1.
Airship
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An airship or dirigible balloon is a type of aerostat or lighter-than-air aircraft that can navigate through the air under its own power. Aerostats gain their lift from large gas bags filled with a gas that is less dense than the surrounding air. In early dirigibles, the gas used was hydrogen, due to its high lifting capacity. Helium gas has almost the same lifting capacity and is not flammable, unlike hydrogen, significant amounts were first discovered in the United States and for a while helium was only used for airships by the United States. Most airships built since the 1960s have used helium, though some have used hot air, the envelope of an airship may form a single gas bag, or may contain a number of internal gas-filled cells. An airship also has engines, crew, and optionally also payload accommodation, the main types of airship are non-rigid, semi-rigid, and rigid. Non-rigid airships, often called blimps, rely on internal pressure to maintain the shape of the airship, semi-rigid airships maintain the envelope shape by internal pressure, but have some form of supporting structure, such as a fixed keel, attached to it. Rigid airships have a structural framework which maintains the shape and carries all structural loads. Rigid airships were first flown by Count Zeppelin and the vast majority of rigid airships built were manufactured by the firm he founded, as a result, rigid airships are called zeppelins. S. Navy helium-filled rigids, the USS Akron and USS Macon respectively, during the pioneer years of aeronautics, terms such as airship, air-ship, air ship and ship of the air meant any kind of navigable or dirigible flying machine. In 1919 Frederick Handley Page was reported as referring to ships of the air, in the 1930s, large intercontinental flying boats were also sometimes referred to as ships of the air or flying-ships. Nowadays the term airship is used only for powered, dirigible balloons, semirigid architecture is the more recent and the late appearance is caused by both advancements about deformable structures and exigiency of reducing weight and volume of the airships. They have a structure that ensure to keep the shape jointly with overpressure of the gas envelope. An aerostat is an aircraft which remain aloft using buoyancy or static lift, Airships are a type of aerostat. The term aerostat has also used to indicate a tethered or moored balloon as opposed to a free-floating balloon. A blimp is a non-rigid aerostat, in American usage it refers specifically to a non-rigid type of dirigible balloon or airship. In British usage it refers to any non-rigid aerostat, including balloons and other kite balloons, having a streamlined shape. The initials LZ, for Luftschiff Zeppelin, usually prefixed their crafts serial identifiers, streamlined Parsifal-shaped rigid airships are usually referred to as Zeppelin, because of the fame that this company has acquired due to the number of airships it produced
2.
Bertrand Piccard
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Bertrand Piccard is a Swiss psychiatrist and balloonist. Along with Brian Jones, he was the first to complete a balloon flight around the globe. He is the initiator, chairman, and co-pilot of the first successful round-the-world solar flight with André Borschberg, Piccard was born in Lausanne, into a family of explorers. His grandfather Auguste Piccard was a balloonist and his father, Jacques Piccard was an undersea explorer, growing up in a ballooning and undersea-exploration family, Bertrand always was fascinated with flight. As a child, he was taken to the launch of space flights from Cape Canaveral. From an early age Bertrand also was fascinated by the study of behaviour in extreme situations. He received a degree from the University of Lausanne in psychiatry and he has since become a lecturer and supervisor at the Swiss Medical Society for Hypnosis. Early on, he also obtained licenses to fly balloons, airplanes, gliders, in Europe, he was one of the pioneers of hang gliding and microlight flying during the 1970s. He became the European hang-glider aerobatics champion in 1985, in recognition of this accomplishment, he received awards including the Harmon Trophy, the FAI Gold Air Medal and the Charles Green Salver. In November 2003, he announced a project, in cooperation with the École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, for a solar-powered, Piccard began construction in 2007, and conducted short test flights in 2008 with André Borschberg. By 2009, he had assembled a team of fifty specialists from six countries. The project is financed by a number of companies and individuals in Europe. The first company to support the project officially was Semper, after Eric Freymond was convinced of the success of the highly media-friendly Bertrand Piccard. Owing to international support for the project, the Solar Impulse is a European craft, not a Swiss one, despite scientific and medical support from the EPFL, in 2010, the Solar Impulse 1 made its first nighttime flight. In 2011, it landed at Bourget Field in Paris, in 2012, it made its first intercontinental flight from Morocco to Switzerland. Originally conceived as a one-seater, the design of Solar Impulse was altered to allow two, the first intercontinental flight was made by Piccard and Borschberg together. In 2013, he and Borschberg traversed the United States from Mountain View, there were several stops along the way, including Washington, D. C. In 2015, the objective is to accomplish the first round-the-world solar flight in history, the voyage consists of multiple flights started on March 9 and was scheduled to conclude roughly five months later
3.
Brian Jones (aeronaut)
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Brian Jones is an English balloonist. Brian Jones, along with Bertrand Piccard, co-piloted the first successful uninterrupted circumnavigation of the world on board the balloon Breitling Orbiter 3. They set off on 1 March 1999 from Château dOex in Switzerland, for this achievement, he received awards including the Harmon Trophy, the Hubbard Medal, the FAI Gold Air Medal and the Charles Green Salver. Still active in ballooning records, In November 2010 Jones piloted the Esprit Breitling Orbiter as a platform for Yves Rossy. Rossy made the first successful attempt to perform using a jet-powered flying-wing backpack. Jones grew up in Knowle, Bristol and he served for 13 years in the Royal Air Force. He is married to Joanna, a balloonist, and has two children and he co-authored the book The Greatest Adventure ISBN 978-0747264439 with Bertrand Piccard. Milestones of Flight, Breitling Orbiter 3 Balloon Gondola Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum
4.
Circumnavigation
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Circumnavigation means to travel all the way around the entire planet, or an island, or continent. This article is concerned with circumnavigation of the Earth, the first known circumnavigation of Earth was the Magellan-Elcano expedition, which sailed from Seville, Spain, in 1519 and returned in 1522 after crossing the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. The word circumnavigation is a formed from the verb circumnavigate, from the past participle of the Latin verb circumnavigare. If a person walks completely around either Pole, they cross all meridians, the trajectory of a true circumnavigation forms a continuous loop on the surface of Earth separating two halves of comparable area. A basic definition of a global circumnavigation would be a route which covers roughly a great circle, in practice, people use different definitions of world circumnavigation to accommodate practical constraints, depending on the method of travel. The first single voyage of global circumnavigation was that of the ship Victoria and it was a Castilian voyage of discovery, led initially by Ferdinand Magellan between 1519 and 1521, and then by the Basque Juan Sebastián Elcano from 1521 to 1522. It then continued across the Pacific discovering a number of islands on its way, Elcano and a small group of 18 men were actually the only members of the expedition to make the full circumnavigation. However, traveling west from Europe, in 1521, Magellan reached a region of Southeast Asia, Magellan thereby achieved a nearly complete personal circumnavigation of the globe for the first time in history. In 1577, Elizabeth I sent Francis Drake to start an expedition against the Spanish along the Pacific coast of the Americas, Drake set out from Plymouth, England in November 1577, aboard Pelican, which Drake renamed Golden Hind mid-voyage. In June 1579, Drake landed somewhere north of Spains northern-most claim in Alta California, Drake completed the second circumnavigation of the world in September 1580, becoming the first commander to lead an entire circumnavigation. For the wealthy, long voyages around the world, such as was done by Ulysses S. Grant, became possible in the 19th century, however, it was later improvements in technology and rising incomes that made such trips relatively common. The nautical global circumnavigation record is held by a wind-powered vessel. It can be seen that the route roughly approximates a great circle, in yacht racing, a round-the-world route approximating a great circle would be quite impractical, particularly in a non-stop race where use of the Panama and Suez Canals would be impossible. The second map on the shows the route of the Vendée Globe round-the-world race in red. It can be seen that the route does not pass through any pairs of antipodal points and it is allowed to have one single waypoint to lengthen the calculated track. The voyage followed the North Atlantic Ocean, Equator, South Atlantic Ocean, Southern Ocean, South Atlantic Ocean, Equator, since the advent of world cruises in 1922, by Cunards Laconia, thousands of people have completed circumnavigations of the globe at a more leisurely pace. Typically, these voyages begin in New York City or Southampton, routes vary, either travelling through the Caribbean and then into the Pacific Ocean via the Panama Canal, or around Cape Horn. From there ships usually make their way to Hawaii, the islands of the South Pacific, Australia, New Zealand, then northward to Hong Kong, South East Asia, and India
5.
Breitling Orbiter
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Breitling Orbiter was the name of three different Rozière balloons made by Cameron Balloons to circumnavigate the globe, named after the sponsor Breitling. Breitling Orbiter 3 was the first balloon to fly around the world non-stop, piloted by Bertrand Piccard, designed and built by Cameron Balloons, of Bristol, England, Breitling Orbiter 3 stood 55 m tall when fully inflated. The propane gas that fueled its six burners was contained in 28 titanium cylinders mounted in two rows along the sides of the gondola, concerned about fuel consumption, the team added four additional propane containers prior to take-off, these additions proved necessary to complete the trip. The Breitling Orbiter 3 was a Rozière balloon, which combines the features of a hot-air balloon, initially, the helium cell is filled to approximately 47% of its maximum capacity. During ascent, warming by the sun causes the helium to expand more than the surrounding air. The Breitling Orbiter 3 gondola was constructed of a weave of Kevlar, after take-off, the cabin was sealed at 1,800 m to trap the air within it. During the flight the cabin atmosphere was supplemented by nitrogen and oxygen, cabin pressure was maintained at around 24 kPa by adding oxygen and nitrogen to the cabin air as necessary. At 10,000 m, the cabin pressure equaled atmospheric pressure at 3,000 m, solar panels suspended beneath the gondola recharged the on-board lead-acid batteries that provided electrical power. Satellite-based systems enabled the crew to navigate via GPS as well as communicate, Bertrand Piccard and Brian Jones took off from the Swiss Alpine village of Château-dOex at 8,05, GMT, March 1,1999. They traveled southwest over the Mediterranean and swung east over Mauritania on March 2 at a starting meridian of 9 degrees,12 minutes west. They landed in the Egyptian desert after being aloft 19 days,21 hours, during the course of the flight, the balloon had climbed to altitudes of up to 11,737 m, and achieved speeds up to 123 knots. The official finish line of the circumnavigation occurred over Mauritania at 4,54 AM, the goal of ending in Egypt had been to touch down near the Great Pyramids, however, high winds forced the pilots to land short of their target about 80 kilometers north of Mut. On board, they carried a copy of Guy de Maupassants A Life, which had been inscribed by Maupassant to Jules Verne, the book had been loaned to the pilots to carry for good luck by a grandson of Jules Verne from the novelists personal library. The daily routine called for man to spend eight hours alone at the controls, eight hours working with his crewmate. A unique pressure-operated toilet was included in a curtained off area at the rear of the craft. When asked by reporter Howard Schneider about the fate of Breitling Orbiter 3, the project manager Alan Noble remarked that the sponsors, possibly the National Air and Space Museum or the Smithsonian. Louis, the Mercury Friendship 7 capsule, the Gemini IV capsule, the Apollo 11 command module, the envelope was temporarily on display at the Gasometer Oberhausen between 2004 and 2006, with a mock-up gondola. The gondola is now on display at the Udvar-Hazy Center of the National Air and Space Museum, Dulles Airport outside Washington D. C
6.
