part of Bali Aga culture is the complex tie-dye technique used to make Balis traditional geringsing double ikat, Balis Tenganan village is the only village that today still produces geringsing. In geringsing, both the warp and weft threads are carefully dyed and cross-dyed before weaving, the finished pattern only emerges as the cloth is woven. Many have unique Hindu motifs such as a birds eye view of a mandala with a center from which everything radiates. Others feature designs clearly inspired by patola, for example a design known as the frangipani flower, the palette of geringsing is typically red, neutral, and black. Geringsing are regarded as sacred cloths, ascribed supernatural properties, especially to assist in forms of healing, including exorcism, gering means decease and sing means no
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Sasak people
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The Sasak people live mainly on the island of Lombok, Indonesia, numbering around 3.6 million. They are related to the Balinese in language and race, although the Sasak are predominantly Muslim while the Balinese are Hindu, little is known about Sasak history except that Lombok was placed under direct rule of the Majapahit prime Minister, patih Gajah Mada. Lombok was conquered by the Gelgel Balinese kingdom in the early 16th century, the Balinese population of Lombok today is about 300,000, 10–15% of Lomboks population. The Balinese have also influenced the Wetu Telu religion of Lombok. The Sasak language is related to the languages of Bali and Sumbawa. There are also a number of Sasak dialect in various such as Kuto-Kute, Meno-Mene, Mriak-Mriku, Ngeno-Ngene, Ngeto-Ngete. Most of the Sasaks today are adherents of the Waktu Lima version of Islam, Waktu Lima or Five Times signifies the five daily prayers which Muslims are required to do. The term Waktu Lima is used to them from the Sasaks who are practitioners of Wetu Telu or Three Symbols who only pray three times a day. Orthodox Islamic teachers generally instruct adherents to pray five times a day, large numbers of people adhering to the Wetu Telu faith can be still found throughout the island, especially in the village of Bayan, where the religion originated. Large Wetu Telu communities can be found in Mataram, Pujung, Sengkol, Rambitan, Sade, Tetebatu, Bumbung, Sembalun, Senaru, Loyok. A small minority of Sasaks called the Bodha are mainly found in the village of Bentek and they are totally untouched by Islamic influence and worship animistic gods, incorporating some Hindu and Buddhist influences in their rituals and religious vocabulary. This group of Sasak, due in part to the name of their tribe, are recognized as Buddhists by the Indonesian government, the Bodha have the same magico-religious officials and institutions as the Wetu Telu. The Bodha religion is also to some extent influenced by both Hindu and Buddhist concepts, of late, they have come under the influence of mainstream Buddhism from Buddhist missionaries. Gandrung Gendang beleq Sasak architecture Sidetrip to Lombok by the New York Times
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Polynesians
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The Polynesian people consist of various ethnic Austronesian groups that speak Polynesian languages, a branch of the Oceanic languages, and inhabit Polynesia. The native Polynesian people of New Zealand and Hawaii are minorities in their homelands, Polynesians, including Samoans, Tongans, Niueans, Cook Islands Māori, Tahitian Māohi, Hawaiian Māoli, Marquesans and New Zealand Māori, are a subset of the Austronesian peoples. They share the same origins as the peoples of maritime Southeast Asia, Madagascar. This is supported by genetic, linguistic, and archaeological evidence, the origins of the Polynesian people are addressed in the theories regarding migration into the Pacific that began about 3000 years ago. These are outlined well by Kayser et al, however, Soares et al. have argued for an older pre-Holocene Sundaland origin within Island Southeast Asia based on mitochondrial DNA. Paternal Y chromosome analysis by Kayser et al. also showed that Polynesians have significant Melanesian genetic admixture. However, a study by Kayser et al. discovered that only 21% of the Polynesian autosomal gene pool is of Melanesian origin. Another study by Friedlaender et al. also confirmed that Polynesians are closer genetically to Micronesians, Taiwanese Aborigines, the study concluded that Polynesians moved through Melanesia fairly rapidly, allowing only limited admixture between Austronesians and Melanesians. Thus the high frequencies of mtDNA B4a1a1 in the Polynesians are the result of drift, the Polynesian population experienced a population bottleneck and genetic drift. DNA analysis of modern Polynesians indicates that there has been intermarriage that results in a mixed Asian-Papuan ancestry of the Polynesians. The preliminary analysis of skulls found at the Teouma and Talasiu Lapita sites is that the skulls lacks Australian or Papuan affinities, there is an estimated 2 million ethnic Polynesians and their descendants worldwide, majority of which live in Polynesia, United States, Australia and New Zealand
19.
Austronesian peoples
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Austronesians, Austronesian peoples or Austronesian-speaking peoples are various populations in Asia, Oceania and Africa that speak languages of the Austronesian family. The territories populated by Austronesian-speaking peoples are known collectively as Austronesia, most Austronesians bare similar features such as the light brown to brown skin with curly or wavy hair. Before the Southward expansion of the Han dynasty and of Vietnam and it has been argued that these patterns are best explained by dispersal of an agricultural people from Taiwan into insular Southeast Asia, Melanesia, and, ultimately, the remote Pacific. Although this model—termed the “express train to Polynesia” – is broadly consistent with available data, alternatives to this model posit an indigenous origin for the Austronesian languages in Melanesia or Southeast Asia. Genomic analysis of cultivated coconut has shed light on the movements of Austronesian peoples, by examining 10 microsatelite loci, researchers found that there are 2 genetically distinct subpopulations of coconut – one originating in the Indian Ocean, the other in the Pacific Ocean. However, there is evidence of admixture, the transfer of genetic material, given that coconuts are ideally suited for ocean dispersal, it seems possible that individuals from one population could have floated to the other. However, the locations of the events are limited to Madagascar and coastal east Africa. This pattern coincides with the trade routes of Austronesian sailors. Other research has suggested that, according to dates, Austronesians may have migrated from mainland China to Taiwan as late as 4000 BC. Before Taiwan, Austronesian speakers are thought to have descended from the neolithic cultures of Southeastern China. According to the mainstream model, a large-scale Austronesian expansion began around 5000–2500 BC. Population growth primarily fuelled this migration, over the next thousand years, Austronesian peoples migrated southeast to the rest of the Philippines, and into the islands of the Celebes Sea, Borneo, and Indonesia. The Austronesian peoples of Maritime Southeast Asia sailed eastward, and spread to the islands of Melanesia and Micronesia between 1200 BC and 500 AD respectively, the Austronesian inhabitants that spread westward through Maritime Southeast Asia had reached some parts of mainland Southeast Asia, and later on Madagascar. Sailing from Melanesia, and Micronesia, the Austronesian peoples discovered Polynesia by 1000 BC and these people settled most of the Pacific Islands. They had settled Rapa Nui by 300 AD, Hawaii by 400 AD, there is evidence, based in the spreading of the sweet potato, that they reached South America where they traded with the Native Americans. In the Indian Ocean they sailed west from Maritime Southeast Asia and this out of Taiwan model has been recently challenged by a 2008 study. Examination of mitochondrial DNA lineages shows that they have been evolving within Island Southeast Asia for a period than previously believed. Population dispersals occurred at the time as sea levels rose
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Ethnic group
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An ethnic group or ethnicity is a category of people who identify with each other based on similarities, such as common ancestral, language, social, cultural or national experiences. Unlike other social groups, ethnicity is often an inherited status based on the society in which one lives, in some cases, it can be adopted if a person moves into another society. Ethnic groups, derived from the historical founder population, often continue to speak related languages. By way of language shift, acculturation, adoption and religious conversion, it is possible for individuals or groups to leave one ethnic group. Ethnicity is often used synonymously with terms such as nation or people. In English, it can also have the connotation of something exotic, generally related to cultures of more recent immigrants, the largest ethnic groups in modern times comprise hundreds of millions of individuals, while the smallest are limited to a few dozen individuals. Conversely, formerly separate ethnicities can merge to form a pan-ethnicity, whether through division or amalgamation, the formation of a separate ethnic identity is referred to as ethnogenesis. The term ethnic is derived from the Greek word ἔθνος ethnos, the inherited English language term for this concept is folk, used alongside the latinate people since the late Middle English period. In Early Modern English and until the mid-19th century, ethnic was used to mean heathen or pagan, as the Septuagint used ta ethne to translate the Hebrew goyim the nations, non-Hebrews, non-Jews. The Greek term in antiquity could refer to any large group, a host of men. In the 19th century, the term came to be used in the sense of peculiar to a race, people or nation, the abstract ethnicity had been used for paganism in the 18th century, but now came to express the meaning of an ethnic character. The term ethnic group was first recorded in 1935 and entered the Oxford English Dictionary in 1972, depending on the context that is used, the term nationality may either be used synonymously with ethnicity, or synonymously with citizenship. The process that results in the emergence of an ethnicity is called ethnogenesis, the Greeks at this time did not describe foreign nations but had also developed a concept of their own ethnicity, which they grouped under the name of Hellenes. Herodotus gave an account of what defined Greek ethnic identity in his day, enumerating shared descent. Whether ethnicity qualifies as a universal is to some extent dependent on the exact definition used. Many social scientists, such as anthropologists Fredrik Barth and Eric Wolf and they regard ethnicity as a product of specific kinds of inter-group interactions, rather than an essential quality inherent to human groups. According to Thomas Hylland Eriksen, the study of ethnicity was dominated by two distinct debates until recently, one is between primordialism and instrumentalism. In the primordialist view, the participant perceives ethnic ties collectively, as a given, even coercive
21.
