1.
Baltic region
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The terms Baltic region, Baltic Rim countries, and Baltic Rim refer to slightly different combinations of countries in the general area surrounding the Baltic Sea. The first to name it the Baltic Sea was eleventh century German chronicler Adam of Bremen. Depending on the context the Baltic region might stand for, The countries that have shorelines along the Baltic Sea, Denmark, Estonia, Latvia, Finland, Germany, Lithuania, Poland, Russia, and Sweden. The group of countries presently referred to by the shorthand Baltic states, Estonia, Latvia, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Kaliningrad Oblast of Russia, exclaved from the remainder of Russia. Historic East Prussia and the lands of Livonia, Courland. The former Baltic governorates of Imperial Russia, Todays Estonia and Latvia, the countries on the historical British trade route through the Baltic Sea, i. e. including the Scandinavian Peninsula. The Council of the Baltic Sea States, comprised by the countries with shorelines along the Baltic Sea, in addition to Norway, Iceland and the rest of European Union. The islands of the Euroregion B7 Baltic Islands Network, which includes the islands and archipelagos Åland, Bornholm, Gotland, Hiiumaa, Öland, Rügen, and Saaremaa
2.
Amber
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Amber is fossilized tree resin, which has been appreciated for its color and natural beauty since Neolithic times. Much valued from antiquity to the present as a gemstone, amber is made into a variety of decorative objects and it has also been used as a healing agent in folk medicine. There are five classes of amber, defined on the basis of their chemical constituents, because it originates as a soft, sticky tree resin, amber sometimes contains animal and plant material as inclusions. Amber occurring in coal seams is also called resinite, and the term ambrite is applied to that found specifically within New Zealand coal seams, the English word amber derives from Arabic ʿanbar عنبر via Middle Latin ambar and Middle French ambre. The word was adopted in Middle English in the 14th century as referring to what is now known as ambergris, in the Romance languages, the sense of the word had come to be extended to Baltic amber from as early as the late 13th century. At first called white or yellow amber, this meaning was adopted in English by the early 15th century, as the use of ambergris waned, this became the main sense of the word. The two substances conceivably became associated or confused because they both were washed up on beaches. Ambergris is less dense water and floats, whereas amber is too dense to float. The classical names for amber, Latin electrum and Ancient Greek ἤλεκτρον, are connected to a term ἠλέκτωρ meaning beaming Sun, according to myth, when Phaëton son of Helios was killed, his mourning sisters became poplar trees, and their tears became elektron, amber. Earlier Pliny says that an island of three days sail from the Scythian coast called Balcia by Xenophon of Lampsacus, author of a fanciful travel book in Greek, is called Basilia by Pytheas. It is generally understood to be the same as Abalus and it is assumed that there were well-established trade routes for amber connecting the Baltic with the Mediterranean. Pliny states explicitly that the Germans export amber to Pannonia, from where it was traded further abroad by the Veneti, the ancient Italic peoples of southern Italy were working amber, the most important examples are on display at the National Archaeological Museum of Siritide to Matera. Amber used in antiquity as at Mycenae and in the prehistory of the Mediterranean comes from deposits of Sicily. Besides the fanciful explanations according to which amber is produced by the Sun, Pliny cites opinions that are aware of its origin in tree resin. Amber is produced from a marrow discharged by trees belonging to the genus, like gum from the cherry. This is confirmed by the recorded Old High German glas and Old English glær for amber, in Middle Low German, amber was known as berne-, barn-, börnstēn. The Low German term became dominant also in High German by the 18th century, the Baltic Lithuanian term for amber is gintaras and Latvian dzintars. They, and the Slavic jantar or Hungarian gyanta, are thought to originate from Phoenician jainitar, Early in the nineteenth century, the first reports of amber from North America came from discoveries in New Jersey along Crosswicks Creek near Trenton, at Camden, and near Woodbury
3.
Eocene
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The Eocene Epoch, lasting from 56 to 33.9 million years ago, is a major division of the geologic timescale and the second epoch of the Paleogene Period in the Cenozoic Era. The Eocene spans the time from the end of the Paleocene Epoch to the beginning of the Oligocene Epoch. The start of the Eocene is marked by a period in which the concentration of the carbon isotope 13C in the atmosphere was exceptionally low in comparison with the more common isotope 12C. As with other periods, the strata that define the start and end of the epoch are well identified. The name Eocene comes from the Ancient Greek ἠώς and καινός, the Eocene epoch is conventionally divided into early, middle, and late subdivisions. The corresponding rocks are referred to as lower, middle, the Ypresian stage constitutes the lower, the Priabonian stage the upper, and the Lutetian and Bartonian stages are united as the middle Eocene. The Eocene Epoch contained a variety of different climate conditions that includes the warmest climate in the Cenozoic Era. During this period of time, little to no ice was present on Earth with a difference in temperature from the equator to the poles. Following the maximum was a descent into an icehouse climate from the Eocene Optimum to the Eocene-Oligocene transition at 34 million years ago. During this decrease ice began to reappear at the poles, greenhouse gases, in particular carbon dioxide and methane, played a significant role during the Eocene in controlling the surface temperature. For the early Eocene there is discussion on how much carbon dioxide was in the atmosphere. This is due to numerous proxies representing different atmospheric carbon dioxide content, for contrast, today the carbon dioxide levels are at 400 ppm or 0. 04%. At about the beginning of the Eocene Epoch the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere more or less doubled. During the early Eocene, methane was another gas that had a drastic effect on the climate. In comparison to carbon dioxide, methane has much effect on temperature as methane is ~34 times more effective per molecule than carbon dioxide on a 100-year scale. Most of the methane released to the atmosphere during this period of time would have been from wetlands, swamps, the atmospheric methane concentration today is 0. 000179% or 1.79 ppmv. Due to the climate and sea level rise associated with the early Eocene, more wetlands, more forests. Comparing the early Eocene production of methane to current levels of atmospheric methane, biogenic production of methane produces carbon dioxide and water vapor along with the methane, as well as yielding infrared radiation
4.
Kaliningrad Oblast
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Kaliningrad Oblast is a federal subject of the Russian Federation that is located on the coast of the Baltic Sea. As an oblast, its status is equal to each of the other 84 federal subjects. Its administrative center is the city of Kaliningrad, formerly known as Königsberg and it is the only Baltic port in the Russian Federation that remains ice-free in winter. According to the 2010 census, it had a population of 941,873, the oblast is an exclave so visa-free travel to the main part of Russia is only possible by sea or air. The territory was part of East Prussia. With the defeat of Nazi Germany in 1945, the territory was annexed by the Soviet Union, following the post-war migration and expulsion of the German-speaking population, the territory was populated with citizens from the Soviet Union. Today, only a few thousand ethnic Germans remain, most of recent immigrants from other parts of the former Soviet Union. Early in the 21st century, the hitherto flagging economy of Kaliningrad Oblast became one of the best performing economies in Russia and this was helped by a low manufacturing tax rate related to its Special Economic Zone status. As of 2006, one in three televisions manufactured in Russia came from Kaliningrad, the territorys population was one of the few in Russia that was expected to show strong growth after the collapse of the USSR. Germany currently places no claims, however it also has not renounced any claims to the possibility of territory reunification. During the Middle Ages, the territory of what is now Kaliningrad Oblast was inhabited by tribes of Old Prussians in the western part, the tribes were divided by the rivers Pregolya and Alna. The Teutonic Knights conquered the region and established a monastic state, on the foundations of a destroyed Prussian settlement known as Tvanksta, the Order founded the city of Königsberg. Germans resettled the territory and assimilated the indigenous Old Prussians, the Lithuanian-inhabited areas became known as Lithuania Minor. Speakers of the old Baltic languages became extinct around the 17th century, in 1525, Grand Master Albert of Brandenburg secularized the Prussian branch of the Teutonic Order and established himself as the sovereign of the Duchy of Prussia. The duchy was nominally a fief of the Polish crown and it later merged with the Margravate of Brandenburg. Königsberg was the capital from 1525 until 1701. As the centre of Prussia moved westward, the position of the capital became too peripheral, during the Seven Years War it was occupied by the Russian Empire. The region was reorganized into the Province of East Prussia within the Kingdom of Prussia in 1773, the territory of the Kaliningrad Oblast lies in the northern part of East Prussia
5.
Bitterfeld
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Bitterfeld is a town in the district Anhalt-Bitterfeld, Saxony-Anhalt, Germany. Since 1 July 2007 it has been part of the town Bitterfeld-Wolfen and it is situated approximately 25 km south of Dessau, and 30 km northeast of Halle. Bitterfeld was built by a colony of Flemish immigrants in 1153 and it was captured by the landgrave of Meissen in 1476, and belonged thenceforth to Saxony, until it was ceded to Prussia in 1815. By 1900 Bitterfeld contained an important junction of railways from Leipzig, the population at that time was 11,839, it manufactured drain-pipes, paper-roofing and machinery, and had saw-mills. There were also several coal-mines in the vicinity, owing to its pleasant situation and accessibility, it had become a favoured residence of business men of Leipzig and Halle. During the GDR years, it gained notoriety for its chemical complex which caused remarkably severe pollution. On 24 April 1959 it also was a scene for the Bitterfeld Conference and this conference sought to connect the working class with the artists of the day to form a socialist national culture. In the 21st century Bitterfeld is still a town and it stages the annual United Metal Maniacs metal festival. The former brown-coal open cast mine of Goitzsche, south-east of Bitterfeld, is a source of fossils in Bitterfeld amber. Walther Rathenau, he brought the industry to Bitterfeld in 1893. Klaus Staeck, graphic artist, lawyer and president of the academy of the arts, grew up in Bitterfeld, fischer Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 2009, ISBN 978-3-10-048828-2. Lojewsky, Hannelore, Seh’n wir uns nicht in dieser Welt, in, Norbert Kühne, Individuelles Lernen wird an Bedeutung gewinnen. 100 Jahre Hans-Böckler-Berufskolleg Marl/Haltern, Marl 2009, S. 29–30, klaus Seehafer, Dann sehn wir uns in Bitterfeld. Edition no.1 Böhlau, Cologne, Weimar, Vienna 2004, hackenholz, Dirk, Die elektrochemischen Werke in Bitterfeld 1914–1945
6.