Aeronautics
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Aeronautics is the science or art involved with the study, design, and manufacturing of air flight capable machines, and the techniques of operating aircraft and rockets within the atmosphere. The British Royal Aeronautical Society identifies the aspects of aeronautical Art, Science and Engineering and the profession of Aeronautics. A significant part of science is a branch of dynamics called aerodynamics, which deals with the motion of air. Attempts to fly without any real aeronautical understanding have been made from the earliest times, typically by constructing wings, wiser investigators sought to gain some rational understanding through the study of bird flight. An early example appears in ancient Egyptian texts, later medieval Islamic scientists also made such studies. The founders of modern aeronautics, Leonardo da Vinci in the Renaissance and Cayley in 1799, man-carrying kites are believed to have been used extensively in ancient China. In 1282 the European explorer Marco Polo described the Chinese techniques then current, the Chinese also constructed small hot air balloons, or lanterns, and rotary-wing toys. The lifting medium for his balloon would be an aether whose composition he did not know, although his designs were rational, they were not based on particularly good science. Many of his designs, such as a four-person screw-type helicopter, have severe flaws and he did at least understand that An object offers as much resistance to the air as the air does to the object. His analysis led to the realisation that manpower alone was not sufficient for sustained flight, da Vincis work was lost after his death and did not reappear until it had been overtaken by the work of George Cayley. The modern era of lighter-than-air flight began early in the 17th century with Galileos experiments in which he showed that air has weight and these would be lighter than the displaced air and able to lift an airship. His proposed methods of controlling height are still in use today, by carrying ballast which may be dropped overboard to gain height, in practice de Terzis spheres would have collapsed under air pressure, and further developments had to wait for more practicable lifting gases. From the mid-18th century the Montgolfier brothers in France began experimenting with balloons and their balloons were made of paper, and early experiments using steam as the lifting gas were short-lived due to its effect on the paper as it condensed. Meanwhile, the discovery of hydrogen led Joseph Black in c.1780 to propose its use as a lifting gas, on hearing of the Montgolfier Brothers invitation, the French Academy member Jacques Charles offered a similar demonstration of a hydrogen balloon. Charles and two craftsmen, the Robert brothers, developed a material of rubberised silk for the envelope. The hydrogen gas was to be generated by chemical reaction during the filling process, the Montgolfier designs had several shortcomings, not least the need for dry weather and a tendency for sparks from the fire to set light to the paper balloon. The manned design had a gallery around the base of the rather than the hanging basket of the first, unmanned design. On their free flight, De Rozier and dArlandes took buckets of water, on the other hand, the manned design of Charles was essentially modern
7.
Aerostat
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An aerostat is a lighter than air craft that gains its lift through the use of a buoyant gas. Aerostats include unpowered balloons and powered airships, a balloon may be free-flying or tethered. Especially with airships, the gasbags are often protected by an outer envelope, aerostats are so named because they use aerostatic lift which is a buoyant force that does not require movement through the surrounding air mass. This contrasts with the heavy aerodynes that primarily use aerodynamic lift which requires the movement of a surface through the surrounding air mass. The term has also used in a narrower sense, to refer to the statically tethered balloon in contrast to the free-flying airship. This article uses the term in its broader sense, in conventional usage, the term aerostat refers to any aircraft that remains aloft primarily using aerostatic buoyancy. Historically, all aerostats were called balloons, powered types capable of horizontal flight were referred to as dirigible balloons or simply dirigibles. These powered aerostats later came to be called airships, with the term reserved for unpowered types. More recently, the US Government Accountability Office has used the term aerostat in a different sense, a balloon is an aerostat which has no means of propulsion and must be either tethered on a long cable or allowed to drift freely with the wind. Although a free balloon travels at the speed of the wind, it is travelling with the wind so to a passenger the air feels calm, to change its altitude above ground it must either adjust the amount of lift or discard ballast weight. Notable uses of free-flying balloons include meteorological balloons and sport balloons, a tethered balloon is held down by one or more mooring lines or tethers. It has sufficient lift to hold the line taut and its altitude is controlled by winching the line in or out, a tethered balloon does feel the wind. A round balloon is unstable and bobs about in strong winds, both kite balloons and non-rigid airships are sometimes called blimps. Notable uses of tethered balloons include observation balloons and barrage balloons, an airship is a powered, free-flying aerostat that can be steered. Airships divide into rigid, semi-rigid and non-rigid types, with these last often known as Blimps, a rigid airship has an outer framework or skin surrounding the lifting gas bags inside it, The outer envelope keeps its shape even if the gasbags are deflated. The great Zeppelin airships of the century were rigid types. A non-rigid airship or blimp deflates like a balloon as it loses gas, the Goodyear blimps are still a common sight in the USA. A semi-rigid airship has a gas bag like a non-rigid
8.
Buoyancy
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In science, buoyancy or upthrust, is an upward force exerted by a fluid that opposes the weight of an immersed object. In a column of fluid, pressure increases with depth as a result of the weight of the overlying fluid, thus the pressure at the bottom of a column of fluid is greater than at the top of the column. Similarly, the pressure at the bottom of an object submerged in a fluid is greater than at the top of the object and this pressure difference results in a net upwards force on the object. For this reason, an object whose density is greater than that of the fluid in which it is submerged tends to sink, If the object is either less dense than the liquid or is shaped appropriately, the force can keep the object afloat. This can occur only in a reference frame, which either has a gravitational field or is accelerating due to a force other than gravity defining a downward direction. In a situation of fluid statics, the net upward force is equal to the magnitude of the weight of fluid displaced by the body. The center of buoyancy of an object is the centroid of the volume of fluid. Archimedes principle is named after Archimedes of Syracuse, who first discovered this law in 212 B. C, more tersely, Buoyancy = weight of displaced fluid. The weight of the fluid is directly proportional to the volume of the displaced fluid. Thus, among completely submerged objects with equal masses, objects with greater volume have greater buoyancy and this is also known as upthrust. Suppose a rocks weight is measured as 10 newtons when suspended by a string in a vacuum with gravity acting upon it, suppose that when the rock is lowered into water, it displaces water of weight 3 newtons. The force it exerts on the string from which it hangs would be 10 newtons minus the 3 newtons of buoyancy force,10 −3 =7 newtons. Buoyancy reduces the apparent weight of objects that have sunk completely to the sea floor and it is generally easier to lift an object up through the water than it is to pull it out of the water. The density of the object relative to the density of the fluid can easily be calculated without measuring any volumes. Density of object density of fluid = weight weight − apparent immersed weight Example, If you drop wood into water, Example, A helium balloon in a moving car. During a period of increasing speed, the air mass inside the car moves in the direction opposite to the cars acceleration, the balloon is also pulled this way. However, because the balloon is buoyant relative to the air, it ends up being pushed out of the way, If the car slows down, the same balloon will begin to drift backward. For the same reason, as the car goes round a curve and this is the equation to calculate the pressure inside a fluid in equilibrium
9.
Tethered balloon
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A tethered, moored or captive balloon is a balloon that is restrained by one or more tethers attached to the ground and so cannot float freely. The base of the tether is wound around the drum of a winch, which may be fixed or mounted on a vehicle, and which is used to raise and lower the balloon. A balloon is a form of aerostat, along with the powered free-flying airship, the round shape uses the minimum material to accommodate a given volume of lifting gas, making it the lightest construction. However, in any significant wind the round shape is aerodynamically unstable and will bob about, to avoid this problem the kite balloon was developed. This form has a shape to reduce wind resistance and some form of tail surface to stabilise it so that it always points into the wind. Like the powered airship, such balloons are often called blimps, a hybrid tethered balloon or kytoon is shaped to provide aerodynamic lift similar to a kite, as well as to reduce drag. Designed by Albert Caquot, French engineer, in 1914, the balloons of World War I. Military observation balloons were used extensively in World War I. These early types used hydrogen as their lifting gas, today, tethered balloons are used for lifting cameras, radio antennas, electro-optical sensors, radio-relay equipment and advertising banners – often for long durations. Tethered balloons are used for position marking and bird control work. Typically, they use the gas helium to provide lift. Tethered balloons are used for advertising, either by lifting advertisement signs, or by using a balloon with advertisements written on. It is not uncommon to use specially designed balloons, blimp-shaped balloons are especially popular for advertising use. By suspending a light source within the envelope, the balloon can be illuminated at night, during the project of the Preliminary Evaluation of Air Quality in Cyprus, a tethered balloon from the University of Stuttgart was used in Nicosia and Limassol, in 2003. The United States Geological Survey uses tethered balloons to carry equipment to places where conventional aircraft cannot go, such as above an erupting volcano. Tethered balloons are ideal as they can remain more or less in one place, are less likely to be damaged by volcanic ash. Tethered balloons are used as an attraction and for joyrides. The advantage of tethered balloons is that great antenna heights are easily attainable, tethered balloons or blimps have been studied to overcome the limitations of terrestrial cell towers for telecommunications
10.
Basket
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A basket is a container which is traditionally constructed from stiff fibers, which can be made from a range of materials, including wood splints, runners, and cane. While most baskets are made from plant materials, other such as horsehair, baleen. Baskets are generally woven by hand, some baskets are fitted with a lid, others are left open. Baskets serve utilitarian as well as aesthetic purposes, some baskets are ceremonial, that is religious, in nature. Prior to the invention of woven baskets, people used tree bark to make simple containers and these containers could be used to transport gathered food and other items, but crumble after only a few uses. Weaving strips of bark or other plant material to support the bark containers would be the next step, the last innovation appears to be baskets so tightly woven that they could hold water. Depending on soil conditions, baskets may or may not be preserved in the archaeological record, sites in the Middle East show that weaving techniques were used to make mats and possibly also baskets, circa 8000 BCE. Twined baskets date back to 7000 BCE in Oasisamerica, baskets made with interwoven techniques were common at 3000 BCE. Baskets were originally designed as multi-purpose baskets to carry and store, the plant life available in a region affects the choice of material, which in turn influences the weaving technique. The practice of basket making has evolved into an art, artistic freedom allows basket makers a wide choice of colors, materials, sizes, patterns, and details. The carrying of a basket on the head, particularly by women, has long been practised. Representations of this in Ancient Greek art are called Canephorae, the phrase to hell in a handbasket means to rapidly deteriorate. The origin of use is unclear. Basket is sometimes used as an adjective towards a person who is out of wedlock. This occurs more commonly in British English, basket also refers to a bulge in a mans crotch. Materials have been used by basket makers, Wicker Straw Plastic Metal Bamboo Palm Zepeda, ocean Power, Poems from the Desert. Baskets, The Womens Committee of the Philadelphia Museum of Art
11.
Gondola (airship)
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An airship or dirigible balloon is a type of aerostat or lighter-than-air aircraft that can navigate through the air under its own power. Aerostats gain their lift from large gas bags filled with a gas that is less dense than the surrounding air. In early dirigibles, the gas used was hydrogen, due to its high lifting capacity. Helium gas has almost the same lifting capacity and is not flammable, unlike hydrogen, significant amounts were first discovered in the United States and for a while helium was only used for airships by the United States. Most airships built since the 1960s have used helium, though some have used hot air, the envelope of an airship may form a single gas bag, or may contain a number of internal gas-filled cells. An airship also has engines, crew, and optionally also payload accommodation, the main types of airship are non-rigid, semi-rigid, and rigid. Non-rigid airships, often called blimps, rely on internal pressure to maintain the shape of the airship, semi-rigid airships maintain the envelope shape by internal pressure, but have some form of supporting structure, such as a fixed keel, attached to it. Rigid airships have a structural framework which maintains the shape and carries all structural loads. Rigid airships were first flown by Count Zeppelin and the vast majority of rigid airships built were manufactured by the firm he founded, as a result, rigid airships are called zeppelins. S. Navy helium-filled rigids, the USS Akron and USS Macon respectively, during the pioneer years of aeronautics, terms such as airship, air-ship, air ship and ship of the air meant any kind of navigable or dirigible flying machine. In 1919 Frederick Handley Page was reported as referring to ships of the air, in the 1930s, large intercontinental flying boats were also sometimes referred to as ships of the air or flying-ships. Nowadays the term airship is used only for powered, dirigible balloons, semirigid architecture is the more recent and the late appearance is caused by both advancements about deformable structures and exigiency of reducing weight and volume of the airships. They have a structure that ensure to keep the shape jointly with overpressure of the gas envelope. An aerostat is an aircraft which remain aloft using buoyancy or static lift, Airships are a type of aerostat. The term aerostat has also used to indicate a tethered or moored balloon as opposed to a free-floating balloon. A blimp is a non-rigid aerostat, in American usage it refers specifically to a non-rigid type of dirigible balloon or airship. In British usage it refers to any non-rigid aerostat, including balloons and other kite balloons, having a streamlined shape. The initials LZ, for Luftschiff Zeppelin, usually prefixed their crafts serial identifiers, streamlined Parsifal-shaped rigid airships are usually referred to as Zeppelin, because of the fame that this company has acquired due to the number of airships it produced
12.