Lombok
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Lombok is an island in West Nusa Tenggara province, Indonesia. It forms part of the chain of the Lesser Sunda Islands, with the Lombok Strait separating it from Bali to the west and it is roughly circular, with a tail to the southwest, about 70 kilometres across and a total area of about 4,514 square kilometres. The provincial capital and largest city on the island is Mataram and it is somewhat similar in size and density with neighboring Bali and shares some cultural heritage, but is administratively part of Nusa Tenggara Barat along with sparsely populated Sumbawa. It is surrounded by a number of smaller islands locally called Gili, the island was home to some 3.17 million Indonesians as recorded in the decennial 2010 census, the latest estimate gives the population as 3,311,044. Lombok is under the administration of the Governor of the province of West Nusa Tenggara, the province is administered from the provincial capital of Mataram in West Lombok. The island is divided into four kabupaten and one kota. They are as follows, with their areas and populations at the 2010 Census and according to the latest official estimates, before this time it was made up of numerous competing and feuding petty states each of which were presided over by a Sasak prince. This disunity was taken advantage of by the neighbouring Balinese who took control of western Lombok in the seventeenth century. The Makassarese meanwhile invaded eastern Lombok from their colonies in neighbouring Sumbawa, the Dutch had first visited Lombok in 1674 and the Dutch East India Company concluded its first treaty with the Sasak Princess of Lombok. The Balinese had managed to take over the island by 1750. In 1838, the Mataram kingdom brought its rivals under control, relations between the Sasak and Balinese in western Lombok were largely harmonious and intermarriage was common. In the islands east, however, relations were less cordial, while Sasak village government remained in place, the village head became little more than a tax collector for the Balinese. Villagers became a kind of serf and Sasak aristocracy lost much of its power, during one of the many Sasak peasant rebellions against the Balinese, Sasak chiefs sent envoys to the Dutch in Bali and invited them to rule Lombok. In June 1894, the general of the Dutch East Indies, Van der Wijck. He sent an army to Lombok and the Balinese raja capitulated to Dutch demands. The younger princes however overruled the raja and attacked and routed the Dutch, the Dutch counterattacked overrunning Mataram and the raja surrendered. The entire island was annexed to the Netherlands East Indies in 1895, the Dutch ruled over Lomboks 500,000 people with a force of no more than 250 by cultivating the support of the Balinese and Sasak aristocracy. The Dutch are remembered in Lombok as liberators from Balinese hegemony, during World War II a Japanese invasion force comprising elements of the 2nd Southern Expeditionary Fleet invaded and occupied the Lesser Sunda Islands, including the island of Lombok
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Java
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Java is an island of Indonesia. With a population of over 141 million or 145 million as of 2015 Census released in December 2015, the Indonesian capital city, Jakarta, is located on western Java. Much of Indonesian history took place on Java and it was the center of powerful Hindu-Buddhist empires, the Islamic sultanates, and the core of the colonial Dutch East Indies. Java was also the center of the Indonesian struggle for independence during the 1930s and 1940s, Java dominates Indonesia politically, economically and culturally. Formed mostly as the result of eruptions, Java is the 13th largest island in the world. A chain of mountains forms an east–west spine along the island. Three main languages are spoken on the island, Javanese, Sundanese, of these, Javanese is the dominant, it is the native language of about 60 million people in Indonesia, most of whom live on Java. Furthermore, most residents are bilingual, speaking Indonesian as their first or second language, while the majority of the people of Java are Muslim, Java has a diverse mixture of religious beliefs, ethnicities, and cultures. Java is divided into four provinces, West Java, Central Java, East Java, and Banten, the origins of the name Java are not clear. One possibility is that the island was named after the plant, which was said to be common in the island during the time. There are other sources, the word jaú and its variations mean beyond or distant. And, in Sanskrit yava means barley, a plant for which the island was famous, Yawadvipa is mentioned in Indias earliest epic, the Ramayana. Sugriva, the chief of Ramas army dispatched his men to Yawadvipa and it was hence referred to in India by the Sanskrit name yāvaka dvīpa. Java is mentioned in the ancient Tamil text Manimekalai by Chithalai Chathanar that states that Java had a kingdom with a capital called Nagapuram, another source states that the Java word is derived from a Proto-Austronesian root word, Iawa that meaning home. The great island of Iabadiu or Jabadiu was mentioned in Ptolemys Geographia composed around 150 CE Roman Empire, Iabadiu is said to mean barley island, to be rich in gold, and have a silver town called Argyra at the west end. The name indicate Java, and seems to be derived from Hindu name Java-dvipa, Java lies between Sumatra to the west and Bali to the east. Borneo lies to the north and Christmas Island is to the south and it is the worlds 13th largest island. Java is surrounded by the Java Sea to the north, Sunda Strait to the west, Java is almost entirely of volcanic origin, it contains thirty-eight mountains forming an east–west spine that have at one time or another been active volcanoes
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Banyuwangi Regency
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Banyuwangi Regency is located at the easternmost end of Java Island. It serves as a port between Java and Bali and it is surrounded by mountains and forests to the west, by sea to the east and south. Banyuwangi is separated by the Strait of Bali from Bali, with an area of 5,782.4 km2, this regency is the largest in Java. It had a population of 1,488,791 according to the 2000 Census, by the 2010 Census it had risen to 1,556,078, the city of Banyuwangi is the administrative capital. The name Banyuwangi is Javanese for fragrant water, connected to the Javanese folklore of Sri Tanjung, one Banyuwangi native group is the Osing community which has a Hindu culture although they can be considered as a Javanese sub-ethnic group. They live mainly in the part of Banyuwangi and they sometimes consider themselves as Majapahit descendants. Other groups are Javanese, Madurese and Balinese, other smaller groups include Chinese, Buginese, and Arabs. Once known as Blambangan, it was a vassal of the Majapahit Kingdom, after the Majapahit Kingdom ceased to exist, it became an independent kingdom and, as such, the last Hindu kingdom of Java. During this time Blambangan was deeply influenced by Balinese culture, after around 150 years of Balinese occupation, the Sultanate of Mataram gained control of the territory and renamed it Banyuwangi. Later, it was part of the Mataram territory controlled by the VOC, during the expansion of plantations in the 19th century, many parts of Banyuwangi were planted with coffee and sugar cane, which feature its landscape even now. The Chinese and Arabs came mostly during this period, Banyuwangi people are known for their combination of Islamic and pre-Islamic tradition. During the Fall of Suharto a witchhunt in Banyuwangi against alleged sorcerers spiraled into widepsread riots, in addition to alleged sorcerers, Islamic clerics were also targeted and killed, Nahdlatul Ulama members were murdered by rioters. This is a Banyuwangi-typical dance which performed by a woman and along with music like violin, triangle, gong, kendhang. It is performed during night until dawn particularly in parties, damarwulan is a legendary hero who features in traditional theatre art which has been developed since the 19th century in Banyuwangi. It is a combination of Balinese, Javanese and local cultures, Balinese influences can be seen in its performers costumes and instruments. Meanwhile, Javanese influences is in its lakon or stories as well as language in dialogues and it is distinct from the Balinese Janger. Ferries from Bali arrive at the port of Ketapang, some 8 km to the north of Banyuwangi city, plekung Beach is also known as G-land or green land have 3 types of waves up to 6 to 8 meters tall. Banyuwangi International Surfing Competition 2014 This was the time competition after the 2012 competition
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History of Bali
