1.
Taka (paper mache)
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Taka refers to paper mache made using carved wooden sculpture used as a mold. The craft originated in the town of Paete, Laguna in the Philippines, taka was pioneered by Paete local, Maria Piday. During Christmas, Piday was in charge of the churchs decorations, the wooden angels and cherub was heavy causing the carvings to fall. Piday devised the lightweight taka paper mache as an alternative to the wooden sculptures, Piday was also a maker of local toys such as the yoyo and the small acrobat hand puppet. Taka eventually became folk art and was sold to nearby towns for festivals, in the 1970s, Tere Afuang, a knowledgeable practitioner of the craft, popularized the craft. A takaan, a wooden sculpture, is used as a mold in making taka. Brown craft paper is used as a layer for taka made for export. This provides a base and smoother finish for the craft. The traditional way of painting a taka is to use primary colors, add simple flower motifs, gold finish, usually used in angel, reindeer and huge taka is accomplished by using gilded paper. Common and traditional subjects of taka include the manok, kabayo, kalabaw, due to exposure and migration of Paete residents to Manila and abroad, European-influenced paper mache toys began to be made for export to other countries, such as Germany. Taka images now include those of Santa Claus, reindeer, giraffes, and other subjects that are in demand
2.
Bengali language
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Bengali, also known by its endonym Bangla, is an Indo-Aryan language spoken in South Asia. With over 210 million speakers, Bengali is the seventh most spoken language in the world. Dominant in the last group was Persian, which was also the source of some grammatical forms, more recent studies suggest that the use of native and foreign words has been increasing, mainly because of the preference of Bengali speakers for the colloquial style. Today, Bengali is the language spoken in Bangladesh and the second most spoken language in India. Both the national anthems of Bangladesh and India were composed in Bengali, in 1952, the Bengali Language Movement successfully pushed for the languages official status in the Dominion of Pakistan. In 1999, UNESCO recognized 21 February as International Mother Language Day in recognition of the movement in East Pakistan. Language is an important element of Bengali identity and binds together a diverse region. Sanskrit was spoken in Bengal since the first millennium BCE, during the Gupta Empire, Bengal was a hub of Sanskrit literature. The Middle Indo-Aryan dialects were spoken in Bengal in the first millennium when the region was a part of the Magadha Realm and these dialects were called Magadhi Prakrit. They eventually evolved into Ardha Magadhi, Ardha Magadhi began to give way to what are called Apabhraṃśa languages at the end of the first millennium. Along with other Eastern Indo-Aryan languages, Bengali evolved circa 1000–1200 AD from Sanskrit, for example, Ardhamagadhi is believed to have evolved into Abahatta around the 6th century, which competed with the ancestor of Bengali for some time. Proto-Bengali was the language of the Pala Empire and the Sena dynasty, during the medieval period, Middle Bengali was characterized by the elision of word-final অ ô, the spread of compound verbs and Arabic and Persian influences. Bengali was a court language of the Sultanate of Bengal. Muslim rulers promoted the development of Bengali as part of efforts to Islamize. Bengali became the most spoken language in the Sultanate. This period saw borrowing of Perso-Arabic terms into Bengali vocabulary, major texts of Middle Bengali include Chandidas Shreekrishna Kirtana. The modern literary form of Bengali was developed during the 19th and early 20th centuries based on the dialect spoken in the Nadia region, a west-central Bengali dialect. Bengali presents a case of diglossia, with the literary
3.
ISO 4217
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The ISO4217 code list is used in banking and business globally. ISO4217 codes are used on tickets and international train tickets to remove any ambiguity about the price. The first two letters of the code are the two letters of the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country codes and the third is usually the initial of the currency itself, so Japans currency code is JPY—JP for Japan and Y for yen. This eliminates the problem caused by the dollar, franc, peso and pound being used in dozens of different countries. Also, if a currency is revalued, the currency codes last letter is changed to distinguish it from the old currency. Other changes can be seen, however, the Russian ruble, for example, changed from RUR to RUB and these currency units are denominated as one troy ounce of the specified metal as opposed to USD1 or EUR1. The code XTS is reserved for use in testing, the code XXX is used to denote a transaction involving no currency. There are also codes specifying certain monetary instruments used in international finance, the codes for most supranational currencies, such as the East Caribbean dollar, the CFP franc, the CFA franc BEAC and the CFA franc BCEAO. The predecessor to the euro, the European Currency Unit, had the code XEU, the use of an initial letter X for these purposes is facilitated by the ISO3166 rule that no official country code beginning with X will ever be assigned. Because of this rule ISO4217 can use X codes without risk of clashing with a country code. ISO3166 country codes beginning with X are used for private custom use, consequently, ISO4217 can use X codes for non-country-specific currencies without risk of clashing with future country codes. The inclusion of EU in the ISO 3166-1 reserved codes list, the ISO4217 standard includes a crude mechanism for expressing the relationship between a major currency unit and its corresponding minor currency unit. This mechanism is called the exponent and assumes a base of 10. For example, USD is equal to 100 of its currency unit the cent. So the USD has exponent 2, the code JPY is given the exponent 0, because its minor unit, the sen, although nominally valued at 1/100 of a yen, is of such negligible value that it is no longer used. Usually, as with the USD, the currency unit has a value that is 1/100 of the major unit, but in some cases 1/1000 is used. Mauritania does not use a decimal division of units, setting 1 ouguiya equal to 5 khoums, some currencies do not have any minor currency unit at all and these are given an exponent of 0, as with currencies whose minor units are unused due to negligible value. There is also a code number assigned to each currency
4.