Lignite
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Lignite, often referred to as brown coal, is a soft brown combustible sedimentary rock formed from naturally compressed peat. It is considered the lowest rank of coal due to its low heat content. It has a carbon content around 60–70 percent and it is mined all around the world and is used almost exclusively as a fuel for steam-electric power generation, but is also mined for its germanium content in China. The energy content of lignite ranges from 10 to 20 MJ/kg on a moist, the energy content of lignite consumed in the United States averages 15 MJ/kg, on the as-received basis. The energy content of lignite consumed in Victoria, Australia, averages 8.4 MJ/kg, lignite has a high content of volatile matter which makes it easier to convert into gas and liquid petroleum products than higher-ranking coals. Unfortunately, its moisture content and susceptibility to spontaneous combustion can cause problems in transportation. However, removing the moisture increases the cost of the final lignite fuel, because of its low energy density and typically high moisture content, brown coal is inefficient to transport and is not traded extensively on the world market compared with higher coal grades. It is often burned in power stations near the mines, such as in Australias Latrobe Valley, the operation of traditional brown-coal plants, particularly in combination with strip mining, can be politically contentious due to environmental concerns. An environmentally beneficial use of lignite can be found in its use in cultivation and distribution of biological control microbes that suppress plant disease causing microbes, lignite begins as an accumulation of partially decayed plant material, or peat. Burial by other sediments results in increasing temperature, depending on the geothermal gradient and tectonic setting. This causes compaction of the material and loss of some of the water and this process, called coalification, concentrates the carbon content, and thus the heat content, of the material. Deeper burial and the passage of time result in expulsion of moisture and volatile matter, eventually transforming the material into higher rank coals such as bituminous. Lignite deposits are younger than higher-ranked coals, with the majority of them having formed during the Tertiary period. The Latrobe Valley in the state of Victoria, Australia, contains estimated reserves of some 65 billion tonnes of brown coal, the deposit is equivalent to 25 percent of known world reserves. The coal seams are up to 100 metres thick, with coal seams often giving virtually continuous brown coal thickness of up to 230 metres. Seams are covered by little overburden. Lignite can be separated into two types, the first is xyloid lignite or fossil wood and the second form is the compact lignite or perfect lignite. Although xyloid lignite may sometimes have the tenacity and the appearance of ordinary wood and it is reducible to a fine powder by trituration, and if submitted to the action of a weak solution of potash, it yields a considerable quantity of humic acid
7.
Saxony
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Its capital is Dresden, and its largest city is Leipzig. Saxony is the tenth largest of Germanys sixteen states, with an area of 18,413 square kilometres, located in the middle of a large, formerly all German-speaking part of Europe, the history of the state of Saxony spans more than a millennium. It has been a medieval duchy, an electorate of the Holy Roman Empire, a kingdom, the area of the modern state of Saxony should not be confused with Old Saxony, the area inhabited by Saxons. Old Saxony corresponds approximately to the modern German states of Lower Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, Saxony is divided into 10 districts,1. After a reform in 2008, these regions - with some alterations of their respective areas - were called Direktionsbezirke, in 2012, the authorities of these regions were merged into one central authority, the Landesdirektion Sachsen. The Erzgebirgskreis district includes the Ore Mountains, and the Schweiz-Osterzgebirge district includes Saxon Switzerland, the largest cities in Saxony according to the 31 December 2015 estimate. To this can be added that Leipzig forms a metropolitan region with Halle. The latter city is located just across the border to Saxony-Anhalt, Leipzig shares for instance an S-train system and an airport with Halle. Saxony has, after Saxony Anhalt, the most vibrant economy of the states of the former East Germany and its economy grew by 1. 9% in 2010. Nonetheless, unemployment remains above the German average, the eastern part of Germany, excluding Berlin, qualifies as an Objective 1 development-region within the European Union, and is eligible to receive investment subsidies of up to 30% until 2013. FutureSAX, a business competition and entrepreneurial support organisation, has been in operation since 2002. Microchip makers near Dresden have given the region the nickname Silicon Saxony, the publishing and porcelain industries of the region are well known, although their contributions to the regional economy are no longer significant. Today the automobile industry, machinery production and services contribute to the development of the region. Saxony is also one of the most renowned tourist destinations in Germany - especially the cities of Leipzig and Dresden, new tourist destinations are developing, notably in the lake district of Lausitz. Saxony reported an unemployment of 8. 8% in 2014. By comparison the average in the former GDR was 9. 8% and 6. 7% for Germany overall, the unemployment rate reached 8. 2% in May 2015. The Leipzig area, which recently was among the regions with the highest unemployment rate, could benefit greatly from investments by Porsche. With the VW Phaeton factory in Dresden, and many part suppliers, zwickau is another major Volkswagen location
8.
New states of Germany
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The new states, which had been abolished by the East German government in 1952 and were re-established in 1990, are Brandenburg, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt and Thuringia. The state of Berlin, the result of a merger between East and West Berlin, is not considered one of the new states, although many of its residents are former East Germans. Since the reunification, Germany thus consists of 16 states with equal legal statuses, yet the process of the inner reunification between the former Eastern and Western Germany is still ongoing. Persisting differences in culture and mentality among the old East Germany, ossis are stereotyped as racist, poor and largely influenced by Russian culture. Wessis are usually considered snobbish, dishonest, wealthy, and selfish, the terms can be considered disparaging. In 2009, twenty years after the fall of the wall, 62% feel in a kind of limbo, no longer citizens of East Germany but not fully integrated into the unified Germany. Around 11% would have liked to have East Germany back, a 2004 poll found that 25% of West Germans and 12% of East Germans wished reunification had not happened. Some East German brands have been revived, appealing to former East Germans who are nostalgic for the goods they grew up with, another notable difference is the attitude towards naturism or FKK in German. While it existed in both East and West, only in the East was it a cultural phenomenon in which almost everybody participated. This can still be seen at beaches of former East Germany compared to their West German counterparts, more children are born out of wedlock in eastern Germany than in western Germany. In 2009, in eastern Germany 61% of births were to unmarried women, the states of Saxony-Anhalt and Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania had the highest rate of birth outside wedlock, each with 64%, followed by Brandenburg with 62%. The state of Baden-Württemberg had the lowest rate with 22%, followed by Hesse and Bavaria, the economic reconstruction of eastern Germany is proving to be more long-term than originally foreseen. The standard of living and annual income significantly lower in the new federal states. Reunification cost the federal government €2 Trillion, at reunification, almost all East German industry was considered outdated. The government privatised 8,500 state-owned East German enterprises, since 1990, between €100 billion and €140 billion a year have been transferred to the new states. More than $60 billion were spent supporting businesses and building infrastructure in the years 2006-2008. A €156 billion economic plan, Solidarity Pact II, came into force in 2005, the tax, which raises €11 billion a year, will be maintained until 2019 at least. Ever since the reunification, the unemployment rate in the east has been almost twice that of the west, the unemployment rate reached 12. 7% in April 2010, after having reached a maximum of 18. 7% in 2005
9.
Miocene
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The Miocene is the first geological epoch of the Neogene Period and extends from about 23.03 to 5.333 million years ago. The Miocene was named by Sir Charles Lyell and its name comes from the Greek words μείων and καινός and means less recent because it has 18% fewer modern sea invertebrates than the Pliocene. The Miocene follows the Oligocene Epoch and is followed by the Pliocene Epoch, the earth went from the Oligocene through the Miocene and into the Pliocene, with the climate slowly cooling towards a series of ice ages. The Miocene boundaries are not marked by a single distinct global event, the apes arose and diversified during the Miocene, becoming widespread in the Old World. By the end of this epoch, the ancestors of humans had split away from the ancestors of the chimpanzees to follow their own evolutionary path, as in the Oligocene before it, grasslands continued to expand and forests to dwindle in extent. In the Miocene seas, kelp forests made their first appearance, the plants and animals of the Miocene were fairly modern. The Miocene faunal stages from youngest to oldest are typically named according to the International Commission on Stratigraphy, Two subdivisions each form the lower, middle, continents continued to drift toward their present positions. Mountain building took place in western North America, Europe, both continental and marine Miocene deposits are common worldwide with marine outcrops common near modern shorelines. Well studied continental exposures occur in the North American Great Plains, India continued to collide with Asia, creating dramatic new mountain ranges. The Tethys Seaway continued to shrink and then disappeared as Africa collided with Eurasia in the Turkish–Arabian region between 19 and 12 Ma. The subsequent uplift of mountains in the western Mediterranean region and a fall in sea levels combined to cause a temporary drying up of the Mediterranean Sea near the end of the Miocene. The global trend was towards increasing aridity caused primarily by global cooling reducing the ability of the atmosphere to absorb moisture, climates remained moderately warm, although the slow global cooling that eventually led to the Pleistocene glaciations continued. Although a long-term cooling trend was well underway, there is evidence of a period during the Miocene when the global climate rivalled that of the Oligocene. The Miocene warming began 21 million years ago and continued until 14 million years ago, by 8 million years ago, temperatures dropped sharply once again, and the Antarctic ice sheet was already approaching its present-day size and thickness. Greenland may have begun to have large glaciers as early as 7 to 8 million years ago, life during the Miocene Epoch was mostly supported by the two newly formed biomes, kelp forests and grasslands. This allows for more grazers, such as horses, rhinoceroses, ninety five percent of modern plants existed by the end of this epoch. The higher organic content and water retention of the deeper and richer grassland soils, with long term burial of carbon in sediments, produced a carbon and this, combined with higher surface albedo and lower evapotranspiration of grassland, contributed to a cooler, drier climate. The expansion of grasslands and radiations among terrestrial herbivores correlates to fluctuations in CO2
10.