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The history of Bali covers a period from the Paleolithic to the present, and is characterized by migrations of people and cultures from other parts of Asia. The island of Bali, like most of the islands of the Indonesian archipelago, is the result of the subduction of the Indo-Australian plate under the Eurasian plate. The tertiary ocean floor, made of ancient marine deposits including accumulation of coral reefs, was lifted above the sea level by the subduction. The local deformation of the Eurasian plate created by the subduction has encouraged the fissuring of the crust, a string of volcanoes line the northern part of the island, in West-East axis along which the western part is oldest, and the eastern part newest. The highest volcano is the active strato-volcano Mount Agung, at 3,142 m, volcanic activity has been intense through the ages, and most of the surface of the island has been covered by volcanic magma. Volcanic activity, due to the deposits of ashes and the soil fertility it generates, has also been a strong factor in the agricultural prosperity of the island. Its fauna and flora are therefore Asian, Bali being part of the Sunda shelf, the island had been connected to the island of Java many times through history. Even today, the two islands are separated by a 2.4 km Bali Strait. The ancient occupation of Java itself is accredited by the findings of the Java man, Bali also was inhabited in Paleolithic times, testified by the finding of ancient tools such as hand axes were found in Sembiran and Trunyan villages in Bali. A Mesolithic period has also identified, characterized by advanced food gathering and hunting. This period yields more sophisticated tools, such as arrow points and they lived in temporary caves, such as those found in the Pecatu hills of the Badung regency, such as the Selanding and the Karang Boma caves. From around 3000 to 600 BCE, a Neolithic culture emerges, characterized by a new wave of inhabitants bringing rice-growing technology and these Austronesian peoples seem to have migrated from South China, probably through the Philippines and Sulawesi. Their tools included rectangular adzes and red slipped decorated pottery, forests and jungles were cleared for the establishment of cultures and villages. They also made some plaited craft and a boat was also found. Their culinary habits included pork-eating and betel-chewing and they are thought to have focused on mountain cults. They buried some of their more prestigious dead in stone sarcophagi. The bodies were deposited in the sleeping position, or folded in two or three for compactness. An important neolithic site in Bali is that of Cekik
25.
Balinese dance
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Balinese dance is a very ancient dance tradition that is part of the religious and artistic expression among the Balinese people of Bali island, Indonesia. Balinese dance is dynamic, angular and intensely expressive, Balinese dancers express the stories of dance-drama through the bodily gestures including gestures of fingers, hands, head and eyes. There is a richness of dance forms and styles in Bali, and particularly notable are those ritualistic dance dramas which involve Rangda, the witch. Other Balinese dances are not linked to rituals and created for certain purposes, such as Pendet welcoming dance. The three genres includes Wali, Bebali and Balih-balihan, the Balinese dance has been proposed since 2011, and officially recognized in 2015. The three genres are represented by nine dances, which describes its function and living tradition in Balinese community, they are, Sacred ceremonial dance by a young women in traditional ceremonial dress, Sanghyang Dedari. Sacred trance dance to counteract negative supernatural forces, baris Upacara religious dances conveying heroic spirit danced by even numbers of male dancers. Bebali Semi sacred Dances Topeng Sidhakarya/Topeng Pajegan, performed by masked dancers to neutralize the evil spirits. Formerly royal theatrical performance, now accompaniment to ceremonies, by 25-40 dancers, combines dance, epic drama and music. Exquisitely beautiful dance by 2 or 3 girls, developed from Sanghyang Dedari, and Gambuh. A popular social dance by couples, during harvest season or on important days, represents a fight between two mythological characters, Barong in the form of a lion symbolizing goodness and Rangda, an evil witch. In Hinduism, dance is an accompaniment to the dissolving and reforming of the world. The creative and reproductive balance is often personified as Shivas wife, Durga, sometimes called Uma, Parvati and this has significance in Balinese Hinduism, since the common figure of Rangda is similar in many ways to Durga. In Bali there are categories of dance, including epic performances such as the omnipresent Mahabharata. They are taught to dance with their hands before they can walk, official training as a Bali dancer starts as young as 7. In Balinese dance the movement is associated with the rhythms produced by the gamelan. Multiple levels of articulations in the face, eyes, hands, arms, hips, the number of codified hand positions and gestures, the mudras, is higher in India than in Java or Bali. It has been speculated that they have been forgotten as the dance was transmitted from India to Java, hand positions and gestures are nonetheless as important in Javanese and Balinese dance as in India
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Kalimantan
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Kalimantan is the Indonesian portion of the island of Borneo. It comprises 73% of the islands area, the non-Indonesian parts of Borneo are Brunei and East Malaysia. In Indonesian, the term Kalimantan refers to the island of Borneo. It consists of the two words kal and manthan, the word Kalamanthana is spelled Kalmantan, and then the indigenous people fixed it into Klemantan. The Indonesian territory makes up 73% of the island by area, the non-Indonesian parts of Borneo are of Brunei and East Malaysia, the latter comprising the states of Sabah, Sarawak and the federal territory of Labuan. The region within Indonesia is also known as Indonesian Borneo, kalimantans total area is 544,150 square kilometres. Kalimantan is divided into five provinces, 1)North Kalimantan split off East Kalimantan with resulting population, languages of Kalimantan Kalimantan travel guide from Wikivoyage
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Hindu
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Hindu refers to any person who regards themselves as culturally, ethnically, or religiously adhering to aspects of Hinduism. It has historically used as a geographical, cultural, or religious identifier for people indigenous to South Asia. The historical meaning of the term Hindu has evolved with time, by the 16th century, the term began to refer to residents of India who were not Turks or Muslims. The historical development of Hindu self-identity within the Indian population, in a religious or cultural sense, is unclear, competing theories state that Hindu identity developed in the British colonial era, or that it developed post-8th century CE after the Islamic invasion and medieval Hindu-Muslim wars. A sense of Hindu identity and the term Hindu appears in texts dated between the 13th and 18th century in Sanskrit and regional languages. The 14th- and 18th-century Indian poets such as Vidyapati, Kabir and Eknath used the phrase Hindu dharma, the Christian friar Sebastiao Manrique used the term Hindu in religious context in 1649. In the 18th century, the European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of Indian religions collectively as Hindus, in contrast to Mohamedans for Mughals, scholars state that the custom of distinguishing between Hindus, Buddhists, Jains and Sikhs is a modern phenomenon. Hindoo is a spelling variant, whose use today may be considered derogatory. At more than 1.03 billion, Hindus are the third largest group after Christians. The vast majority of Hindus, approximately 966 million, live in India, according to Indias 2011 census. After India, the next 9 countries with the largest Hindu populations are, in decreasing order, Nepal, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, United States, Malaysia, United Kingdom and Myanmar. These together accounted for 99% of the worlds Hindu population, the word Hindu is derived from the Indo-Aryan and Sanskrit word Sindhu, which means a large body of water, covering river, ocean. It was used as the name of the Indus river and also referred to its tributaries, the Punjab region, called Sapta Sindhava in the Vedas, is called Hapta Hindu in Zend Avesta. The 6th-century BCE inscription of Darius I mentions the province of Hidush, the people of India were referred to as Hinduvān and hindavī was used as the adjective for Indian in the 8th century text Chachnama. The term Hindu in these ancient records is an ethno-geographical term, the Arabic equivalent Al-Hind likewise referred to the country of India. Among the earliest known records of Hindu with connotations of religion may be in the 7th-century CE Chinese text Record of the Western Regions by the Buddhist scholar Xuanzang, Xuanzang uses the transliterated term In-tu whose connotation overflows in the religious according to Arvind Sharma. The Hindu community occurs as the amorphous Other of the Muslim community in the court chronicles, wilfred Cantwell Smith notes that Hindu retained its geographical reference initially, Indian, indigenous, local, virtually native. Slowly, the Indian groups themselves started using the term, differentiating themselves, the poet Vidyapatis poem Kirtilata contrasts the cultures of Hindus and Turks in a city and concludes The Hindus and the Turks live close together, Each makes fun of the others religion