Paisa
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The paisa or poisha is a monetary unit in several countries, cognate terms include Baisa. In India, Nepal and Pakistan, the paisa currently equals 1⁄100 of a rupee, in Bangladesh, the poisha equals 1⁄100 of a Bangladeshi taka. In Oman, the baisa equals 1⁄1000 of an Omani rial, the word paisa is from the Sanskrit term padāṁśa, meaning quarter part, from pada foot or quarter and aṁśa part. Another explanation is that the word derives from Portuguese ´pesa´ from which peso, the pesa was also in use in colonial Kenya. The colloquial term for money in Burmese, paiksan, derives from the Hindi term paisa, until the 1950s in India and Pakistan, the paisa was equivalent to 3 pies, 1⁄4 of an anna, or 1⁄64 of a rupee. In Hindi, Afghan Persian, and other languages, the word often means money or cash. Medieval trade routes that spanned the Arabian Sea between India, the Arab regions and East Africa spread the usage of Indian subcontinent and Arabic currency terms across these areas, the word pesa as a reference to money in East African languages such as Swahili dates from that period. An example of usage is the older day Kenyan mobile-phone-based money transfer service M-Pesa. Poisha = 1⁄100 of a Bangladeshi taka Paisa = 1⁄100 of an Indian rupee Paisa = 1⁄100 of a Nepalese rupee Baisa = 1⁄1000 of an Omani rial Paisa = 1⁄100 of a Pakistani rupee Indian paisa
5.
Currency symbol
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A currency symbol is a graphic symbol used as a shorthand for a currencys name, especially in reference to amounts of money. The European Commission considers the global recognition of the euro sign € part of its success, in 2009, India launched a public competition to replace the ₨ ligature it shared with neighbouring countries. It finalised its new symbol, ₹ on 15 July 2010. It is a blend of the Latin letter R with the Devanagari letter र, when writing currency amounts the location of the symbol varies by currency. Many currencies in the English-speaking world and Latin America, place it before the amount, the Cape Verdean escudo places its symbol in the decimal separator position. The usage of many European countries, such as France, Germany, the decimal separator also follows local countries standards. For instance, the United Kingdom often uses an interpunct as the point on price stickers. Commas or decimal points are common separators used in other countries, see decimal separator for information on international standards. Older currency symbols have evolved slowly, often from previous currencies, the dollar and peso symbols originated from the mark employed to denote the Spanish real de a ocho, whereas the pound and lira symbols evolved from an L standing for libra, a Roman pound of silver. Newly invented currencies and currencies adopting new symbols have symbolism closer to their adopter, the added center bar in the real sign is meant to symbolize stability. The new Indian rupee symbol, ₹, is a combination of Latin. There are also considerations, such as the perception of the business community. For a new symbol to be used, software to render it needs to be promulgated, the EU was criticized for not considering how the euro symbol would need to be customized to work in different fonts. The original design was exceptionally wide. These two factors have led to most typefaces employing customized, font-specific versions, usually with reduced width, List of currencies List of circulating currencies Currency Symbols
6.
Bangladesh
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Bangladesh, officially the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh, is a country in South Asia. It shares land borders with India and Myanmar, Nepal, Bhutan and China are located near Bangladesh but do not share a border with it. The countrys maritime territory in the Bay of Bengal is roughly equal to the size of its land area, Bangladesh is the worlds eighth most populous country. Dhaka is its capital and largest city, followed by Chittagong which has the countrys largest port, Bangladesh forms the largest and eastern part of the Bengal region. Bangladeshis include people of different ethnic groups and religions, Bengalis, who speak the official Bengali, make up 98% of the population. The politically dominant Bengali Muslims make the nation the worlds third largest Muslim-majority country, most of Bangladesh is covered by the Bengal delta, the largest delta on Earth. The country has 700 rivers and 8,046 km of inland waterways, highlands with evergreen forests are found in the northeastern and southeastern regions of the country. Bangladesh has many islands and a coral reef and it is home to the Sundarbans, the largest mangrove forest in the world. The countrys biodiversity includes a vast array of plant and wildlife, including critically endangered Bengal tigers, the Greeks and Romans identified the region as Gangaridai, a powerful kingdom of the historical subcontinent, in the 3rd century BCE. Archaeological research has unearthed several ancient cities in Bangladesh, which had trade links for millennia. The Bengal Sultanate and Mughal Bengal transformed the region into a cosmopolitan Islamic imperial power between the 14th and 18th centuries, the region was home to many principalities which had inland naval prowess. It was also a center of the worldwide muslin and silk trade. As part of British India, the region was influenced by the Bengali renaissance, the Partition of British India made East Bengal a part of the Dominion of Pakistan, and was renamed as East Pakistan. The region witnessed the Bengali Language Movement in 1952 and the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971, after independence, a parliamentary republic was established. A presidential government was in place between 1975 and 1990, followed by a return to parliamentary democracy, the country has also been affected by poverty, natural disasters, hunger, dominant party systems and military coups. Bangladesh is a power and a major developing nation. Listed as one of the Next Eleven, it has the 46th largest economy and it is one of the largest textile exporters in the world. Its major trading partners are the European Union, the United States, China, India, Japan, Malaysia, with its strategically vital location between Southern, Eastern and Southeast Asia, Bangladesh is an important promoter of regional connectivity and cooperation
7.