Succinic acid
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Succinic acid is a dicarboxylic acid with the chemical formula 22. The name derives from Latin succinum, meaning amber, succinate is generated in mitochondria via the tricarboxylic acid cycle, an ancient energy-yielding process shared by all organisms. As such, succinate links cellular metabolism to the regulation of cellular function, dysregulation of succinate synthesis and degradation can lead to pathological conditions, such as malignant transformation, inflammation and tissue injury. Succinic acid is a white, odorless solid with an acidic taste. In an aqueous solution, succinic acid readily ionizes to form its conjugate base, succinate. As a diprotic acid, succinic acid undergoes two successive reactions,22 → 2− + H+ 2− → 222− + H+ The pKa of these processes are 4.3 and 5.6. Both anions are colorless and can be isolated as the salts, e. g. Na2, in living organisms, primarily succinate, not succinic acid, is found. As a radical group it is called a succinyl group, like most simple mono- and dicarboxylic acids, it is not harmful but can be an irritant to skin and eyes. Succinic acid can be oxidized to fumaric acid or be converted to diesters and this diethyl ester is a substrate in the Stobbe condensation. Dehydration of succinic acid gives succinic anhydride, succinate can be used to derive 1, 4-butanediol, maleic anhydride, succinimide, 2-pyrrolidinone and tetrahydrofuran. Historically, succinic acid was obtained from amber by distillation and has thus been known as spirit of amber, today, succinic acid is generated for human use synthetically or converted from biomass via fermentation. Common industrial routes of synthesis include partial hydrogenation of maleic acid, oxidation of 1, 4-butanediol, succinate is also produced petrochemically from butane via maleic anhydride. Additionally, genetic engineering of bacteria, such as Escherichia coli or Saccharomyces cerevisiae, has allowed for the high-yielding. Global production is estimated at 16,000 to 30,000 tons a year, in 2004, succinate was placed on the US Department of Energys list of top 12 platform chemicals from biomass. Succinic acid is a precursor to polyesters and a component of some alkyd resins. A key derivative of succinic acid,1, 4-butanediol, has industrial applications. The global market size for BDO was estimated at USD4.72 billion in 2013, BDO is a precursor to the common organic solvent THF and a precursor to polybutylene terephthalate, an engineering-grade thermoplastic. The automotive and electronics industries heavily rely on PBT to produce connectors, insulators, wheel covers, gearshift knobs, Succinic acid also serves as the bases of certain biodegradable polymers, which are of interest in tissue engineering applications
11.
Resin
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In polymer chemistry and materials science, resin is a solid or highly viscous substance of plant or synthetic origin that is typically convertible into polymers. They are often mixtures of compounds, principally terpenes. Many plants, particularly woody plants, produce resin in response to injury, the resin acts as a bandage protecting the plant from invading insects and pathogens. Plants secrete resins and rosins for their protective benefits, the resin produced by most plants is composed mainly of terpenes and derivatives. Some resins also contain a proportion of resin acids. The individual components of resin can be separated by fractional distillation, rosins on the other hand are less volatile and consist, inter alia, of diterpenes. Amber is fossil resin from coniferous and other tree species, copal, kauri gum, dammar and other resins may also be found as subfossil deposits. Subfossil copal can be distinguished from genuine fossil amber because it becomes tacky when a drop of a solvent such as acetone or chloroform is placed on it, african copal and the kauri gum of New Zealand are also procured in a semi-fossil condition. Solidified resin from which the volatile terpene components have been removed by distillation is known as rosin, typical rosin is a transparent or translucent mass, with a vitreous fracture and a faintly yellow or brown colour, non-odorous or having only a slight turpentine odor and taste. Rosin is insoluble in water, mostly soluble in alcohol, essential oils, ether and hot fatty oils, and softens and melts under the influence of heat, rosin consists of a complex mixture of different substances including organic acids named the resin acids. These are closely related to the terpenes, and derive from them through partial oxidation, Resin acids can be dissolved in alkalis to form resin soaps, from which the purified resin acids are regenerated by treatment with acids. Examples of resin acids are abietic acid, C20H30O2, plicatic acid contained in cedar, and pimaric acid, C20H30O2, a constituent of galipot resin. Abietic acid can also be extracted from rosin by means of hot alcohol, it crystallizes in leaflets, pimaric acid closely resembles abietic acid into which it passes when distilled in a vacuum, it has been supposed to consist of three isomers. Rosin is obtained from pines and some plants, mostly conifers. Propolis, consisting largely of resins collected from such as poplars and conifers, is used by honey bees to seal gaps in their hives. Shellac and lacquer are examples of insect-derived resins, asphaltite and Utah resin are petroleum bitumens, not a product secreted by plants, although it was ultimately derived from plants. These were highly prized substances, and required as incense in religious rites. The word resin has been applied in the world to nearly any component of a liquid that will set into a hard lacquer or enamel-like finish
12.
Infrared spectroscopy
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Infrared spectroscopy involves the interaction of infrared radiation with matter. It covers a range of techniques, mostly based on absorption spectroscopy, as with all spectroscopic techniques, it can be used to identify and study chemicals. Sample may be solid, liquid, or gas, the method or technique of infrared spectroscopy is conducted with an instrument called an infrared spectrometer to produce an infrared spectrum. An IR spectrum is essentially a graph of infrared light absorbance on the vertical axis vs. frequency or wavelength on the horizontal axis, typical units of frequency used in IR spectra are reciprocal centimeters, with the symbol cm−1. Units of IR wavelength are commonly given in micrometers, symbol μm, a common laboratory instrument that uses this technique is a Fourier transform infrared spectrometer. Two-dimensional IR is also possible as discussed below, the infrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum is usually divided into three regions, the near-, mid- and far- infrared, named for their relation to the visible spectrum. The higher-energy near-IR, approximately 14000–4000 cm−1 can excite overtone or harmonic vibrations, the mid-infrared, approximately 4000–400 cm−1 may be used to study the fundamental vibrations and associated rotational-vibrational structure. The far-infrared, approximately 400–10 cm−1, lying adjacent to the region, has low energy. The names and classifications of these subregions are conventions, and are loosely based on the relative molecular or electromagnetic properties. Infrared spectroscopy exploits the fact that molecules absorb frequencies that are characteristic of their structure and these absorptions occur at resonant frequencies, i. e. the frequency of the absorbed radiation matches the vibrational frequency. The energies are affected by the shape of the potential energy surfaces, the masses of the atoms. In particular, in the Born–Oppenheimer and harmonic approximations, i. e, the resonant frequencies are also related to the strength of the bond and the mass of the atoms at either end of it. Thus, the frequency of the vibrations are associated with a normal mode of motion. In order for a mode in a sample to be IR active. A permanent dipole is not necessary, as the rule requires only a change in dipole moment, a molecule can vibrate in many ways, and each way is called a vibrational mode. For molecules with N number of atoms, linear molecules have 3N –5 degrees of vibrational modes, as an example H2O, a non-linear molecule, will have 3 ×3 –6 =3 degrees of vibrational freedom, or modes. Simple diatomic molecules have only one bond and only one vibrational band, if the molecule is symmetrical, e. g. N2, the band is not observed in the IR spectrum, but only in the Raman spectrum. Asymmetrical diatomic molecules, e. g. CO, absorb in the IR spectrum, more complex molecules have many bonds, and their vibrational spectra are correspondingly more complex, i. e. big molecules have many peaks in their IR spectra
13.
Sciadopitys
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Sciadopitys verticillata, koyamaki, or Japanese umbrella-pine, is a unique conifer endemic to Japan. It is the member of the family Sciadopityaceae and genus Sciadopitys, a living fossil with no close relatives. Its genus name comes from the Greek prefix sciado- meaning shadow and pitys, meaning pine, the cones are 6–11 cm long, mature in about 18 months, and have flattish scales that open to release the seeds. It is an attractive tree and is popular in gardens. Koyamaki was chosen as the Japanese Imperial crest for Prince Hisahito of Akishino, the plant was first introduced to Europe by John Gould Veitch in September 1860. Media related to Sciadopitys verticillata at Wikimedia Commons Conifer Specialist Group, IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. International Union for Conservation of Nature
14.
Polymer
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A polymer is a large molecule, or macromolecule, composed of many repeated subunits. Because of their range of properties, both synthetic and natural polymers play an essential and ubiquitous role in everyday life. Polymers range from familiar synthetic plastics such as polystyrene to natural biopolymers such as DNA and proteins that are fundamental to biological structure, Polymers, both natural and synthetic, are created via polymerization of many small molecules, known as monomers. The units composing polymers derive, actually or conceptually, from molecules of low molecular mass. The term was coined in 1833 by Jöns Jacob Berzelius, though with a distinct from the modern IUPAC definition. The modern concept of polymers as covalently bonded macromolecular structures was proposed in 1920 by Hermann Staudinger, Polymers are studied in the fields of biophysics and macromolecular science, and polymer science. Polyisoprene of latex rubber is an example of a polymer. In biological contexts, essentially all biological macromolecules—i. e, proteins, nucleic acids, and polysaccharides—are purely polymeric, or are composed in large part of polymeric components—e. g. Isoprenylated/lipid-modified glycoproteins, where small molecules and oligosaccharide modifications occur on the polyamide backbone of the protein. The simplest theoretical models for polymers are ideal chains, Polymers are of two types, Natural polymeric materials such as shellac, amber, wool, silk and natural rubber have been used for centuries. A variety of natural polymers exist, such as cellulose. Most commonly, the continuously linked backbone of a used for the preparation of plastics consists mainly of carbon atoms. A simple example is polyethylene, whose repeating unit is based on ethylene monomer, however, other structures do exist, for example, elements such as silicon form familiar materials such as silicones, examples being Silly Putty and waterproof plumbing sealant. Oxygen is also present in polymer backbones, such as those of polyethylene glycol, polysaccharides. Polymerization is the process of combining many small molecules known as monomers into a covalently bonded chain or network, during the polymerization process, some chemical groups may be lost from each monomer. This is the case, for example, in the polymerization of PET polyester, the distinct piece of each monomer that is incorporated into the polymer is known as a repeat unit or monomer residue. Laboratory synthetic methods are divided into two categories, step-growth polymerization and chain-growth polymerization. However, some methods such as plasma polymerization do not fit neatly into either category
15.