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Islam
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Islam is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion which professes that there is only one and incomparable God and that Muhammad is the last messenger of God. It is the worlds second-largest religion and the major religion in the world, with over 1.7 billion followers or 23% of the global population. Islam teaches that God is merciful, all-powerful, and unique, and He has guided mankind through revealed scriptures, natural signs, and a line of prophets sealed by Muhammad. The primary scriptures of Islam are the Quran, viewed by Muslims as the word of God. Muslims believe that Islam is the original, complete and universal version of a faith that was revealed many times before through prophets including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses. As for the Quran, Muslims consider it to be the unaltered, certain religious rites and customs are observed by the Muslims in their family and social life, while social responsibilities to parents, relatives, and neighbors have also been defined. Besides, the Quran and the sunnah of Muhammad prescribe a comprehensive body of moral guidelines for Muslims to be followed in their personal, social, political, Islam began in the early 7th century. Originating in Mecca, it spread in the Arabian Peninsula. The expansion of the Muslim world involved various caliphates and empires, traders, most Muslims are of one of two denominations, Sunni or Shia. Islam is the dominant religion in the Middle East, North Africa, sizable Muslim communities are also found in Horn of Africa, Europe, China, Russia, Mainland Southeast Asia, Philippines, Northern Borneo, Caucasus and the Americas. Converts and immigrant communities are found in almost every part of the world, Islam is a verbal noun originating from the triliteral root s-l-m which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of wholeness, submission, safeness and peace. In a religious context it means voluntary submission to God, Islām is the verbal noun of Form IV of the root, and means submission or surrender. Muslim, the word for an adherent of Islam, is the active participle of the verb form. The word sometimes has connotations in its various occurrences in the Quran. In some verses, there is stress on the quality of Islam as a state, Whomsoever God desires to guide. Other verses connect Islām and dīn, Today, I have perfected your religion for you, I have completed My blessing upon you, still others describe Islam as an action of returning to God—more than just a verbal affirmation of faith. In the Hadith of Gabriel, islām is presented as one part of a triad that also includes imān, Islam was historically called Muhammadanism in Anglophone societies. This term has fallen out of use and is said to be offensive because it suggests that a human being rather than God is central to Muslims religion
29.
Majapahit
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The Majapahit Empire was a vast thalassocracy based on the island of Java from 1293 to around 1500. Majapahit reached its peak of glory during the era of Hayam Wuruk and his achievement is also credited to his prime minister, Gajah Mada. Its influence extended beyond the territory of Indonesia and has been the subject of many studies. The name Majapahit derives from local Javanese, meaning bitter maja, german orientalist Berthold Laufer suggested that maja came from the Javanese name of Aegle marmelos, an Indonesian tree. The name originally referred to the area in and around Trowulan, the cradle of Majapahit and it was said that the workers clearing the Tarik timberland encountered some bael trees and consumed its bitter-tasting fruit that subsequently become the villages name. In ancient Java it is common to refer the kingdom with its capitals name, Majapahit is also known by other names, Wilwatikta, although sometimes the natives refer to their kingdom as Bhumi Jawa or Mandala Jawa instead. Little physical evidence of Majapahit remains, and some details of the history are rather abstract, nevertheless, local Javanese people did not forget Majapahit completely, as Mojopait is mentioned vaguely in Babad Tanah Jawi, a Javanese chronicle composed in the 18th century. Majapahit did produce physical evidence, the ruins dating from the Majapahit period are clustered in the Trowulan area. The Trowulan archaeological site was discovered in the 19th century by Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles and he reported the existence of ruins of temples. Scattered about the country for miles, and referred to Trowulan as this pride of Java. By the early 20th century, Dutch colonial historians began to study old Javanese and Balinese literature to explore the past of their colony, two primary sources were available to them, the Pararaton manuscript was written in the Kawi language c. 1600, and Nagarakretagama was composed in Old Javanese in 1365, Pararaton focuses on Ken Arok, the founder of Singhasari, but includes a number of shorter narrative fragments about the formation of Majapahit. The Nagarakretagama is an old Javanese epic poem written during the Majapahit golden age under the reign of Hayam Wuruk, the Dutch acquired the manuscript in 1894 during their military expedition against the Cakranegara royal house of Lombok. There are also inscriptions in Old Javanese and Chinese. The Javanese sources incorporate some poetic mythological elements, and scholars such as C. C, berg, an Indonesia-born Dutch naturalist, have considered the entire historical record to be not a record of the past, but a supernatural means by which the future can be determined. Most scholars do not accept this view, as the record corresponds with Chinese materials that could not have had similar intention. The list of rulers and details of the structure show no sign of being invented. The Chinese historical sources on Majapahit, mainly owed to Zheng Hes account — a Ming Dynasty admiral reports during his visit to Majapahit, Zheng Hes translator Ma Huan wrote a detailed description of Majapahit and where the king of Java lived
30.
Mataram Sultanate
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The Sultanate of Mataram /məˈtɑːrəm/ was the last major independent Javanese kingdom on Java before the island was colonised by the Dutch. It was the dominant political force radiating from the interior Central Java from the late 16th century until the beginning of the 18th century, Mataram reached its peak of power during the reign of Sultan Agung Hanyokrokusumo, and began to decline after his death in 1645. By the mid-18th century, Mataram lost both power and territory to the Dutch East India Company and it had become a vassal state of the company by 1749. The name Mataram itself was never the name of any polity. Mataram refers to the areas of plains south of Mount Merapi around present-day Muntilan, Sleman, Yogyakarta. More precisely, it refer to Kota Gede area, the capital of the Sultanate in the outskirt of southern Yogyakarta, there is a common practice in Java to refer their kingdom by the location of its capital, thus Mataram is their capital. Historically, there were two kingdoms that have existed in region and both are called Mataram. The later kingdom however, is called as Mataram Islam or Mataram Sultanate to distinguish it from the Hindu-Buddhist 9th-century Kingdom of Mataram. The key sources to uncover the history of Mataram Sultanate are local Javanese historical accounts called Babad, the problem with traditional Javanese Babad, are often undated, obscure and incorporates non-historic, mythological and fantastic elements. Most of this Javanese historical account are used as the tool to legitimise the authority of the ruler, the dates for events before the Siege of Batavia in the reign of Sultan Agung, third king of Mataram, are difficult to determine. There are several annals used by H. J, the Javanese sources are very selective in putting dates to events. Events such as the rise and fall of kratons, the death of important princes, great wars, again these candrasengkalas do not always match the annals. Therefore, it is suggested to follow the rule of thumb. However, by the more reliable records begin in the mid-17th century the kingdom was so large. According to Javanese records, the kings of Mataram were descended from one Ki Ageng Sela, Pajang was located near the current site of Surakarta, and Mataram was originally a vassal of Pajang. Pamanahan was often referred to as Kyai Gedhe Mataram, pamanahans son, Sutawijaya or Panembahan Senapati Ingalaga, replaced his father around 1584, and he began to released Mataram from Pajangs control. Under Sutawijaya, Mataram grew substantially through military campaigns against Matarams overlord of Pajang and Pajangs former overlord, the new Pajang Sultan, Arya Pangiri, was an unpopular ruler, and Benowo quickly rallied support to regain his throne and recruited Sutawijayas support against Pajang. Subsequently Pajang was attacked from two directions, by Prince Benowo from Jipang and by Sutawijaya from Mataram, and finally was defeated
31.