Central bank
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A central bank, reserve bank, or monetary authority is an institution that manages a states currency, money supply, and interest rates. Central banks also usually oversee the commercial banking system of their respective countries, Central banks in most developed nations are institutionally designed to be independent from political interference. Still, limited control by the executive and legislative bodies usually exists, prior to the 17th century most money was commodity money, typically gold or silver. However, promises to pay were widely circulated and accepted as value at least five hundred years earlier in both Europe and Asia. The Song dynasty was the first to issue generally circulating paper currency, in 1455, in an effort to control inflation, the succeeding Ming Dynasty ended the use of paper money and closed much of Chinese trade. The Bank of Amsterdam, established in the Dutch Republic in 1609, is considered to be the forerunner to modern central banks. The Wisselbanks innovations helped lay the foundations for the birth and development of the banking system that now plays a vital role in the worlds economy. Along with a number of local banks, it performed many functions of a central banking system. Lucien Gillard calls it the European guilder, and Adam Smith devotes many pages to explaining how the bank guilder works, the model of the Wisselbank as a state bank was adapted throughout Europe, including the Bank of Sweden and the Bank of England. Established by Dutch-Latvian Johan Palmstruch in 1668, Sveriges Riksbank is often considered by many as the worlds oldest central bank, the lenders would give the government cash and also issue notes against the government bonds, which could be lent again. A Royal Charter was granted on 27 July through the passage of the Tonnage Act 1694, the bank was given exclusive possession of the governments balances, and was the only limited-liability corporation allowed to issue banknotes. The £1. 2M was raised in 12 days, half of this was used to rebuild the Navy and these modern central banking functions evolved slowly through the 18th and 19th centuries. The currency crisis of 1797, caused by panicked depositors withdrawing from the Bank led to the government suspending convertibility of notes into specie payment. The bank was accused by the bullionists of causing the exchange rate to fall from over issuing banknotes. Nevertheless, it was clear that the Bank was being treated as an organ of the state, henry Thornton, a merchant banker and monetary theorist has been described as the father of the modern central bank. An opponent of the real bills doctrine, he was a defender of the bullionist position, thorntons process of monetary expansion anticipated the theories of Knut Wicksell regarding the cumulative process which restates the Quantity Theory in a theoretically coherent form. Until the mid-nineteenth century, commercial banks were able to issue their own banknotes, many consider the origins of the central bank to lie with the passage of the Bank Charter Act of 1844. Under this law, authorisation to issue new banknotes was restricted to the Bank of England, at the same time, the Bank of England was restricted to issue new banknotes only if they were 100% backed by gold or up to £14 million in government debt
8.
Bangladesh Bank
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Bangladesh Bank is the central bank of Bangladesh and is a member of the Asian Clearing Union. The bank is active in developing green banking and financial policy and is an important member of the Alliance for Financial Inclusion. Bangladesh Financial Intelligence Unit, a department of Bangladesh Bank, has got the membership of Egmont Group, Bangladesh Bank is the first central bank in the world to introduce a dedicated hotline for the general populace to complain any banking related problem. Moreover, the organisation is the first central bank in the world to issue a Green Banking Policy and this reorganisation was done pursuant to Bangladesh Bank Order,1972, and the Bangladesh Bank came into existence retroactively from 16 December 1971. The 1971 Mujib regime pursued a pro-socialist agenda, however, government control of the wrong sectors prevented these banks from functioning well. While the government made a point of intervening everywhere, it didnt set up a regulatory system to diagnose such problems. Hence, banking concepts like profitability and liquidity were alien to bank managers, in 1982, the first reform program was initiated, wherein the government denationalised two of the six nationalised commercial banks and permitted private local banks to compete in the banking sector. Yet the efficiency of the sector could not be improved. The Financial Sector Adjustment Credit and Financial Sector Reform Programme were formed in 1990 and these programs sought to remove government distortions and lessen the financial repression. Policies made use of the McKinnon-Shaw hypothesis, which stated that removing distortions augments efficiency in the credit market, the policies therefore involved banks providing loans on a commercial basis, enhancing bank efficiency and limiting government control to monetary policy only. FSRP forced banks to have a capital adequacy, to systematically classify loans and to implement modern computerised systems. It forced the bank to free up interest rates, revise financial laws. The government also developed the market, which was also performing poorly. Afterwards, the Government of Bangladesh formed a Bank Reform Committee, the Bangladesh Bank performs all the functions that a central bank in any country is expected to perform. Like all other banks, Bangladesh Bank is both the governments banker and the bankers bank, a lender of last resort. Bangladesh Bank, like most other banks, exercises a monopoly over the issue of currency. Except for the one, two, and five taka notes and coins, it issues all other denominations of Bangladeshi taka, the major functional areas include, Formulation and implementation of monetary and credit policies. Regulation and supervision of banks and non-bank financial institutions, promotion, Management of the countrys international reserves
9.
Mint (facility)
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A mint is an industrial facility which manufactures coins that can be used in currency. The history of mints correlates closely with the history of coins, in the beginning, hammered coinage or cast coinage were the chief means of coin minting, with resulting production runs numbering as little as the hundreds or thousands. In modern mints, coin dies are manufactured in large numbers, with the mass production of currency, the production cost is weighed when minting coins. For example, it costs the United States Mint much less than 25 cents to make a quarter, metals were well suited to represent wealth, owing to their great intrinsic value and their durability, divisibility and rarity. The first mint was established in Lydia in the 7th century BC, for coining gold, silver. The Lydian innovation of manufacturing coins under the authority of the spread to neighboring Greece. Some of the earliest Greek mints were within city-states on Greek islands such as Crete, at about the same time, coins and mints appeared independently in China and spread to Korea and Japan. The manufacture of coins in the Roman Empire, dating from about the 4th century BC, the origin of the word mint is ascribed to the manufacture of silver coin at Rome in 269 BC at the temple of Juno Moneta. This goddess became the personification of money, and her name was applied both to money and to its place of manufacture, Roman mints were spread widely across the Empire, and were sometimes used for propaganda purposes. The populace often learned of a new Roman Emperor when coins appeared with the new Emperors portrait, Ancient coins were made by casting in moulds or by striking between engraved dies. The Romans cast their larger copper coins in clay moulds carrying distinctive markings, not because they knew nothing of striking, casting is now used only by counterfeiters. The most ancient coins were cast in bulletshaped or conical moulds, the blank or unmarked piece of metal was placed on a small anvil, and the die was held in position with tongs. The reverse or lower side of the received a rectangular mark made by the sharp edges of the little anvil. Subsequently the anvil was marked in ways, and decorated with letters and figures of beasts. The spherical blanks soon gave place to lenticular-shaped ones, the blank was made red-hot and struck between cold dies. One blow was usually insufficient, and the method was similar to that used in striking medals in high relief. With the substitution of iron for bronze as the material for dies, about 300 AD, in the Middle Ages bars of metal were cast and hammered out on an anvil. Portions of the sheets were then cut out with shears
10.