Repeat unit
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A repeat unit is sometimes called a mer or mer unit. Mer originates from the Greek word meros, which means part, the word polymer derives its meaning from this, which means many mers. A repeat unit, is not to be confused with the term monomer, one of the simplest repeat units is that of the addition polymer polyvinyl chloride, -n-, whose repeat unit is --. In this case the unit has the same atoms as the monomer vinyl chloride CH2=CHCl. When the polymer is formed, the C=C double bond in the monomer is replaced by a C-C single bond in the repeat unit. In condensation polymers, the unit contains fewer atoms than the monomer or monomers from which it is formed. The subscript n denotes the degree of polymerisation, that is, the molecular mass of the repeat unit, MR, is simply the sum of the atomic masses of the atoms within the repeat unit. The molecular mass of the chain is just the product nMR, other than monodisperse polymers, there is normally a molar mass distribution caused by chains of different length. In copolymers there are two or more types of unit, which may be arranged in alternation, or at random. Polyethylene may be considered either as -n- with a unit of --, or as n-. Chemists tend to consider the unit as -- since this polymer is made from the monomer ethylene. More complex repeat units can occur in vinyl polymers -n-, if one hydrogen in the repeat unit is substituted by a larger fragment R. Polypropylene -n- has the repeat unit -. Polystyrene has a chain where the substituent R is a group, corresponding to a benzene ring minus one hydrogen, -n-. In many condensation polymers the repeat unit contains two structural units related to the comonomers which have been polymerized, for example, in polyethylene terephthalate, the repeat unit is -CO-C6H4-CO-O-CH2-CH2-O-. The polymer is formed by the reaction of the two monomers terephthalic acid and ethylene glycol, or their chemical derivatives. The condensation involves loss of water, as an H is lost from each HO- group in the glycol, the two structural units in the polymer are then considered to be -CO-C6H4-CO- and -O-CH2-CH2-O-
16.
Macromolecule
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A macromolecule is a very large molecule, such as protein, commonly created by polymerization of smaller subunits. They are typically composed of thousands of atoms or more, the most common macromolecules in biochemistry are biopolymers and large non-polymeric molecules. Synthetic macromolecules include common plastics and synthetic fibres as well as materials such as carbon nanotubes. The term macromolecule was coined by Nobel laureate Hermann Staudinger in the 1920s, usage of the term to describe large molecules varies among the disciplines. According to the standard IUPAC definition, the term macromolecule as used in science refers only to a single molecule. For example, a polymeric molecule is appropriately described as a macromolecule or polymer molecule rather than a polymer. Because of their size, macromolecules are not conveniently described in terms of stoichiometry alone, the structure of simple macromolecules, such as homopolymers, may be described in terms of the individual monomer subunit and total molecular mass. Complicated biomacromolecules, on the hand, require multi-faceted structural description such as the hierarchy of structures used to describe proteins. In British English. Macromolecules often have physical properties that do not occur for smaller molecules. For example, DNA in a solution can be simply by sucking the solution through an ordinary straw because the physical forces on the molecule can overcome the strength of its covalent bonds. The 1964 edition of Linus Paulings College Chemistry asserted that DNA in nature is never longer than about 5,000 base pairs and this error arose because biochemists were inadvertently breaking their samples into fragments. In fact, the DNA of chromosomes can be hundreds of millions of base pairs long, another common macromolecular property that does not characterize smaller molecules is their relative insolubility in water and similar solvents, instead forming colloids. Many require salts or particular ions to dissolve in water, similarly, many proteins will denature if the solute concentration of their solution is too high or too low. High concentrations of macromolecules in a solution can alter the rates and equilibrium constants of the reactions of other macromolecules and this comes from macromolecules excluding other molecules from a large part of the volume of the solution, thereby increasing the effective concentrations of these molecules. All living organisms are dependent on three essential biopolymers for their functions, DNA, RNA and Proteins. Each of these molecules is required for life since each plays a distinct, the simple summary is that DNA makes RNA, and then RNA makes proteins. DNA, RNA and proteins all consist of a structure of related building blocks. In general, they are all unbranched polymers, and so can be represented in the form of a string
17.
Monoterpene
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Monoterpenes are a class of terpenes that consist of two isoprene units and have the molecular formula C10H16. Monoterpenes may be linear or contain rings, biochemical modifications such as oxidation or rearrangement produce the related monoterpenoids. Biosynthetically, isopentenyl pyrophosphate and dimethylallyl pyrophosphate are combined to form geranyl pyrophosphate, elimination of the pyrophosphate group leads to the formation of acyclic monoterpenes such as ocimene and the myrcenes. Hydrolysis of the groups leads to the prototypical acyclic monoterpenoid geraniol. Additional rearrangements and oxidations provide compounds such as citral, citronellal, citronellol, linalool, many monoterpenes found in marine organisms are halogenated, such as halomon. In addition to attachments, the isoprene units can make connections to form rings. The most common ring size in monoterpenes is a six-membered ring, a classic example is the cyclization of geranyl pyrophosphate to form limonene. The terpinenes, phellandrenes, and terpinolene are formed similarly, hydroxylation of any of these compounds followed by dehydration can lead to the aromatic p-cymene. Important terpenoids derived from monocyclic terpenes are menthol, thymol, carvacrol, geranyl pyrophosphate can also undergo two sequential cyclization reactions to form bicyclic monoterpenes, such as pinene which is the primary constituent of pine resin. Other bicyclic monoterpenes include carene, sabinene, camphene, and thujene, camphor, borneol and eucalyptol are examples of bicyclic monoterpenoids containing ketone, alcohol, and ether functional groups, respectively. Monoterpenes are emitted by forests and form aerosols that can serve as condensation nuclei. Such aerosols can increase the brightness of clouds and cool the climate, several monoterpenes derivatives have antibacterial activity, such as linalool
18.
Sesquiterpene
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Sesquiterpenes are a class of terpenes that consist of three isoprene units and have the Molecular formula C15H24. Like monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes may be acyclic or contain rings, including many unique combinations, biochemical modifications such as oxidation or rearrangement produce the related sesquiterpenoids. Sesquiterpenes are found naturally in plants and insects, as semiochemicals, the reaction of geranyl pyrophosphate with isopentenyl pyrophosphate results in the 15-carbon farnesyl pyrophosphate which is an intermediate in the biosynthesis of sesquiterpenes such as farnesene. Oxidation of farnesene then provides sesquiterpenoids such as farnesol, there are more cyclic sesquiterpenes than cyclic monoterpenes because of the increased chain length and additional double bond. In addition to common six-membered ring systems such as is found in zingiberene, the cadinenes contain two fused six-membered rings. Caryophyllene, a component of essential oils such as clove oil. Vetivazulene and guaiazulene are aromatic bicyclic sesquiterpenoids, with the addition of a third ring, the possible structures become increasingly varied. Examples include longifolene, copaene and the alcohol patchoulol, two sesquiterpenes named dictyophorine A and B were identified from the fungus Phallus indusiatus. These compounds are based on the skeleton, and they are the first eudesmane derivatives isolated from fungi. The dictyophorines promote the synthesis of growth factor in astroglial cells. Sesquiterpenes at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings
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Supramolecule
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The term supermolecule was introduced by Karl Lothar Wolf et al. in 1937 to describe hydrogen-bonded acetic acid dimers. The study of non-covalent association of complexes of molecules has since developed into the field of supramolecular chemistry, the term supermolecule is sometimes used to describe supramolecular assemblies, which are complexes of two or more molecules that are not covalently bonded. The term supermolecule is also used in biochemistry to describe complexes of biomolecules, Supramolecular chemistry Molecular self-assembly Supramolecular assembly Macromolecule
20.
Arthropod
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An arthropod is an invertebrate animal having an exoskeleton, a segmented body, and jointed appendages. Arthropods form the phylum Arthropoda, which includes the insects, arachnids, myriapods, arthropods are characterized by their jointed limbs and cuticle made of chitin, often mineralised with calcium carbonate. The arthropod body plan consists of segments, each with a pair of appendages, the rigid cuticle inhibits growth, so arthropods replace it periodically by moulting. Their versatility has enabled them to become the most species-rich members of all guilds in most environments. They have over a million described species, making up more than 80% of all described living species, some of which. Arthropods range in size from the microscopic crustacean Stygotantulus up to the Japanese spider crab, arthropods primary internal cavity is a hemocoel, which accommodates their internal organs, and through which their haemolymph – analogue of blood – circulates, they have open circulatory systems. Like their exteriors, the organs of arthropods are generally built of repeated segments. Their nervous system is ladder-like, with paired ventral nerve cords running through all segments and their heads are formed by fusion of varying numbers of segments, and their brains are formed by fusion of the ganglia of these segments and encircle the esophagus. The respiratory and excretory systems of arthropods vary, depending as much on their environment as on the subphylum to which they belong, arthropods also have a wide range of chemical and mechanical sensors, mostly based on modifications of the many setae that project through their cuticles. Aquatic species use internal or external fertilization. Almost all arthropods lay eggs, but scorpions give birth to live young after the eggs have hatched inside the mother, arthropod hatchlings vary from miniature adults to grubs and caterpillars that lack jointed limbs and eventually undergo a total metamorphosis to produce the adult form. The level of care for hatchlings varies from nonexistent to the prolonged care provided by scorpions. The evolutionary ancestry of arthropods dates back to the Cambrian period, the group is generally regarded as monophyletic, and many analyses support the placement of arthropods with cycloneuralians in a superphylum Ecdysozoa. Overall however, the relationships of Metazoa are not yet well resolved. Likewise, the relationships between various groups are still actively debated. Arthropods contribute to the food supply both directly as food, and more importantly indirectly as pollinators of crops. Some species are known to spread disease to humans, livestock. The word arthropod comes from the Greek ἄρθρον árthron, joint, and πούς pous, i. e. foot or leg, arthropods are invertebrates with segmented bodies and jointed limbs
21.