Y chromosome
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The Y chromosome is one of two sex chromosomes in mammals, including humans, and many other animals. The other is the X chromosome, Y is the sex-determining chromosome in many species, since it is the presence or absence of Y that determines the male or female sex of offspring produced in sexual reproduction. In mammals, the Y chromosome contains the gene SRY, which triggers testis development, the DNA in the human Y chromosome is composed of about 59 million base pairs. The Y chromosome is passed only from father to son, with a 30% difference between humans and chimpanzees, the Y chromosome is one of the fastest-evolving parts of the human genome. To date, over 200 Y-linked genes have been identified, all Y-linked genes are expressed and hemizygous except in the cases of aneuploidy such as XYY syndrome or XXYY syndrome. The Y chromosome was identified as a sex-determining chromosome by Nettie Stevens at Bryn Mawr College in 1905 during a study of the mealworm Tenebrio molitor, edmund Beecher Wilson independently discovered the same mechanisms the same year. Stevens proposed that chromosomes always existed in pairs and that the Y chromosome was the pair of the X chromosome discovered in 1890 by Hermann Henking, Stevens named the chromosome Y simply to follow on from Henkings X alphabetically. The idea that the Y chromosome was named after its similarity in appearance to the letter Y is mistaken, all chromosomes normally appear as an amorphous blob under the microscope and only take on a well-defined shape during mitosis. This shape is vaguely X-shaped for all chromosomes and it is entirely coincidental that the Y chromosome, during mitosis, has two very short branches which can look merged under the microscope and appear as the descender of a Y-shape. Most mammals have one pair of sex chromosomes in each cell. Males have one Y chromosome and one X chromosome, while females have two X chromosomes, in mammals, the Y chromosome contains a gene, SRY, which triggers embryonic development as a male. The Y chromosomes of humans and other mammals also contain other genes needed for normal sperm production, for example, the platypus relies on an XY sex-determination system based on five pairs of chromosomes. Among humans, some men have two Xs and a Y, or one X and two Ys, and some women have three Xs or a single X instead of a double X, there are other exceptions in which SRY is damaged, or copied to the X. For related phenomena, see Androgen insensitivity syndrome and Intersex, many ectothermic vertebrates have no sex chromosomes. If they have different sexes, sex is determined environmentally rather than genetically, for some of them, especially reptiles, sex depends on the incubation temperature, others are hermaphroditic. The chromosome with this became the Y chromosome, while the other member of the pair became the X chromosome. Over time, genes that were beneficial for males and harmful to females either developed on the Y chromosome or were acquired through the process of translocation, until recently, the X and Y chromosomes were thought to have diverged around 300 million years ago. The older estimate was based on reports that the platypus X chromosomes contained these sequences
32.
Melanesian
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Melanesians are the dominant inhabitants of Melanesia. Most speak one of the many Papuan languages, though a few such as Moluccans. Melanesians occupy islands from Eastern Indonesia to as far east as the islands of Vanuatu, early European explorers noted the physical differences among groups of Pacific Islanders. By 1825 Jean Baptiste Bory de Saint-Vincent developed a more elaborate and he described the inhabitants of modern-day Melanesia as Mélaniens, a distinct racial group from the Australian and Neptunian races surrounding them. In 1832 Dumont DUrville expanded and simplified much of this earlier work and he classified the peoples of Oceania into four racial groups, Malaysians, Polynesians, Micronesians, and Melanesians. DUrvilles model differed from that of Bory de Saint-Vincent in referring to Melanesians rather than Mélaniens, Bory de Saint-Vincent had distinguished Mélaniens from the indigenous Australians. Dumont DUrville combined the two peoples into one group, the original inhabitants of the group of islands now named Melanesia were likely the ancestors of the present-day Papuan-speaking people. In the late 20th century, some scholars theorized a long period of interaction, which resulted in complex changes in genetics, languages. Kayser, et al. proposed that, from this area and this Polynesian theory is contradicted by the findings of a genetic study published by Temple University in 2008. The study was based on genome scans and evaluation of more than 800 genetic markers among a variety of Pacific peoples. It found that neither Polynesians nor Micronesians have much genetic relation to Melanesians, both groups are strongly related genetically to East Asians, particularly Taiwanese aborigines. They left little evidence in Melanesia. Such diversity developed over their tens of thousands of years of settlement before the Polynesian ancestors ever arrived at the islands, for instance, populations developed differently along the coasts than in more isolated valleys. Further DNA analysis has taken research into new directions, as more species have been discovered since the late 20th century. He has found people of New Guinea share 4%–6% of their genome with the Denisovans. The Denisovans are considered cousin to the Neanderthals, both groups are now understood to have migrated out of Africa, with the Neanderthals going into Europe, and the Denisovans heading east about 400,000 years ago. This is based on evidence from a fossil found in Siberia. The evidence from Melanesia suggests their territory extended into south Asia, Melanesians of some islands are one of the few non-European peoples, and the only dark-skinned group of people outside Australia, known to have blond hair
33.
Music of Bali
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Bali is an Indonesian island that shares in the gamelan and other Indonesian musical styles. Bali, however, has its own techniques and styles, including kecak, modern popular styles include gamelan gong kebyar, dance music which developed during the Dutch occupation and 1950s era joged bumbung, another popular dance style. In Balinese music you can also hear metallophones, gongs and xylophones, more than 50 people must be dancing during the music. Balinese music can be compared to Javanese music, especially that of the pre-Islamic period, during that time, Javanese tonal systems were imported to Bali. Balinese gamelan, a form of Indonesian classical music, is louder, swifter, Balinese gamelan also features more archaic instrumentation than modern Javanese gamelans. Balinese instruments include bronze and bamboo xylophones, gongs and a number of gong chimes, are used, such as the solo instrument trompong, and a variety of percussion instruments like cymbals, bells, drums and the anklung. There are two sizes of flutes, both used in theatrical music, and a rebab. Modern forms of Balinese gamelan include kebyar, an energetic style played by clubs, encyclopedia. com An Introduction to Balinese Music by Michael Tenzer Triguna, A Hindu-Balinese Philosophy for Gamelan Gong Gede Music by Made Mantle Hood
34.
