1.
Domingos Sequeira
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Domingos António de Sequeira was a famous Portuguese painter at the Royal Court of King John VI of Portugal. He was born in Belém, Lisbon, into a modest family and he later changed his family name from Espírito Santo to the more aristocratic Sequeira. He studied art first at the academy of Lisbon, before moving to Rome, by the age of thirteen, he had evinced such marked talent that F. de Setubal employed him as an assistant in his work for the João Ferreiras Palace. Sequeira resided in Rome from 1788 to 1794, when he was honorary member of the Academy of St Luke. In 1802, he was appointed first court painter and, in role, executed many works for the prince regent, for Dona Maria Teresa. He designed the silver service which was presented by the Portuguese nation to Wellington. In 1823, he visited Paris where he is known to have tried his skill in lithography, in 1825, he painted the Death of Camões, which was considered by many to be the first proto-romantic or romantic Portuguese painting. The last years of his life he spent in Rome, devoting himself chiefly to devotional subjects and he saw a Turner exposition in the late 1820s, that served as inspiration for some of his best paintings, like the Adoração dos Magos. Among his best-known pictures are the Miracle of Ourique, Prince John Reviewing the Troops at Azumbuja, numerous paintings by Sequeira are held at the Mafra National Palace, the Ajuda National Palace, and in the principal palaces and churches of Lisbon. The Museu Nacional de Arte Antiga, in Lisbon, has one of the best collections of his paintings, palácio Nacional da Ajuda José-Augusto França, A Arte em Portugal no Século XIX, Lisboa, Bertrand Editora,1991, volume 1
2.
Lisbon
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Lisbon is the capital and the largest city of Portugal, with a population of 552,700 within its administrative limits in an area of 100.05 km². Its urban area extends beyond the administrative limits with a population of around 2.7 million people. About 2.8 million people live in the Lisbon Metropolitan Area and it is continental Europes westernmost capital city and the only one along the Atlantic coast. Lisbon lies in the western Iberian Peninsula on the Atlantic Ocean, the westernmost areas of its metro area is the westernmost point of Continental Europe. Lisbon is recognised as a city because of its importance in finance, commerce, media, entertainment, arts, international trade, education. It is one of the economic centres on the continent, with a growing financial sector. Humberto Delgado Airport serves over 20 million passengers annually, as of 2015, and the motorway network, the city is the 7th-most-visited city in Southern Europe, after Istanbul, Rome, Barcelona, Madrid, Athens and Milan, with 1,740,000 tourists in 2009. The Lisbon region contributes with a higher GDP PPP per capita than any region in Portugal. Its GDP amounts to 96.3 billion USD and thus $32,434 per capita, the city occupies 32nd place of highest gross earnings in the world. Most of the headquarters of multinationals in the country are located in the Lisbon area and it is also the political centre of the country, as its seat of Government and residence of the Head of State. Lisbon is one of the oldest cities in the world, julius Caesar made it a municipium called Felicitas Julia, adding to the name Olissipo. Ruled by a series of Germanic tribes from the 5th century, in 1147, the Crusaders under Afonso Henriques reconquered the city and since then it has been a major political, economic and cultural centre of Portugal. Unlike most capital cities, Lisbons status as the capital of Portugal has never been granted or confirmed officially – by statute or in written form. Its position as the capital has formed through constitutional convention, making its position as de facto capital a part of the Constitution of Portugal. It has one of the warmest winters of any metropolis in Europe, the typical summer season lasts about four months, from June to September, although also in April temperatures sometimes reach around 25 °C. Although modern archaeological excavations show a Phoenician presence at this location since 1200 BC, another conjecture based on ancient hydronymy suggests that the name of the settlement derived from the pre-Roman appellation for the Tagus, Lisso or Lucio. Lisbons name was written Ulyssippo in Latin by the geographer Pomponius Mela and it was later referred to as Olisippo by Pliny the Elder and by the Greeks as Olissipo or Olissipona. The Indo-European Celts invaded in the 1st millennium BC, mixing with the Pre-Indo-European population and this indigenous settlement maintained commercial relations with the Phoenicians, which would account for the recent findings of Phoenician pottery and other material objects
3.
Carlos Costa (banker)
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Carlos da Silva Costa is a Portuguese economist and the current governor of the Bank of Portugal since June 7,2010. Carlos Costa started his career in 1973 as a lecturer in economics at the University of Porto, following his graduation he continued his studies at Sorbonne and then in 1981 went to the former Banco Português do Atlântico, now Banco Comercial Português, research department. In 2006 Costa became vice president of the European Investment Bank under the leadership of president Philippe Maystadt and he was responsible for the banks funding financing operations in Spain, Portugal, Belgium and Luxembourg, as well as in Asia and South America. He was also a member of the Committee of European Securities Regulators, on 22 April 2010 Costa was nominated for a five-year-term by the Portuguese government, recommended by the Finance minister Teixeira dos Santos. He replaced Vítor Constâncio, who became president of the European Central Bank on June 1,2010. The Left Bloc and the Portuguese Communist Party openly called for Costa to resign, the attacks triggered a political storm over what the centre-right opposition described as a “shameful” attempt to interfere in the regulator’s independence. Bank of Portugal official website Biography on Banco de Portugal official website
4.
Portugal
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Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic, is a country on the Iberian Peninsula in Southwestern Europe. It is the westernmost country of mainland Europe, to the west and south it is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean and to the east and north by Spain. The Portugal–Spain border is 1,214 kilometres long and considered the longest uninterrupted border within the European Union, the republic also includes the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira, both autonomous regions with their own regional governments. The territory of modern Portugal has been settled, invaded. The Pre-Celts, Celts, Carthaginians and the Romans were followed by the invasions of the Visigothic, in 711 the Iberian Peninsula was invaded by the Moors, making Portugal part of Muslim Al Andalus. Portugal was born as result of the Christian Reconquista, and in 1139, Afonso Henriques was proclaimed King of Portugal, in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal established the first global empire, becoming one of the worlds major economic, political and military powers. Portugal monopolized the trade during this time, and the Portuguese Empire expanded with military campaigns led in Asia. After the 1910 revolution deposed the monarchy, the democratic but unstable Portuguese First Republic was established, democracy was restored after the Portuguese Colonial War and the Carnation Revolution in 1974. Shortly after, independence was granted to almost all its overseas territories, Portugal has left a profound cultural and architectural influence across the globe and a legacy of over 250 million Portuguese speakers today. Portugal is a country with a high-income advanced economy and a high living standard. It is the 5th most peaceful country in the world, maintaining a unitary semi-presidential republican form of government and it has the 18th highest Social Progress in the world, putting it ahead of other Western European countries like France, Spain and Italy. Portugal is a pioneer when it comes to drug decriminalization, as the nation decriminalized the possession of all drugs for use in 2001. The early history of Portugal is shared with the rest of the Iberian Peninsula located in South Western Europe, the name of Portugal derives from the joined Romano-Celtic name Portus Cale. Other influences include some 5th-century vestiges of Alan settlements, which were found in Alenquer, Coimbra, the region of present-day Portugal was inhabited by Neanderthals and then by Homo sapiens, who roamed the border-less region of the northern Iberian peninsula. These were subsistence societies that, although they did not establish prosperous settlements, neolithic Portugal experimented with domestication of herding animals, the raising of some cereal crops and fluvial or marine fishing. Chief among these tribes were the Calaicians or Gallaeci of Northern Portugal, the Lusitanians of central Portugal, the Celtici of Alentejo, a few small, semi-permanent, commercial coastal settlements were also founded in the Algarve region by Phoenicians-Carthaginians. Romans first invaded the Iberian Peninsula in 219 BC, during the last days of Julius Caesar, almost the entire peninsula had been annexed to the Roman Republic. The Carthaginians, Romes adversary in the Punic Wars, were expelled from their coastal colonies and it suffered a severe setback in 150 BC, when a rebellion began in the north
5.
European Central Bank
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The European Central Bank is the central bank for the euro and administers monetary policy of the eurozone, which consists of 19 EU member states and is one of the largest currency areas in the world. It is one of the worlds most important central banks and is one of the seven institutions of the European Union listed in the Treaty on European Union, the capital stock of the bank is owned by the central banks of all 28 EU member states. The Treaty of Amsterdam established the bank in 1998, and it is headquartered in Frankfurt, Germany. As of 2015 the President of the ECB is Mario Draghi, former governor of the Bank of Italy, former member of the World Bank, the bank primarily occupied the Eurotower prior to, and during, the construction of the new headquarters. The primary objective of the ECB, mandated in Article 2 of the Statute of the ECB, is to price stability within the Eurozone. The ECB has, under Article 16 of its Statute, the right to authorise the issuance of euro banknotes. Member states can issue euro coins, but the amount must be authorised by the ECB beforehand, the ECB is governed by European law directly, but its set-up resembles that of a corporation in the sense that the ECB has shareholders and stock capital. Its capital is €11 billion held by the central banks of the member states as shareholders. The initial capital allocation key was determined in 1998 on the basis of the population and GDP. Shares in the ECB are not transferable and cannot be used as collateral, the European Central Bank is the de facto successor of the European Monetary Institute. The EMI itself took over from the earlier European Monetary Co-operation Fund, the bank was the final institution needed for EMU, as outlined by the EMU reports of Pierre Werner and President Jacques Delors. It was established on 1 June 1998, the first President of the Bank was Wim Duisenberg, the former president of the Dutch central bank and the European Monetary Institute. The French argued that since the ECB was to be located in Germany and this was opposed by the German, Dutch and Belgian governments who saw Duisenberg as a guarantor of a strong euro. Tensions were abated by an agreement in which Duisenberg would stand down before the end of his mandate. Trichet replaced Duisenberg as President in November 2003, there had also been tension over the ECBs Executive Board, with the United Kingdom demanding a seat even though it had not joined the Single Currency. Under pressure from France, three seats were assigned to the largest members, France, Germany, and Italy, Spain also demanded and obtained a seat. Despite such a system of appointment the board asserted its independence early on in resisting calls for interest rates, when the ECB was created, it covered a Eurozone of eleven members. On 1 December 2009, the Treaty of Lisbon entered into force, ECB according to the article 13 of TEU, on 1 November 2011, Mario Draghi replaced Jean-Claude Trichet as President of the ECB
6.