Annelid
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The annelids, also known as the ringed worms or segmented worms, are a large phylum, with over 17,000 extant species including ragworms, earthworms, and leeches. The annelids are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, coelomate, invertebrate organisms and they also have parapodia for locomotion. Most textbooks still use the division into polychaetes, oligochaetes. Cladistic research since 1997 has radically changed this scheme, viewing leeches as a sub-group of oligochaetes and oligochaetes as a sub-group of polychaetes, in addition, the Pogonophora, Echiura and Sipuncula, previously regarded as separate phyla, are now regarded as sub-groups of polychaetes. Annelids are considered members of the Lophotrochozoa, a super-phylum of protostomes that also includes molluscs, brachiopods, flatworms, the basic annelid form consists of multiple segments. Each segment has the same sets of organs and, in most polychates, has a pair of parapodia that many use for locomotion. Septa separate the segments of many species, but are defined or absent in others. The septa of such species also enable them to change the shapes of individual segments, although many species can reproduce asexually and use similar mechanisms to regenerate after severe injuries, sexual reproduction is the normal method in species whose reproduction has been studied. The minority of living polychaetes whose reproduction and lifecycles are known produce trochophore larvae, Oligochaetes are full hermaphrodites and produce a ring-like cocoon around their bodies, in which the eggs and hatchlings are nourished until they are ready to emerge. Earthworms are Oligochaetes that support terrestrial food chains both as prey and in some regions are important in aeration and enriching of soil, in addition to improving soil fertility, annelids serve humans as food and as bait. Scientists observe annelids to monitor the quality of marine and fresh water, although blood-letting is no longer in favor with doctors, some leech species are regarded as endangered species because they have been over-harvested for this purpose in the last few centuries. Ragworms jaws are now being studied by engineers as they offer a combination of lightness. Since annelids are soft-bodied, their fossils are rare – mostly jaws, although some late Ediacaran fossils may represent annelids, the oldest known fossil that is identified with confidence comes from about 518 million years ago in the early Cambrian period. Fossils of most modern mobile polychaete groups appeared by the end of the Carboniferous, there are over 22,000 living annelid species, ranging in size from microscopic to the Australian giant Gippsland earthworm and Amynthas mekongianus, which can both grow up to 3 metres long. As their name suggests, they have multiple chetae per segment, polychaetes have parapodia that function as limbs, and nuchal organs that are thought to be chemosensors. Most are marine animals, although a few live in fresh water. These have few or no chetae per segment, and no nuchal organs or parapodia, the clitellates are sub-divided into, Oligochaetes, which includes earthworms. Oligochaetes have a pad in the roof of the mouth
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Mollusca
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The molluscs compose the large phylum Mollusca of invertebrate animals. Around 85,000 extant species of molluscs are recognized, molluscs are the largest marine phylum, comprising about 23% of all the named marine organisms. Numerous molluscs also live in freshwater and terrestrial habitats and they are highly diverse, not just in size and in anatomical structure, but also in behaviour and in habitat. The phylum is divided into 9 or 10 taxonomic classes. The gastropods are by far the most numerous molluscs in terms of classified species, the three most universal features defining modern molluscs are a mantle with a significant cavity used for breathing and excretion, the presence of a radula, and the structure of the nervous system. Other than these things, molluscs express great morphological diversity, so many textbooks base their descriptions on an ancestral mollusc. This has a single, limpet-like shell on top, which is made of proteins and chitin reinforced with calcium carbonate, the underside of the animal consists of a single muscular foot. Although molluscs are coelomates, the coelom tends to be small, the main body cavity is a hemocoel through which blood circulates, their circulatory systems are mainly open. The generalized mollusc has two paired nerve cords, or three in bivalves, the brain, in species that have one, encircles the esophagus. Most molluscs have eyes, and all have sensors to detect chemicals, vibrations, the simplest type of molluscan reproductive system relies on external fertilization, but more complex variations occur. All produce eggs, from which may emerge trochophore larvae, more complex veliger larvae, good evidence exists for the appearance of gastropods, cephalopods and bivalves in the Cambrian period 541 to 485.4 million years ago. Molluscs have, for centuries, also been the source of important luxury goods, notably pearls, mother of pearl, Tyrian purple dye and their shells have also been used as money in some preindustrial societies. Mollusc species can also represent hazards or pests for human activities, the bite of the blue-ringed octopus is often fatal, and that of Octopus apollyon causes inflammation that can last for over a month. Stings from a few species of large tropical cone shells can also kill, schistosomiasis is transmitted to humans via water snail hosts, and affects about 200 million people. Snails and slugs can also be serious pests, and accidental or deliberate introduction of some snail species into new environments has seriously damaged some ecosystems. The words mollusc and mollusk are both derived from the French mollusque, which originated from the Latin molluscus, from mollis, molluscus was itself an adaptation of Aristotles τα μαλακά, the soft things, which he applied to cuttlefish. The scientific study of molluscs is accordingly called malacology, as it is now known these groups have no relation to molluscs, and very little to one another, the name Molluscoida has been abandoned. The most universal features of the structure of molluscs are a mantle with a significant cavity used for breathing and excretion
23.
Nematode
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The nematodes or roundworms constitute the phylum Nematoda. They are an animal phylum inhabiting a broad range of environments. Nematodes are classified along with insects and other moulting animals in the clade Ecdysozoa, Nematodes have successfully adapted to nearly every ecosystem from marine to fresh water, to soils, and from the polar regions to the tropics, as well as the highest to the lowest of elevations. They are found in part of the earths lithosphere, even at great depths below the surface of the Earth in gold mines in South Africa. They represent 90% of all animals on the ocean floor, the many parasitic forms include pathogens in most plants and animals. The location of towns would be decipherable, since for every massing of human beings there would be a corresponding massing of certain nematodes, trees would still stand in ghostly rows representing our streets and highways. In 1758, Linnaeus described some nematode genera, then included in Vermes, the name of the group Nematoda, informally called nematodes, came from Nematoidea, originally defined by Karl Rudolphi, from Ancient Greek νῆμα and -eiδἠς. It was treated as family Nematodes by Burmeister, at its origin, the Nematoidea erroneously included Nematodes and Nematomorpha, attributed by von Siebold. Along with Acanthocephala, Trematoda and Cestoidea, it formed the obsolete group Entozoa and they were also classed along with Acanthocephala in the obsolete phylum Nemathelminthes by Gegenbaur. In 1861, K. M. Diesing treated the group as order Nematoda, in 1877, the taxon Nematoidea, including the family Gordiidae, was promoted to the rank of phylum by Ray Lankester. In 1919, Nathan Cobb proposed that nematodes should be recognized alone as a phylum and he argued they should be called nema in English rather than nematodes and defined the taxon Nemates, listing Nematoidea sensu restricto as a synonym. Since Cobb was the first to all but nematodes from the group, some sources consider the valid taxon name to be Nemates or Nemata. The phylogenetic relationships of the nematodes and their close relatives among the protostomian Metazoa are unresolved, traditionally, they were held to be a lineage of their own but in the 1990s, they were proposed to form the group Ecdysozoa together with moulting animals, such as arthropods. The identity of the closest living relatives of the Nematoda has always considered to be well resolved. Morphological characters and molecular phylogenies agree with placement of the roundworms as a taxon to the parasitic Nematomorpha. Together with the Scalidophora, the Nematoida form the clade Cycloneuralia, the Cycloneuralia or the Introverta—depending on the validity of the former—are often ranked as a superphylum. Due to the lack of knowledge regarding many nematodes, their systematics is contentious, an earliest and influential classification was proposed by Chitwood and Chitwood—later revised by Chitwood—who divided the phylum into two—the Aphasmidia and the Phasmidia. These were later renamed Adenophorea and Secernentea, respectively, the Secernentea share several characteristics, including the presence of phasmids, a pair of sensory organs located in the lateral posterior region, and this was used as the basis for this division
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Protozoa
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In 21st-century systems of biological classification, the Protozoa are defined as a diverse group of unicellular eukaryotic organisms. Historically, protozoa were defined as single-celled animals or organisms with animal-like behaviors, such as motility, the group was regarded as the zoological counterpart to the protophyta, which were considered to be plant-like, as they are capable of photosynthesis. The terms protozoa and protozoans are now mostly used informally to designate single-celled, non-photosynthetic protists, such as the ciliates, amoebae and flagellates. The term Protozoa was introduced in 1818 for a taxonomic class, in several classification systems proposed by Thomas Cavalier-Smith and his collaborators since 1981, Protozoa is ranked as a kingdom. The seven-kingdom scheme proposed by Ruggiero et al. in 2015, places eight phyla under Protozoa, Euglenozoa, Amoebozoa, Metamonada, Choanozoa, Loukozoa, Percolozoa, Microsporidia and Sulcozoa. This kingdom does not form a clade, but an evolutionary grade or paraphyletic group, from which the fungi, for this reason, the terms protists, Protista or Protoctista are sometimes preferred for the high-level classification of eukaryotic microbes. In 2005, members of the Society of Protozoologists voted to change the name of organization to the International Society of Protistologists. The word protozoa was coined in 1818 by zoologist Georg August Goldfuss, as the Greek equivalent of the German Urthiere, meaning primitive, Goldfuss erected Protozoa as a class containing what he believed to be the simplest animals. Originally, the group included not only microbes, but also some lower animals, such as rotifers, corals, sponges, jellyfish, bryozoa. In 1848, in light of advancements in cell theory pioneered by Theodore Schwann and Matthias Schleiden, von Siebold redefined Protozoa to include only such unicellular forms, to the exclusion of all metazoa. At the same time, he raised the group to the level of a phylum containing two broad classes of microbes, Infusoria, and Rhizopoda. As a phylum under Animalia, the Protozoa were firmly rooted in the old two-kingdom classification of life, criticism of this system began in the latter half of the 19th century, with the realization that many organisms met the criteria for inclusion among both plants and animals. For example, the algae Euglena and Dinobryon have chloroplasts for photosynthesis, as an alternative, he proposed a new kingdom called Primigenum, consisting of both the protozoa and unicellular algae, which he combined together under the name Protoctista. In Hoggss conception, the animal and plant kingdoms were likened to two great pyramids blending at their bases in the Kingdom Primigenum, six years later, Ernst Haeckel also proposed a third kingdom of life, which he named Protista. Despite these proposals, Protozoa emerged as the taxonomic placement for heterotrophic microbes such as amoebae and ciliates. A variety of systems were proposed, and Kingdoms Protista and Protoctista became well established in biology texts. While many taxonomists have abandoned Protozoa as a group, Thomas Cavalier-Smith has retained it as a kingdom in the various classifications he has proposed. As of 2015, Cavalier-Smiths Protozoa excludes several major groups of organisms traditionally placed among the protozoa, including the ciliates, dinoflagellates, Protozoa, as traditionally defined, are mainly microscopic organisms, ranging in size from 10 to 52 micrometers
25.