Telescope
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A telescope is an optical instrument that aids in the observation of remote objects by collecting electromagnetic radiation. The first known practical telescopes were invented in the Netherlands at the beginning of the 1600s and they found use in both terrestrial applications and astronomy. Within a few decades, the telescope was invented, which used mirrors to collect. In the 20th century many new types of telescopes were invented, including radio telescopes in the 1930s, the word telescope now refers to a wide range of instruments capable of detecting different regions of the electromagnetic spectrum, and in some cases other types of detectors. The word telescope was coined in 1611 by the Greek mathematician Giovanni Demisiani for one of Galileo Galileis instruments presented at a banquet at the Accademia dei Lincei, in the Starry Messenger, Galileo had used the term perspicillum. The earliest recorded working telescopes were the telescopes that appeared in the Netherlands in 1608. Their development is credited to three individuals, Hans Lippershey and Zacharias Janssen, who were spectacle makers in Middelburg, Galileo heard about the Dutch telescope in June 1609, built his own within a month, and improved upon the design in the following year. Also in 1609, Thomas Harriot became the first person known to point a telescope skyward in order to make observations of a celestial object. The idea that the objective, or light-gathering element, could be a mirror instead of a lens was being investigated soon after the invention of the refracting telescope. The potential advantages of using parabolic mirrors—reduction of spherical aberration and no chromatic aberration—led to many proposed designs, in 1668, Isaac Newton built the first practical reflecting telescope, of a design which now bears his name, the Newtonian reflector. The invention of the lens in 1733 partially corrected color aberrations present in the simple lens and enabled the construction of shorter. The largest reflecting telescopes currently have objectives larger than 10 m, the 20th century also saw the development of telescopes that worked in a wide range of wavelengths from radio to gamma-rays. The first purpose built radio telescope went into operation in 1937, since then, a tremendous variety of complex astronomical instruments have been developed. The name telescope covers a range of instruments. Most detect electromagnetic radiation, but there are differences in how astronomers must go about collecting light in different frequency bands. The near-infrared can be collected much like light, however in the far-infrared and submillimetre range. For example, the James Clerk Maxwell Telescope observes from wavelengths from 3 μm to 2000 μm, on the other hand, the Spitzer Space Telescope, observing from about 3 μm to 180 μm uses a mirror. Also using reflecting optics, the Hubble Space Telescope with Wide Field Camera 3 can observe in the range from about 0.2 μm to 1.7 μm
13.
Balloon
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A balloon is a flexible bag that can be inflated with a gas, such as helium, hydrogen, nitrous oxide, oxygen, or air. Modern day balloons are made from such as rubber, latex, polychloroprene, or a nylon fabric. Some early balloons were made of dried animal bladders, such as the pig bladder, some balloons are used for decorative purposes or entertaining purposes, while others are used for practical purposes such as meteorology, medical treatment, military defense, or transportation. A balloons properties, including its low density and low cost, have led to a range of applications. The rubber balloon was invented by Michael Faraday in 1824, during experiments with various gases, Balloon Decorating Balloons are used for decorating birthday parties, weddings, corporate functions, school events, and for other festive gatherings. The artists who use the round balloons to build are called stackers, the most common types of balloon decor include arches, columns, centerpieces, balloon drops, sculptures, and balloon bouquets. Party balloons are made of a natural latex tapped from rubber trees. The rubbers elasticity makes the volume adjustable, often the term Party Balloon will refer to a twisting balloon or pencil balloon. These balloons are manipulated to create shapes and figures for parties and events, filling the balloon with air can be done with the mouth, a manual or electric inflater, or with a source of compressed gas. When rubber or plastic balloons are filled with helium so that they float, they retain their buoyancy for only a day or so. The enclosed helium atoms escape through pores in the latex which are larger than the helium atoms. Balloons filled with air usually hold their size and shape much longer, even a perfect rubber balloon eventually loses gas to the outside. The process by which a substance or solute migrates from a region of high concentration, through a barrier or membrane, to a region of lower concentration is called diffusion. The inside of balloons can be treated with a gel which coats the inside of the balloon to reduce the helium leakage. Beginning in the late 1970s, some more expensive foil balloons made of thin, unstretchable and these balloons have attractive shiny reflective surfaces and are often printed with color pictures and patterns for gifts and parties. The most important attribute of metallised nylon for balloons is its lightweight, increasing buoyancy, foil balloons have been criticized for interfering with power lines. Balloon artists are entertainers who twist and tie inflated tubular balloons into sculptures, the balloons used for sculpture are made of extra-stretchy rubber so that they can be twisted and tied without bursting. Since the pressure required to inflate a balloon is inversely proportional to the diameter of the balloon, a pump is usually used to inflate these balloons
14.
Density
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The density, or more precisely, the volumetric mass density, of a substance is its mass per unit volume. The symbol most often used for density is ρ, although the Latin letter D can also be used. Mathematically, density is defined as mass divided by volume, ρ = m V, where ρ is the density, m is the mass, and V is the volume. In some cases, density is defined as its weight per unit volume. For a pure substance the density has the numerical value as its mass concentration. Different materials usually have different densities, and density may be relevant to buoyancy, purity, osmium and iridium are the densest known elements at standard conditions for temperature and pressure but certain chemical compounds may be denser. Thus a relative density less than one means that the floats in water. The density of a material varies with temperature and pressure and this variation is typically small for solids and liquids but much greater for gases. Increasing the pressure on an object decreases the volume of the object, increasing the temperature of a substance decreases its density by increasing its volume. In most materials, heating the bottom of a results in convection of the heat from the bottom to the top. This causes it to rise relative to more dense unheated material, the reciprocal of the density of a substance is occasionally called its specific volume, a term sometimes used in thermodynamics. Density is a property in that increasing the amount of a substance does not increase its density. Archimedes knew that the irregularly shaped wreath could be crushed into a cube whose volume could be calculated easily and compared with the mass, upon this discovery, he leapt from his bath and ran naked through the streets shouting, Eureka. As a result, the term eureka entered common parlance and is used today to indicate a moment of enlightenment, the story first appeared in written form in Vitruvius books of architecture, two centuries after it supposedly took place. Some scholars have doubted the accuracy of this tale, saying among other things that the method would have required precise measurements that would have been difficult to make at the time, from the equation for density, mass density has units of mass divided by volume. As there are units of mass and volume covering many different magnitudes there are a large number of units for mass density in use. The SI unit of kilogram per metre and the cgs unit of gram per cubic centimetre are probably the most commonly used units for density.1,000 kg/m3 equals 1 g/cm3. In industry, other larger or smaller units of mass and or volume are often more practical, see below for a list of some of the most common units of density
15.
Hot air balloon
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A hot air balloon is a lighter than air aircraft consisting of a bag, called an envelope, which contains heated air. Suspended beneath is a gondola or wicker basket, which carries passengers, the heated air inside the envelope makes it buoyant since it has a lower density than the colder air outside the envelope. As with all aircraft, hot air balloons cannot fly beyond the atmosphere, unlike gas balloons, the envelope does not have to be sealed at the bottom, since the air near the bottom of the envelope is at the same pressure as the surrounding air. In modern sport balloons the envelope is made from nylon fabric. The hot air balloon is the first successful human-carrying flight technology, the first hot-air balloon flown in the Americas was launched from the Walnut Street Jail in Philadelphia on January 9,1793 by the French aeronaut Jean Pierre Blanchard. Hot air balloons that can be propelled through the air rather than simply drifting with the wind are known as thermal airships, early unmanned hot air balloons were used in China. Zhuge Liang of the Shu Han kingdom, during the Three Kingdoms era and these lanterns are known as Kongming lanterns. Later that same day, Pilatre de Rozier became the human to ascend into the air, reaching an altitude of 26 m. The first free flight with passengers was made a few weeks later. King Louis XVI had originally decreed that condemned criminals would be the first pilots, the first military use of a hot air balloon happened in 1794 during the battle of Fleurus, when the French used the balloon lEntreprenant for observation. Modern hot air balloons, with a heat source, were developed by Ed Yost, beginning during the 1950s, his work resulted in his first successful flight. The first modern hot air balloon to be made in the United Kingdom was the Bristol Belle, presently, hot air balloons are used primarily for recreation. Hot air balloons are able to fly to extremely high altitudes, on November 26,2005 Vijaypat Singhania set the world altitude record for highest hot air balloon flight, reaching 21,027 m. He took off from downtown Mumbai, India, and landed 240 km south in Panchale, the previous record of 19,811 m had been set by Per Lindstrand on June 6,1988, in Plano, Texas. With a volume of 74 thousand cubic meters, the envelope was the largest ever built for a hot air craft. Designed to fly in the jet streams, the Pacific Flyer recorded the fastest ground speed for a manned balloon at 245 mph. The longest duration record was set by Swiss psychiatrist Bertrand Piccard, Auguste Piccards grandson and it was the first nonstop trip around the world by balloon. The balloon left Château-dOex, Switzerland, on March 1,1999, the two men exceeded distance, endurance, and time records, traveling 19 days,21 hours, and 55 minutes
16.
Gas balloon
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A gas balloon is a balloon that flies in the air because it is filled with a gas less dense than air or lighter than air. It is tied to a thread to prevent it from flying up in the air and it is also sealed at the bottom to ensure that the gas doesnt escape. A gas balloon may also be called a Charlière for its inventor, today, familiar gas balloons include large blimps and small rubber party balloons. Blimps have displaced zeppelins as the dominant form of airship, the first gas balloon made its flight in August 1783. Designed by professor Jacques Charles and Les Frères Robert, it carried no passengers or cargo, on September 19,1784 the brothers and M. Collin-Hullin flew for 6 hours 40 minutes, covering 186 km from Paris to Beuvry near Béthune. This was the first flight over 100 km, gas balloons remained popular throughout the age before powered flight. They could fly higher and further than hot-air balloons, but were dangerous as they were filled with hydrogen or coal gas. Gas ballooning has been popular in Europe, most notably in Germany, several gas balloon clubs exist throughout the country with well organized launch sites and well defined infrastructure making flights relatively easy to do. Rough estimates show 150 active gas pilots in Europe, in stark contrast, gas ballooning in the USA might have at most 30 active pilots who typically fly only once a year at the Albuquerque Balloon Fiesta in October. This is primarily due to the high cost of helium. This is starting to change with the introduction of hydrogen as a lifting gas, the German gas community has been a valuable resource in helping the US pilots gain skills in flying gas balloons and working with hydrogen as a lifting gas. Many US gas pilots have been and are participating in training flights in Germany. A gas balloon can also be tethered, on October 24,2014, Alan Eustace, a former Google executive, made a jump from the stratosphere, a shepericarp ballon, breaking Felix Baumgartners 2012 world record. The launch-point for his jump was from a runway in Roswell, New Mexico. He reached a maximum altitude of 135,908 feet. The balloon used for the feat was manufactured by the Balloon Facility of the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Hyderabad, Eustace in his pressure suit hung tethered under the balloon, without the kind of capsule used by Felix Baumgartner. Eustace started his fall by using a device to separate from the helium balloon. The altitude record for a balloon is 53.0 kilometers
17.