Balinese art
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Balinese art is art of Hindu-Javanese origin that grew from the work of artisans of the Majapahit Kingdom, with their expansion to Bali in the late 14th century. From the sixteenth until the twentieth centuries, the village of Kamasan, during the first part of the twentieth century, new varieties of Balinese art developed. Since the late century, Ubud and its neighboring villages established a reputation as the center of Balinese art. Ubud and Batuan are known for their paintings, Mas for their woodcarvings, Celuk for gold and silver smiths, eiseman correctly pointed out that Balinese art is actually carved, painted, woven, and prepared into objects intended for everyday use rather than as object d art. Prior to the 1920s, Balinese traditional paintings were restricted to what is now known as the Kamasan or Wayang style and it is a visual narrative of Hindu-Javanese epics, the Ramayana and Mahabharata, as well as a number of indigenous stories, such as the Panji narrative. These two-dimensional drawings are drawn on cloth or bark paper with natural dyes. The coloring is limited to natural dyes, red, ochre, black. In addition, the rendering of the figures and ornamentations must follow strictly prescribed rules, since they are produced for religious articles. These paintings are produced collaboratively, and therefore mostly anonymously, there were many experiments with new types of art by Balinese from the late nineteenth century onwards. These experiments were stimulated by access to new materials, and by the 1930s, on his first visit to Bali in 1930, the Mexican artist Miguel Covarrubias noted that local paintings served primarily religious or ceremonial functions. They were used as decorative cloths to be hung in temples and important houses, yet within a few years, he found the art form had undergone a liberating revolution. Where they had once been restricted by subject and style. These painters had developed increasing individuality and this groundbreaking period of creativity reached a peak in the late 1930s. A stream of visitors, including Charlie Chaplin and the anthropologists Gregory Bateson and Margaret Mead. During their stay in Bali in mid-1930s, Bateson and Mead collected over 2000 paintings, predominantly from the village of Batuan, among western artists, Spies and Bonnet are often credited for the modernization of traditional Balinese paintings. From the 1950s onwards Baliese artists incorporated aspects of perspective and anatomy from these artists, more importantly, they acted as agents of change by encouraging experimentation, and promoted departures from tradition. The result was an explosion of expression that increased the rate of change in Balinese art. The 1930s styles were consolidated in the 1950s, and in recent years have been given the confusing title of modern traditional Balinese painting
35.
Balinese architecture
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Balinese architecture is a vernacular architecture tradition of Balinese people that inhabits volcanic island of Bali, Indonesia. Traditional Balinese buildings seek to be in harmony with the environment, traditional Balinese houses are built almost entirely of organic materials. They use natural materials such as roofing, bamboo poles, woven bamboo, coconut wood, teak wood, brick. The thatched roof usually uses ijuk, dried coconut or rumbia leaves, stones and red bricks are usually used as foundation and walls, while sandstone and andesite stone are usually carved as ornamentation. Balinese people are known for their artistry and they have developed a sophisticated sculpting tradition that manifests in architecture rich with ornamentation and interior decoration. Balinese temples and palaces are decorated with rich ornamentations, both wooden and stone sculpting, which usually depict floral patterns. Balinese sculpture often served as guardians as twin dvarapalas flanking entrances. The gates itself are richly decorated with head, floral ornaments. Other types of sculpture are often served as ornamentation, such as goddess or dragon waterspouts in bathing places, the common theme often occur in Balinese design is the tripartite divisions. Tri Hita Karana prescribe three ways that a human beings must strive to nurture harmonious relationship with, fellow human beings, nature, Tri Mandala, the rules of space division and zoning. Sanga Mandala, also the rules of space division and zoning, the Sanga Mandala is the spatial concept concerning with directions that divide an area into nine parts according to eight main cardinal directions and central. These nine cardinal directions is connected to Hindu concept of Guardians of the directions, Dewata Nawa Sanga or nine guardian gods of directions that appear in Majapahit emblem Surya Majapahit. They are, Center, Shiva, East, Isvara, West, Mahadeva, North, Vishnu, South, Brahma, Northeast, Sambhu, Northwest, Sangkara, Southeast, Mahesora, Tri Angga, the conception of hierarchy from microcosm, middle realm, and macrocosm. It is also connected to the next concept tri loka, Tri Loka, also the conception of hierarchy between three realms bhur lower realm of animals and demons, bhuwah middle realm of human, and swah upper realms of gods and deities. Arga Segara or Kaja Kelod, the axis between. Arga or kaja and segara or kelod, mountain region are considered as parahyangan, the abode of hyang or gods, middle plain in between are the realm of human, and the sea as the realm of sea monster and demons. Other than artistic and technical mastery, all Balinese architect are required to master these Balinese philosophical concepts concerning form, architecture, Balinese temple or pura are designed as an open air place of worship within enclosed walls, connected with a series of intricately decorated gates between its compounds. This walled compounds contains several shrines, meru, and bale, the design, plan and layout of the pura follows the Tri Mandala concept of Balinese space allocation
36.
Kebaya
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It is sometimes made from sheer material such as silk, thin cotton or semi-transparent nylon or polyester, adorned with brocade or floral pattern embroidery. A kebaya is usually worn with a sarong, or a batik kain panjang, or other traditional woven garment such as ikat, the kebaya is the national costume of Indonesia, although it is more accurately endemic to the Javanese, Malay, Sundanese and Balinese peoples. Kebaya is inspired from Arab region clothing, the Arabic word abaya means clothing, aceh, Riau and Johor Kingdoms and Northern Sumatra adopted the Javanese style kebaya as a means of social expression of status with the more alus or refined Javanese overlords. The name of Kebaya as a particular clothing type was noted by the Portuguese when they landed in Indonesia, Kebaya is associated with a type of blouse worn by Indonesian women in 15th or 16th century. The earliest photographics evidence of the kebaya as known today date from 1857 of Javanese, Peranakan, the quintessential kebaya is the Javanese kebaya as known today is essentially unchanged as noted by Raffles in 1817. It consists of the blouse of cotton, silk, lace, brocade or velvet, traditional kebaya had no buttons down the front. A typical three-piece kerongsang is composed of a kerongsang ibu that is larger and heavier than the other two kerongsang anak, the blouse is commonly semi-transparent and worn over the torso wrap or kemben. The skirt or kain is an unstitched fabric wrap around three metres long, the blouse, known as baju kebaya may be of two main forms, the semi-transparent straighter cut blouse of Java, Bali, and the more tightly tailored Sunda kebaya. In Java, Bali and Sunda, the kain is commonly batik which may be from plain stamped cotton to elaborately hand-painted batik tulis embroidered silk with gold thread, in Lampung, the kain is the traditional tapis, an elaborate gold-thread embroidered ikat with small mica discs. Sumatra, Flores, Lemata Timor, and other islands commonly use kain of ikat or songket, sumba is famous for kain decorated with lau hada, shells and beads. In Malacca, Malaysia, a different variety of kebaya is called nyonya kebaya and worn by those of Chinese ancestry, the Nyonya kebaya is different in its famously intricately hand-beaded shoes and use of kain with Chinese motive batik or imported printed or hand-painted Chinese silks. Other than Malacca, the nyonya kebaya is also popular in other settlements, Penang. In Java, the worn by ladies of Chinese ancestry is called kebaya encim. It was commonly worn by Chinese ladies in Javan coastal cities with significant Chinese settlements, such as Semarang, Lasem, Tuban, Surabaya, Pekalongan and Cirebon. It marked differently from Javanese kebaya with its smaller and finer embroidery, lighter fabrics and more vibrant colors, made from imported materials such as silk, the encim kebaya fit well with vibrant-colored kain batik pesisiran. During the Dutch East Indies era of Indonesia, European women of high status adopted the kebaya, European women wore shorter sleeves and total length cotton in prints. The only woman present during Indonesias Proclamation of Independence, Dutch-educated activist SK Trimurti, wore kebaya, in Java, Bali and Sunda it is the kebaya. Kebayas as the costume of Indonesian women were often featured by Indonesian first ladies
37.