Brentidae
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Brentidae is a cosmopolitan family of primarily xylophagous beetles also known as straight-snouted weevils. They are most diverse in the tropics, but occur throughout the regions of the world. They are among the families of weevils that have non-elbowed antennae, oberprieler, R. G. Marvaldi, A. E. Anderson, R. S.2007, Weevils, weevils, weevils everywhere. & Shear, W. A. Linnaeus tercentenary, progress in invertebrate taxonomy
26.
Marchantiophyta
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The Marchantiophyta /mɑːrˌkæntiˈɒfᵻtə/ are a division of non-vascular land plants commonly referred to as hepatics or liverworts. Like mosses and hornworts, they have a gametophyte-dominant life cycle and it is estimated that there are about 9000 species of liverworts. Some of the familiar species grow as a flattened leafless thallus. Leafy species can be distinguished from the apparently similar mosses on the basis of a number of features, leafy liverworts also differ from most mosses in that their leaves never have a costa and may bear marginal cilia. Liverworts are typically small, usually from 2–20 mm wide with individual plants less than 10 cm long, however, certain species may cover large patches of ground, rocks, trees or any other reasonably firm substrate on which they occur. They are distributed globally in almost every habitat, most often in humid locations although there are desert. Some species can be a nuisance in shady greenhouses or a weed in gardens, most liverworts are small, usually from 2–20 millimetres wide with individual plants less than 10 centimetres long, so they are often overlooked. The most familiar liverworts consist of a prostrate, flattened, ribbon-like or branching structure called a thallus, liverworts can most reliably be distinguished from the apparently similar mosses by their single-celled rhizoids. Liverworts have a gametophyte-dominant life cycle, with the dependent on the gametophyte. Cells in a typical liverwort plant each contain only a set of genetic information. This contrasts sharply with the pattern exhibited by all animals. In the more familiar seed plants, the generation is represented only by the tiny pollen. Another unusual feature of the life cycle is that sporophytes are very short-lived. Even in other bryophytes, the sporophyte is persistent and disperses spores over an extended period, the life of a liverwort starts from the germination of a haploid spore to produce a protonema, which is either a mass of thread-like filaments or else a flattened thallus. The protonema is a stage in the life of a liverwort. The male organs are known as antheridia and produce the sperm cells, clusters of antheridia are enclosed by a protective layer of cells called the perigonium. As in other plants, the female organs are known as archegonia and are protected by the thin surrounding perichaetum. Each archegonium has a hollow tube, the neck, down which the sperm swim to reach the egg cell
27.
Bryopsida
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The Bryopsida constitute the largest class of mosses, containing 95% of all moss species. It consists of approximately 11,500 species, common throughout the whole world, the group is distinguished by having spore capsules with teeth that are arthrodontous, the teeth are separate from each other and jointed at the base where they attach to the opening of the capsule. These teeth are exposed when the covering operculum falls off, in other groups of mosses, the capsule is either nematodontous with an attached operculum, or else splits open without operculum or teeth. Among the Bryopsida, the structure of the capsule and its pattern of development is very useful both for classifying and for identifying moss families, most Bryopsida produce a capsule with a lid which falls off when the spores inside are mature and thus ready to be dispersed. The opening thus revealed is called the stoma and is surrounded by one or two peristomes, a peristome is a ring of triangular teeth formed from the remnants of specially thickened cell walls. There are usually 16 such teeth in a single peristome, and in the Bryopsida the teeth are separate from each other and this articulation of the teeth is termed arthrodontous. There are two basic arthrodontous peristome types, the first type is termed haplolepidous and consists of a single circle of 16 peristome teeth. This type of peristome is characteristic of subclass Dicranidae, the second type is the diplolepidous peristome found in subclasses Bryidae, Funariidae, and Timmiidae. In this type, there are two rings of peristome teeth—an inner endostome and an exostome, the endostome is a more delicate membrane, and its teeth are aligned between the teeth of the exostome. There are a few mosses in the Bryopsida that have no peristome in their capsules and these mosses still undergo the same cell division patterns in capsule development, but the teeth do not fully develop. In the past, the group Bryopsida included all mosses, current circumscriptions of the group are more limited. A detailed phylogeny to the level of order, based on the work by Novíkov & Barabaš-Krasni 2015
28.
Moss
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Mosses are small flowerless plants that typically grow in dense green clumps or mats, often in damp or shady locations. Although some species have conducting tissues, these are poorly developed. Mosses do not have seeds and after fertilisation develop sporophytes with unbranched stalks topped with single capsules containing spores and they are typically 0. 2–10 cm tall, though some species are much larger. Dawsonia, the tallest moss in the world, can grow to 50 cm in height, mosses are commonly confused with lichens, hornworts, and liverworts. Lichens may superficially look like mosses, and have names that include the word moss. This contrasts with the pattern in all plants, where the diploid sporophyte generation is dominant. Mosses are now classified on their own as the division Bryophyta, the main commercial significance of mosses is as the main constituent of peat, although they are also used for decorative purposes, such as in gardens and in the florist trade. Traditional uses of mosses included as insulation and for the ability to absorb liquids up to 20 times their weight, botanically, mosses are non-vascular plants in the land plant division Bryophyta. They are small plants that absorb water and nutrients mainly through their leaves and harvest carbon dioxide. They differ from plants in lacking water-bearing xylem tracheids or vessels. As in liverworts and hornworts, the gametophyte generation is the dominant phase of the life cycle. This contrasts with the pattern in all plants, where the diploid sporophyte generation is dominant. Mosses reproduce using spores, not seeds, and have no flowers, Moss gametophytes have stems which may be simple or branched and upright or prostrate. Their leaves are simple, usually only a layer of cells with no internal air spaces. They do not have roots, but have threadlike rhizoids that anchor them to their substrate. Mosses do not absorb water or nutrients from their substrate through their rhizoids and they can be distinguished from liverworts by their multi-cellular rhizoids. Spore-bearing capsules or sporangia of mosses are borne singly on long, unbranched stems, thereby distinguishing them from the polysporangiophytes, the spore-bearing sporophytes are short-lived and dependent on the gametophyte for water supply and nutrition. Also, in most mosses, the capsule enlarges and matures after its stalk elongates
29.
Agroecomyrmex
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Agroecomyrmex is an extinct genus of ants in the formicid subfamily Agroecomyrmecinae, for which it is the type genus. The genus contains a single described species, Agroecomyrmex duisburgi, Agroecomyrmex is known from a group of Middle Eocene fossils which were found in Europe. Baltic amber is approximately forty six years old, having been deposited during Lutetian stage of the Middle Eocene. There is debate on what plant family the amber was produced by, all the type specimens were collected over 125 years ago, and when first described were part of the University of Königsberg amber collection. The fossils were first studied by Austrian entomologist Gustav Mayr who placed the species in the living genus Myrmica, mayrs 1868 type description of the new species was published in the journal Beitrage zur Naturkunde Preussens. The species was moved to the new genus Agroecomyrmex in a note in 1910 by William Morton Wheeler. Wheeler expanded upon and gave a description of the new genus in his 1915 paper The ants of the Baltic amber. In the description Wheeler recognized the very distinct morphology of the species, placement of the group has changed several times, with the genera being placed in the Myrmicinae tribe Agroecomyrmecini from 1930 until 2003. A. duisburgi individuals have heads which are square, being just slightly longer than wide. Individuals have small, very convexly shaped eyes which are placed near the edge of the head capsule. The mandibles are short and rounded, and have 5 unequal teeth, the antennae are composed of thirteen segments, the terminal three forming a distinct club shape. The head and thorax have a strongly reticulated structuring to the exoskeleton, Agroecomyrmex can be separated from Eulithomyrmex based on the features of the head, with Agroecomyrmex displaying larger mandibles and a smaller antennal club. Media related to Agroecomyrmex duisburgi at Wikimedia Commons
30.
William Morton Wheeler
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William Morton Wheeler was an American entomologist, myrmecologist and Harvard professor. William Morton Wheeler was born on March 19,1865 to parents Julius Morton Wheeler and Caroline Georgiana Wheeler in Milwaukee, Wheeler attended public school, but he was transferred to a local German academy due to persistently bad behavior, which was known for its extreme discipline. After he completed his courses in the German academy, he attended a German normal school, in both institutions, Wheeler was trained in a variety of subjects, he was given training in languages, philosophy and science. By this time, he could read fluently in French, German, Greek, Italian, Latin, while he was a student at the German academy, Wheeler would frequently observe the old museum of natural history at the institution. Wheeler, who had familiarized himself with the museum since childhood, volunteered to spend the nights in helping to unpack, impressed by his enthusiasm, Ward offered Wheeler a job in his Rochester, New York establishment. His first duties were to identify and list birds and mammals, in 1885, Wheeler returned to Milwaukee to teach German and physiology at a high school. At the time, George W. Peckham was the principal of the school, in which Wheeler, Wheeler collaborated with some of Peckhams published papers by illustrating the palpi and epigynes of spiders, and by assisting him and his wife with their field work on wasps. Wheeler was also under the influence of professors C. O, Whitman and Dr. William Pattern, who were embryologists at the Allis Lake Laboratory in Milwaukee. He was inspired by Pattern to study insect embryology and did so for several years, during this time, Wheeler left the high school in 1887 and become a custodian at Milwaukee Public Museum, a position he held until 1890. He studied embryology at home and after hours, in which he had set up a small laboratory. He left Milwaukee after leaving the museum to assist Whitman at Clark University, at the same time, Wheeler commenced his work on insects and published around 10 entomological papers, which presented himself as a candidate for the degree of Ph. D. After receiving a call from the University of Chicago, Whitman subsequently accepted their offer and he held this position until 1897, where he became the assistant professor in his chosen field. Before he began his duties at Chicago, Wheeler was given a years absence, there, he first spent time at the Zoological Institute at the University of Wiirzburg as a student, and also at the Naples Zoological Station. Enamoured by the fauna of Naples, Wheeler studied the sex life of Myzostoma and his monograph on Myzostoma was published in 1897 by professor E. Van Beneden in the Archives de Biologie. Wheeler returned to Chicago in 1894 and was a teacher of embryology for five years and he continued to publish more papers, half of which involved insects. Wheeler married his wife Dora Bay Emerson in 1898, where they met each other in Chicago previously. In 1899, he was offered the Professorship In Zoology following the death of professor Norman of the University of Texas, there, he took the opportunity to reorganize the department as professor of zoology. He remained there until 1903, but during period was when Wheeler developed an interest in the behavior
31.