English language
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English /ˈɪŋɡlɪʃ/ is a West Germanic language that was first spoken in early medieval England and is now the global lingua franca. Named after the Angles, one of the Germanic tribes that migrated to England, English is either the official language or one of the official languages in almost 60 sovereign states. It is the third most common language in the world, after Mandarin. It is the most widely learned second language and a language of the United Nations, of the European Union. It is the most widely spoken Germanic language, accounting for at least 70% of speakers of this Indo-European branch, English has developed over the course of more than 1,400 years. The earliest forms of English, a set of Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers in the century, are called Old English. Middle English began in the late 11th century with the Norman conquest of England, Early Modern English began in the late 15th century with the introduction of the printing press to London and the King James Bible, and the start of the Great Vowel Shift. Through the worldwide influence of the British Empire, modern English spread around the world from the 17th to mid-20th centuries, English is an Indo-European language, and belongs to the West Germanic group of the Germanic languages. Most closely related to English are the Frisian languages, and English, Old Saxon and its descendent Low German languages are also closely related, and sometimes Low German, English, and Frisian are grouped together as the Ingvaeonic or North Sea Germanic languages. Modern English descends from Middle English, which in turn descends from Old English, particular dialects of Old and Middle English also developed into a number of other English languages, including Scots and the extinct Fingallian and Forth and Bargy dialects of Ireland. English is classified as a Germanic language because it shares new language features with other Germanic languages such as Dutch, German and these shared innovations show that the languages have descended from a single common ancestor, which linguists call Proto-Germanic. Through Grimms law, the word for foot begins with /f/ in Germanic languages, English is classified as an Anglo-Frisian language because Frisian and English share other features, such as the palatalisation of consonants that were velar consonants in Proto-Germanic. The earliest form of English is called Old English or Anglo-Saxon, in the fifth century, the Anglo-Saxons settled Britain and the Romans withdrew from Britain. England and English are named after the Angles, Old English was divided into four dialects, the Anglian dialects, Mercian and Northumbrian, and the Saxon dialects, Kentish and West Saxon. Through the educational reforms of King Alfred in the century and the influence of the kingdom of Wessex. The epic poem Beowulf is written in West Saxon, and the earliest English poem, Modern English developed mainly from Mercian, but the Scots language developed from Northumbrian. A few short inscriptions from the period of Old English were written using a runic script. By the sixth century, a Latin alphabet was adopted, written with half-uncial letterforms and it included the runic letters wynn ⟨ƿ⟩ and thorn ⟨þ⟩, and the modified Latin letters eth ⟨ð⟩, and ash ⟨æ⟩
7.
Central bank
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A central bank, reserve bank, or monetary authority is an institution that manages a states currency, money supply, and interest rates. Central banks also usually oversee the commercial banking system of their respective countries, Central banks in most developed nations are institutionally designed to be independent from political interference. Still, limited control by the executive and legislative bodies usually exists, prior to the 17th century most money was commodity money, typically gold or silver. However, promises to pay were widely circulated and accepted as value at least five hundred years earlier in both Europe and Asia. The Song dynasty was the first to issue generally circulating paper currency, in 1455, in an effort to control inflation, the succeeding Ming Dynasty ended the use of paper money and closed much of Chinese trade. The Bank of Amsterdam, established in the Dutch Republic in 1609, is considered to be the forerunner to modern central banks. The Wisselbanks innovations helped lay the foundations for the birth and development of the banking system that now plays a vital role in the worlds economy. Along with a number of local banks, it performed many functions of a central banking system. Lucien Gillard calls it the European guilder, and Adam Smith devotes many pages to explaining how the bank guilder works, the model of the Wisselbank as a state bank was adapted throughout Europe, including the Bank of Sweden and the Bank of England. Established by Dutch-Latvian Johan Palmstruch in 1668, Sveriges Riksbank is often considered by many as the worlds oldest central bank, the lenders would give the government cash and also issue notes against the government bonds, which could be lent again. A Royal Charter was granted on 27 July through the passage of the Tonnage Act 1694, the bank was given exclusive possession of the governments balances, and was the only limited-liability corporation allowed to issue banknotes. The £1. 2M was raised in 12 days, half of this was used to rebuild the Navy and these modern central banking functions evolved slowly through the 18th and 19th centuries. The currency crisis of 1797, caused by panicked depositors withdrawing from the Bank led to the government suspending convertibility of notes into specie payment. The bank was accused by the bullionists of causing the exchange rate to fall from over issuing banknotes. Nevertheless, it was clear that the Bank was being treated as an organ of the state, henry Thornton, a merchant banker and monetary theorist has been described as the father of the modern central bank. An opponent of the real bills doctrine, he was a defender of the bullionist position, thorntons process of monetary expansion anticipated the theories of Knut Wicksell regarding the cumulative process which restates the Quantity Theory in a theoretically coherent form. Until the mid-nineteenth century, commercial banks were able to issue their own banknotes, many consider the origins of the central bank to lie with the passage of the Bank Charter Act of 1844. Under this law, authorisation to issue new banknotes was restricted to the Bank of England, at the same time, the Bank of England was restricted to issue new banknotes only if they were 100% backed by gold or up to £14 million in government debt
8.
Portuguese real
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The real was the unit of currency of Portugal from around 1430 until 1911. It replaced the dinheiro at the rate of 1 real =840 dinheiros and was replaced by the escudo at a rate of 1 escudo =1000 réis. The escudo was replaced by the euro at a rate of 1 euro =200.482 escudos in 2002. The first real was introduced by Ferdinand I around 1380 and it was a silver coin and had a value of 120 dinheiros. In the reign of King João I, the real branco of 3½ libras, by the beginning of the reign of King Duarte I in 1433, the real branco had become the unit of account in Portugal. From the reign of Manuel I, the name was simplified to real, in 1837, a decimal system was adopted for the coin denominations, with the first banknotes issued by the Banco de Portugal in 1847. In 1854, Portugal adopted a standard of 1000 réis =1.62585 grams fine gold. This standard was maintained until 1891, large sums were usually expressed as mil-réis or 1,000 réis, a term often found in 19th-century Portuguese literature. In figures a mil-réis was written as 1$000, so that 60,000 réis would be written as 60$000 or 60 mil-réis. )In 1911, one million réis was known as a conto de réis. This term survived the introduction of the escudo to mean 1000 escudos and is now used to mean five euros, Coins and banknotes were also issued denominated in réis for use in the different parts of the Portuguese empire. See, Angolan real, Azorean real, Brazilian real, Cape Verde real, Mozambican real, Portuguese Guinea real and São Tomé, brazil has revived the real as the denomination of its present currency. Before the middle of the 19th century, many different denominations were minted, for example, the cruzado was introduced at a value of 324 real branco in the reign of João II. It was fixed at a value of 400 réis during João IIIs reign and this remained the value of the silver cruzado until the reign of Pedro II, when it was revalued to 480 réis. Meanwhile, the gold rose in value to 750 réis in the reign of João IV. Two denominations which did not change their values were the vintém of 20 réis, the last 1 real coins were minted in the 1580s. After this time, the smallest coins were worth 1½ réis and these were minted until around 1750, after which the three réis coin became the smallest circulating denomination. From the early 18th century, the gold coin was the peça. Some of these coins showed denominations which were no longer due to earlier revaluations
9.
Portuguese escudo
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The escudo was the currency of Portugal prior to the introduction of the euro on 1 January 1999 and its removal from circulation on 28 February 2002. The escudo was subdivided into 100 centavos, amounts in escudos were written as escudos $ centavos with the cifrão as the decimal separator. Because of the rate of 1000 réis = $1, three decimal places were initially used. Escudo gold coinage was introduced in 1722 with denominations including 1⁄2 escudo,2,4, and 8 escudos. The escudo was introduced on 22 May 1911, after the 1910 Republican revolution. The term mil réis remained a colloquial synonym of escudo up to the 1990s, one million réis was called one conto de réis, or simply one conto. This expression passed on to the escudo, meaning 1, 000$, the escudos value was initially set at 675$00 =1 kg of gold. After 1914, the value of the fell, being fixed in 1928 at 108$25 to the Pound Sterling. This was altered to 110$00 to the Pound Sterling in 1931, a new rate of 27$50 escudos to the U. S. dollar was established in 1940, changing to 25$00 in 1940 and 28$75 in 1949. During World War II, escudos were heavily sought after by Nazi Germany, through Swiss banks, as currency to make purchases to Portugal. Inflation throughout the 20th century made centavos essentially worthless by its end, with the entry of Portugal in the Eurozone, the conversion rate to the euro was set at 200$482 to €1. The escudo was used in the Portuguese mainland, the Azores and Madeira, for more details, see the escudos of Angola, Cape Verde, Mozambique, Portuguese Guinea and São Tomé and Príncipe. Only Cape Verde continues to use the escudo, in Macau, the currency during the colonial period was, as it is today, the pataca. Timor-Leste adopted the escudo whilst still a Portuguese colony, having used the pataca. Portuguese India adopted the escudo before it was annexed by India, the gold escudo mintage period for each denomination was different, 1⁄2 escudo through 1821,2 escudos through 1789, and 4 escudos through 1799. The 8 escudo coin was struck between 1722–30. Between 1912 and 1916, silver 10,20 and 50 centavos, bronze 1 and 2 centavos and cupro-nickel 4 centavos were issued between 1917 and 1922. In 1920, bronze 5 centavos and cupro-nickel 10 and 20 centavos were introduced, followed, in 1924, by bronze 10 and 20 centavos, aluminium bronze was replaced with cupro-nickel in 1927
10.
European System of Central Banks
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The European System of Central Banks consists of the European Central Bank and the national central banks of all 28 member states of the European Union. The ESCB is not the authority of the eurozone, because not all EU member states have joined the euro. That role is performed by the Eurosystem, which includes the central banks of the 19 member states that have adopted the euro. The ESCBs objective is price stability throughout the European Union, secondarily, the ESCBs goal is to improve monetary and financial cooperation between the Eurosystem and member states outside the eurozone. The process of decision-making in the Eurosystem is centralized through the bodies of the ECB, namely the Governing Council. As long as there are EU member states which have not adopted the euro, a third decision-making body, the General Council comprises the President and the Vice-President and the governors of the NCBs of all 28 Member States. The ESCB is composed of the European Central Bank and the central banks of all 28 member states of the European Union. The first section of the following list lists member states and their central banks that form the Eurosystem, the second section lists member states and their central banks that maintain separate currencies. European Central Bank ECB – The General Council Organisation and operation of the ECB CVCE
11.