Wayang
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Wayang is a Javanese word for a theatrical performance with puppets or human dancers. When the term is used to refer to kinds of puppet theatre, performances of shadow puppet theatre are accompanied by a gamelan orchestra in Java, and by gender wayang in Bali. UNESCO designated wayang kulit, a puppet theatre and the best known of the Indonesian wayang, as a Masterpiece of Oral. In return for the acknowledgment, UNESCO required Indonesians to preserve their heritage, the term wayang is the Javanese word for shadow, or bayang in standard Indonesian, the word also means imagination. In modern daily Javanese and Indonesian vocabulary, wayang can refer to the puppet itself or the whole puppet theatre performance, Wayang is a generic term denoting traditional theatre in Indonesia. There is no evidence that existed before the first century CE. This leads to the hypothesis that the art was imported from either India or China, jivan Pani has argued that wayang developed from two arts of Odisha in Eastern India, the Ravana Chhaya puppet theatre and the Chhau dance. However, there very well may have been indigenous storytelling traditions that had a impact on the development of the traditional puppet theatre. The oldest known record that probably concerns wayang is from the 9th century, around 860 CE an Old Javanese charter issued by Maharaja Sri Lokapala mentions three sorts of performers, atapukan, aringgit, and abanol. Ringgit is described in an 11th century Javanese poem as a shadow figure. An inscription dated 930 CE says si Galigi mawayang, from that time till today it seems certain features of traditional puppet theatre have remained. Galigi was an itinerant performer who was requested to perform for a royal occasion. At that event he performed a story about the hero Bhima from the Mahabharata and this reference to wayang as shadow plays suggested that wayang performance is already familiar in Airlanggas court and wayang tradition has been established in Java, perhaps earlier. An inscription from this period also mentioned some occupations as awayang, Wayang kulit is a unique form of theatre employing light and shadow. The puppets are crafted from buffalo hide and mounted on bamboo sticks, when held up behind a piece of white cloth, with an electric bulb or an oil lamp as the light source, shadows are cast on the screen. The plays are based on romantic tales, especially adaptations of the classic Indian epics, the Mahabharata. Some of the plays are based on local happening or other local secular stories. It is up to the conductor or dalang or master puppeteer to decide his direction, the dalang is the genius behind the entire performance
38.
Shadow play
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The cut-out shapes of the puppets sometimes include translucent color or other types of detailing. Various effects can be achieved by moving both the puppets and the light source, a talented puppeteer can make the figures appear to walk, dance, fight, nod and laugh. Shadow play is popular in various cultures, currently there are more than 20 countries known to have shadow show troupes, Shadow play is an old tradition and it has a long history in Southeast Asia, especially in Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand and Cambodia. It is also considered as an ancient art in other parts of Asia such as in China, India and it is also known in the West from Turkey, Greece to France. It is a form of entertainment for both children and adults in many countries around the world. Shadow play probably developed from par shows with narrative scenes painted on a large cloth, as the shows were mostly performed at night the par was illuminated with an oil lamp. Similar storytelling with pictures may date back to the Harappa civilization, by at least around 200 BCE the figures on cloth seem to have been replaced with puppetry in Indian tholu bomalatta shows. These are performed behind a screen with flat, jointed puppets made of colorfully painted transparent leather. The puppets are held close to the screen and lit from behind, while hands and arms are manipulated with attached canes and lower legs swinging freely from the knee. Shadow puppets remained popular until recently in India, including the Tholu Bommalata of Andhra Pradesh, the Togalu Gombeyaata, leather puppets in Karnataka, and the Ravana Chhaya of Odisha. There are great similarities between Indonesian shadow puppetry called Wayang kulit and Indian shadow play, but it is whether it was imported from India or originated in Indonesia. It has been theorized to have been around since 1500 BCE, around 860 CE an Old Javanese charter issued by Maharaja Sri Lokapala mentions three sorts of performers, atapukan, aringgit, and abanol. Ringgit is described in an 11th century Javanese poem as a shadow figure. Wayang kulit is particularly popular in Java and Bali, the term derived from the word wayang literally means shadow or imagination in Javanese, also connotes spirit. The word kulit means skin, as the material from which the puppet is made is thin perforated leather sheets made from buffalo skin, the performances of shadow puppet theater in Bali originally lasted as long as six hours or until dawn. The complete wayang kulit troupes include dalang, nayaga, and sinden, some of the nayaga also performed as male choral singer. The dalang played the wayang behind the screen illuminated by oil lamp or modern halogen lamp. The flat puppet has moveable joints that are animated by hand, the handle of the rod is made of carved buffalo horn
39.
Miguel Covarrubias
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Miguel Covarrubias also known as José Miguel Covarrubias Duclaud was a Mexican painter, caricaturist, illustrator, ethnologist and art historian. José Miguel Covarrubias Duclaud was born 22 November 1904 in Mexico City and he also worked for the Ministry of Communications. In 1924, at the age of 19, he moved to New York City armed with a grant from the Mexican government, tremendous talent, soon Covarrubias was drawing for several top magazines, eventually becoming one of Vanity Fair magazines premier caricaturists. A man of talents, he also began to design sets. Other shows included Androcles and the Lion, The Four Over Thebes, the two fell in love and traveled together to Mexico, Europe, Africa and the Caribbean in the mid to late 1920s. During one of their trips to Mexico, Rosa and Miguel traveled with Tina Modotti and Edward Weston, Rosa was also introduced to Miguels family and friends including artist Diego Rivera. Rosa would become friends with Riveras second wife, the artist Frida Kahlo. Miguels artwork and celebrity caricatures have been featured in The New Yorker, the linear nature of his drawing style was highly influential to other caricaturists such as Al Hirschfeld. Miguels first book of caricatures The Prince of Wales and Other Famous Americans was a hit, though not all his subjects were thrilled that his sharp, pointed wit was aimed at them. He immediately fell in love with the Harlem jazz scene, which he frequented with Rosa and friends including Eugene ONeill and he counted many notables among his friends including Zora Neale Hurston, Langston Hughes and W. C. Handy for whom he illustrated books. Miguels caricatures of the clubs were the first of their kind printed in Vanity Fair. He managed to capture the spirit of the Harlem Renaissance in much of his work as well as in his book and he did not consider these caricatures, but serious drawings of people, music and a culture he loved. Heritage Press, the organization of The Limited Editions Club. In addition he did illustrations for publisher Alfred & Charles Bonis Frankie and Johnny for a writer who would become a good friend. Today, these editions are sought after by collectors. He collaborated in Austrian Artist Wolfgang Paalens journal Dyn from 1942-44, Covarrubias painted the six murals for GGIE in San Francisco with his assistant Antonio M. Ruiz. The set of murals featured oversized, illustrated maps entitled, The Fauna and Flora of the Pacific, Peoples, Art and Culture, Economy, Native Dwellings, and Native Means of Transportation
40.