Aphaenogaster mersa
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Aphaenogaster mersa is an extinct species of ant in the subfamily Myrmicinae known from a pair of Middle Eocene fossils found in Europe. A. mersa is one of three species in the ant genus Aphaenogaster to have noted from fossils found in Baltic amber by William Morton Wheeler. Aphaenogaster mersa was examined and described from a type specimen worker which was fossilized as an inclusion in a transparent chunk of Baltic amber. Baltic amber is approximately 46 million years old, having been deposited during the Lutetian stage of the Middle Eocene, there is debate over the plant family which produced the amber, with evidence supporting relatives of either an Agathis or a Pseudolarix. When first described, the worker was part of the University of Königsberg amber collection as specimen number B18509. The fossil was first studied by Wheeler, then a paleoentomologist with Harvard University, wheelers 1915 type description of the new species was published in the journal Schriften der Physikalisch-Okonomischen Gesellschaft zu Königsberg. In his 1915 paper Wheeler noted that alongside A. mersa, a third northern European amber species, A. antiqua, was described in 2009, and the authors of the 2009 paper noted a second confirmed A. mersa specimen which had been identified during their study. While both A. oligocenica and A. sommerfeldti are known from Baltic and Bitterfeld amber, A. mersa has only found in Baltic amber. A. mersa is identifiable from A. sommerfeldti based on the front edge of the mesonotum, which is lower in A. mersa, and on the lower broader teeth present on the epinotum. The exoskeleton of A. mersa shows an overall reticulate patterning that is more rugose than A. sommerfeldti with only the portion of the head capsule bearing possible longitudinal striations. Media related to Aphaenogaster mersa at Wikimedia Commons
32.
Aphaenogaster oligocenica
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Aphaenogaster oligocenica is an extinct species of ant in the subfamily Myrmicinae known from a pair of Middle Eocene fossils found in Europe. A. oligocenica is one of three species in the ant genus Aphaenogaster to have noted from fossils found in Baltic amber by William Morton Wheeler. Both of the ants are fossilized as inclusions in transparent chunks of Baltic amber. Baltic amber is approximately 46 million years old, having been deposited during the Lutetian stage of the Middle Eocene, there is debate over the plant family which produced the amber, with evidence supporting relatives of either an Agathis or a Pseudolarix. When first described, the worker was part of the University of Königsberg amber collection as specimen number B5461. The fossils were first studied by Wheeler, then a paleoentomologist with Harvard University, wheelers 1915 type description of the new species was published in the journal Schriften der Physikalisch-Okonomischen Gesellschaft zu Konigsberg. In his 1915 paper Wheeler noted that alongside A. oligocenica, while both A. oligocenica and A. sommerfeldti are known from Baltic and Bitterfeld amber, A. mersa has only been found in Baltic amber and A. antiqua in Rovno amber. The type worker of A. oligocenica has a body length of 4.5 millimetres, with a large gaster. Overall A. oligocenica can be distinguished from the related Baltic amber species A. sommerfeldti in several ways, a. sommerfeldti individuals have a more sloped and curved mesonotum with the epinotum showing more tooth-like projections on the surface than seen in of A. oligocenica. The head capsule of A. oligocenica has rugose structuring which displays a reticulation on the rear of the capsule, on the thorax and epinotum the striations are well pronounced and placed further apart than those on the head
33.
Aphaenogaster sommerfeldti
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Aphaenogaster sommerfeldti is an extinct species of ant in the subfamily Myrmicinae known from a group of Middle Eocene fossils found in Europe. A. sommerfeldti is one of three species in the ant genus Aphaenogaster to have noted from fossils found in Baltic amber by William Morton Wheeler. When first examined, Aphaenogaster sommerfeldti was described from a pair of type specimen workers which are fossilized as inclusions in transparent chunks of Baltic amber, Baltic amber is approximately forty six million years old, having been deposited during Lutetian stage of the Middle Eocene. There is debate on what plant family the amber was produced by, all the type specimens were collected over 125 years ago, and when first described were part of the University of Königsberg amber collection. The fossils were first studied by Austrian entomologist Gustav Mayr who placed the species in the genus Aphaenogaster, mayrs 1868 type description of the new species was published in the Königsberg journal Beiträge zur Naturkunde Preussens. William Morton Wheeler in his 1915 paper The ants of the Baltic amber noted that the University of Königsberg collections then contained a total of fourteen workers, plus one unnumbered specimen. An additional three were present in the collection of Professor Richard Klebs, who first interested Wheeler on working with Baltic amber ant specimens. Alongside A. sommerfeldti, three other Aphaenogaster species are known from European amber fossil, A. antiqua, A. mersa, and A. oligocenica. While both A. oligocenica and A. sommerfeldti are known from Baltic and Bitterfeld amber, A. mersa has only found in Baltic amber. Overall Aphaenogaster sommerfeldti can be distinguished from the related Baltic amber species A. oligocenica in several ways, a. sommerfeldti individuals have an overall more sloped and curved mesonotum with the epinotum showing more tooth liked projections on the surface then seen in A. oligocenica. A. sommerfeldti shows a similar morphology to the living species A. subterranea from the areas of southern Europe. The two species differ in the more upright spines on the epinotum of A. sommerfeldti, the head capsule of A. sommerfeldti is slimmer with thinner antenna segments and more complex rugosity on the rear of the capsule
34.
Arostropsis
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Arostropsis is an extinct genus of broad-nosed weevil in the beetle family Curculionidae known from an Upper Eocene fossil found in Europe. The genus contains a single described species, Arostropsis groehni, the specimen is composed of a fully complete adult male broad-nosed weevil which has been preserved as an inclusion in a transparent chunk of Baltic amber. Baltic amber dates to between forty and forty-five million years old and the specimen was found in the Prussian Formation. The Arostropsis holotype was recovered from a quarry in Jantarny near the city of Kaliningrad along the Baltic Sea coast in Russia. The fossil was first studied by paleoentomologists Nikolai N. Yunakov and Alexander G. Kirejtshuk, Yunakov and Kirejtshuks 2011 type description of the new genus and species was published in the online journal ZooKeys. The specific epithet groehni was coined in honor of Carsten Gröhn who first collected the holotype specimen, Arostropsis is one of a number of broad-nosed weevils described from specimens in Baltic amber. As of the 2011 Yunakov and Kirejtshuk paper, at least eleven species had been described or suggested by paleoentomologists. The Arostropsis male adult has a coloration which appears to be metallic green. The male has a body which is 6.4 millimetres in length,1.3 millimetres tall. The rostrum is approximately one and a half times as long as it is wide and is noted for being narrower than the rest of the head. Only the left mandible is present and attached to the head and the tip section has a distinct curve. The legs are elongated and with the hosting a row of slender spines. The tip of the tibia, called the corbel, is open, Arostropsis is distinguished from the modern genera of Naupactini that have open corbels by the narrow rostrom and morphology of the antennae
35.
Aspidopleura
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Aspidopleura is an extinct monotypic genus of parasitic wasp in the Eupelmidae subfamily Neanastatinae and at present, it contains the single species Aspidopleura baltica. The genus is known from the Early Eocene Baltic amber deposits in the Baltic Sea region of Europe. Aspidopleura is known from two fossils, the holotype and the paratype. The holotype, number AMNH-JWJ-409, is a female specimen preserved in a nearly flattened amber block 24 by 18 millimetres in size. The paratype, number AMNH-JWJ-410, is also a female specimen. Both amber blocks are currently residing in the American Museum of Natural History paleoentomology collections in New York City, the specimens of Aspidopleura baltica were first studied by Gary A. P. Gibson, with his 2009 type description being published in the journal ZooKeys. The generic name coined by Gary Gibson as a combination of the Greek words aspido meaning shield and pleuro. This is in reference to the shape and overall structure of the acropleuron, the specific epithet baltica was designated as a reference to the origin of the specimens in amber from the Baltic region. Aspidopleura baltica is 4.2 millimetres in length when the ovipositor is included, several areas on each of the females are obscured or missing, with the dorsal view and right side not visible on the holotype, while the paratype has areas of white mold. The forewings are hyaline in coloration with a brown spot covering the area behind the marginal and postmarginal veins. In general Aspidopleura does not closely resemble extant members of the subfamily Neanastatinae and these features are closer in appearance to females of the subfamily Eupelminae. However the sine patterning on the legs of Aspidopleura are much closer to that of extant Neanastatinae
36.
Asymphylomyrmex
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Asymphylomyrmex is an extinct genus of ants in the formicid subfamily Dolichoderinae. The genus contains a single described species, Asymphylomyrmex balticus and is known from a group of Middle Eocene fossils which were found in Europe, baltic amber is approximately forty-six million years old, having been deposited during the Lutetian stage of the Middle Eocene. There is debate as to plant family the amber was produced by. The remaining seven workers were present in the University of Königsberg amber collection, all the specimens showed varying degrees of clouding in the amber or are in less than favorable positions for study. The fossils were first studied by Wheeler, then a paleoentomologist with Harvard University, wheelers 1915 type description of the new species and genus was published in the journal Schriften der Physikalisch-Okonomischen Gesellschaft zu Königsberg. This group of characteristics led to erecting a new genus in Dolichoderinae rather than placing the species into an existing genus, a 2009 study on Central and Eastern European noted that at least one additional specimen of Asymphylomyrmex had been studied, from Rovno amber in Northern Ukraine. It is estimated the workers would have been around 3.0 millimetres long overall, a. balticus individuals have heads which are nearly orbicular, but slightly flattened on the rear portions. The eyes are large, slightly rounded in section. The ocelli are present but spaced far apart, the mandibles are slender, straight near the base then curving inwards towards the tips. The apex and central areas of the mandibles have large teeth present, the mouth is surrounded by both maxillary and labial palpi. The maxillary palpi have four joints, while the labial palpi are only three-jointed, the antennae are composed of twelve segments, the terminal segments flaring slightly forming an indistinct club shape. The head and thorax have a fine punctate structuring to the exoskeleton, the thorax shows a widening at the join between the pronotum and the mesonotum, then slopes towards the epinotum. Media related to Asymphylomyrmex balticus at Wikimedia Commons
37.