Eastern Nagari script
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The Assamese script is a writing system of the Assamese language. It used to be the script of choice in the Brahmaputra valley for Sanskrit as well as languages such as Bodo, Khasi. By the 17th century three styles of Assamese script could be identified that converged to the script following typesetting required for printing. The present standard is identical to the Bengali alphabet except for three letters, the Buranjis were written during the Ahom dynasty in the Assamese language using the Assamese alphabet. Later, Sankardev used it in the 15th and 16th centuries to compose his oeuvre in Assamese and Brajavali dialect, the Ahom king Supangmung, was the first ruler who started issuing Assamese coins for his kingdom. A similar script with minor differences is used to write Maithili, Bengali, Meithei, the Umachal rock inscription of the 5th century evidences the first use of a script in the region. The script was similar to the one used in Samudraguptas Allahabad Pillar inscription. Rock and copper plate inscriptions from then onwards, and Xaansi bark manuscripts right up to the 18th–19th centuries show a development of the Assamese script. The script could be said to develop proto-Assamese shapes by the 13th century, the script presently has a total of 11 vowel letters, used to represent the eight main vowel sounds of Assamese, along with a number of vowel diphthongs. All of these are used in both Assamese and Bengali, the two main languages using the script, for example, the Assamese script has two symbols for the vowel sound and two symbols for the vowel sound. This redundancy stems from the time when this script was used to write Sanskrit, a language that had a short and a long, and a short and a long. These letters are preserved in the Assamese script with their traditional names of hôrswô i and dirghô i, vowel signs can be used in conjunction with consonants to modify the pronunciation of the consonant. When no vowel is written, the vowel অ is often assumed, to specifically denote the absence of a vowel, may be written underneath the consonant. The names of the consonant letters in Assamese are typically just the consonants main pronunciation plus the inherent vowel ô, since the inherent vowel is assumed and not written, most letters names look identical to the letter itself. Some letters that have lost their distinctive pronunciation in Modern Assamese are called by a more elaborate name. For example, since the consonant phoneme /n/ can be written ন, ণ, or ঞ, these letters are not simply called nô, instead, they are called ন dôntiya nô, ণ murdhôinnya nô, and ঞ niô. Goswami the number of clusters is 143 symbolised by 174 conjunct letters. Three phoneme clusters are 21 in number, which are written by 27 conjunct clusters, a few of them are given hereafter as examples, Though ক্ষ is used in Bengali, it has a different pronunciation
11.
Specials (Unicode block)
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Specials is a short Unicode block allocated at the very end of the Basic Multilingual Plane, at U+FFF0–FFFF. Of these 16 codepoints, five are assigned as of Unicode 9, U+FFFD � REPLACEMENT CHARACTER used to replace an unknown, unrecognized or unrepresentable character U+FFFE <noncharacter-FFFE> not a character. FFFE and FFFF are not unassigned in the sense. They can be used to guess a texts encoding scheme, since any text containing these is by not a correctly encoded Unicode text. The replacement character � is a found in the Unicode standard at codepoint U+FFFD in the Specials table. It is used to indicate problems when a system is unable to render a stream of data to a correct symbol and it is usually seen when the data is invalid and does not match any character, Consider a text file containing the German word für in the ISO-8859-1 encoding. This file is now opened with an editor that assumes the input is UTF-8. The first and last byte are valid UTF-8 encodings of ASCII, therefore, a text editor could replace this byte with the replacement character symbol to produce a valid string of Unicode code points. The whole string now displays like this, f�r, a poorly implemented text editor might save the replacement in UTF-8 form, the text file data will then look like this, 0x66 0xEF 0xBF 0xBD 0x72, which will be displayed in ISO-8859-1 as f�r. Since the replacement is the same for all errors this makes it impossible to recover the original character, a better design is to preserve the original bytes, including the error, and only convert to the replacement when displaying the text. This will allow the text editor to save the original byte sequence and it has become increasingly common for software to interpret invalid UTF-8 by guessing the bytes are in another byte-based encoding such as ISO-8859-1. This allows correct display of both valid and invalid UTF-8 pasted together, Unicode control characters UTF-8 Mojibake Unicodes Specials table Decodeunicodes entry for the replacement character
12.
Government of Bangladesh
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The Government of Bangladesh is led by the Prime Minister, who selects all the remaining Ministers. The Prime Minister and the other most senior Ministers belong to the supreme decision-making committee, the Government has three branches, the Executive branch, the Legislative branch and the Judicial branch. The current Prime Minister is Sheikh Hasina, leader of the Bangladesh Awami League, Bangladesh Awami League led by her, and its Grand Alliance won the two-thirds majority numerically the party controls 230 seats out of 299. The President is the Head of State, a ceremonial post. The real power is held by the Prime Minister, who is the head of government and this system was first practised in 1991 and adopted to the constitution in 1996. The prime minister is appointed by the president, commanding the confidence of the majority of the MPs. The cabinet is composed of ministers selected by the prime minister, the executive administrates the country and executes the laws, passed by the legislature. It maintains the law and order in the country. It also maintains relationship with foreign countries and it works for defence, liberty and sovereignty of the country. As head of the state, the president can grant pardon to a man sentenced to death penalty or lessen the punishment, in some cases, it also performs some legislative and judicial functions. The executive on the other hand calculated the income and expenditure of the government and it also performs various public welfare services such as, education, agriculture, establishment of industry, trade & commerce, land reform, tax and revenue collection. Beside this, it accepts and implements various development projects. The legislature of Bangladesh is unicameral, the 300 members are elected by universal suffrage at least every 5 years. It consists of 350 members at present, there is universal suffrage for all citizens at the age of 18. On 16 May 2004, the Jatiyo Sangsad passed the 14th constitutional amendment to reintroduce quotas for women, the number of seats in parliament is to be raised to 345,45 of which will be reserved for women in the next parliament. The seats will be allocated to parties in proportion to their share of the vote. This quota system replaces the previous law which expired in 2001. Until 2001 a system of reserved seats for women was used and this provision of guaranteeing women reserved seats expired in April 2001
13.