Economy of Portugal
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Portugal ranked 38th in the WEFs Global Competitiveness Report for 2015-2016. Portugals ranking continuously fell from 2005 to 2013, but recovered from the 51st position in 2013 to the 36th in 2014, Portugal has the highest emigration rate as a proportion of population in the European Union. More than two million Portuguese people now live outside the country, historically portugal would rank as the nation with the highest unemployment rate in both Europe and EU given their large emigration rates as labor outflows contribute to the weight of unemployment. Other regional groups that are significant trade partners of Portugal are the NAFTA, the PALOP, the Maghreb, the Portuguese currency is the euro and the country has been a part of the Eurozone since its inception. The Portuguese Economy has been steady, expanding continuously since the quarter of 2014. The economy growth has been accompanied by a fall in the unemployment rate. The Government budget deficit has also reduced from the 11. 2% of GDP in 2010 to 4. 8% in 2014. The Portuguese educational system has been in gradual modernization and relative expansion since the 1960s, achieving recognition for its world-standard practices, the country, with a transcontinental empire with plenty of natural resources and vast unexploited areas, was among the most powerful nations in the world. After a short period of economic divergence before 1914, the Portuguese economy recovered slightly until 1950, Portuguese economic growth in the period 1960–1973 created an opportunity for real integration with the developed economies of Western Europe. Through emigration, trade, tourism and foreign investment, individuals and firms changed their patterns of production and consumption, simultaneously, the increasing complexity of a growing economy raised new technical and organizational challenges, stimulating the formation of modern professional and management teams. The economy of Portugal and its overseas territories on the eve of the Carnation Revolution was growing well above the European average, the Estado Novo regime economic policy encouraged and created conditions for the formation of large business conglomerates. These Portuguese conglomerates had a model with similarities to South Korean chaebols. Among the seven magnificent were the conglomerates founded and held by the families Champalimaud, Mello, Amorim, the CUF group was the largest and most diversified of the Portuguese conglomerates. At one point, it became the largest industrial group in the Iberian Peninsula, besides that, the overseas territories were also displaying impressive economic growth and development rates from the 1920s onwards. Labour unions were not allowed and a minimum wage policy was not enforced, marcelo Caetano moved on to foster economic growth and some social improvements, such as the awarding of a monthly pension to rural workers who had never had the chance to pay social security. Heavy industry came to an abrupt halt, all sectors of the economy from manufacturing, mining, chemical, defence, finance, agriculture and fishing went into free fall. Portugal found itself overnight going from the country in Western Europe with the highest growth rate to the lowest – in fact it experienced several years of negative growth, after the Carnation Revolutions turmoil of 1974, the Portuguese economic basis changed deeply. The Portuguese economy had changed significantly by 1973 prior to the leftist military coup, in 1975, the year of maximum revolutionary turmoil, Portugals per capita GDP declined to 52.3 percent of the EC-12 average
12.
Euro
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Outside of Europe, a number of overseas territories of EU members also use the euro as their currency. Additionally,210 million people worldwide as of 2013 use currencies pegged to the euro, the euro is the second largest reserve currency as well as the second most traded currency in the world after the United States dollar. The name euro was adopted on 16 December 1995 in Madrid. The euro was introduced to world markets as an accounting currency on 1 January 1999. While the euro dropped subsequently to US$0.8252 within two years, it has traded above the U. S. dollar since the end of 2002, peaking at US$1.6038 on 18 July 2008. In July 2012, the euro fell below US$1.21 for the first time in two years, following concerns raised over Greek debt and Spains troubled banking sector, as of 26 March 2017, the euro–dollar exchange rate stands at ~ US$1.07. The euro is managed and administered by the Frankfurt-based European Central Bank, as an independent central bank, the ECB has sole authority to set monetary policy. The Eurosystem participates in the printing, minting and distribution of notes and coins in all states. The 1992 Maastricht Treaty obliges most EU member states to adopt the euro upon meeting certain monetary and budgetary convergence criteria, all nations that have joined the EU since 1993 have pledged to adopt the euro in due course. Since 5 January 2002, the central banks and the ECB have issued euro banknotes on a joint basis. Euro banknotes do not show which central bank issued them, Eurosystem NCBs are required to accept euro banknotes put into circulation by other Eurosystem members and these banknotes are not repatriated. The ECB issues 8% of the value of banknotes issued by the Eurosystem. In practice, the ECBs banknotes are put into circulation by the NCBs and these liabilities carry interest at the main refinancing rate of the ECB. The euro is divided into 100 cents, in Community legislative acts the plural forms of euro and cent are spelled without the s, notwithstanding normal English usage. Otherwise, normal English plurals are used, with many local variations such as centime in France. All circulating coins have a side showing the denomination or value. Due to the plurality in the European Union, the Latin alphabet version of euro is used. For the denominations except the 1-, 2- and 5-cent coins, beginning in 2007 or 2008 the old map is being replaced by a map of Europe also showing countries outside the Union like Norway
13.
History of Portugal
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The history of Portugal dates back to the Early Middle Ages. The country was weakened by the destruction of much of its capital city in an earthquake in 1755, occupation during the Napoleonic Wars. From the middle of the 19th century to the late 1950s, in 1910, there was a revolution that deposed the monarchy. Amid corruption, repression of the church, and the bankruptcy of the state. The new government instituted sweeping reforms and granted independence to all of Portugals African colonies in 1975. Portugal is a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. It entered the European Economic Community in 1986, the word Portugal derives from the Roman-Celtic place name Portus Cale. Around 200 BC, the Romans took the Iberian Peninsula from the Carthaginians during the Second Punic War, during the Dark Ages, the region around Portus Cale became known by the Suebi and Visigoths as Portucale. By the 11th and 12th centuries, Portugale was already referred to as Portugal, the precise etymology of the name Cale is somewhat mysterious, although the most plausible origin points to Cale being a Celtic name, like many others found in the region. Indeed the word cale or cala meant port, an inlet or harbour, furthermore todays Gaelic word for harbour is indeed Cala. Some argue it is the stem of Gallaecia, again of Celtic derivation, another theory claims it derives from the word Caladunum. In any case, the particle Portu in the word Portucale was used as the basis of Porto, and port became the English name of the wine actually produced further inland, in the Upper Douro Valley region, but exported through Porto. The name Cale is today reflected in Gaia, a city on the bank of the river. The region of present-day Portugal was inhabited by Neanderthals, and then by Homo sapiens, Neanderthals probably arrived 100,000 years BP. A Neanderthal tooth found at Nova da Columbiera cave in Estremadura is one of the oldest human fossils so far discovered, Homo sapiens sapiens arrived in Portugal in around 35,000 years ago and spread rapidly throughout the country. Pre-Celtic tribes inhabited Portugal leaving a remarkable cultural footprint, the Cynetes developed a written language, leaving many stelae, which are mainly found in the south of Portugal. Early in the first millennium BC, several waves of Celts invaded Portugal from Central Europe and intermarried with the populations to form several different ethnic groups. The Celtic presence in Portugal is traceable, in outline, through archaeological
14.
Hispania
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Hispania was the Roman name for the Iberian Peninsula. Under the Republic, Hispania was divided into two provinces, Hispania Citerior and Hispania Ulterior, during the Principate, Hispania Ulterior was divided into two new provinces, Baetica and Lusitania, while Hispania Citerior was renamed Tarraconensis. Subsequently, the part of Tarraconensis was split off, first as Hispania Nova. The name, Hispania, was used in the period of Visigothic rule. The modern placenames Spain and Hispaniola are both derived from Hispania, one theory holds it to be of Punic derivation, from the Phoenician language of colonizing Carthage. Specifically, it may derive from a Punic cognate of Hebrew אי-שפניא meaning Island of the Hyrax or island of the hare or island of the rabbit. Others derive the word from Phoenician span, in the sense of hidden, and make it indicate a hidden, that is, Isidore of Sevilla considered Hispania derived from Hispalis. Occasionally Hispania was called Hesperia Ultima, the last western land in Greek, by Roman writers, another theory holds that the name derives from Ezpanna, the Basque word for border or edge, thus meaning the farthest area or place. The use of Latin Hispania, Castilian España, Catalan Espanya and French Espaigne, a document dated 1292 mentions the names of foreigners from Medieval Spain as Gracien dEspaigne. You are, Oh Spain, holy and always happy mother of princes and peoples and you, by right, are now the queen of all provinces, from whom the lights are given not only the sunset, but also the East. Navarre followed soon after in 1512, and Portugal in 1580, during this time, the concept of Spain was still unchanged. The King of Portugal would protest energetically when during a public act King Fernando talked about the Crown of Spain and it was after the independence of Portugal in 1640 when the concept of Spain started to shift and be applied to all the Peninsula except Portugal. Even so, Portugal would still complain when the terms Crown of Spain or Monarchy of Spain were still used in the 18th century with the Treaty of Utrecht. The Iberian peninsula has long inhabited, first by early hominids such as Homo erectus, Homo heidelbergensis. In the Paleolithic period, the Neanderthals entered Iberia and eventually took refuge from the migrations of modern humans. In the 40th millennium BC, during the Upper Paleolithic and the last ice age and these were nomadic hunter-gatherers originating on the steppes of Central Asia. When the last Ice Age reached its maximum extent, during the 30th millennium BC, in the millennia that followed, the Neanderthals became extinct and local modern human cultures thrived, producing pre-historic art such as that found in LArbreda Cave and in the Côa Valley. In the Mesolithic period, beginning in the 10th millennium BC and this was an interstadial deglaciation that lessened the harsh conditions of the Ice Age
15.
Lusitania
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Lusitania or Hispania Lusitana was an ancient Iberian Roman province including approximately all of modern Portugal south of the Douro river and part of modern Spain. It was named after the Lusitani or Lusitanian people and its capital was Emerita Augusta, and it was initially part of the Roman Republic province of Hispania Ulterior, before becoming a province of its own in the Roman Empire. Romans first came to the territory around the mid 2nd century BC, a war with Lusitanian tribes followed, from 155 to 139 BC. In 27 BC, the province was created, the etymology of the name of the Lusitani remains unclear. Luís de Camões epic Os Lusíadas, which portrays Lusus as the founder of Lusitania, extends these ideas, in his work, Geography, the classical geographer Strabo suggests a change had occurred in the use of the name Lusitanian. He mentions a group who had once been called Lusitanians living north of the Douro river but were called in his day Callacans. The Lusitani, who were Indo-European speakers, established themselves in the region in the 6th century BC, some modern authors consider them to be an indigenous people who were Celticized culturally and possibly also through intermarriage. The archeologist Scarlat Lambrino defended the position that the Lusitanians were a group of Celtic origin related to the Lusones. Some have claimed that both came from the Swiss mountains. Others argue that the points to the Lusitanians being a native Iberian tribe. In 179 BC, the praetor Lucius Postumius Albinus celebrated a triumph over the Lusitani, but in 155 BC, on the command of Punicus first and Cesarus after, here they were defeated by the praetor Lucius Mummius. From 152 BC onwards, the Roman Republic had difficulties in recruiting soldiers for the wars in Hispania, in 150 BC, Servius Sulpicius Galba organised a false armistice. Two years after, in 137 BC Decimus Junius Brutus Callaicus led a campaign against the Lusitani. Its northern border was along the Douro river, while on its side its border passed through Salmantica. Felicitas Iulia Olisipo was a Roman law municipality) and 3 other towns had the old Latin status (Ebora, the other 37 were of stipendiarii class, among which Aeminium, Balsa, or Mirobriga. Other cities include Ossonoba, Cetobriga, Collippo or Arabriga, under Diocletian, Lusitania kept its borders and was ruled by a praeses, later by a consularis, finally, in 298 AD, it was united with the other provinces to form the Diocesis Hispaniarum. In the second book in the science fiction novels comprising the Enders Game series, titled Speaker for the Dead and it is explained in the book that it was named for the historical people and territory in Portugal, which the inhabitants are descended from
16.