Atmospheric pressure
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Atmospheric pressure, sometimes also called barometric pressure, is the pressure exerted by the weight of air in the atmosphere of Earth. In most circumstances atmospheric pressure is approximated by the hydrostatic pressure caused by the weight of air above the measurement point. As elevation increases, there is less overlying atmospheric mass, so that atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing elevation. On average, a column of air one square centimetre in cross-section, measured from sea level to the top of the atmosphere, has a mass of about 1.03 kilograms and that force is a pressure of 10.1 N/cm2 or 101 kN/m2. A column 1 square inch in cross-section would have a weight of about 14.7 lb or about 65.4 N and it is modified by the planetary rotation and local effects such as wind velocity, density variations due to temperature and variations in composition. The standard atmosphere is a unit of pressure defined as 101325 Pa, the mean sea level pressure is the average atmospheric pressure at sea level. This is the pressure normally given in weather reports on radio, television. When barometers in the home are set to match the weather reports, they measure pressure adjusted to sea level. The altimeter setting in aviation, is an atmospheric pressure adjustment, average sea-level pressure is 1013.25 mbar. In aviation weather reports, QNH is transmitted around the world in millibars or hectopascals, except in the United States, Canada, however, in Canadas public weather reports, sea level pressure is instead reported in kilopascals. The highest sea-level pressure on Earth occurs in Siberia, where the Siberian High often attains a sea-level pressure above 1050 mbar, the lowest measurable sea-level pressure is found at the centers of tropical cyclones and tornadoes, with a record low of 870 mbar. Pressure varies smoothly from the Earths surface to the top of the mesosphere, although the pressure changes with the weather, NASA has averaged the conditions for all parts of the earth year-round. As altitude increases, atmospheric pressure decreases, one can calculate the atmospheric pressure at a given altitude. Temperature and humidity affect the atmospheric pressure, and it is necessary to know these to compute an accurate figure. The graph at right was developed for a temperature of 15 °C, at low altitudes above the sea level, the pressure decreases by about 1.2 kPa for every 100 meters. See pressure system for the effects of air pressure variations on weather, Atmospheric pressure shows a diurnal or semidiurnal cycle caused by global atmospheric tides. This effect is strongest in tropical zones, with an amplitude of a few millibars and these variations have two superimposed cycles, a circadian cycle and semi-circadian cycle. The highest adjusted-to-sea level barometric pressure recorded on Earth was 1085.7 hPa measured in Tosontsengel
18.
Superpressure balloon
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A superpressure balloon is a style of aerostatic balloon where the volume of the balloon is kept relatively constant in the face of changes in the temperature of the contained lifting gas. This allows the balloon to keep an altitude for long periods. This is in contrast with more common variable-volume balloons, which are either only partially filled with lifting gas. In a variable-volume balloon, the volume of the gas changes due to heating and cooling in the diurnal cycle. The cycle is magnified by a greenhouse effect inside the balloon, as the lift gas heats and expands, the displacement of atmospheric gas increases, while the balloon weight remains constant. Its buoyancy increases, and this leads to a rise in altitude unless it is compensated by venting gas, conversely, if the balloon cools and drops, it becomes necessary to release ballast. Since both ballast and gas are finite, there is a limit to how long a variable-volume balloon can compensate in order to stabilize its altitude, in contrast, a superpressure balloon will change altitude much less without compensation maneuvres. Since the volume of the balloon is more constrained, so is the volume of air displaced by it, in accordance with the Principle of Archimedes, the upwards force on the balloon is equal to the weight of the displaced ambient gas. But the weight of the gas is reduced as the balloon rises. The disadvantage is that such balloons require much stronger materials than non-pressurized types, in 1985 such balloons were used for aerobots flying at an altitude of approximately 50 km in the atmosphere of Venus, in the international, Soviet-led Vega program. In February 1974, Colonel Thomas L. Gatch Jr, USAR attempted to make the first crossing of the Atlantic by balloon in a balloon named Light Heart. In March 2015, NASA launched a SPB to an altitude of 110,000 feet for 32 days from New Zealand and this was the first time a SPB has flown for a long duration through the day and night cycle. Fully inflated it was the size of a football stadium, googles Project Loon uses superpressure balloons to achieve flights of over 100 days. Global horizontal sounding technique Sky anchor NASA Image of the Day Aloft showing a superpressure balloon over Antarctica
19.
Lifting gas
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Because of Archimedes principle, a lifting gas is required for aerostats to create buoyancy. Its density is lower than that of air, only certain lighter than air gases are suitable as lifting gases. Heated air is used in recreational ballooning. According to the Ideal gas law, an amount of gas expands as it is heated, as a result, a certain volume of gas has a lower weight as the temperature is higher. The average temperature of air in a hot air balloon is about 212 °F. Hydrogen, being the lightest existing gas, but hydrogen has several disadvantages, Hydrogen is extremely flammable. Some countries have banned the use of hydrogen as a gas for commercial vehicles but it is allowed for recreational free ballooning in the US, UK. The Hindenburg disaster is frequently cited as an example of the safety risks posed by hydrogen. Because the hydrogen molecule is very small, it can diffuse through many materials. Thats one reason why many hydrogen or helium filled balloons are constructed out of Mylar, Helium is the second lightest gas. For that reason, it is a gas for lifting as well. A major advantage is that gas is noncombustible. But the use of helium has some disadvantages, too, The same diffusion problem as described with hydrogen. Although abundant in the universe, helium is very scarce on Earth, the only commercially viable reserves are a few natural gas wells, mostly in the US, that trapped it from the slow alpha decay of radioactive materials within Earth. By human standards helium is a resource that cannot be practically manufactured from other materials. When released into the atmosphere, e. g. when a helium-filled balloon leaks or bursts, the gaseous state of water is lighter than air, incombustible and much cheaper than helium. The concept of using steam for lifting is therefore already 200 years old, the biggest challenge has always been to make a material that can resist it. In 2003, a university team in Berlin, Germany, has made a 150 °C steam lifted balloon. However, such a design is impractical due to high boiling point
20.
Hydrogen
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Hydrogen is a chemical element with chemical symbol H and atomic number 1. With a standard weight of circa 1.008, hydrogen is the lightest element on the periodic table. Its monatomic form is the most abundant chemical substance in the Universe, non-remnant stars are mainly composed of hydrogen in the plasma state. The most common isotope of hydrogen, termed protium, has one proton, the universal emergence of atomic hydrogen first occurred during the recombination epoch. At standard temperature and pressure, hydrogen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, non-toxic, nonmetallic, since hydrogen readily forms covalent compounds with most nonmetallic elements, most of the hydrogen on Earth exists in molecular forms such as water or organic compounds. Hydrogen plays an important role in acid–base reactions because most acid-base reactions involve the exchange of protons between soluble molecules. In ionic compounds, hydrogen can take the form of a charge when it is known as a hydride. The hydrogen cation is written as though composed of a bare proton, Hydrogen gas was first artificially produced in the early 16th century by the reaction of acids on metals. Industrial production is mainly from steam reforming natural gas, and less often from more energy-intensive methods such as the electrolysis of water. Most hydrogen is used near the site of its production, the two largest uses being fossil fuel processing and ammonia production, mostly for the fertilizer market, Hydrogen is a concern in metallurgy as it can embrittle many metals, complicating the design of pipelines and storage tanks. Hydrogen gas is flammable and will burn in air at a very wide range of concentrations between 4% and 75% by volume. The enthalpy of combustion is −286 kJ/mol,2 H2 + O2 →2 H2O +572 kJ Hydrogen gas forms explosive mixtures with air in concentrations from 4–74%, the explosive reactions may be triggered by spark, heat, or sunlight. The hydrogen autoignition temperature, the temperature of spontaneous ignition in air, is 500 °C, the detection of a burning hydrogen leak may require a flame detector, such leaks can be very dangerous. Hydrogen flames in other conditions are blue, resembling blue natural gas flames, the destruction of the Hindenburg airship was a notorious example of hydrogen combustion and the cause is still debated. The visible orange flames in that incident were the result of a mixture of hydrogen to oxygen combined with carbon compounds from the airship skin. H2 reacts with every oxidizing element, the ground state energy level of the electron in a hydrogen atom is −13.6 eV, which is equivalent to an ultraviolet photon of roughly 91 nm wavelength. The energy levels of hydrogen can be calculated fairly accurately using the Bohr model of the atom, however, the atomic electron and proton are held together by electromagnetic force, while planets and celestial objects are held by gravity. The most complicated treatments allow for the effects of special relativity
21.
Hindenburg disaster
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Of the 97 people on board, there were 35 fatalities. One worker on the ground was killed, raising the final death toll to 36. The disaster was the subject of spectacular newsreel coverage, photographs, and Herbert Morrisons recorded radio eyewitness reports from the landing field, a variety of hypotheses have been put forward for both the cause of ignition and the initial fuel for the ensuing fire. The incident shattered public confidence in the giant, passenger-carrying rigid airship, the American Airlines company had contracted with the operators of the Hindenburg to shuttle the passengers from Lakehurst to Newark for connections to airplane flights. Although carrying only half its capacity of passengers and crewmen for the accident flight. Many of the passengers tickets to Germany were planning to attend the coronation of King George VI. The airship was hours behind schedule when she passed over Boston on the morning of May 6, after passing over the field at 4,00 p. m. Captain Pruss took passengers on a tour over the seasides of New Jersey while waiting for the weather to clear. After finally being notified at 6,22 p. m. that the storms had passed, around 7,00 p. m. local time, at an altitude of 650 feet, the Hindenburg made its final approach to the Lakehurst Naval Air Station. This was to be a landing, known as a flying moor, because the airship would drop its landing ropes and mooring cable at a high altitude. This type of landing maneuver would reduce the number of ground crewmen, although the high landing was a common procedure for American airships, the Hindenburg had only performed this maneuver a few times in 1936 while landing in Lakehurst. At 7,09, the made a sharp full-speed left turn to the west around the landing field because the ground crew was not ready. At 7,11, it turned back toward the landing field, all engines idled ahead and the airship began to slow. Captain Pruss ordered aft engines full astern at 7,14 while at an altitude of 394 ft, at 7,17, the wind shifted direction from east to southwest, and Captain Pruss ordered a second sharp turn starboard, making an s-shaped flightpath towards the mooring mast. At 7,18, as the turn progressed, Pruss ordered 300,300 and 500 kg of water ballast in successive drops because the airship was stern-heavy. The forward gas cells were also valved, as these measures failed to bring the ship in trim, six men were then sent to the bow to trim the airship. At 7,21, while the Hindenburg was at an altitude of 295 feet, the lines were dropped from the bow. The port line was overtightened as it was connected to the post of the ground winch, the starboard line had still not been connected
22.
Coal gas
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Coal gas is a flammable gaseous fuel made from coal and supplied to the user via a piped distribution system. Town gas is a general term referring to manufactured gaseous fuels produced for sale to consumers. Town gas was supplied to households via municipally-owned piped distribution systems, originally created as a by-product of the coking process, its use developed during the 19th and early 20th centuries tracking the industrial revolution and urbanization. Facilities where the gas was produced were known as a manufactured gas plant or a gasworks. The production process is distinct, both physically and chemically, from used to create a range of gaseous fuels known variously as manufactured gas, syngas, hygas, Dowson gas. Manufactured gas can be made by two processes, carbonization or gasification, carbonization refers to the devolatilization of an organic feedstock to yield gas and char. Gasification is the process of subjecting a feedstock to chemical reactions that produce gas, the first process used was the carbonization and partial pyrolysis of coal. The off gases liberated in the high-temperature carbonization of coal in coke ovens were collected, scrubbed and used as fuel, Coke plants are typically associated with metallurgical facilities such as smelters, and blast furnaces, while gas works typically served urban areas. A facility used to manufacture coal gas, carburetted water gas, in the early years of MGP operations, the goal of a utility gas works was to produce the greatest amount of illuminating gas. The illuminating power of a gas was related to amount of soot-forming hydrocarbons dissolved in it and these hydrocarbons gave the gas flame its characteristic bright yellow color. Gas works would typically use oily bituminous coals as feedstock and these coals would give off large amounts of volatile hydrocarbons into the coal gas, but would leave behind a crumbly, low-quality coke not suitable for metallurgical processes. Coal or coke oven gas typically had a value between 10 and 20 MJ/m³, with values around 20 MJ/m³ being typical. The advent of electric lighting forced utilities to search for markets for manufactured gas. MGPs that once produced gas almost exclusively for lighting shifted their efforts towards supplying gas primarily for heating and cooking, fuel gas for industrial use was made using producer gas technology. Producer gas is made by blowing air through an incandescent fuel bed in a gas producer, the reaction of fuel with insufficient air for total combustion produces carbon monoxide, this reaction is exothermic and self-sustaining. It was discovered that steam to the input air of a gas producer would increase the calorific value of the fuel gas by enriching it with CO. Producer gas has a very low value of 3.7 to 5. The incandescent fuel bed would be blasted with air followed by steam
23.