Sanskrit
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Sanskrit is the primary liturgical language of Hinduism, a philosophical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, and a literary language and lingua franca of ancient and medieval South Asia. As a result of transmission of Hindu and Buddhist culture to Southeast Asia and parts of Central Asia, as one of the oldest Indo-European languages for which substantial written documentation exists, Sanskrit holds a prominent position in Indo-European studies. The body of Sanskrit literature encompasses a rich tradition of poetry and drama as well as scientific, technical, philosophical, the compositions of Sanskrit were orally transmitted for much of its early history by methods of memorization of exceptional complexity, rigor, and fidelity. Thereafter, variants and derivatives of the Brahmi script came to be used, Sanskrit is today one of the 22 languages listed in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India, which mandates the Indian government to develop the language. It continues to be used as a ceremonial language in Hindu religious rituals and Buddhist practice in the form of hymns. The Sanskrit verbal adjective sáṃskṛta- may be translated as refined, elaborated, as a term for refined or elaborated speech, the adjective appears only in Epic and Classical Sanskrit in the Manusmṛti and the Mahabharata. The pre-Classical form of Sanskrit is known as Vedic Sanskrit, with the language of the Rigveda being the oldest and most archaic stage preserved, Classical Sanskrit is the standard register as laid out in the grammar of Pāṇini, around the fourth century BCE. Sanskrit, as defined by Pāṇini, evolved out of the earlier Vedic form, the present form of Vedic Sanskrit can be traced back to as early as the second millennium BCE. Scholars often distinguish Vedic Sanskrit and Classical or Pāṇinian Sanskrit as separate dialects, although they are quite similar, they differ in a number of essential points of phonology, vocabulary, grammar and syntax. Vedic Sanskrit is the language of the Vedas, a collection of hymns, incantations and theological and religio-philosophical discussions in the Brahmanas. Modern linguists consider the metrical hymns of the Rigveda Samhita to be the earliest, for nearly 2000 years, Sanskrit was the language of a cultural order that exerted influence across South Asia, Inner Asia, Southeast Asia, and to a certain extent East Asia. A significant form of post-Vedic Sanskrit is found in the Sanskrit of Indian epic poetry—the Ramayana, the deviations from Pāṇini in the epics are generally considered to be on account of interference from Prakrits, or innovations, and not because they are pre-Paninian. Traditional Sanskrit scholars call such deviations ārṣa, meaning of the ṛṣis, in some contexts, there are also more prakritisms than in Classical Sanskrit proper. There were four principal dialects of classical Sanskrit, paścimottarī, madhyadeśī, pūrvi, the predecessors of the first three dialects are attested in Vedic Brāhmaṇas, of which the first one was regarded as the purest. In the 2001 Census of India,14,035 Indians reported Sanskrit to be their first language, in India, Sanskrit is among the 14 original languages of the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution. The state of Uttarakhand in India has ruled Sanskrit as its official language. In October 2012 social activist Hemant Goswami filed a petition in the Punjab. More than 3,000 Sanskrit works have been composed since Indias independence in 1947, much of this work has been judged of high quality, in comparison to both classical Sanskrit literature and modern literature in other Indian languages
14.
Coin
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A coin is a small, flat, round piece of metal or plastic used primarily as a medium of exchange or legal tender. They are standardized in weight, and produced in quantities at a mint in order to facilitate trade. They are most often issued by a government, Coins are usually metal or alloy, or sometimes made of synthetic materials. Coins made of metal are stored in large quantities as bullion coins. Other coins are used as money in transactions, circulating alongside banknotes. Usually the highest value coin in circulation is less than the lowest-value note. In the last hundred years, the value of circulation coins has occasionally been lower than the value of the metal they contain. Exceptions to the rule of face value being higher than content value also occur for some bullion coins made of copper, silver, or gold, while the Eagle, Maple Leaf, and Sovereign coins have nominal face values, the Krugerrand does not. The first coins were developed independently in Iron Age Anatolia and Archaic Greece, India, Coins spread rapidly in the 6th and 5th centuries BCE, throughout Greece and Persia, and further to the Balkans. Standardized Roman currency was used throughout the Roman Empire, important Roman gold and silver coins were continued into the Middle Ages. Fiat money first arose in medieval China, with the paper money. Early paper money was introduced in Europe in the later Middle Ages, the penny was minted as a silver coin until the 17th century. The first circulating United States coins were cents, produced in 1793, Coins were an evolution of currency systems of the Late Bronze Age, where standard-sized ingots, and tokens such as knife money, were used to store and transfer value. In the late Chinese Bronze Age, standardized cast tokens were made and these were replicas in bronze of earlier Chinese currency, cowrie shells, so they were named Bronze Shell. According to Aristotle and Pollux, the first issuer of coins was Hermodike of Kyme The earliest coins are associated with Iron Age Anatolia. Early electrum coins were not standardized in weight, and in their earliest stage may have been ritual objects, such as badges or medals, issued by priests. The first Lydian coins were made of electrum, a naturally occurring alloy of silver, most of the early Lydian coins include no writing, only an image of a symbolic animal. Anatolian Artemis was the Πὀτνια Θηρῶν, whose symbol was the stag, a small percentage of early Lydian/Greek coins have a legend
15.