Lusitanians
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Classical sources mention Lusitanian leader Viriathus as the leader of the Celtiberians, in their war against the Romans. The Greco-Roman historian Diodorus Siculus attributed them a name of a Germanic tribe, the Lusitanians were also called Belitanians, according to the diviner Artemidorus. Strabo differentiated the Lusitanians from the Iberian tribes, pliny the Elder and Pomponius Mela distinguished the Lusitanians from neighboring Celtic groups in their geographical writings. After this, Lusitanias northern border was along the Douro River, while its eastern border passed through Salmantica, categorising Lusitanian culture generally, including the language, is proving difficult. The Lusitanians worshiped various gods in a very diverse polytheism, using animal sacrifice and they represented their gods and warriors in rudimentary sculpture. The goddess Ataegina was especially popular in the south, as the goddess of rebirth, fertility, nature, Lusitanian mythology was heavily influenced or related to Celtic mythology. Also well attested in inscriptions are the names Bandua, often with a name linked to a locality such as Bandua Aetobrico. The Lusitanian language was a language that clearly belongs to the Indo-European family. A second theory relates Lusitanian with the Italic languages, based on a relation of the name of Lusitanian deities with other elements of the area. They were a confederation, not a single political entity, each tribe had its own territory and was independent. However, they had a sense of unity and a common name for the tribes. Each tribe was ruled by its own tribal aristocracy and chief, many members of the Lusitanian tribal aristocracy were warriors as happened in many other pre-Roman peoples of the Iron Age. Kaukainos was another important Lusitanian chief before the Roman conquest and he ruled the Lusitanians for some time, leading the tribes in the resistance against Carthaginian attempts of conquest, and was successful. The name Turduli Veteres, a tribe that dwelt in todays Aveiro District, seems to indicate they came from the north, more Lusitanian tribes are likely, but their names are unknown. The Lusitanians were considered by historians to be adept at guerrilla warfare. The strongest amongst them were selected to defend the populace in mountainous sites and they used hooked saunions made of iron, and wielded swords and helmets like those of the Celtiberians. They threw their darts from some distance, yet often hit their marks, being active and nimble warriors, they would pursue their enemies and decapitate them. In times of peace, they had a style of dancing
17.
Suebi
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The Suebi was a large group of related Germanic peoples who lived in Germania in the time of the Roman Empire. They were first mentioned by Julius Caesar in connection with his battles against Ariovistus in Gaul and they actually occupy more than half of Germania, and are divided into a number of distinct tribes under distinct names, though all generally are called Suebi. At one time, classical ethnography had applied the name Suevi to so many Germanic tribes that it appeared as if, in the first centuries AD, classical authors noted that the Suevic tribes, compared to other Germanic tribes, were very mobile and not reliant on agriculture. Various Suevic groups moved from the direction of the Baltic Sea, towards the end of the empire, the Alemanni, also referred to as Suebi, first settled in the Agri Decumates and then crossed the Rhine and occupied Alsace. An area in southwest Germany is still called Swabia, which derives from the Suebi. Other Suebi entered Gaul and some moved as far as Gallaecia, where they established the Kingdom of the Suebi, which lasted for 170 years until its integration into the Visigothic Kingdom. Notably, the Semnones, known to classical authors as one of the largest Suebian groups, also seem to have a name with this same meaning, alternatively, it may be borrowed from a Celtic word for vagabond. Caesar placed the Suebi east of the Ubii apparently near modern Hesse, in the position where later writers mention the Chatti, some commentators believe that Caesars Suebi were the later Chatti or possibly the Hermunduri, or Semnones. Later authors use the term Suebi more broadly, to cover a number of tribes in central Germany. Whether or not the Chatti were ever considered Suevi, both Tacitus and Strabo distinguish the two partly because the Chatti were more settled in one territory, whereas Suevi remained less settled. The definitions of the greater ethnic groupings within Germania were apparently not always consistent and clear, whereas Tacitus reported three main kinds of German peoples, Irminones, Istvaeones, and Ingaevones, Pliny specifically adds two more genera or kinds, the Bastarnae and the Vandili. The Vandals were tribes east of the Elbe, including the well-known Silingi, Goths, and Burgundians, the modern term Elbe Germanic similarly covers a large grouping of Germanic peoples that at least overlaps with the classical terms Suevi and Irminones. In the time of Caesar, southern Germany was Celtic, in addition, also near the Hercynian forest Caesar believed that the Celtic Tectosages had once lived. All of these peoples had for the most part moved by the time of Tacitus, nevertheless, Cassius Dio wrote that the Suebi, who dwelt across the Rhine, were called Celts, which could mean that some Celtic groups were absorbed by larger Germanic tribal confederations. Strabo, in Book IV of his Geography also associates the Suebi with the Hercynian Forest and the south of Germania north of the Danube. He describes a chain of mountains north of the Danube that is like an extension of the Alps, possibly the Swabian Alps. In Book VII Strabo specifically mentions as Suevic peoples the Marcomanni, some of these tribes were inside the forest and some outside of it. Tacitus confirms the name Boiemum, saying it was a survival marking the old population of the place
18.
Buri tribe
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The Buri were a Germanic tribe mentioned in the Germania of Tacitus, where they initially close the back of the Marcomanni and Quadi of Bohemia and Moravia. It is said that their speech and customs were like those of the Suebi, in Tacitus, the Buri are not linked to the Lugii. Ptolemy, however, mentions the Lougoi Bouroi dwelling in what is today southern Poland between the Elbe, the modern Sudetes, and the upper Vistula and they are distinct from the Silingi, who are on the upper Oder. The fate of the Buri seems tied to that of the Danubian tribes, as they joined the Marcomanni-inspired invasion of the empire in the 2nd century AD, going against the emperor, Marcus Aurelius. The latter became a tougher adversary than the Germans had suspected and so many tribes, including the Buri and they were well rewarded by the Romans for doing so, but they then had to face the vengeance of their old allies. After the death of Marcus, and further Germanic unrest, the Buri petitioned his son, Commodus, at this point they were destitute, having spent their resources on war. As they now met the qualifications for financial aid, to wit, being destitute and potentially dangerous. The Marcomanni were enjoined from seeking retaliation, since they themselves were now destitute and seeking terms, they complied, as far as we know. The Buri now bow off stage, a contingent of the Buri accompanied the Suebi in their invasion of the Iberian Peninsula and established themselves in Gallaecia in the 5th century. They settled in the region between the rivers Cávado and Homem, in the known as Terras de Bouro
19.
Visigoths
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The Visigoths were the western branches of the nomadic tribes of Germanic peoples referred to collectively as the Goths. These tribes flourished and spread throughout the late Roman Empire in Late Antiquity, the Visigoths emerged from earlier Gothic groups who had invaded the Roman Empire beginning in 376 and had defeated the Romans at the Battle of Adrianople in 378. Relations between the Romans and the Visigoths were variable, alternately warring with one another and making treaties when convenient, the Visigoths invaded Italy under Alaric I and sacked Rome in 410. The Visigoths first settled in southern Gaul as foederati of the Romans – a relationship established in 418, however, they soon fell out with their Roman hosts and established their own kingdom with its capital at Toulouse. They next extended their authority into Hispania at the expense of the Suebi, in 507, however, their rule in Gaul was ended by the Franks under Clovis I, who defeated them in the Battle of Vouillé. After that, the Visigoth kingdom was limited to Hispania, in or around 589, the Visigoths under Reccared I converted from Arianism to Nicene Christianity, gradually adopting the culture of their Hispano-Roman subjects. Their legal code, the Visigothic Code abolished the practice of applying different laws for Romans. Once legal distinctions were no longer being made between Romani and Gothi, they became known collectively as Hispani, in the century that followed, the region was dominated by the Councils of Toledo and the episcopacy. In 711 or 712, a force of invading African Moors defeated the Visigoths in the Battle of Guadalete and their king and many members of their governing elite were killed, and their kingdom rapidly collapsed. During their governance of the Kingdom of Hispania, the Visigoths built several churches that survive and they also left many artifacts, which have been discovered in increasing numbers by archaeologists in recent times. The Treasure of Guarrazar of votive crowns and crosses is the most spectacular and they founded the only new cities in western Europe from the fall of the Western half of the Roman Empire until the rise of the Carolingian dynasty. Many Visigothic names are still in use in modern Spanish and Portuguese, contemporaneous references to the Gothic tribes use the terms Vesi, Ostrogothi, Thervingi, and Greuthungi. Most scholars have concluded that the terms Vesi and Tervingi were both used to refer to one particular tribe, while the terms Ostrogothi and Greuthungi were used to refer to another. In addition, the Notitia Dignitatum equates the Vesi with the Tervingi in a reference to the years 388–391, the earliest sources for each of the four names are roughly contemporaneous. The first recorded reference to the Tervingi is in a eulogy of the emperor Maximian, delivered in or shortly after 291 and it says that the Tervingi, another division of the Goths, joined with the Taifali to attack the Vandals and Gepidae. The first known use of the term Ostrogoths is in a document dated September 392 from Milan and this would explain why the latter terms dropped out of use shortly after 400, when the Goths were displaced by the Hunnic invasions. Wolfram believes that the people Zosimus describes were those Tervingi who had remained behind after the Hunnic conquest, for the most part, all of the terms discriminating between different Gothic tribes gradually disappeared after they moved into the Roman Empire. The last indication that the Goths whose king reigned at Toulouse thought of themselves as Vesi is found in a panegyric on Avitus by Sidonius Apollinaris dated 1 January 456, most recent scholars have concluded that Visigothic group identity emerged only within the Roman Empire
20.