Helium
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Helium is a chemical element with symbol He and atomic number 2. It is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, non-toxic, inert, monatomic gas and its boiling point is the lowest among all the elements. Its abundance is similar to figure in the Sun and in Jupiter. This is due to the high nuclear binding energy of helium-4 with respect to the next three elements after helium. This helium-4 binding energy also accounts for why it is a product of nuclear fusion and radioactive decay. Most helium in the universe is helium-4, and is believed to have formed during the Big Bang. Large amounts of new helium are being created by fusion of hydrogen in stars. Helium is named for the Greek god of the Sun, Helios and it was first detected as an unknown yellow spectral line signature in sunlight during a solar eclipse in 1868 by French astronomer Jules Janssen. Janssen is jointly credited with detecting the element along with Norman Lockyer, Janssen observed during the solar eclipse of 1868 while Lockyer observed from Britain. Lockyer was the first to propose that the line was due to a new element, the formal discovery of the element was made in 1895 by two Swedish chemists, Per Teodor Cleve and Nils Abraham Langlet, who found helium emanating from the uranium ore cleveite. In 1903, large reserves of helium were found in gas fields in parts of the United States. Liquid helium is used in cryogenics, particularly in the cooling of superconducting magnets, a well-known but minor use is as a lifting gas in balloons and airships. As with any gas whose density differs from that of air, inhaling a small volume of helium temporarily changes the timbre, on Earth it is relatively rare—5.2 ppm by volume in the atmosphere. Most terrestrial helium present today is created by the radioactive decay of heavy radioactive elements. Previously, terrestrial helium—a non-renewable resource, because once released into the atmosphere it readily escapes into space—was thought to be in short supply. The first evidence of helium was observed on August 18,1868, the line was detected by French astronomer Jules Janssen during a total solar eclipse in Guntur, India. This line was assumed to be sodium. He concluded that it was caused by an element in the Sun unknown on Earth, Lockyer and English chemist Edward Frankland named the element with the Greek word for the Sun, ἥλιος
24.
Montgolfier brothers
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Joseph-Michel Montgolfier and Jacques-Étienne Montgolfier were the inventors of the Montgolfière-style hot air balloon, globe aérostatique. The brothers succeeded in launching the first piloted ascent, carrying Étienne into the sky, later, in December 1783, in recognition of their achievement, their father Pierre was elevated to the nobility and the hereditary appellation of de Montgolfier by King Louis XVI of France. Both of them were freemasons in Les Neuf Soeurs lodge in Paris, the brothers were born into a family of paper manufacturers in Annonay, in Ardèche, France. Their parents were Pierre Montgolfier and his wife, Anne Duret, Pierre established his eldest son, Raymond Montgolfier, later Raymond de Montgolfier, as his successor. Joseph, the 12th child, possessed a typical inventors temperament—a maverick and dreamer, Étienne had a much more even and businesslike temperament. As the 15th child, and particularly troublesome to his elder siblings, however, after the sudden and unexpected death of Raymond in 1772, he was recalled to Annonay to run the family business. In the subsequent 10 years, Étienne applied his talent for technical innovation to the family business and he succeeded in incorporating the latest Dutch innovations of the day into the family mills. Of the two brothers, it was Joseph who first contemplated building machines as early as 1782 when he observed laundry drying over a fire incidentally form pockets that billowed upwards, Joseph made his first definitive experiments in November 1782 while living in the city of Avignon. Joseph mused on the possibility of an air assault using troops lifted by the force that was lifting the embers from the fire. He believed that contained within the smoke was a special gas, as a result of these musings, Joseph set about building a box-like chamber 1×1×1.3 m out of very thin wood, and covering the sides and top with lightweight taffeta cloth. He crumpled and lit some paper under the bottom of the box, the contraption quickly lifted off its stand and collided with the ceiling. Joseph then recruited his brother to balloon building by writing, Get in a supply of taffeta and of cordage, quickly, the two brothers then set about building a similar device, scaled up by three. The lifting force was so great that they lost control of their craft on its very first test flight on 14 December 1782, the device floated nearly two kilometers. It was destroyed after landing by the indiscretion of passersby, the brothers decided to make a public demonstration of a balloon to establish their claim to its invention. They constructed a balloon of sackcloth with three thin layers of paper inside. The envelope could contain nearly 790 m³ of air and weighed 225 kg and it was constructed of four pieces and held together by 1,800 buttons. A reinforcing fish net of cord covered the outside of the envelope, on 4 June 1783, they flew this craft as their first public demonstration at Annonay in front of a group of dignitaries from the États particuliers. Its flight covered 2 km, lasted 10 minutes, and had an altitude of 1
25.
Annonay
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Annonay is a French commune in the north of the Ardèche department in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region of southern France. It is the most populous commune in the Ardèche department although it is not the capital which is the town of Privas. The commune consists of the city of Annonay and the hamlets of Vissenty, Chatinais, with residential development, these four entities have merged into one today. Further away is the hamlet of Toissieu, Annonay was built over several small hills at the confluence of the rivers Cance and Deûme. Annonay is a crossroads of routes, from the Rhône Valley to the region of Saint-Étienne. It is located 75 km south of Lyon,13 km south-west of Saint-Rambert-dAlbon, access to the commune is by the D121 from Davezieux in the north-east passing through the commune and the city and continuing to Villevocance in the south-west. There is also the D578 from the city to Quintenas in the south, there are also the D371 and the D370 in the east of the commune. The geology consists mainly of grey or light orange leucogranite and orthogneiss rich in biotite, sillimanite and cordierite with alternating bands of felsic and mafic material. The escarpment of Annonay is surrounded by plateaux and gentle hills used for cultivating cherries, apricots, apples, pears, a reservoir created by damming the Ternay River north-west of the town provides water for industrial and domestic use. The highest point of the town at 746 meters is located near a place called Sagne Ronde, the Montmiandon overlooking the city, rises to 679 meters above sea level. The origin of the name of the town has numerous hypotheses, one of these suggests that Annonay comes from Annoniacum meaning the domain of an Annonius, a rich Roman who lived there. Another explanation is that Annonay came from the presence of a store of the praefectus annonae. In any case, the site of the city has been occupied since antiquity, Roman coins and medals were found during the digging of the Rue Malleval in 1851. The first written mention of Annonay dates from 403, a chronicle of archives in Vienne characterized the city as a small town built by poor unclothed workers lost in the mountains of Haut-Vivarais. A charter of 790, confirmed in 805, extracted from the cartulary of the Church of Vienne, in the 13th and early 14th centuries the small town of Annonay was an important step on the road of pilgrimage to the Virgin of Puy-en-Velay. In witness to this hostelries for pilgrims, five including the Saint-Clair Convent, one Cordelier. The family de Roussillon dominated the region, one of its members, Guillaume de Roussillon, participated in the Crusades. From 1288 a charter was signed between the city and the Lord of Annonay and this granted some autonomy to the city, in particular the right to levy taxes
26.
Jacques Charles
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Jacques Alexandre César Charles was a French inventor, scientist, mathematician, and balloonist. He was sometimes called Charles the Geometer and their pioneering use of hydrogen for lift led to this type of balloon being named a Charlière. Charless law, describing how gases tend to expand when heated, was formulated by Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac in 1802, Charles was elected to the Académie des Sciences in 1795 and subsequently became professor of physics at the Académie de Sciences. Charles was born in Beaugency-sur-Loire in 1746, He married Julie Françoise Bouchaud des Hérettes, Charles outlived her and died in Paris on April 7,1823. They used alternate strips of red and white silk, but the discolouration of the process left a red. Jacques Charles and the Robert brothers launched the worlds first hydrogen filled balloon on August 27,1783, from the Champ de Mars, the balloon was comparatively small, a 35 cubic metre sphere of rubberised silk, and only capable of lifting about 9 kg. It was filled with hydrogen that had made by pouring nearly a quarter of a tonne of sulphuric acid onto a half a tonne of scrap iron. The hydrogen gas was fed into the balloon via lead pipes, daily progress bulletins were issued on the inflation, and the crowd was so great that on the 26th the balloon was moved secretly by night to the Champ de Mars, a distance of 4 kilometres. The project was funded by a subscription organised by Barthelemy Faujas de Saint-Fond, at 13,45 on December 1,1783 Jacques Charles and the Robert brothers launched a new manned balloon from the Jardin des Tuileries in Paris. Jacques Charles was accompanied by Nicolas-Louis Robert as co-pilot of the 380-cubic-metre, the envelope was fitted with a hydrogen release valve and was covered with a net from which the basket was suspended. Sand ballast was used to control altitude and they ascended to a height of about 1,800 feet and landed at sunset in Nesles-la-Vallée after a 2-hour 5 minute flight covering 36 km. The chasers on horseback, who were led by the Duc de Chartres, Jacques Charles then decided to ascend again, but alone this time because the balloon had lost some of its hydrogen. This time it ascended rapidly to an altitude of about 3,000 metres and he began suffering from aching pain in his ears so he valved to release gas, and descended to land gently about 3 km away at Tour du Lay. Unlike the Robert brothers, Charles never flew again, although a hydrogen balloon came to be called a Charlière in his honour, among the special enclosure crowd was Benjamin Franklin, the diplomatic representative of the United States of America. Also present was Joseph Montgolfier, whom Charles honoured by asking him to release the small, bright green, pilot balloon to assess the wind and weather conditions. This event took place ten days after the worlds first manned flight by Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier using a Montgolfier brothers hot air balloon. Simon Schama wrote in Citizens, Montgolfiers principal scientific collaborator was M. Charles, who had been the first to propose the gas produced by vitriol instead of the burning, dampened straw and wood that he had used in earlier flights. Charles himself was eager to ascend but had run into a firm veto from the King
27.
Lift (force)
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A fluid flowing past the surface of a body exerts a force on it. Lift is the component of force that is perpendicular to the oncoming flow direction. It contrasts with the force, which is the component of the surface force parallel to the flow direction. If the fluid is air, the force is called an aerodynamic force, in water, it is called a hydrodynamic force. Lift is also exploited in the world, and even in the plant world by the seeds of certain trees. When an aircraft is flying straight and level most of the lift opposes gravity, however, when an aircraft is climbing, descending, or banking in a turn the lift is tilted with respect to the vertical. Lift may also be entirely downwards in some aerobatic manoeuvres, or on the wing on a racing car, in this last case, the term downforce is often used. Lift may also be horizontal, for instance on a sail on a sailboat. Aerodynamic lift is distinguished from other kinds of lift in fluids, Aerodynamic lift requires relative motion of the fluid which distinguishes it from aerostatic lift or buoyancy lift as used by balloons, blimps, and dirigibles. An airfoil is a shape that is capable of generating significantly more lift than drag. A flat plate can generate lift, but not as much as a streamlined airfoil, there are several ways to explain how an airfoil generates lift. Some are more complicated or more rigorous than others, some have been shown to be incorrect. For example, there are based directly on Newton’s laws of motion. Either can be used to explain lift, an airfoil generates lift by exerting a downward force on the air as it flows past. According to Newtons third law, the air must exert an equal and opposite force on the airfoil, the air flow changes direction as it passes the airfoil and follows a path that is curved downward. According to Newtons second law, this change in flow direction requires a force applied to the air by the airfoil. Then, according to Newtons third law, the air must exert a force on the airfoil. The overall result is that a force, the lift, is generated opposite to the directional change
28.