Gamelan
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Gamelan is the traditional ensemble music of Java and Bali in Indonesia, made up predominantly of percussive instruments. The most common instruments used are metallophones played by mallets and a set of hand-played drums called kendhang which register the beat, other instruments include xylophones, bamboo flutes, a bowed instrument called a rebab, and even vocalists called sindhen. Although the popularity of gamelan has declined since the introduction of pop music, gamelan is still played on formal occasions. For most Indonesians, gamelan is an part of Indonesian culture. The word gamelan comes from the low Javanese word gamel, which may refer to a type of mallet used to strike instruments or the act of striking with a mallet. The term karawitan refers to classical music and performance practice. The word derives from the Javanese word of Sanskrit origin, rawit, another word from this root, pangrawit, means a person with such sense, and is used as an honorific when discussing esteemed gamelan musicians. The gamelan predates the Hindu-Buddhist culture that dominated Indonesia in its earliest records, the instruments developed into their current form during the Majapahit Empire. In contrast to the heavy Indian influence in art forms, the only obvious Indian influence in gamelan music is in the Javanese style of singing. In Javanese mythology, the gamelan was created by Sang Hyang Guru in Saka era 167 and he needed a signal to summon the gods and thus invented the gong. For more complex messages, he invented two other gongs, thus forming the original gamelan set, the earliest image of a musical ensemble is found on the 8th century Borobudur temple, Central Java. Musical instruments such as the flute, bells, drums in various sizes, lute. However it lacks metallophones and xylophones, nevertheless, the image of this musical ensemble is suggested to be the ancient form of the gamelan. In the palaces of Java the oldest known ensembles, Gamelan Munggang and these formed the basis of a loud style of music. In the 17th century, these loud and soft styles mixed, and to an extent the variety of modern gamelan styles of Bali, Java. Thus, despite the diversity of styles, many of the same theoretical concepts, instruments. A gamelan is an ensemble consisting of metallophones, xylophones, flutes, gongs, voices. The hand-played drum called kendhang controls the tempo and rhythm of pieces as well as transitions from one section to another, while one instrument gives melodic cues to indicate treatment or sections of a piece
41.
Ngaben
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Ngaben, or Cremation Ceremony, is a funeral ritual performed in Bali to send the deceased to the next life. It started when Bharatayuddha in India around 400 B. C, the body of the deceased will be placed as if sleeping, and the family will continue to treat the deceased as sleeping. No tears are shed, because the deceased is only temporarily absent, the proper day of the ceremony is always a matter of consulting a specialist on ceremony days. On the day of the ceremony, the body of the deceased is placed inside a coffin and this coffin is placed inside a sarcophagus resembling a buffalo or in a temple structure made of papier-maché and wood. This sarcophagus is then borne to the site in a procession. This is done to confuse evil spirits and keep away from the deceased. The climax of a Ngaben is the burning of the containing the body of the deceased. The fire is viewed as necessary to free the spirit from the body, Ngaben is not always immediately performed. For members of the castes, it is normal to perform the ritual individually for the deceased within three days. People of lower social classes opt for an economic solution where they first bury the deceased
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Walter Spies
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Walter Spies was a Russian-born German primitivist painter. In 1923 he moved to Java, Indonesia and he lived in Yogyakarta and then in Ubud, Bali starting from 1927. He is often credited with attracting the attention of Western cultural figures to Balinese culture and art in the 1930s and he influenced the direction of Balinese art, Spies was already well known in Europe as a painter in 1923. He lived for years in the Sultans court learning their music, then one day he went to Bali on a visit and has remained there ever since. Covarrubias and Spies became very close, Walter loved to collect velvety dragonflies, strange spiders and sea-slugs, not in a naturalists box, but in minutely accurate drawings. For days at a time he would be in his tent drawing them, because once dead and he was temperamental when he went into seclusion to paint, he would work incessantly for months on one of his rare canvases. He also painted landscapes in which every branch and every leaf is carefully painted, done with the love of a Persian miniaturist, a Cranach. The knowledge of every aspect of Balinese culture that Spies provided for Covarrubias research was well-acknowledged by the later and his assistance was given generously and without expecting even the reward of credit. In 1937, Spies built what he described as a hut at Iseh in Karangasem. In December 1938, Spies was arrested as part of a crackdown on homosexuals, with the influence of people such as Margaret Mead, he was released in September 1939. Spies was a paedophile, according to Australian documentary maker Kerry Negara, as a German national in the Dutch East Indies during World War II, Spies was arrested and deported. However, a Japanese bomb hit the ship that was carrying him to Ceylon, Bali Balinese art Balinese dance Hinduism in Indonesia Elke Voss, Walter Spies – Ein Leben für die balinesische Kunst. In, Ingrid Wessel Indonesien am Ende des 20, ISBN 3-934376-07-X Nigel Barley, Island of Demons. ISBN 978-981-08-2381-8 Vicki Baum, Love and Death in Bali, tuttle Publishing ISBN 978-0-8048-4180-1 John Stowell, Walter Spies, a life in art. Afterhours Books,2011, ISBN 978-602-96588-0-4 Walter Spies Paintings and his House in Bali Biography from Network Indonesia Gallery of his works monsoonbooks. com. sg Walter Spies on Facebook
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Legong
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Legong is a form of Balinese dance. It is a dance form characterized by intricate finger movements, complicated footwork. Legong probably originated in the 19th century as royal entertainment, legend has it that a prince of Sukwati fell ill and had a vivid dream in which two maidens danced to gamelan music. When he recovered, he arranged for such dances to be performed in reality, others believe that the Legong originated with the sanghyang dedari, a ceremony involving voluntary possession of two little girls by beneficent spirits. Legong is also danced at public festivals, excerpts from Legong dance dramas are put on for tourists. Traditionally, legong dancers were girls who have not yet reached puberty and they begin rigorous training from about the age of five. These dancers are regarded highly in the society and usually become wives of royal personages or wealthy merchants, after marriage they would stop dancing. However, in present Indonesia dancers may be of all ages, performances by men in womens costumes are also recorded, classical Legong enacts several traditional stories. The most common is the tale of the King of Lasem from the Malat and he is at war with another king, the father of Princess Ranjasari. Lasem wants to marry the girl, but she detests him, becoming lost in the forest, she is captured by Lasem, who imprisons her and goes out for a final assault against her family. He is attacked by a raven, which foretells his death. The dramatics are enacted in elaborate and stylized pantomime, the two little actresses are accompanied by a third dancer called a condong or attendant. She sets the scene, presents the dancers with their fans, traditionally, fifteen types of legong dance were known. The duration, movement, and narrative of each type differed, some, for instance, could last for an hour. Legong Keraton Legong dance Tari Legong Lasem part 1
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Balinese gamelan
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Gamelan is the traditional ensemble music of Java and Bali in Indonesia, made up predominantly of percussive instruments. The most common instruments used are metallophones played by mallets and a set of hand-played drums called kendhang which register the beat, other instruments include xylophones, bamboo flutes, a bowed instrument called a rebab, and even vocalists called sindhen. Although the popularity of gamelan has declined since the introduction of pop music, gamelan is still played on formal occasions. For most Indonesians, gamelan is an part of Indonesian culture. The word gamelan comes from the low Javanese word gamel, which may refer to a type of mallet used to strike instruments or the act of striking with a mallet. The term karawitan refers to classical music and performance practice. The word derives from the Javanese word of Sanskrit origin, rawit, another word from this root, pangrawit, means a person with such sense, and is used as an honorific when discussing esteemed gamelan musicians. The gamelan predates the Hindu-Buddhist culture that dominated Indonesia in its earliest records, the instruments developed into their current form during the Majapahit Empire. In contrast to the heavy Indian influence in art forms, the only obvious Indian influence in gamelan music is in the Javanese style of singing. In Javanese mythology, the gamelan was created by Sang Hyang Guru in Saka era 167 and he needed a signal to summon the gods and thus invented the gong. For more complex messages, he invented two other gongs, thus forming the original gamelan set, the earliest image of a musical ensemble is found on the 8th century Borobudur temple, Central Java. Musical instruments such as the flute, bells, drums in various sizes, lute. However it lacks metallophones and xylophones, nevertheless, the image of this musical ensemble is suggested to be the ancient form of the gamelan. In the palaces of Java the oldest known ensembles, Gamelan Munggang and these formed the basis of a loud style of music. In the 17th century, these loud and soft styles mixed, and to an extent the variety of modern gamelan styles of Bali, Java. Thus, despite the diversity of styles, many of the same theoretical concepts, instruments. A gamelan is an ensemble consisting of metallophones, xylophones, flutes, gongs, voices. The hand-played drum called kendhang controls the tempo and rhythm of pieces as well as transitions from one section to another, while one instrument gives melodic cues to indicate treatment or sections of a piece
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