County of Portugal
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A larger entity under the same name was then reestablished in the late 11th century and lasted until the mid-12th century, when its count elevated it into an independent Portuguese kingdom. The history of the county of Portugal is traditionally dated from the reconquest of Portus Cale by Vímara Peres in 868 and he was named a count and given control of the frontier region between the Limia and Douro rivers by Alfonso III of Asturias. South of the Douro, another border county would be formed decades later when what would become the County of Coimbra was conquered from the Moors by Hermenegildo Gutiérrez. This moved the frontier away from the bounds of the county of Portugal. The recapture of Coimbra by Almanzor in 987 again placed the County of Portugal on the frontier of the Leonese state for most of the rest of the first countys existence. The regions to its south were only conquered in the reign of Ferdinand I of León and Castile, with Lamego falling in 1057, Viseu in 1058. It could have been this Count Gonzalo who assassinated Sancho I of León after inviting the King to a banquet, not all historians, however, believe that Gonzalo Menéndez was responsible for the kings death and some attribute the regicide to a contemporary count named Gonzalo Muñoz. In the late 960s Gonzalos lands were ravaged by Vikings, and in 968 and his son Menendo had close relations with Ramiros rival and successor, Bermudo II, being made the kings alférez and tutor of his son, the future king Alfonso V. Following Alfonsos succession, Menendo would serve as regent for the boy king, the former Kingdom of Galicia, then including modern Portugal as far south as Coimbra, was given by Alfonso VI as a county to his son-in-law Raymond of Burgundy. Its territory included much of the current Portuguese territory between the Minho River and the Tagus River, Count Henry continued the Reconquista in western Iberia and expanded his countys dominions. In 1111 the Muslims conquered Santarém, when Count Henry died in 1112, the population of the County of Portugal, including the powerful families, favored independence. Henrys widow, Theresa, took the reigns on behalf of her young son, however, she was defeated by Urraca in 1121 and forced to accept a position of feudal subservience to the Leonese state. Her own son, Afonso Henriques, took the reins of the government in 1128 after routing his mothers forces in the Battle of São Mamede, after this battle, he began to exhibit a seal with a cross and the word Portugal. He continued to win battles, supported by the nobles of Entre-Douro-e-Minho, eventually triumphing in the Battle of Ourique in 1139, also, he never used the title of count which would place him in a clear position of dependence vis-à-vis the king of León and Castile. It was finally in 1143 when his nominal overlord Alfonso VII of León, ricos-homens, infanções e cavaleiros, a nobreza medieval portuguesa nos séculos XI e XII. Serrão, Joel, Dicionário de História de Portugal Volume II Castanhoso-Fez, Portugal, Livraria Figueirinhas /Porto
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List of Portuguese monarchs
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Through the nearly 800 years which Portugal was a monarchy, the kings held various other titles and pretensions. Two Kings of Portugal, Ferdinand I and Afonso V, also claimed the crown of Castile, when the House of Habsburg came into power, the Kings of Spain, and Naples, also became Kings of Portugal. The House of Braganza brought numerous titles to the Portuguese Crown, including King of Brazil, with Manuel IIs death, the Miguelist branch of the House of Braganza became the pretenders to the throne of Portugal. They have all been acclaimed King of Portugal by their monarchist groups, the monarchs of Portugal all came from a single ancestor, Afonso I of Portugal, but direct lines have sometimes ended. This has led to a variety of royal houses coming to rule Portugal, Prior to the independence of Portugal, the house ruled the feudal County of Portugal, of the Kingdom of Galicia. When Alphonso I Henriques declared the independence of Portugal, he turned the family from a house to a royal house which would rule Portugal for over two centuries. When Ferdinand I died, a crisis occurred and Ferdinands daughter Beatrice of Portugal was proclaimed queen. Her legitimacy as a monarch is disputed, the House of Aviz, known as the Joanine Dynasty, succeeded the House of Burgundy as the reigning house of the Kingdom of Portugal. The house was founded by John I of Portugal, who was the Grand Master of the Order of Aviz, when King John II of Portugal died without an heir, the throne of Portugal passed to his cousin, Manuel, Duke of Beja. When King Sebastian of Portugal died, the passed to his uncle. When Henry died, a crisis occurred and António, Prior of Crato was proclaimed António of Portugal. The House of Habsburg, known as the Philippine Dynasty, is the house that ruled Portugal from 1581 to 1640, the dynasty began with the acclamation of Philip II of Spain as Philip I of Portugal in 1580, officially recognized in 1581 by the Portuguese Cortes of Tomar. Philip I swore to rule Portugal as a separate from his Spanish domains. John was proclaimed King John IV, and he deposed the House of Habsburg in the Portuguese Restoration War, the descendants of Queen Maria II, and her consort, King Ferdinand II, came to rule in 1853. Portuguese law and custom treated them as members of the House of Braganza and this has led some to classify these last four monarchs of Portugal as members of a new family, called the House of Braganza-Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, though this view is not widely held. History of titles of the kings of Portugal with bibliography Sousa, história Genealógica da Casa Real Portuguesa. Jiří Louda & Michael Maclagan, Portugal, in Lines of Succession, heraldry of the Royal families of Europe, London, Orbis Publishing, pp. 228–237. Luís Amaral & Marcos Soromenho Santos, Costados do Duque de Bragança, Lisboa, Afonso Eduardo Martins Zuquete, Nobreza de Portugal e Brasil, vol
22.
Portuguese Empire
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The Portuguese Empire, also known as the Portuguese Overseas, was one of the largest and longest-lived empires in world history and the first colonial empire. It existed for almost six centuries from the capture of Ceuta in 1415 to the grant of sovereignty to East Timor in 2002, the first era of the Portuguese empire originated at the beginning of the Age of Discovery. Initiated by the Kingdom of Portugal, it would eventually expand across the globe, in 1488, Bartolomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope, and in 1498, Vasco da Gama reached India. In 1500, either by an accidental landfall or by the secret design. Over the following decades, Portuguese sailors continued to explore the coasts and islands of East Asia, establishing forts, by 1571, a string of naval outposts connected Lisbon to Nagasaki along the coasts of Africa, the Middle East, India and South Asia. This commercial network and the trade had a substantial positive impact on Portuguese economic growth. Though the realms continued to be administered separately, the Council of Portugal ruled the country and its empire from Madrid. As the King of Spain was also King of Portugal, Portuguese colonies became the subject of attacks by three rival European powers hostile to Spain, the Dutch Republic, England, and France. With its smaller population, Portugal was unable to defend its overstretched network of trading posts. Eventually, Brazil became the most valuable colony of the era until, as part of the wave of independence movements that swept the Americas during the early 19th century. The third era represents the stage of Portuguese colonialism after the decolonization of the Americas of the 1820s. The colonial possessions had been reduced to the African coastline, Portuguese Timor, the disastrous 1890 British Ultimatum led to the contraction of Portuguese ambitions in Africa. Macau was returned to China in 1999, the origin of the Kingdom of Portugal lay in the reconquista, the gradual reconquest of the Iberian peninsula from the Moors. There were several motives for their first attack, on the Marinid Sultanate. In 1415 an attack was made on Ceuta, a strategically located North African Muslim enclave along the Mediterranean Sea, although Ceuta proved to be a disappointment for the Portuguese, the decision was taken to hold it while exploring along the Atlantic African coast. At the time, Europeans did not know what lay beyond Cape Bojador on the African coast, under his sponsorship, soon the Atlantic islands of Madeira and Azores were reached and started to be settled producing wheat to export to Portugal. Fears of what lay beyond Cape Bojador, and whether it was possible to return once it was passed, were assuaged in 1434 when it was rounded by one of Infante Henrys captains, Gil Eanes. Once this psychological barrier had been crossed, it became easier to further along the coast
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Portuguese Renaissance
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The Portuguese Renaissance refers to the cultural and artistic movement in Portugal during the 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries. As the pioneer of the Age of Discoveries, Portugal flourished in the 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries, with voyages to India, the Orient, the Americas, and Africa. Diplomats, merchants, students, humanists, scholars, and artists, the maritime trade of the Age of Discovery played a decisive role in the evolution of the Portuguese Renaissance. The discovery of new worlds and contact with other civilizations led to a cultural mix, the new trade of items with the newly discovered lands is also what allowed the Portuguese Renaissance to be funded, by creating a wealthy Portuguese nobility and merchant class. As the pioneer in Age of Discovery, Portugal and its renaissance attracted experts in astronomy, mathematics, and naval technology and he was also the inventor of several measuring apparatus, including the nonius, to measure fractions of a degree. With Vasco da Gamas arrival in India, and the Portuguese Empires expansion into that land, many scientists were sent eastward to study and compile new drugs and medicinal plants. The botonist Tomé Pires and physicians Garcia de Orta and Cristóvão da Costa collected and published works on new plants, Portuguese portolan chart were in great demand in Europe, for their greater knowledge and accuracy. Although protected as a secret, the cartographic knowledge would eventually be passed clandestinely by some of those involved in the operation. In 1475, for the first time a Latin translation of Ptolemys world map, the arts in the Portuguese Renaissance are a matter of historiographical dispute. This is because despite arts flourishing in this time, they did not follow the classicist aesthetic standards on which the Italians built their Renaissance, the arts of the Portuguese Renaissance were unique amongst other Renaissance arts. They were a mixing of Late Gothic style with the innovations of the fifteenth century, for the larger part of the Portuguese Renaissance, its architecture was largely the continuation and elaboration of the Gothic style. The profits of the trade, during the reigns of John II, Manuel I, and John III, financed the sumptuous and dominant style of the Portuguese Renaissance. The Manueline was largely an intricate and complex style, with gothic and light neo-classical influence. The first known building to be done in Manueline style is the Monastery of Jesus of Setubal, by the architect Diogo de Boitaca, one of the originators and masters of the style. The Hermitage of Nossa Senhora da Conceição, in Tomar, by Diogo de Torralva, is an excellent examples of the pure Renaissance classical architecture from the Portuguese Renaissance. The Quinta da Bacalhoa and the Casa dos Bicos are good examples of strong classical Renaissance style palaces, painting was one of the more distinguishing factors of the Portuguese Renaissance, being one of the more contrasting arts to the other Renaissances of Europe. Portuguese Renaissance painting was largely in contact with Flemish style, links between the two movements reached a new level, in 1430, with the marriage of Isabel of Aviz, Infanta of Portugal, to Philip III, Duke of Burgundy. While the marriage was in negotiations, the Burgundian court sent the famed Jan van Eyck, van Eyck remained in Portugal for over a year, where he established a school of art, alongside Olivier de Gand and Jean dYpres
24.