Albuquerque International Balloon Fiesta
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The Albuquerque International Balloon Fiesta is a yearly festival of hot air balloons that takes place in Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA during early October. The Balloon Fiesta is an event, and has over 500 balloons each year. The event is the largest hot air balloon festival in the world, the Balloon Fiesta began in 1972 as the highlight of a 50th birthday celebration for 770 KOB Radio. The two began discussing ballooning, along with conversation and help from Oscar Kratz, and McKee asked what the largest gathering of hot air balloons to date had been,19 balloons in England, Cutter replied. Kratz asked Can we get 19 here and he got commitments from 21 pilots, but bad weather kept some of them from arriving in time. The first fiesta ended up as a gathering of 13 balloons on April 8,1972, McKee, Cutter, and Kratz are the three men who had originally started the balloon races. The first fiesta incorporated a Roadrunner-Coyote Balloon Race with 1 balloon being the Roadrunner, the winner of the race - the Coyote that landed closest to the Roadrunner - was Don Piccard of the noted aerostation dynasty, flying a balloon of his companys design and construction. This race has continued as part of the Balloon Fiesta today, the next year Albuquerque hosted the first World Hot-Air Balloon Championships in February and the fiesta became an international event. In 1975 Albuquerque was looking at hosting the World Championships again, so the fiesta was moved to correspond with the championships. To maintain interest in Albuquerque’s bid to host the championships, a rally was held in February of that year. Autumn being a far better flying time than February, the event has remained in early October to the present day, the Balloon Fiesta grew each year for decades, and today is the largest balloon convention in the world. The number of registered balloons reached a peak of 1,019 in 2000, prompting the Balloon Fiesta Board to limit the number to 750 starting in 2001, the limit was changed to 600 in 2009 — citing recent growth in the city and a loss of landing zones. On any given day during the festival, up to 100,000 spectators may be on the field where they are provided the rare opportunity to observe inflation. Countless more people gather at landing sites all over the city to watch incoming balloons, the Dawn Patrol began at the Balloon Fiesta in 1978, when two California balloonists developed position lighting systems that allowed them to fly at night. Dawn Patrol pilots take off before sunrise and fly until it is enough to see landing sites. Fellow balloonists appreciate the Dawn Patrol because they can watch the balloons and get an idea of wind speeds. One of the biggest events of the fiesta, where all participating balloons launch in two waves, filling the sky with hundreds of balloons at once, many local artists take advantage of the balloons as favorite subject matter for their paintings. Balloons often land in Albuquerque neighborhoods, many residents watch the balloons from the comfort of their backyards
29.
Oxygen
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Oxygen is a chemical element with symbol O and atomic number 8. It is a member of the group on the periodic table and is a highly reactive nonmetal. By mass, oxygen is the third-most abundant element in the universe, after hydrogen, at standard temperature and pressure, two atoms of the element bind to form dioxygen, a colorless and odorless diatomic gas with the formula O2. This is an important part of the atmosphere and diatomic oxygen gas constitutes 20. 8% of the Earths atmosphere, additionally, as oxides the element makes up almost half of the Earths crust. Most of the mass of living organisms is oxygen as a component of water, conversely, oxygen is continuously replenished by photosynthesis, which uses the energy of sunlight to produce oxygen from water and carbon dioxide. Oxygen is too reactive to remain a free element in air without being continuously replenished by the photosynthetic action of living organisms. Another form of oxygen, ozone, strongly absorbs ultraviolet UVB radiation, but ozone is a pollutant near the surface where it is a by-product of smog. At low earth orbit altitudes, sufficient atomic oxygen is present to cause corrosion of spacecraft, the name oxygen was coined in 1777 by Antoine Lavoisier, whose experiments with oxygen helped to discredit the then-popular phlogiston theory of combustion and corrosion. One of the first known experiments on the relationship between combustion and air was conducted by the 2nd century BCE Greek writer on mechanics, Philo of Byzantium. In his work Pneumatica, Philo observed that inverting a vessel over a burning candle, Philo incorrectly surmised that parts of the air in the vessel were converted into the classical element fire and thus were able to escape through pores in the glass. Many centuries later Leonardo da Vinci built on Philos work by observing that a portion of air is consumed during combustion and respiration, Oxygen was discovered by the Polish alchemist Sendivogius, who considered it the philosophers stone. In the late 17th century, Robert Boyle proved that air is necessary for combustion, English chemist John Mayow refined this work by showing that fire requires only a part of air that he called spiritus nitroaereus. From this he surmised that nitroaereus is consumed in both respiration and combustion, Mayow observed that antimony increased in weight when heated, and inferred that the nitroaereus must have combined with it. Accounts of these and other experiments and ideas were published in 1668 in his work Tractatus duo in the tract De respiratione. Robert Hooke, Ole Borch, Mikhail Lomonosov, and Pierre Bayen all produced oxygen in experiments in the 17th and the 18th century but none of them recognized it as a chemical element. This may have been in part due to the prevalence of the philosophy of combustion and corrosion called the phlogiston theory, which was then the favored explanation of those processes. Established in 1667 by the German alchemist J. J. Becher, one part, called phlogiston, was given off when the substance containing it was burned, while the dephlogisticated part was thought to be its true form, or calx. The fact that a substance like wood gains overall weight in burning was hidden by the buoyancy of the combustion products
30.
High-altitude balloon
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High-altitude balloons are unmanned balloons, usually filled with helium or hydrogen and rarely methane, that are released into the stratosphere, generally attaining between 60,000 to 120,000 ft. In 2002, a balloon named BU60-1 attained 53.0 km, the most common type of high-altitude balloons are weather balloons. Other purposes include use as a platform for experiments in the upper atmosphere, modern balloons generally contain electronic equipment such as radio transmitters, cameras, or satellite navigation systems, such as GPS receivers. Due to the low cost of GPS and communications equipment, high-altitude ballooning is a popular hobby, charles provided large quantities of hydrogen, which had only been produced in small quantities previously, by mixing 540 kg of iron and 270 kg of sulfuric acid. The balloon, called Charlière, took 5 days to fill and was launched from Champ de Mars in Paris where 300,000 people gathered to watch the spectacle, the balloon was launched and rose through the clouds. The expansion of the gas caused the balloon to tear and it descended 45 minutes later 20 km away from Paris, manned high-altitude balloons were used from the 1930s to 1960s for research and in seeking flight altitude records. Unmanned high-altitude balloons are used as Research balloons, common uses include weather balloons, as well as atmospheric and climate research. They are also used to collect data and imagery from near space. High-altitude ballooning is used for applications such as submillimetre astronomy. High-altitude balloons have been considered for use in space tourism, private companies such as zero2infinity and World View Enterprises are developing both manned and unmanned high-altitude balloons for scientific research, commercial purposes, and space tourism. High-altitude platform stations have been proposed for such as communications relays. Testing radio range is often a component to these hobbies. Amateur radio is used with packet radio to communicate with 1200 baud using a system called Automatic Packet Reporting System back to the ground station. Smaller packages called micro or sometimes pico trackers are also built and these smaller trackers have used Morse code, Field Hell and RTTY to transmit their locations and other data. The first recorded amateur radio balloon launches are recorded to have taken place in Finland by the Ilmari program on May 28,1967. Amateur radio high-altitude ballooning is the application of analog and digital radio to weather balloons and was the name suggested by Ralph Wallio for this hobby. Often referred to as The Poormans Space Program, ARHAB allows amateurs to design functioning models of spacecraft, bill Brown is considered to have begun the modern ARHAB movement with his first launch of a balloon carrying an amateur radio transmitter on 15 August 1987. An ARHAB flight consists of a balloon, a parachute
31.
Weather balloon
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To obtain wind data, they can be tracked by radar, radio direction finding, or navigation systems. Balloons meant to stay at a constant altitude for long periods of time are known as transosondes, one of the first people to use weather balloons was Léon Teisserenc de Bort, the French meteorologist. Starting in 1896 he launched hundreds of balloons from his observatory in Trappes. These experiments led to his discovery of the tropopause and stratosphere, the balloon itself produces the lift, and is usually made of a highly flexible latex material, though Chloroprene may also be used. The unit that performs the actual measurements and radio transmissions hangs at the end of the string. Specialized radiosondes are used for measuring particular parameters, such as determining the ozone concentration, an example of specialized measurements is found in the Tethered Balloon Measurements in Cyprus in 2003, as part of the Preliminary Evaluation of Air Quality in Cyprus. The balloon is filled with hydrogen due to lower cost. The ascent rate can be controlled by the amount of gas with which the balloon is filled, Weather balloons may reach altitudes of 40 km or more, limited by diminishing pressures causing the balloon to expand to such a degree that it disintegrates. In this instance the instrument package is usually lost, above that altitude sounding rockets are used, and for even higher altitudes satellites are used. Weather balloons are launched around the world for observations used to diagnose current conditions as well as by human forecasters, about 800 locations around the globe do routine releases, twice daily, usually at 0000 UTC and 1200 UTC. Specialized uses also exist, such as for aviation interests, pollution monitoring, photography or videography, field research programs often use mobile launchers from land vehicles as well as ships and aircraft. In recent years weather balloons have also used for scattering human ashes at high-altitude by companies such as Stardust Ashes. The Weather balloon was used to create the fictional entity Rover during production of the 1960s TV series The Prisoner in Portmeirion, Gwynedd, North Wales. This was retained in further scenes shot at MGM Borehamwood UK during 1966-67
32.
Cluster ballooning
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Cluster ballooning is a form of ballooning where a harness attaches a balloonist to a cluster of helium-inflated rubber balloons. To control flight, arrest a climb or initiate a descent, ballast, e. g. bottled water, can also be jettisoned to facilitate ascent. Larry Walters, without any prior ballooning experience, attached 42 helium-filled weather balloons to a lawn chair, Walters quickly rose to nearly 3 miles, over 50 times his intended maximum altitude. Walters reportedly had planned to control his altitude by using a gun to selectively pop some of the balloons. However, he was hesitant to shoot any balloons, as he was concerned about falling out due to a loss of stability. Reaching a high altitude and seeing no way of getting down, he eventually shot several of the balloons. John Ninomiyas flights have been featured on The Science Channel, The History Channel, TechTV, TLC, larry Walters is estimated to have reached 16,000 feet in 1982. His record is not recognized, however, because he did not carry a proper altimeter, on June 8,2013 Joe Barbera, of La Center, WA launched a lawn chair with cluster balloons and recorded a new altitude record of 21,194 feet. This is a world record being considered by Guinness Book of World Records Yoshikazu Suzuki departed from Lake Biwa in Japan on 23 November 1992 with 23 helium balloons. He was spotted by a Japanese coast guard aeroplane on 25 November 1992, located about 800 km offshore over the Pacific Ocean, in April 2008, in Brazil, Roman Catholic priest Adelir Antonio de Carli ascended with 1000 balloons. Ground observers lost track of him when he floated out above the ocean, Carli at one point reached an altitude of 6,000 metres before losing contact with authorities, his altitude may have indeed been the record for cluster ballooning, but it cost him his life. Just two months later, in June 2008, FAA licensed pilot Jonathan Trappe attached a cluster of balloons to his standard, unmodified office chair and flew it to an altitude of 14,783 feet. The flight reportedly lasted four hours and covered 50 miles before Trappe returned to earth, retired the chair, on May 28,2010, Sky News reported on Trappes crossing of the English Channel by cluster balloon. Trappe departed near Challock, England, crossed over the White Cliffs of Dover at St. Margarets Bay, Trappe then tracked inland, and landed safely in a farmers cabbage patch. Three years later, Trappe attempted a crossing, but his journey stopped short when he was forced to land in Newfoundland. Smaller balloon clusters consisting of several toy balloons are used for creating flying light effects by using them as a carrier for lightsticks or other small light sources. They can be used for other amateur scientific experiments, such as making aerial photographs or atmospheric measurements. Such toy balloons, with or without helium filling, are readily available than bigger balloons
33.
English Channel
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The English Channel, also called simply the Channel, is the body of water that separates southern England from northern France, and links the southern part of the North Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. It is about 560 km long and varies in width from 240 km at its widest to 33.3 km in the Strait of Dover and it is the smallest of the shallow seas around the continental shelf of Europe, covering an area of some 75,000 km2. The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the English Channel as follows, a line joining Isle Vierge to Lands End. The southwestern limit of the North Sea, the IHO defines the southwestern limit of the North Sea as a line joining the Walde Lighthouse and Leathercoat Point. The Walde Lighthouse is 6 km east of Calais, and Leathercoat Point is at the end of St Margarets Bay. The Strait of Dover, at the Channels eastern end, is its narrowest point and it is relatively shallow, with an average depth of about 120 m at its widest part, reducing to a depth of about 45 m between Dover and Calais. Eastwards from there the adjoining North Sea reduces to about 26 m in the Broad Fourteens where it lies over the watershed of the land bridge between East Anglia and the Low Countries. It reaches a depth of 180 m in the submerged valley of Hurds Deep,48 km west-northwest of Guernsey. The eastern region along the French coast between Cherbourg and the mouth of the Seine river at Le Havre is frequently referred to as the Bay of the Seine. There are several islands in the Channel, the most notable being the Isle of Wight off the English coast. The coastline, particularly on the French shore, is indented, several small islands close to the coastline, including Chausey. The Cotentin Peninsula in France juts out into the Channel, whilst on the English side there is a parallel channel known as the Solent between the Isle of Wight and the mainland. The Celtic Sea is to the west of the Channel, the time difference of about six hours between high water at the eastern and western limits of the Channel is indicative of the tidal range being amplified further by resonance. It was never defined as a border and the names were more or less descriptive. It was not considered as the property of a nation, strangely, before the development of the modern nations, British scholars very often referred to it as Gaulish and the French one as British or English. The name English Channel has been used since the early 18th century. In modern Dutch, however, it is known as Het Kanaal, later, it has also been known as the British Channel or the British Sea having been called the Oceanus Britannicus by the 2nd-century geographer Ptolemy. The same name is used on an Italian map of about 1450, the Anglo-Saxon texts often call it Sūð-sǣ as opposed to Norð-sǣ
34.