Bengal
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Bengal is a geopolitical, cultural and historical region in Asia, which is located in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent at the apex of the Bay of Bengal. Geographically, it is made up by the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta system, in 2011, the population of Bengal was estimated to be 250 million, making it the most densely populated region in South Asia. An estimated 160 million people live in Bangladesh, while 91.3 million people live in West Bengal, the predominant ethno-linguistic group are the Bengali people, who speak the Indo-Aryan Bengali language. Bengali Muslims are the majority in Bangladesh, Bengali Hindus are the majority in West Bengal. Dense woodlands, including rainforests, cover Bengals northern and eastern areas. In the littoral southwest are the Sunderbans, the worlds largest mangrove forest, in the coastal southeast lies Coxs Bazaar, the longest beach in the world at 125 km. The region has a climate, which the Bengali calendar divides into six seasons. Bengal has played a role in the history of Asia. In antiquity, its kingdoms were known as seafaring nations, at times an independent regional empire, or a bastion of larger empires, the historical region was a leading power of the Indian subcontinent and the Islamic East. Bengali culture has had a significant influence on other cultures, especially in the fields of literature, music, art, architecture, sports, currency, commerce, politics and cuisine. The name of Bengal is derived from the ancient kingdom of Banga, theories on the origin of the term Banga point to the Proto-Dravidian Bong tribe that settled in the area circa 1000 BCE and the Austric word Bong. The term Bangaladesa is used to describe the region in 11th century South Indian records, the modern term Bangla is prominent from the 14th century, which saw the establishment of the Sultanate of Bengal, whose first ruler Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah was known as the Shah of Bangala. The Portuguese referred to the region as Bengala in the Age of Discovery, most of the Bengal region lies in the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta, but there are highlands in its north, northeast and southeast. The Ganges Delta arises from the confluence of the rivers Ganges, Brahmaputra, the total area of Bengal is 232,752 km2—West Bengal is 88,752 km2 and Bangladesh 147,570 km2. The flat and fertile Bangladesh Plain dominates the geography of Bangladesh, the Chittagong Hill Tracts and Sylhet regions are home to most of the mountains in Bangladesh. Most parts of Bangladesh are within 10 metres above the sea level, because of this low elevation, much of this region is exceptionally vulnerable to seasonal flooding due to monsoons. The highest point in Bangladesh is in Mowdok range at 1,052 metres, a major part of the coastline comprises a marshy jungle, the Sundarbans, the largest mangrove forest in the world and home to diverse flora and fauna, including the royal Bengal tiger. In 1997, this region was declared endangered, West Bengal is on the eastern bottleneck of India, stretching from the Himalayas in the north to the Bay of Bengal in the south
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Ibn Battuta
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He is known for his extensive travels, accounts of which were published in his Travels. Over a period of thirty years, Ibn Battuta visited most of the known Islamic world as well as many non-Muslim lands and his journeys included trips to North Africa, the Horn of Africa, West Africa, Middle East, India, Central Asia, Southeast Asia and China. He claimed descent from a Berber tribe known as the Lawata, as a young man he would have studied at a Sunni Maliki madhhab, the dominant form of education in North Africa at that time. Maliki Muslims requested Ibn Battuta serve as their religious judge as he was from an area where it was practiced. In June 1325, at the age of twenty-one, Ibn Battuta set off from his hometown on a hajj, or pilgrimage, to Mecca and he would not see Morocco again for twenty-four years. So I braced my resolution to quit my dear ones, female and male and my parents being yet in the bonds of life, it weighed sorely upon me to part from them, and both they and I were afflicted with sorrow at this separation. He travelled to Mecca overland, following the North African coast across the sultanates of Abd al-Wadid and Hafsid, the route took him through Tlemcen, Béjaïa, and then Tunis, where he stayed for two months. For safety, Ibn Battuta usually joined a caravan to reduce the risk of being robbed and he took a bride in the town of Sfax, the first in a series of marriages that would feature in his travels. In the early spring of 1326, after a journey of over 3,500 km, Ibn Battuta arrived at the port of Alexandria and he met two ascetic pious men in Alexandria. One was Sheikh Burhanuddin who is supposed to have foretold the destiny of Ibn Battuta as a world traveller saying It seems to me that you are fond of foreign travel and you will visit my brother Fariduddin in India, Rukonuddin in Sind and Burhanuddin in China. Another pious man Sheikh Murshidi interpreted the meaning of a dream of Ibn Battuta that he was meant to be a world traveller and he spent several weeks visiting sites in the area, and then headed inland to Cairo, the capital of the Mamluk Sultanate and an important city. After spending about a month in Cairo, he embarked on the first of many detours within the safety of Mamluk territory. Of the three routes to Mecca, Ibn Battuta chose the least-travelled, which involved a journey up the Nile valley. Upon approaching the town, however, a local rebellion forced him to turn back, Ibn Battuta returned to Cairo and took a second side trip, this time to Mamluk-controlled Damascus. During his first trip he had encountered a man who prophesied that he would only reach Mecca by travelling through Syria. Without this help many travellers would be robbed and murdered, after spending the Muslim month of Ramadan in Damascus, he joined a caravan travelling the 1,300 km south to Medina, site of the tomb of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. After four days in the town, he journeyed on to Mecca, rather than returning home, Ibn Battuta instead decided to continue on, choosing as his next destination the Ilkhanate, a Mongol Khanate, to the northeast. On 17 November 1326, following a month spent in Mecca, the group headed north to Medina and then, travelling at night, turned northeast across the Najd plateau to Najaf, on a journey that lasted about two weeks
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Bengalis