Treaty of Tordesillas
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This line of demarcation was about halfway between the Cape Verde islands and the islands entered by Christopher Columbus on his first voyage, named in the treaty as Cipangu and Antilia. The lands to the east would belong to Portugal and the lands to the west to Castile, the treaty was signed by Spain,2 July 1494 and by Portugal,5 September 1494. Originals of both treaties are kept at the Archivo General de Indias in Spain and at the Arquivo Nacional da Torre do Tombo in Portugal. This treaty would be observed fairly well by Spain and Portugal, despite considerable ignorance as to the geography of the New World, however and those countries generally ignored the treaty, particularly those that became Protestant after the Protestant Reformation. The Treaty of Tordesillas was intended to solve the dispute that had been created following the return of Christopher Columbus and his crew, on his way back to Spain he first reached Lisbon, in Portugal. There he asked for another meeting with King John II to show him the newly discovered lands, also, the Portuguese King stated that he was already making arrangements for a fleet to depart shortly and take possession of the new lands. After reading the letter the Catholic Monarchs knew they did not have any power in the Atlantic to match the Portuguese. The bull did not mention Portugal or its lands, so Portugal could not claim newly discovered lands even if they were east of the line. The Portuguese King John II was not pleased with that arrangement, feeling that it gave him far too little land—it prevented him from possessing India, by 1493 Portuguese explorers had reached the southern tip of Africa, the Cape of Good Hope. The Portuguese were unlikely to go to war over the islands encountered by Columbus, the treaty effectively countered the bulls of Alexander VI but was subsequently sanctioned by Pope Julius II by means of the bull Ea quae pro bono pacis of 24 January 1506. Even though the treaty was negotiated without consulting the Pope, a few sources call the line the Papal Line of Demarcation. Very little of the divided area had actually been seen by Europeans. Castile gained lands including most of the Americas, which in 1494 had little proven wealth, the easternmost part of current Brazil was granted to Portugal when in 1500 Pedro Álvares Cabral landed there while he was en route to India. Some historians contend that the Portuguese already knew of the South American bulge that makes up most of Brazil before this time, the line was not strictly enforced—the Spanish did not resist the Portuguese expansion of Brazil across the meridian. However, the Catholic Monarchs attempted to stop the Portuguese advance in Asia, by claiming the meridian line ran around the world, Portugal pushed back, seeking another papal pronouncement that limited the line of demarcation to the Atlantic. This was given by Pope Leo X, who was friendly toward Portugal and its discoveries, for a period between 1580 and 1640, the treaty was rendered meaningless, as the Spanish King was also King of Portugal. It was superseded by the 1750 Treaty of Madrid which granted Portugal control of the lands it occupied in South America, however, the latter treaty was immediately repudiated by the Catholic Monarch. The First Treaty of San Ildefonso settled the problem, with Spain acquiring territories east of the Uruguay River, the Treaty of Tordesillas only specified the line of demarcation in leagues from the Cape Verde Islands
25.
1755 Lisbon earthquake
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The 1755 Lisbon earthquake, also known as the Great Lisbon earthquake, occurred in the Kingdom of Portugal on Saturday,1 November, the holy day of All Saints Day, at around 09,40 local time. In combination with subsequent fires and a tsunami, the earthquake almost totally destroyed Lisbon, estimates place the death toll in Lisbon alone between 10,000 and 100,000 people, making it one of the deadliest earthquakes in history. The earthquake accentuated political tensions in the Kingdom of Portugal and profoundly disrupted the countrys colonial ambitions, the event was widely discussed and dwelt upon by European Enlightenment philosophers, and inspired major developments in theodicy. As the first earthquake studied scientifically for its effects over an area, it led to the birth of modern seismology. In 1755, the earthquake struck on the morning of 1 November, contemporary reports state that the earthquake lasted between three and a half and six minutes, causing fissures 5 metres wide to open in the city centre. Survivors rushed to the space of the docks for safety and watched as the water receded, revealing a sea floor littered with lost cargo. Approximately 40 minutes after the earthquake, a tsunami engulfed the harbour and downtown area, rushing up the Tagus river, were forced to gallop as fast as possible to the upper grounds for fear of being carried away. It was followed by two more waves, in the areas unaffected by the tsunami, fire quickly broke out, and flames raged for five days. Lisbon was not the only Portuguese city affected by the catastrophe, throughout the south of the country, in particular the Algarve, destruction was rampant. The tsunami destroyed some coastal fortresses in the Algarve and, in the lower levels, almost all the coastal towns and villages of the Algarve were heavily damaged, except Faro, which was protected by the sandy banks of Ria Formosa. In Lagos, the reached the top of the city walls. Other towns of different Portuguese regions, such as Peniche, Cascais, and even Covilhã, the shock waves of the earthquake destroyed part of Covilhãs castle walls and its large towers. On the island of Madeira, Funchal and many smaller settlements suffered significant damage, almost all of the ports in the Azores archipelago suffered most of their destruction from the tsunami, with the sea penetrating about 150 m inland. Shocks from the earthquake were felt throughout Europe as far as Finland and North Africa, and according to some even in Greenland. Tsunamis as tall as 20 metres swept the coast of North Africa, a three-metre tsunami hit Cornwall on the southern English coast. Galway, on the west coast of Ireland, was also hit, at Kinsale, several vessels were whirled round in the harbor, and water poured into the marketplace. In 2015, it was revealed that the waves may have reached the coast of Brazil. Such a hypothesis was raised by reviewing letters sent by Brazilian authorities at the time of the earthquake and these letters describe damage and destruction caused by gigantic waves
26.
Peninsular War
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The Peninsular War was a military conflict between Napoleons empire and the allied powers of Spain, Britain and Portugal, for control of the Iberian Peninsula during the Napoleonic Wars. The war started when French and Spanish armies invaded and occupied Portugal in 1807, the Peninsular War overlaps with what the Spanish-speaking world calls the Guerra de la Independencia Española, which began with the Dos de Mayo Uprising on 2 May 1808 and ended on 17 April 1814. The French occupation destroyed the Spanish administration, which fragmented into quarrelling provincial juntas, the British Army, under the then Lt. Gen. Arthur Wellesley, guarded Portugal and campaigned against the French in Spain alongside the reformed Portuguese army. The demoralised Portuguese army was reorganised and refitted under the command of Gen, in the following year Wellington scored a decisive victory over King Josephs army at Vitoria. The years of fighting in Spain were a burden on Frances Grande Armée. The Spanish armies were beaten and driven to the peripheries. This drain on French resources led Napoleon, who had provoked a total war. War and revolution against Napoleons occupation led to the Spanish Constitution of 1812, the burden of war destroyed the social and economic fabric of Portugal and Spain, and ushered in an era of social turbulence, political instability and economic stagnation. Devastating civil wars between liberal and absolutist factions, led by officers trained in the Peninsular War, persisted in Iberia until 1850. The cumulative crises and disruptions of invasion, revolution and restoration led to the independence of most of Spains American colonies, the Treaties of Tilsit, negotiated during a meeting in July 1807 between Emperors Alexander I of Russia and Napoleon, concluded the War of the Fourth Coalition. With Prussia shattered, and Russia allied with France, Napoleon expressed irritation that Portugal was open to trade with the United Kingdom, furthermore, Prince John of Braganza, regent for his insane mother Queen Maria I, had declined to join the emperors Continental System against British trade. After a few days, a large force started concentrating at Bayonne, meanwhile the Portuguese governments resolve was stiffening, and shortly afterward Napoleon was once again told that Portugal would not go beyond its original agreements. After he received the Portuguese answer, he ordered Junots corps to cross the frontier into Spain, while all this was going on, the secret Treaty of Fontainebleau had been signed between France and Spain. The document was drawn up by Napoleons marshal of the palace Géraud Duroc and Eugenio Izquierdo, the treaty proposed to carve up Portugal into three entities. Porto and the part was to become the Kingdom of Northern Lusitania. The southern portion, as the Principality of the Algarves, would fall to Godoy, the rump of the country, centered on Lisbon, was to be administered by the French. According to the Treaty of Fontainebleau, Junots invasion force was to be supported by 25,500 men in three Spanish columns, Gen. Taranco and 6,500 troops were ordered to march from Vigo to seize Porto in the north. Capt. Gen. Solano would advance from Badajoz with 9,500 soldiers to capture Elvas, Gen. Caraffa and 9,500 men were instructed to assemble at Salamanca and Ciudad Rodrigo, and cooperate with Junots main force
27.
Liberal Revolution of 1820
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The Liberal Revolution of 1820 was a Portuguese political revolution that erupted in 1820. It began with an insurrection in the city of Porto, in northern Portugal. The movements liberal ideas had an important influence on Portuguese society, from 1807 to 1811 Napoleonic French forces invaded Portugal three times. As a result, the Portuguese royal family was transferred to the Portuguese colony of Brazil, from Brazil, the Portuguese king João VI ruled his trans-Atlantic empire for thirteen years. Following the defeat of the French forces in 1814, Portugal experienced a period of political turmoil. Eventually this unrest put an end to the long stay in Brazil. Even though the Portuguese had participated in the defeat of the French, the officers of the Portuguese Army resented British control of the Portuguese armed forces. The city of Porto, with a strong, dynamic bourgeoisie, in its brief existence the movement attempted to introduce liberalism in Portugal, although it ultimately failed to do so. In October 1817, the Regency found the twelve of the accused guilty of treason against the nation, freire de Andrade was executed on the same day at the São Julião da Barra Fort. The executions sparked protests against Beresford and the Regency and intensified anti-British feeling in the country, in his absence, the Revolution of Porto broke out in 1820, and upon his arrival from Brazil, he was forbidden to disembark in Lisbon. The revolutionaries demanded the return of the royal court to continental Portugal in order to restore the metropolitan dignity. In fact, the revolution of 1820 not only forced the return of the king. The Brazilian kingdom had legally been an equal, constituent part of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil, the revolutionaries organized the election of a constitutional assembly which debated the nature of the future government. The elections resulted in deputies were primarily from the professions /and not from the merchants who had spearheaded the revolution, professionals now took the lead in the revolution. The constitution that was approved in 1822 was closely modeled on the Spanish Constitution of 1812, after John VI returned to Portugal in 1821, his heir-apparent, Pedro, became regent of the Kingdom of Brazil. Following a series of events and disputes, Brazil declared its independence from Portugal on 7 September 1822. On 12 October 1822, Pedro was acclaimed as the first Emperor of Brazil and he was crowned on 1 December 1822. Portugal recognized Brazils sovereignty in 1825, in 1826 João VI died with no clear heir, further destabilizing the nation
28.