Baltimartyria
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Baltimartyria is an extinct genus of primitive metallic moths in the family Micropterigidae. The genus is known from the Early Eocene Baltic amber deposits in the Baltic Sea region of Europe. The genus currently contains two described species, Baltimartyria proavitella and Baltimartyria rasnitsyni, the first known fossil was originally studied and described by Hans Rebel of the Austrian Academy of Sciences in Vienna, Austria. Rebel named the species Micropterix proavitella, thinking it belonged to the modern genus Micropterix, Rebel published his description of the species in 1936. The fossil was reexamined in 1995 by the Polish entomologist Andrzej W. Skalski, the second species of Baltimartyria described from Baltic amber is B. rasnitsyni which, like B. proavitella, is known from a single specimen. The holotype is included in the collections of the Museum für Naturkunde, Berlin. The holotype specimen is a male moth, included in a transparent section of amber with its wings partly spread. Due to the positioning of the body the right antenna and right maxillary palps are not visible, while the top, overall the specimen has a body length of 3 millimetres and has a fore-wing length of 4 millimetres. B. rasnitsyni is distinguishable from B. proavitella by characters of the vein structure. While the R vein branches in B. proavitella all originate separately from the cell, whereas the R4, the species was described and named by Wolfram Mey in a 2011 paper published in the online and print journal ZooKeys. Mey notes that the specimen had been sitting on his desk for a number of years prior to description. The generic placement was not recognized by Mey until Skalskis 1995 redescription of B. proavitella, Mey chose the specific epithet rasnitsyni to honor the eminent Russian paleoentomologist, Alexandr Pavlovich Rasnitsyn
38.
Kirill Eskov
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Kirill Yuryevich Eskov is a Russian writer, biologist and paleontologist. Eskov graduated from the Department of Biology of Moscow State University in 1979, in 1986 he defended a dissertation for the Candidate of Biological Sciences at the A. N. Severtsov Institute of Animal Evolutionary Morphology and Ecology of the USSR Academy of Sciences and his main scientific interests as a biologist are the spiders of Siberia and the Russian Far East and, as a paleontologist, the Paleozoic and Cenozoic eras. As of 2008 he is the Senior Researcher at the Laboratory of Arthropods of the Paleontological Institute of Russian Academy of Sciences and he has worked at the institute since 1988. As of 2002 he had 86 scientific publications, Eskov discovered several new genera of spiders. Among seven discovered by him in 1988 is Kikimora palustris Eskov,1988 It belongs to the Linyphiidae family, is found in Russia and Finland, and the name translates from Latin as marsh Kikimora. Kikimora is a spirit in Slavic mythology and the Russian equivalent of the phrase. He is also the author of the book History of the Earth and its lifeforms, the book was published to acclaim in his homeland in 1999. Translations of the book have appeared in other European nations. In late 2010, however, an English translation approved by Eskov was posted on LiveJournal, among his other books is The Gospel of Afranius, a dramatic portrayal of Jesus. In the novel he attempts to construct a demythologised account of the events of the Gospels, seven new monotypic genera of spiders of the family Linyphiidae from Siberia. Several new linyphiid spider genera from the Russian Far East
39.
Brevivulva
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Brevivulva is an extinct genus of parasitic wasp in the Eupelmidae subfamily Neanastatinae and contains the single species Brevivulva electroma. The genus is known from the Early Eocene Baltic amber deposits in the Baltic Sea region of Europe. The block is currently residing in the American Museum of Natural History paleoentomology collections in New York City, B. electroma was first studied by Gary A. P. Gibson, with his 2009 type description being published in the journal ZooKeys. The generic name combines the Latin words brevis, meaning short, the specific epithet electroma derives from the Latin electrum amber. Brevivulva electroma is 3.25 millimetres in length when the ovipositor is included and is a dark color with a faint metallic green cast to the mesosoma at certain angles. Several areas on the female are obscured, with the mouth, lower half of the face, the forewings are uniformly hyaline in coloration and highly setose along the front edge of the wing margin in the costal cell. Beyond the parastigma the setae grow sparse and the apex is apparently bare. The overall structure of and general appearance is similar to that of living species in the genus Lambdobregma. This includes Brevivulva having a prepectus which is notably an elongate triangular shape, however, a number of features set Brevivulva and Lambdobregma apart. Most distinctly Lambdobregma possesses a hypopygium which extends almost all the way to the tip of the gaster, due to the stiff, exerted shape of the ovipositor sheath, Gibson postulated that Brevivulva electroma was parasitic on woodboring beetles or other hosts with similar habits of concealment
40.
Deinodryinus areolatus
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Deinodryinus areolatus is an extinct species of Deinodryinus in the wasp family Dryinidae. The species is known from an Eocene fossil found in the Baltic region. Deinodryinus areolatus is known only from a fossil, the holotype. 964/60, which is housed in the A. A, borissiak Paleontological Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, in Moscow. The specimen is composed of a complete adult female wasp. The specimen is preserved as an inclusion in a transparent chunk of amber, the amber dates to between forty and forty-five million years old, and, being Baltic amber dispersed in the sea, a more specific type location than the Baltic region is not possible to identify. Ponomarenkos 1975 type description of the new genus and species was published in the Russian journal Paleontologicheskiy Zhurnal, Electrodryinus was subsequently synonymized with Deinodryinus in a 1984 paper by Massimo Olmi, resulting in the current binomial Deinodryinus areolatus. D. areolatus was the first of three Deinodryinus species to be described from the fossil record, Deinodryinus velteni is also known from a fossil preserved in Baltic amber, while Deinodryinus. Aptianus is known only from a Mongolian compression fossil in marl, the holotype specimen is a complete adult female preserved with areas of the face, vertex, pronotum, scutellum and metanotum obscured. Overall the female is 4.5 millimetres in length, with antennae that are less than three times the length of the head and macropterous hyaline wings, the antennae are composed of ten segments, densely hairy, and distinctly clavate, in structure. The mandibles have four teeth on side, which progress from large to small. The tooth size changes in relation to the placement front to back on the mandible, the forewings have three cells at the base that are formed by pigmented veins. The forewings have a pterostigma that is four times as long as it is wide. The forelegs have a structure, with the subapical tooth or other teeth
41.
Deinodryinus velteni
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Deinodryinus velteni is an extinct species of Deinodryinus in the wasp family Dryinidae. The species is solely from an Eocene fossil found in the Baltic region. The specimen is a complete adult female wasp. The specimen is preserved as an inclusion in a transparent chunk of amber, Deinodryinus velteni was first studied by paleoentomologists Adalgisa Guglielmino and Massimo Olmi, both of the University of Tuscia. Guglielmino and Olmis 2011 type description of the new species was published in the online journal ZooKeys, the specific epithet velteni is in honor of Jürgen Velten who loaned the authors specimens that they studied. D. velteni is the most recent of three Deinodryinus species to be described from the record, Deinodryinus areolatus is also known from a fossil preserved in Baltic amber. Aptianus is known only from a Mongolian compression fossil in marl, the holotype specimen is a complete adult female with an overall coloration that is brown to black, except the palpi, which are a dull brick red. The female is 4.0 millimetres in length, with antennae that are three times the length of the head and macropterous forewings. The antennae are composed of ten segments, densely hairy, the forewings have three cells at the base that are formed by pigmented veins. The forewings have a pterostigma which is five times as long as it is wide. Both the fore and hind wings are slightly darkened, rather than the glassy hyaline seen in the other two described fossil species of Deinodryinus
42.
Diochus electrus
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Diochus electrus is an extinct species of rove beetle in genus Diochus, the only definitive fossil species in subfamily Staphylininae. The species is only from the middle Eocene, Lutetian stage Baltic amber found in the Blaue Erde deposits, Baltic region. Diochus electrus is known only one fossil, the holotype, number KU-NHM-ENT. It is a complete adult female preserved as an inclusion in a specimen of clear orange amber. The fossil was recovered from an outcrop of the Blaue Erde deposits which contain the fossil resins in the Baltic region, the type specimen is currently preserved in the Division of Entomology at the University of Kansas Natural History Museum located in Lawrence, Kansas, USA. Diochus electrus was first studied by Stylianos Chatzimanolis of the University of Tennessee at Chattanooga and their 2011 type description for the new species was published online and in print in the journal ZooKeys. The etymology of the specific name electrus is a derivation of the Latin word electrum meaning amber, when Diochus electrus was described, it was the first definitive species of the rove beetle subfamily Staphylininae to be described from the fossil record. The Baltic amber species Bembicidiodes inaequicollis, described by L. W. Schaufuss in 1888, was considered part of Staphylininae. However reevaluation of the species in 2001 by L. H. Herman raised doubts about the correct placement for B. inaequicollis. Diochus electrus is one of eleven species of the genus Diochus inhabiting the Palearctic ecozone, the Diochus electrus type specimen is a well preserved fully complete female with a total body length of 3.5 millimetres. The 0.56 by 0.48 millimetres head is ovoid in shape and has fine sculpturing with sporadic punctations, the antenna do not have a geniculate structure, which indicates placement of the species into the tribe Diochini. Though similar to the genus Coomania, the neck of D. electrus is more robust, the elytra of D. electrus are 0.75 millimetres in length and have a width of 0.67 millimetres. They are longer than the 0.64 millimetres pronotum, the other ten palearctic species of Diochus possess pronotum which are longer than the elytra, distinguishing D. electrus as a species
. PMID 19570786.