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The Bengalis, also spelled as the Bangalees, are a major Indo-Aryan ethno-linguistic group. They are native to the region of Bengal in South Asia and they speak the Bengali language, the most easterly branch of the Indo-European language family. Bengalis are the third largest ethnic group in the world after the Han Chinese, apart from Bangladesh and West Bengal, Bengali-majority populations also reside in Indias Tripura state, the Barak Valley in Assam state and the union territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The global Bengali diaspora has well-established communities in Pakistan, the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada and they have four major religious subgroups, including Bengali Muslims, Bengali Hindus, Bengali Christians and Bengali Buddhists. Archaeologists have discovered remnants of a 4,000 years old Chalcolithic civilisation in the greater Bengal region, however evidence of much older Palaeolithic human habitations are found in the form of a Stone Implement and a Hand Axe in Rangamati and Feni districts of Bangladesh. The origin of the word Bangla ~ Bengal is unknown, though it is believed to be derived from a tribe called Bang that settled in the area around the year 1000 BCE. Kingdoms of Anga, Vanga and Magadha were formed in and around Bengal and were first described in the Atharvaveda around 1000 BCE as well as in Hindu epic Mahabharata, from the 6th century BCE, Magadha expanded to include most of the Bihar and Bengal regions. It was one of the four kingdoms of India at the time of Buddha and was one of the sixteen Mahajanapadas. One of the earliest foreign references to Bengal is the mention of a land ruled by the king Xandrammes named Gangaridai by the Greeks around 100 BCE, the word is speculated to have come from Gangahrd in reference to an area in Bengal. Later from the 3rd to the 6th centuries CE, the kingdom of Magadha served as the seat of the Gupta Empire, one of the first recorded independent kings of Bengal was Shashanka, reigning around the early 7th century. After a period of anarchy, Gopala came to power in 750, atisha was a renowned Bengali Buddhist teacher who was instrumental in revival of Buddhism in Tibet and also held the position of Abbot at the Vikramshila university. Tilopa was also from Bengal region, the Pala dynasty was later followed by a shorter reign of the Hindu Sena Empire. Islam was introduced to Bengal in the century by Sufi missionaries. Subsequent Muslim conquests helped spread Islam throughout the region, bakhtiar Khilji, a Turkic general of the Slave dynasty of Delhi Sultanate, defeated Lakshman Sen of the Sena dynasty and conquered large parts of Bengal. Consequently, the region was ruled by dynasties of sultans and feudal lords under the Bengal Sultanate for the few hundred years. Islam was introduced to the Sylhet region by the Muslim saint Shah Jalal in the early 14th century, Mughal general Man Singh conquered parts of Bengal including Dhaka during the time of Emperor Akbar. Few Rajput tribes from his army permanently settled around Dhaka and surrounding lands, later on, in the early 17th century, Islam Khan conquered all of Bengal. Other figures have been considered to be part of the Renaissance and he is considered one of the fathers of radio science, and is also considered the father of Bengali science fiction
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Bengal Sultanate
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The Bengal Sultanate, officially the Sultanate of Bengal, was a Muslim state and empire based in the Indian subcontinent on the coast of the Bay of Bengal. It was an important power in South and Southeast Asia and its rulers carried the title of King of Kings in the East. The kingdoms heartland was in Bengal, which is divided between Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal, but its realm included large parts of North India. Its bordering countries included the Delhi Sultanate, Tibet, Ahom, the Bengal Sultanate seceded from the Delhi Sultanate under Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah in 1352 and had capitals in Gaur, Pandua and Sonargaon. Delhi recognised Bengals independence after it was defeated by Ilyas Shah and his son, the kingdom enjoyed a strategic relationship with Ming China. It reached the height of its power during the reigns of Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah and Alauddin Hussain Shah in the 15th and early 16th centuries, Trade links were fostered with the Horn of Africa, the Maldives and Malacca. Its political economy featured the Taka as its standard currency, Bengali Muslim architecture flourished under the sultanates distinct regional genre, incorporating Bengali and Persian elements. A cosmopolitan literary culture developed in the kingdom, in the mid 16th century, Bengal was overrun by Sher Shah Suris conquests. Arakan ended its relationship with Bengal after allying with the Portuguese Empire. The Mughals defeated the last Sultan, Daud Khan Karrani, in Rajmahal in 1576, subsequently, eastern Bengal came under the control of the Baro-Bhuyan chieftains. By the 17th century, most of the territories of the sultanate were annexed by Mughal Bengal, Bengal was integrated into the Muslim world after the Islamic conquest of the Indian subcontinent. It was annexed by Bakhtiar Khilji as a province of the Delhi Sultanate, in the mid 14th century, governors in Bengal declared independence from the Delhi Sultanate, including at Lakhnauti, Sonargaon and Satgaon. In 1352, the Bengal Sultanate was formed by Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah after he conquered the three cities and he also defeated an invasion by the Sultan of Delhi Firuz Shah Tughluq in 1353. Ilyas Shah led successful campaigns against neighbouring Hindu states which consolidated the position of the Bengal Sultanate as the foremost military power in the eastern subcontinent, the records of medieval Indian historians, such as Abul Fazl, described him as first Shah of Bengal. His successors formed the Ilyas Shahi dynasty and his son Sikandar Shah and grandson Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah expanded the military, diplomatic and architectural influence of the sultanate. In 1414, Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah, the son of the Hindu zamindar Raja Ganesha, assumed the throne after a coup backed by his father and he reigned until 1433 and proclaimed himself as a caliph of Islam. During his reign, Arakan in Burma came under a century of Bengali suzerainty and his military assisted the Arakanese ruler Narameikhla to regain control of the city of Mrauk U in return for Arakan becoming a vassal state of the Bengal Sultanate. Bengali Muslims formed their own settlements in Arakan, the Buddhist rulers in Arakan received Islamic titles
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Dinar