Portuguese Civil War
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Embroiled parties included the Kingdom of Portugal, Portuguese rebels, the United Kingdom, France, the Church of Rome, and Spain. The death of King João VI in 1826 created a dispute over royal succession, while Dom Pedro, the Emperor of Brazil, was the kings oldest son, his younger brother Miguel contended that Pedro had forfeited his claim to the throne by declaring Brazilian independence. Pedro briefly entitled himself Dom Pedro IV of Portugal, neither the Portuguese nor the Brazilians wanted a unified monarchy, consequently, Pedro abdicated the throne in favor of his daughter, Maria, a child of 7. In April 1826, to settle the dispute, Pedro revised the 1st constitution of Portugal granted in 1822 and left the throne to Maria. In the Portuguese Constitutional Charter, Pedro attempted to reconcile absolutists, unlike the Constitution of 1822, this new document established four branches of government. The Legislature was divided into two chambers, the upper chamber, the Chamber of Peers, was composed of life and hereditary peers and clergy appointed by the king. Judicial power was exercised by the courts, executive power by the ministers of the government, and moderative power by the king, in February 1828, Miguel returned to Portugal, ostensibly to take the oath of allegiance to the Charter and assume the regency. He was immediately proclaimed king by his supporters, who pressed him to return to absolutism, the Cortes of 1828 assented to Miguels wish, proclaiming him king as Miguel I of Portugal and nullifying the Constitutional Charter. This alleged usurpation did not go unchallenged by the Liberals, on May 18, the garrison in Porto, the center of Portuguese progressives, declared its loyalty to Pedro, to Maria da Glória, and the Constitutional Charter. The rebellion against the spread to other cities. Miguel suppressed these rebellions, and many thousands of Liberals were either arrested or fled to Spain and Britain, there followed five years of repression. Meanwhile, in Brazil, relations between Pedro and Brazils agricultural magnates had become strained, in April 1831, Pedro abdicated in Brazil in favor of his son, Pedro II, and sailed for Britain. He organized an expedition there and then went to Terceira island in the Azores. The government of Miguel blockaded the island, but the squadron was attacked by a French squadron during the run-up to the Battle of the Tagus. To protect British interests, a squadron under Commander William Glascock in HMS Orestes was stationed in the Douro. The Duke of Terceira landed at Faro and marched north through the Alentejo to capture Lisbon on July 24, meanwhile, Napiers squadron encountered the absolutists fleet near Cape Saint Vincent and decisively defeated it at the fourth Battle of Cape St. Vincent. The Liberals were able to occupy Lisbon, where Pedro moved from Porto, a stalemate of nine months ensued. Towards the end of 1833, Maria da Glória was proclaimed queen and his first act was to confiscate the property of all who had served under Dom Miguel
29.
5 October 1910 revolution
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The proponents of the republic, particularly the Republican Party, found ways to take advantage of the situation. The Republican Party presented itself as the one that had a programme that was capable of returning to the country its lost status. After the revolution, a government led by Teófilo Braga directed the fate of the country until the approval of the Constitution in 1911 that marked the beginning of the First Republic. Among other things, with the establishment of the republic, national symbols were changed, the national anthem, the revolution produced some civil and religious liberties, although there was no advance in womens rights and in workers rights, unlike what happened in other European countries. The republicans knew how to take advantage of the dissatisfaction, initiating an increase of their support base that would climax in the demise of the regime. On 14 January, the government fell and the leader of the Regenerador Party. The progressivists then began to attack the king, voting for candidates in the March election of that year. The death of the explorer of the African continent generated a wave of national sentiment. On 11 April, Guerra Junqueiros poetic work Finis Patriae, a satire criticising the King, in the city of Porto, on 31 January 1891, a military uprising against the monarchy took place, constituted mainly by sergeants and enlisted ranks. The movement was, shortly afterwards, suppressed by a detachment of the municipal guard that remained loyal to the government. 250 received sentences of between 18 months and 15 years of exile in Africa, despite its failure, the rebellion of 31 January 1891 was the first large threat felt by the monarchic regime and a sign of what would come almost two decades later. Disagreements within the party became more connected with matters of political than ideological strategy, the works of Teófilo Braga contributed to this task by trying to concretise the decentralising and federalist ideas, abandoning the socialist quality in favour of democratic aspects. This change also aimed to attract the small and medium bourgeoisie, in the election of 13 October 1878 the PRP elected its first member of parliament, José Joaquim Rodrigues de Freitas, for Porto. There was also an intention to give the overthrow of the overtones of unification, nationalism. This panacea that would cure, once and for all, all the ills of the nation, elevating it to glory and this lack of ideological preoccupation doesnt mean that the party didnt bother to spread its principles. The most effective action of dissemination was the propaganda made through its rallies and popular demonstrations and bulletins such as A Voz Pública in Porto, O Mundo, the republican propaganda managed to take advantage of some historical facts with popular repercussions. The atmosphere of the celebration that characterised the commemorations complemented the patriotic exaltation. From this date to 1900 there was no republican parliamentary representation, in this phase, while separated from parliament, the party committed itself to its internal organisation
30.
First Portuguese Republic
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The last movement instituted a military dictatorship known as Ditadura Nacional that would be followed by the corporatist Estado Novo regime of António de Oliveira Salazar. As far as the October 1910 Revolution is concerned, a number of studies have been made. This vision clashes with an interpretation of the First Republic as a progressive. A republican Constitution was approved in 1911, inaugurating a parliamentary regime with reduced presidential powers, the constitution generally accorded full civil liberties, the religious liberties of Catholics being an exception. The First Republic was intensely anti-clerical and they were secularists and indeed were following liberal tradition of disestablishing the powerful role the Catholic Church once held. Under the leadership of Afonso Costa, the minister, the revolution immediately targeted the Catholic Church, churches were plundered, convents were attacked. Scarcely had the government been installed when it began devoting its entire attention to an anti-religious policy. On 10 October – five days after the inauguration of the Republic – the new government decreed that all convents, monasteries, all residents of religious institutions were expelled and their goods confiscated. The Jesuits were forced to forfeit their Portuguese citizenship, a series of anti-Catholic laws and decrees followed each other in rapid succession. In addition, the ringing of bells to signal times of worship was subjected to certain restraints. The government also interfered in the running of seminaries, reserving the right to appoint professors and this whole series of laws authored by Afonso Costa culminated in the law of Separation of Church and State, which was passed on 20 April 1911. Even the PRP had to endure the secession of its more moderate elements, who formed conservative republican parties like the Evolutionist Party and the Republican Union. In spite of these splits the PRP, led by Afonso Costa, preserved its dominance, in view of these tactics, a number of opposition forces resorted to violence in order to enjoy the fruits of power. There are few recent studies of this period of the Republic’s existence, nevertheless, an essay by Vasco Pulido Valente should be consulted, as should the attempt to establish the political, social, and economic context made by M. Villaverde Cabral. The Republic repelled a royalist attack on Chaves in 1912 and these domestic objectives were not met, since participation in the conflict was not the subject of a national consensus and since it did not therefore serve to mobilise the population. Quite the opposite occurred, existing lines of political and ideological fracture were deepened by Portugals intervention in the First World War, the lack of consensus around Portugal’s intervention in turn made possible the appearance of two dictatorships, led by General Pimenta de Castro and Sidónio Pais. Sidonismo, also known as Dezembrismo, aroused a strong interest among historians, António José Telo has made clear the way in which this regime predated some of the political solutions invented by the totalitarian and fascist dictatorships of the 1920s and 1930s. Sidónio Pais undertook the rescue of traditional values, notably the Pátria, the State carved out an economically interventionist role for itself while, at the same time, repressing working-class movements and leftist republicans
31.
Portugal during World War I
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Portugal did not initially form part of the system of alliances involved in World War I and thus remained neutral at the start of the conflict in 1914. Tensions between Germany and Portugal also arose as a result of German U-boat warfare, which sought to blockade the United Kingdom, ultimately, tensions resulted in declarations of war, first by Germany against Portugal in March 1916. Approximately 12,000 Portuguese troops died during the course of World War I, civilian deaths in Portugal exceeded 220,000,82,000 caused by food shortages and 138,000 by the Spanish flu. July, The German and British Empires enter into secret negotiations over a dismemberment of Portuguese Angola, in such a case. An Angola-Bund had been founded in 1912, august to September, Skirmishes occur between German and Portuguese colonial troops in Africa, and the Germans instigate tribal revolts. September, The Portuguese government sends reinforcements to the border of Angola. After the war breaks out, the border between German South-West Africa and Angola remains open, the Germans hope to supply food and possibly even arms through it. However, the Portuguese colonial government is hostile and tries to stop all of the trade, a few German nationals in Angola are interned. October,1600 troops arrive in Portuguese Angola and 1527 troops arrive in Portuguese Mozambique from Portugal, november,1543 troops arrive in Mozambique, commanded by Moura Mendes. The second force is tasked to recapture the Kionga Triangle from the Germans, february 23, Following a British request, Portugal interns 36 German and Austro-Hungarian ships in Lisbon. March 9, Germany declares war on Portugal, followed by Portugals reciprocal declaration, the Portuguese government starts to organise the participation of its troops on the Western Front. Shortly afterward, Portugal begins closing its consulates in the Ottoman Empire, March 15, Austria-Hungary declares war on Portugal. July 15, The British government formally invites Portugal to take a part in the military operations of the Allies. July 22, The Portuguese Expeditionary Corps, with 30,000 soldiers, is established in Tancos, Portugal, august 7, The Portuguese Parliament accepts the participation of Portugal in the war, following the invitation of the British government. The Portuguese war effort reaches 55,000 infantry soldiers, plus 1,000 artillerymen, to be sent to France,4,000 soldiers per month, to man 12 km of battlefront. Only the first two divisions reach France, since the shipping of American troops drastically reduces the capacity of the Allies. December 3, The German U-boat SM U-38, captained by Max Valentiner, enters Funchal harbour in Madeira and torpedoes and sinks 3 ships, CS Dacia, SS Kanguroo, the commander of the French gunboat Surprise and 34 of her crew die in the attack. Following the attack, the Germans proceed to bombard Funchal for two hours from a range of about 4 kilometres, batteries on Madeira return fire and eventually force the Germans to withdraw
32.
Estado Novo (Portugal)
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The Estado Novo, or the Second Republic, was the corporatist authoritarian regime installed in Portugal in 1933. It evolved from the Ditadura Nacional formed after the coup détat of 28 May 1926 against the democratic, together, the Ditadura Nacional and Estado Novo are recognised as the Second Portuguese Republic. Opposed to communism, socialism, anarchism, liberalism and anti-colonialism, the regime was corporatist, conservative, Portugal joined the United Nations in 1955, and was a founding member of NATO, OECD, and EFTA. In 1968 Marcelo Caetano was appointed the new head of government, on 25 April 1974, the Carnation Revolution in Lisbon, a military coup organized by left-wing Portuguese military officers – the Armed Forces Movement – overthrew the Estado Novo regime. Fiercely criticized by most of the community after World War II and decolonization. King Carlos I of Portugal confirmed colonial treaties of the 19th century that stabilized the situation in Portuguese Africa and these agreements were, however, unpopular in Portugal, where they were seen as being to the disadvantage of the country. Carlos responded by appointing João Franco as Prime Minister and subsequently accepting Parliaments dissolution, in 1908, Carlos I was killed in a regicide at Lisbon. The Portuguese monarchy lasted until 1910 when, through the 5 October revolution, it was overthrown, the overthrow of the Portuguese monarchy in 1910 led to a 16-year struggle to sustain parliamentary democracy under republicanism – the Portuguese First Republic. The basis of his regime was a platform of stability, in direct contrast to the environment of the First Republic. After the First Republic, when not even public order was achieved and this transfiguration of Portugal was then known as A Lição de Salazar – Salazars Lesson. Salazars program was opposed to communism, socialism, and liberalism and it was pro-Catholic, conservative, and nationalistic. It incorporated, however, the principles for its military from Benito Mussolinis system in Italy, one of the pillars of the regime was the PIDE, the secret police. Many political dissidents were imprisoned at the Tarrafal prison in the African archipelago of Cape Verde, on the island of Santiago. Strict state censorship was in place, executive authority was nominally vested in a president, elected by popular vote for a five-year term. On paper, the president was vested with sweeping executive and legislative powers, in practice, however, the real power was held by the prime minister, Salazar. The legislature was a unicameral National Assembly, elected four years. An advisory body, the Corporative Chamber, nominally represented economic, the Estado Novo enforced nationalist and conservative Roman Catholic values on the Portuguese population. The whole education system was focused toward the exaltation of the Portuguese nation, the motto of the regime was Deus, Pátria e Familia
33.