Kite balloon
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A kite balloon is a tethered balloon which is aerodynamically stabilised in windy conditions using similar principles to a kite. It typically comprises a streamlined envelope with stabilising features and a harness or yoke connecting it to the main tether, kite balloons are able to fly in higher winds than ordinary round balloons and were extensively used for naval and military observation during World War I. Developed in Germany from 1893 by Parseval and Sigsfeld, the component of a kite balloon is its aerodynamically streamlined envelope. Unlike most airships, the envelope is also the main lifting gas bag, types such as the German Parseval and French Caquot used wind pressure to inflate one or more stabilising ballonets at the rear, which acted as tail fins. A yoke or harness connected the balloon to the tether and was arranged to aid stability, during the Atlantic U-boat campaign of World War I, kite balloons would be deployed by a destroyer escorting a convoy of merchant ships. A basket suspended below the kite balloon held a pilot who watched for U-boats, the availability of an elevated visual observation platform significantly enhanced the success of destroyers in finding and attacking U-boats prior to the invention of sonar. Convoys might have better protected if every destroyer had been equipped with a kite balloon, but there was a limited number of balloons. The United States Navy established an emergency balloon pilot training program in October,1917, at Goodyear Tire and Rubber Companys Wingfoot Field in Akron, Ohio. When the balloonist jumped, the part of the parachute was pulled from the container, with the shroud lines first. A similar parachute system for the entire observation basket was tested at Rockaway Naval Air Station, each destroyer would secure the tether of an inflated kite balloon from the air station dock just prior to leaving port. While the destroyer escorted a convoy, the pilot would board the balloon basket each morning just before daylight. The pilot would clip the boarding line to his parachute harness so four seamen could hoist him into the balloon by pulling the end of the line through a pulley on the kite balloon. They tried to make the hoist during a period. Wet or dry, the pilot spent the whole day aloft in the kite balloon whose appearance and airborne movement earned it the nickname. Returning from the balloon to the ship at the end of a long day was a reverse of the boarding procedure with the added risks of darkness and weariness. Barrage balloon Ege, L. Balloons and Airships, Blandford, London,1973
35.
Bristol
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Bristol is a city and county in South West England with a population of 449,300 in 2016. The district has the 10th largest population in England, while the Bristol metropolitan area is the 12th largest in the United Kingdom, the city borders North Somerset and South Gloucestershire, with the cities of Bath and Gloucester to the south-east and north-east, respectively. Iron Age hill forts and Roman villas were built near the confluence of the rivers Frome and Avon, Bristol received a royal charter in 1155 and was historically divided between Gloucestershire and Somerset until 1373, when it became a county of itself. From the 13th to the 18th century, Bristol was among the top three English cities after London in tax receipts, Bristol was surpassed by the rapid rise of Manchester, Liverpool and Birmingham in the Industrial Revolution. Bristol was a place for early voyages of exploration to the New World. On a ship out of Bristol in 1497 John Cabot, a Venetian, in 1499 William Weston, a Bristol merchant, was the first Englishman to lead an exploration to North America. At the height of the Bristol slave trade, from 1700 to 1807, the Port of Bristol has since moved from Bristol Harbour in the city centre to the Severn Estuary at Avonmouth and Royal Portbury Dock. Bristols modern economy is built on the media, electronics and aerospace industries. The city has the largest circulating community currency in the U. K. - the Bristol pound, which is pegged to the Pound sterling. It is connected to London and other major UK cities by road, rail, sea and air by the M5 and M4, Bristol Temple Meads and Bristol Parkway mainline rail stations, and Bristol Airport. The Sunday Times named it as the best city in Britain in which to live in 2014 and 2017, the most ancient recorded name for Bristol is the archaic Welsh Caer Odor, which is consistent with modern understanding that early Bristol developed between the River Frome and Avon Gorge. It is most commonly stated that the Saxon name Bricstow was a calque of the existing Celtic name, with Bric a literal translation of Odor. Alternative etymologies are supported with the numerous variations in Medieval documents with Samuel Seyer enumerating 47 alternative forms. The Old English form Brycgstow is commonly used to derive the meaning place at the bridge, utilizing another form, Brastuile, Rev. Dr. Shaw derived the name from the Celtic words bras, or braos and tuile. The poet Thomas Chatterton popularised a derivation from Brictricstow linking the town to Brictric and it appears that the form Bricstow prevailed until 1204, and the Bristolian L is what eventually changed the name to Bristol. Iron Age hill forts near the city are at Leigh Woods and Clifton Down, on the side of the Avon Gorge, a Roman settlement, Abona, existed at what is now Sea Mills, another was at the present-day Inns Court. Isolated Roman villas and small forts and settlements were scattered throughout the area. Bristol was founded by 1000, by about 1020, it was a centre with a mint producing silver pennies bearing its name
36.
Kytoon
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A kytoon or kite balloon is a tethered aircraft which obtains some of its lift dynamically as a heavier-than-air kite and the rest aerostatically as a lighter-than-air balloon. The word is a portmanteau of kite and balloon, the primary advantage of a kytoon is that it remains in a reasonably stable position above the tether point, irrespective of the strength of wind, whereas ordinary balloons and kites are less stable. The kytoon has been used for many purposes both civil and military, in 1919, a handbook was published giving extensive details to support the kite balloon crafts being used in the military. Described is the first kite balloon made in 1893 by Captains Parseval and Sigsfeld at the Berlin works of the Prussian Balloon Battalion, theirs was the predecessor of the Drachen balloon. This was the first real kite balloon flying like a kite with a constant angle and direction relative to the wind. A hybrid kite-balloon was patented by Domina Jalbert in 1944 as patent US2431938. Jalbert furthered his attention on kite balloons also with another patent filed on August 31,1945 titled Kite Balloon The Allsopp Helikite is a modern helium-filled example. A captive balloon tends to drift down the wind and the harder the wind blows and this leans the tether over at an angle, pulling the balloon lower. On a kytoon, the kite action lifts the balloon, counteracting this pull, as the wind blows harder, the kite action lifts harder. This can provide good stability even in strong winds, in low or gusty winds a kite can nose-dive, losing a large amount of height even if it recovers. Because a kytoon is buoyant it does not nose-dive and remains in position even in relatively still air, applications of the kytoon have included, Raise communications antenna aloft
37.
History of ballooning
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The history of ballooning, both with hot air and gas, spans many centuries. It includes many firsts, including the first human flight, first flight across the English Channel, first flight in North America, unmanned hot air balloons are popular in Chinese history. Zhuge Liang of the Shu Han kingdom, in the Three Kingdoms era used airborne lanterns for military signaling and these lanterns are known as Kongming lanterns. It has been demonstrated that hot air balloons can be built using ancient materials. The Mongolian army studied Kongming lanterns from China and used them in the Battle of Legnica during the Mongol invasion of Poland and this is the first time ballooning was known in the western world. The first documented balloon flight in Europe was by the Brazilian-Portuguese priest Bartolomeu de Gusmão. On August 8,1709, in Lisbon, Bartolomeu de Gusmão managed to lift a balloon made of paper full of hot air about four meters in front of king John V. According to the Portuguese speaking community, this was the earliest recorded model balloon flight. Jacques Charles, whose study of gases led to his law of volumes, had studied the works of Cavendish, Black, and Tiberius Cavallo. Jacques Charles designed the balloon, and the Robert brothers constructed a lightweight, airtight gas bag, barthélémy Faujas de Saint-Fond organized a crowd-funded subscription to finance the brothers project. The Roberts dissolved rubber in a solution of turpentine, with which they varnished stitched-together sheets of silk and they used alternating strips of red and white silk, but the rubberising varnish yellowed the white silk. Jacques Charles and the Robert brothers began filling the worlds first hydrogen balloon on the 23rd of August 1783, in the Place des Victoires, the balloon was comparatively small, a 35 cubic metre sphere of rubberised silk, and only capable of lifting about 9 kg. It was filled with hydrogen that had made by pouring nearly a quarter of a tonne of sulphuric acid onto half a tonne of scrap iron. On August 27,1783, the balloon was released, Benjamin Franklin was among the crowd of onlookers, the sheep was believed to have a reasonable approximation of human physiology. The duck was expected to be unharmed by being lifted aloft and it was included as a control for effects created by the aircraft rather than the altitude. The rooster was included as a control as it was a bird that did not fly at high altitudes. This demonstration was performed before a crowd at the palace in Versailles, before King Louis XVI of France. The flight lasted approximately eight minutes, covered two miles, and obtained an altitude of about 1,500 feet, the craft landed safely after flying
38.
Zhuge Liang
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Zhuge Liang, courtesy name Kongming, was a chancellor and regent of the state of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms period. He is recognised as the most accomplished strategist of his era, and has compared to Sun Tzu. A self-avowed Legalist, he compared himself with Guan Zhong, developing Shus agriculture and he attached great importance to the works of Shen Buhai and Han Fei, refusing to indulge local elites and adopting strict, but fair and clear laws. In remembrance of his governance, local people maintained shrines to him for ages, often depicted wearing a Taoist robe and holding a hand fan made of crane feathers, Zhuge Liang was an important military strategist, statesman and accomplished scholar and inventor. His reputation as an intelligent and learned scholar grew even while he was living in relative seclusion, Zhuge is an uncommon two-character Chinese compound family name. His name – even his surname alone – has become synonymous with intelligence, Zhuge Liang was born in Yangdu County, Langya Commandery, which is in present-day Yishui, Shandong. Orphaned at an age, he was raised by his uncle. Later, he followed his uncle to live in Jing Province, Zhuge Liang enjoyed reciting Liangfu Yin, a folk song popular in Shandong, his birthplace. He also liked to compare himself to Guan Zhong and Yue Yi and he developed close friendships with members of the local literati, such as Xu Shu, Cui Zhouping, Meng Jian and Shi Tao. Zhuge Liang also maintained relations with other well-known intellectuals such as Sima Hui. Huang Chengyan once told Zhuge Liang, I heard that youre seeking a spouse, ive an ugly daughter with a yellow face and dark complexion, but her talent matches yours. Zhuge Liang agreed and married Huang Chengyans daughter, at that time, Liu Bei resided at Xinye County while he was taking shelter under Jing Provinces governor, Liu Biao. Liu Bei visited Sima Hui, who told him, Confucian academics and common scholars and those who analyse current affairs well are elites. Crouching Dragon and Young Phoenix are the ones in this region. Xu Shu later recommended Zhuge Liang to Liu Bei again, however, Xu Shu replied, You must visit this man in person. He cannot be invited to meet you, Liu Bei succeeded in recruiting Zhuge Liang in 207 after paying three personal visits. Zhuge Liang presented the Longzhong Plan to Liu Bei and left his residence to follow Liu, afterwards, Liu Bei became very close to Zhuge Liang and often had discussions with him. Guan Yu and Zhang Fei were not pleased and complained, Liu Bei explained, Now that I have Kongming, I am like a fish that has found water
39.