Carnation Revolution
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The Carnation Revolution, also referred to as the 25th of April, was initially a military coup in Lisbon, Portugal, on 25 April 1974 which overthrew the regime of the Estado Novo. This movement would lead to the fall of the Estado Novo, in Portugal,25 April is a national holiday, known as Freedom Day, to celebrate the event. Portugal had been run by a dictatorship, which was considered by many to be fascist. Despite repeated appeals that the revolutionaries broadcast over the radio, asking the population to stay home, thousands of Portuguese descended on the streets and it started as a professional class protest of Portuguese Armed Forces captains against a decree law, the Dec Lei nº 353/73 of 1973. Portugals new regime pledged itself to end the wars and began negotiations with the African independence movements. By the end of 1974, Portuguese troops had withdrawn from Portuguese Guinea. This was followed by the independence of Cape Verde, Mozambique, São Tomé and Príncipe, the Carnation Revolution in Portugal also led to Portugals withdrawal from East Timor in Southeast Asia. These events prompted an exodus of Portuguese citizens from Portugals African territories. Although the regimes political police, PIDE, killed four people before surrendering, holding red carnations, many people joined revolutionary soldiers on the streets of Lisbon, in apparent joy and audible euphoria. Red is a color for socialism and communism, which were the main ideological tendencies of many anti-New State insurgents. It was the end of the Estado Novo, the authoritarian regime in Western Europe. East Timor was also offered independence, shortly before the Indonesian invasion of East Timor, after the 28 May 1926 coup détat, Portugal implemented an authoritarian regime of social-Catholic and Integralist inspiration. In 1933, the regime was recast and renamed Estado Novo, and Salazar was named as President of the Council of Ministers until 1968, when he suffered a stroke following a domestic accident. He was replaced in September by Marcello Caetano, who served as President of the Council of Ministers until he was deposed on 25 April 1974. In 1958, General Humberto Delgado—a former member of the regime—stood against the presidential candidate, Américo Tomás. Tomás won the election, but only amidst claims of electoral fraud that denied Delgado of his legitimate victory. Immediately after this election, Salazars government abandoned the practice of electing the president. During Caetanos time in office, his attempts at political reform were obstructed by the important Salazarist elements within the regime
34.
Third Portuguese Republic
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It was initially characterized by constant instability and was threatened by the possibility of a civil war during the early post-revolutionary years. A new constitution was drafted, censorship was prohibited, free speech declared, political prisoners were released, eventually the country granted independence to its African colonies and begun a process of democratization that led to the accession of Portugal to the EEC in 1986. Salazar was succeeded by Marcelo Caetano, the government faced many internal and external problems, including the Portuguese Colonial War. On 25 April 1974 a mostly bloodless coup of young military personnel forced Marcelo Caetano to step down, most of the population of the country soon supported this uprising. It was called the Carnation Revolution because of the use of the carnation on soldiers rifles as a symbol of peace and this revolution was the beginning of the Portuguese Third Republic. After the fall of the Estado Novo, differences began to emerge on which direction the country should take. The revolution was mainly the result of the work of a group of young officers unified under the Movimento das Forças Armadas, both had been expelled from the Estado-Maior-General das Forças Armadas for criticizing the government. The differing political views came to be represented by three main informal groups, which included both military and civilians. However, even within these groups shared similar political views there were considerable disagreements. The conservatives, within the military, represented by Costa Gomes and Spínola, the socialists, that were in favour of creating a social-democratic state like those of Western Europe and were mainly represented by the Socialist Party and its leader Mário Soares. The communists, that were in favour of creating a communist state with a system similar to those of the Warsaw Pact countries. On 1 January 2002, Portugal adopted the euro as its currency in place of the escudo, euro 2004 was held across Portugal. The final match was won by Greece against Portugal, several new stadia were built or rebuilt for the event. This event granted Portugal an opportunity to show its hosting abilities to the rest of the world, voter turnout was 62.60 per cent of eligible voters. From 2007-8 onwards, Portugal was severely affected by the European sovereign-debt crisis, the legacy of considerable borrowing from earlier years became an almost unsustainable debt for the Portuguese economy, bringing the country to the verge of bankruptcy by 2011. This resulted in urgent measures to address problems in the economy, raise taxes. Increasing unemployment also led to increased emigration, Portuguese films of the 2000s Treaties of the Portuguese Third Republic
35.
Economic history of Portugal
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The economic history of Portugal covers the development of the economy throughout the course of Portuguese history. It has its roots prior to nationality, when Roman occupation developed an economy in Hispania, in the provinces of Lusitania and Gallaecia. This continued under the Visigoths and then Al-Andalus Moorish rule, until the Kingdom of Portugal was established in 1139, in 1822, Portugal lost its main colony, Brazil. Portuguese territorial claims in Africa were challenged during the Scramble for Africa, political chaos and economic problems endured from the last years of the monarchy to the first Republic of 1910–1926, which led to the installing of a national dictatorship in 1926. Starting in the early 1960s, Portugal entered in a period of robust economic growth and structural modernization, as an expression of that economic opening, in 1960 the country was one of the EFTA founding member states. Yearly growth rates sometimes with two digits, allowed the Portuguese GDP per capita to reach 56% of the EC-12 average by 1973. This growth period eventually ended in the mid-1970s, for contributing the 1973 oil crisis. From 1974 to the late 1970s, over a million Portuguese citizens arrived from the former African overseas colonies, after nearly a decade of economic troubles, during which Portugal received two IMF-monitored bailouts, in 1986 the country entered the European Economic Community. Similarly, for several years Portuguese subsidiaries of large multinational companies ranked among the most productive in the world. However, the economy has stagnated since the early 2000s and was hardly hit by the effects of the Great Recession. The country adopted the euro in 1999, despite being both a developed country and a high income country, Portugals GDP per capita was of about 80% of the EU-27 average. The Global Competitiveness Report of 2008–2009 ranked Portugal 43rd out of 134 countries and territories, research by the Economist Intelligence Units Quality of Life survey in 2005 ranked Portugal 19th in the world. Pre-Celts and Celts were some of the first groups present in the territory, with the Celtic economy centered on raising, agriculture. After the Second Punic War, from 29 BC to 411 AD, Rome governed the Iberian peninsula, expanding and diversifying the economy, indigenous peoples paid tribute to Rome through an intricate web of alliances and allegiances. All mines belonged to the Roman Senate, and were operated by slaves, subsistence agriculture was replaced by large farming units producing olive oil, cereals, and wine, and rearing livestock. This farming activity was located mainly in the region to the south of the Tagus River, the largest producer of the entire Roman Empire was in Tróia Peninsula, near modern Setúbal, south of Lisbon. At the same time, specialized industries also developed, although it suffered some decline, Roman law remained in the Visigothic Code, and infrastructure, such as roads, bridges, aqueducts, and irrigation systems, was maintained to varying degrees. While trade dwindled in most of the former Roman lands in Europe, in 711, Moors occupied large parts of the Iberian Peninsula, establishing the Al-Andalus
36.
Geography of Portugal
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Portugal is a coastal nation in southwestern Europe, located at the western end of the Iberian Peninsula, bordering Spain. The Portuguese territory also includes a series of archipelagos in the Atlantic Ocean, the extreme south is not too far from the Strait of Gibraltar, leading to the Mediterranean Sea. In total, the country occupies an area of 92,090 square kilometres of which 91,470 square kilometres is land and 620 square kilometres water, despite these definitions, the Portugal-Spain border remains an unresolved territorial dispute between the two countries. Portugal does not recognise the border between Caia and Ribeira de Cuncos River deltas, since the beginning of the 1801 occupation of Olivenza by Spain. This territory, though de facto Spanish occupation, remains a de jure part of Portugal. Portugal is located on the western coast of the Iberian Peninsula and plateau and it is located on the Atlantic coast of this plateau, and crossed by several rivers which have their origin in Spain. Most of these rivers flow from east to west disgorging in the Atlantic, from north to south, the rivers are the Minho, Douro, Mondego, Tagus. The continental shelf has an area of 28,000 square kilometres and its strong relief is marked by deep submarine canyons and the continuation of the main rivers. The Estremadura Spur separates the Iberian Abyssal and Tagus Abyssal Plains, currently, the Portuguese government claims a 200-metre depth, or to a depth of exploitation. Vincent is well known for steep and foreboding cliffs, an interesting feature of the Portuguese coast is Ria Formosa with some sandy islands and a mild and pleasant climate characterized by warm but not very hot summers and generally mild winters. Alternatively, the Ria de Aveiro coast, is formed by a delta rich in fish, four main channels flow through several islands and islets at the mouth of the Vouga, Antuã, Boco, and Fontão Rivers. Since the 16th century, this formation of narrow headlands formed a lagoon and it was also recognized by the Romans, whose forces exported its salt to Rome. The Azores are also sprinkled with both alternating black sand and boulder-lined beaches, with only a rare exception is their a white sand beach (such as on the island of Santa Maria in Almagreira. The island of Porto Santo is one of the few extensive dune beaches in Portugal, tidal gauges along the Portuguese coast have identified a 1–1.5 millimetres rise in sea levels, causing large estuaries and inland deltas in some major rivers to overflow. As a result of its possessions and coastline, Portugal has the third largest Exclusive Economic Zone of the European Union countries. The sea-zone, over which Portugal exercises special territorial rights over the economic exploration, the Iberian plate was formed during the Cadomian Orogeny of the late Neoproterozoic, from the margins of the Gondwana continent. Through collisions and accretion a group of island arcs began to disintegrate from Gondwana and these plates never separated substantially from each other since this period. By the Mesozoic, the three Portuguese plates were a part of the Northern France Armoric Plate until the Bay of Biscay began to separate, eventually, Iberia collided with southern France attaching the region into a peninsula of Europe
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