Shu Han
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Shu or Shu Han was one of the three major states that competed for supremacy over China in the Three Kingdoms period. The state was based in the area around present-day Sichuan and Chongqing, towards the end of the Eastern Han dynasty, Liu Bei, a warlord and distant relative of the Han imperial clan, rallied the support of many capable followers. Following the counsel of his advisor, Zhuge Liang, and Zhuges Longzhong Plan, Liu Bei took over Yi Province from the warlord Liu Zhang between 212 and 215 and wrestled control of Hanzhong from his rival Cao Cao in 219. From the territories he gained, Liu Bei established a position for himself in China during the years of the Han dynasty. However, in 219, the alliance between Liu Bei and his ally, Sun Quan, was broken when Sun sent his general Lü Meng to invade Jing Province, Liu Bei lost his territories in Jing Province to Sun Quan. Guan Yu, the general guarding Liu Beis assets in Jing Province, was captured and executed by Sun Quans forces. Cao Cao died in 220 and was succeeded by his son, Cao Pi, Cao Pi then established the state of Cao Wei and declared himself emperor. Liu Bei contested Cao Pis claim to the throne and proclaimed himself Emperor of Shu Han in 221. Although Liu Bei is widely seen as the founder of Shu, he never claimed to be the founder of a new dynasty, rather, Liu Bei ruled as emperor for less than three years. In 222, he launched a campaign against Sun Quan to retake Jing Province and avenge Guan Yu, however, due to grave tactical mistakes, Liu Bei suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of Sun Quans general Lu Xun and lost the bulk of his army. He survived the battle and retreated to Baidicheng, where he died from illness a year later, Liu Beis son Liu Shan succeeded his father, making him the youngest of three rulers at only 16. Before his death, Liu Bei also appointed the chancellor Zhuge Liang, Zhuge Liang was the de facto head of the Shu government throughout Liu Shans reign and was responsible for masterminding most of Shus policies during his regency. When Liu Shan succeeded his father, Shu was the weakest of the three major powers, following his fathers defeat in 221, the portion of Jing Province previously held by Shu was now firmly under the control of Wu. This greatly limited Shu in terms of resources and manpower, Zhuge Liang advocated an aggressive foreign policy towards Wei, because he strongly believed it was critical to the survival of Shu and its sovereignty. Between the years of 228 and 234, he launched a series of five military campaigns against Wei, with the aim of conquering Changan, most of the battles were fought around present-day Gansu and Shaanxi provinces. However, aside from gaining Jiang Wei as an officer in 228, the Shu government was then headed by Jiang Wan, Fei Yi and others after Zhuge Liangs death, and Shu temporarily ceased its aggression towards Wei. The Wei regent Cao Shuang launched an invasion of Hanzhong in 244, despite being outnumbered 2-to-1, the Shu forces successfully defeated them at the Battle of Xingshi, with the humiliated Wei forces fleeing. Between 247 and 262, the Shu general Jiang Wei resumed Zhuge Liangs legacy by leading a series of campaigns against Wei
40.
Three Kingdoms
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The Three Kingdoms was the tripartite division of China between the states of Wei, Shu, and Wu, following the Han dynasty and preceding the Jin dynasty. The term Three Kingdoms itself is something of a mistranslation, since each state was eventually headed not by a king, nevertheless, the term Three Kingdoms has become standard among sinologists. Academically, the period of the Three Kingdoms refers to the period between the foundation of the state of Wei in 220 AD and the conquest of the state of Wu by the Jin dynasty in 280. The earlier, unofficial part of the period, from 184 to 220, was marked by infighting between warlords in various parts of China. The middle part of the period, from 220 and 263, was marked by a more militarily stable arrangement between three states of Wei, Shu, and Wu. The later part of the era was marked by the conquest of Shu by Wei, the usurpation of Wei by the Jin dynasty, the Three Kingdoms period is one of the bloodiest in Chinese history. While the census may not have been particularly accurate due to a multitude of factors of the times, technology advanced significantly during this period. Shu chancellor Zhuge Liang invented the wooden ox, suggested to be a form of the wheelbarrow. Wei mechanical engineer Ma Jun is considered by many to be the equal of his predecessor Zhang Heng, although relatively short, this historical period has been greatly romanticized in the cultures of China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam. It has been celebrated and popularized in operas, folk stories, novels and in recent times, films, television. The best known of these is Luo Guanzhongs Romance of the Three Kingdoms, the authoritative historical record of the era is Chen Shous Records of the Three Kingdoms, along with Pei Songzhis later annotations of the text. There is no set time period for the era, and many definitions are given. The strictest rule of dating would be to deem the era to be from the point where all three states coexisted as independent states up until the downfall of the Shu-Han states. Mao Zonggang, a commentator on the Romance of the Three Kingdoms, mentions in his commentary on Chapter 120 of the novel that, the Han royal house declined when the eunuchs abused the sovereign and officials subverted the government. In doing so, he suggests that the historiography of the Three Kingdoms should begin at the rise of the Ten Eunuchs to power. He further argues that the Romance of the Three Kingdoms defines the end of the era as 280, to end the tale before Hans enemy had itself met its fate would be to leave the reader unsatisfied. The novel could have ended with the fall of Wei, to end the tale before Hans ally had fallen would be to leave the reader with an incomplete picture. So the tale had to end with the fall of Wu, the power of the Eastern Han dynasty went into depression and steadily declined from a variety of political and economic problems after the death in 105 of Emperor He
41.
Sky lantern
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A sky lantern, also known as Kongming lantern or Chinese lantern, is a small hot air balloon made of paper, with an opening at the bottom where a small fire is suspended. In Asia and elsewhere around the world, sky lanterns have been made for centuries. The name sky lantern is a translation of the Chinese name, in China and Taiwan, sky lanterns are traditionally made from oiled rice paper on a bamboo frame. The source of hot air may be a candle or fuel cell composed of a waxy flammable material. The general design is a thin shell, which may be from about 30 cm to a couple of metres across. The opening is usually about 10 to 30 cm wide, and is surrounded by a collar that serves to suspend the flame source. In Thailand, sky lanterns are traditionally made from oiled rice paper on a bamboo frame. They may also be constructed from other lightweight papers, the source of hot air is usually a small candle or fuel cell composed of a waxy flammable material lit and which usually stays lit despite the surrounding air currents. The Thai name is khom loi, many areas of Asia, however, do not permit sky lanterns because of widespread fire hazards as well as danger to livestock. A design that was fairly common was two pyramids joined by the base sometimes with a cube or prism inserted in the middle, the candle was usually a packet of paraffin or rosin tightly wrapped in cloth and bound with wire. When lit, the heats the air inside the lantern, thus lowering its density. The sky lantern is only airborne for as long as the flame stays alight, traditionally, however, their invention is attributed to the sage and military strategist Zhuge Liang whose reverent term of address was Kongming. He is said to have used a message written on a sky lantern to summon help on an occasion when he was surrounded by enemy troops, for this reason they are still known in China as Kongming lanterns. Sky lanterns are an explanation for some UFO sightings through the years. In ancient China, sky lanterns were used in wars. However, later on, non-military applications were employed as they became popular with children at festivals and these lanterns were subsequently incorporated into festivals like the Chinese Mid-Autumn and Lantern Festivals. Pingxi District in New Taipei City of Taiwan holds an annual Lantern Festival in which sky lanterns are released into the sky with peoples wishes written on the lantern. The Lanna people of northern Thailand use floating lanterns year round, for celebrations, one very important festival in which sky lanterns are used is the Yi Peng festival, which is held on a full moon of the 2nd month of the Lanna calendar
42.
Battle of Legnica
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The battle came two days before the Mongol victory over the Hungarians at the much larger Battle of Mohi. As with many battles, the exact details of force composition, tactics. The general historical view is that it was a defeat for the European forces where they suffered heavy casualties. It is known that the Mongols had no intentions at the time of extending the campaign westward, because they went to the Kingdom of Hungary to help the main Mongol army in the conquest of the country. One of the Mongol leaders, Kadan, was confused with Ögedeis grandson Kaidu by medieval chroniclers. The Mongols considered the Cumans to have submitted to their authority, after King Béla IV of Hungary rejected Batu Khans ultimatum to surrender the Cumans, Subutai began planning the Mongol invasion of Europe. Ordas forces devastated northern Poland and the border of Lithuania. While deciding whether or not to besiege Wrocław, Baidar and Kadan received reports that King Wenceslaus I of Bohemia was two days away with an army twice the size of Henrys. The Mongols turned from Wrocław to intercept Henrys forces before the European armies could meet, the Mongols caught up with Henry near Legnica at Legnickie Pole, also known as Wahlstatt. The Mongol diversionary force, a detachment from the army of Subutai, demonstrated the advantages of the tactical mobility and speed of horseback archers. These were standard Mongol tactics used in all of their major battles, they were made possible by continual training and superb battlefield communication. The Mongol commander found the highest ground at the site, seized it and used it to communicate to his noyans. The Mongol system was a stark contrast to the European systems, the numbers involved are difficult to judge. European accounts vary as to Mongol numbers—some suggest more than 100,000 at Legnica alone, current estimates suggest the Mongol force numbered, at most,25,000 cavalry. The Historia Tatarorum by the Franciscan C, a contemporary European account, the Ystoria Mongalorum, supports these numbers, placing the Mongol force that invaded Poland at 10,000 horsemen. Henrys better trained troops were his own gathered from Silesian Piast duchies, mercenaries, historian Marek Cetwiński estimates the allied force to have been 2,000 strong, while Gerard Labuda estimates 7, 000–8,000 soldiers in the Christian army. A contingent of Teutonic Knights of indeterminate number is believed to have joined the allied army. However, recent analysis of the 15th-century Annals of Jan Długosz by Labuda suggests that the German crusaders may have added to the text after chronicler Długosz had completed the work
43.
Lisbon
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Lisbon is the capital and the largest city of Portugal, with a population of 552,700 within its administrative limits in an area of 100.05 km². Its urban area extends beyond the administrative limits with a population of around 2.7 million people. About 2.8 million people live in the Lisbon Metropolitan Area and it is continental Europes westernmost capital city and the only one along the Atlantic coast. Lisbon lies in the western Iberian Peninsula on the Atlantic Ocean, the westernmost areas of its metro area is the westernmost point of Continental Europe. Lisbon is recognised as a city because of its importance in finance, commerce, media, entertainment, arts, international trade, education. It is one of the economic centres on the continent, with a growing financial sector. Humberto Delgado Airport serves over 20 million passengers annually, as of 2015, and the motorway network, the city is the 7th-most-visited city in Southern Europe, after Istanbul, Rome, Barcelona, Madrid, Athens and Milan, with 1,740,000 tourists in 2009. The Lisbon region contributes with a higher GDP PPP per capita than any region in Portugal. Its GDP amounts to 96.3 billion USD and thus $32,434 per capita, the city occupies 32nd place of highest gross earnings in the world. Most of the headquarters of multinationals in the country are located in the Lisbon area and it is also the political centre of the country, as its seat of Government and residence of the Head of State. Lisbon is one of the oldest cities in the world, julius Caesar made it a municipium called Felicitas Julia, adding to the name Olissipo. Ruled by a series of Germanic tribes from the 5th century, in 1147, the Crusaders under Afonso Henriques reconquered the city and since then it has been a major political, economic and cultural centre of Portugal. Unlike most capital cities, Lisbons status as the capital of Portugal has never been granted or confirmed officially – by statute or in written form. Its position as the capital has formed through constitutional convention, making its position as de facto capital a part of the Constitution of Portugal. It has one of the warmest winters of any metropolis in Europe, the typical summer season lasts about four months, from June to September, although also in April temperatures sometimes reach around 25 °C. Although modern archaeological excavations show a Phoenician presence at this location since 1200 BC, another conjecture based on ancient hydronymy suggests that the name of the settlement derived from the pre-Roman appellation for the Tagus, Lisso or Lucio. Lisbons name was written Ulyssippo in Latin by the geographer Pomponius Mela and it was later referred to as Olisippo by Pliny the Elder and by the Greeks as Olissipo or Olissipona. The Indo-European Celts invaded in the 1st millennium BC, mixing with the Pre-Indo-European population and this indigenous settlement maintained commercial relations with the Phoenicians, which would account for the recent findings of Phoenician pottery and other material objects
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