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The dinar or denar is a main currency unit in modern circulation in seven mostly-Islamic and two mostly-Orthodox countries, and has historic use in several more. The English word dinar is the transliteration of the Arabic دينار, a gold coin known as the dīnāra was also introduced to India by the Kushan Empire in the 1st century AD, and adopted by the Gupta Empire and its successors up to the 6th century. The modern gold dinar is a modern bullion gold coin, the 8th century English king Offa of Mercia minted copies of Abbasid dinars struck in 774 by Caliph Al-Mansur with Offa Rex centered on the reverse. The moneyer visibly had no understanding of Arabic as the Arabic text contains many errors, such coins may have been produced for trade with Islamic Spain. Currency Economy of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation Islamic gold dinar Kelantanese dinar List of circulating currencies Middle East economic integration
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West Bengal
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West Bengal is an Indian state, located in East India on the Bay of Bengal. It is Indias fourth-most populous state, with over 91 million inhabitants and it has a total area of 34,267 sq mi, making it similar in size to Serbia. A part of the ethno-linguistic Bengal region, it borders Bangladesh in the east and Nepal and it also has borders five Indian states, Odisha, Jharkhand, Bihar, Sikkim and Assam. The state capital is Kolkata, the seventh-largest city in India, the geography of West Bengal includes the Darjeeling Himalayan hill region in its extreme north, the Ganges delta, the Rarh region and the coastal Sundarbans. The main ethnic group are the Bengali people, with Bengali Hindus forming the demographic majority, Ancient Bengal was the site of several major janapadas, including Vanga, Radha, Pundra and Suhma. In the 2nd century BC, the region was conquered by the emperor Ashoka, in the 4th century AD, it was absorbed into the Gupta Empire. From the 13th century onward, the region was ruled by sultans, powerful Hindu states and Baro-Bhuyan landlords. The British East India Company cemented their hold on the following the Battle of Plassey in 1757. Between 1977 and 2011, the state was administered by the worlds longest elected Communist government, a major agricultural producer, West Bengal is the sixth-largest contributor to Indias net domestic product. It is noted for its activities and the presence of cultural and educational institutions. The states cultural heritage, besides varied folk traditions, ranges from stalwarts in literature including Nobel-laureate Rabindranath Tagore to scores of musicians, film-makers and artists. West Bengal is also distinct from most other Indian states in its appreciation and practice of playing football besides cricket. The origin of the name Bengal is unknown, one theory suggests that the word derives from Bang, a Dravidian tribe that settled the region around 1000 BC. The word might have derived from the ancient kingdom of Vanga. Although some early Sanskrit literature mentions the name, the early history is obscure. At the end of British Rule over the Indian subcontinent, the Bengal region was partitioned in 1947 along religious lines into east and west, the east came to be known as East Bengal and the west came to known as West Bengal, which continued as an Indian state. In 2011, the Government of West Bengal proposed a change in the name of the state to Poschimbongo. This is the name of the state, literally meaning western Bengal in the native Bengali language
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Tripura
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Tripura /ˈtrɪpuːrɑː/ is a state in Northeast India. The third-smallest state in the country, it covers 10,491 km2 and is bordered by Bangladesh to the north, south, and west, in 2011 the state had 3,671,032 residents, constituting 0. 3% of the countrys population. The Bengali Hindu people form the majority in Tripura. Indigenous communities, known in India as scheduled tribes, form about 30 per cent of Tripuras population, the Kokborok speaking Tripuri people are the major group among 19 tribes and many subtribes. The area of modern Tripura was ruled for centuries by the Tripuri dynasty. The independent Tripuri Kingdom joined the newly independent India in 1949, Tripura lies in a geographically disadvantageous location in India, as only one major highway, the National Highway 8, connects it with the rest of the country. Five mountain ranges—Boromura, Atharamura, Longtharai, Shakhan and Jampui Hills—run north to south, with intervening valleys, Agartala, the state has a tropical savanna climate, and receives seasonal heavy rains from the south west monsoon. Forests cover more than half of the area, in which bamboo, Tripura has the highest number of primate species found in any Indian state. Due to its isolation, economic progress in the state is hindered. Poverty and unemployment continue to plague Tripura, which has a limited infrastructure, most residents are involved in agriculture and allied activities, although the service sector is the largest contributor to the states gross domestic product. The sculptures at the archaeological sites Unakoti, Pilak and Devtamura provide historical evidence of fusion between organised and tribal religions. The Ujjayanta Palace in Agartala was the royal abode of the Tripuri king. Tripur was the 39th descendant of Druhyu, who belonged to the lineage of Yayati, one of the Puranas, the text about the exploits of Shiva, tells the story of the sack of Tripura. Variants of the name include Tripra, Tuipura and Tippera, although there is no evidence of lower or middle Paleolithic settlements in Tripura, Upper Paleolithic tools made of fossil wood have been found in the Haora and Khowai valleys. An ancient name of Tripura is Kirat Desh, probably referring to the Kirata Kingdoms or the generic term Kirata. However, it is whether the extent of modern Tripura is coterminous with Kirat Desh. The region was under the rule of the Twipra Kingdom for centuries, the boundaries of the kingdom changed over the centuries. At various times, the borders reached south to the jungles of the Sundarbans on the Bay of Bengal, east to Burma, the Mughals had influence over the appointment of the Tripuri kings
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Indian rupee
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The Indian rupee, is the official currency of the Republic of India. The rupee is subdivided into 100 paise, though as of 2011,25 paise is no more a legal tender, the issuance of the currency is controlled by the Reserve Bank of India. The Reserve Bank manages currency in India and derives its role in management on the basis of the Reserve Bank of India Act,1934. The rupee is named after the coin, rupiya, first issued by Sultan Sher Shah Suri in the 16th century. In 2010, a new symbol ₹, was officially adopted and it was derived from the combination of the Devanagari consonant र and the Latin capital letter R without its vertical bar. The parallel lines at the top are said to make an allusion to the tricolour Indian flag, the first series of coins with the new rupee symbol started in circulation on 8 July 2011. On 8 November 2016 the Government of India announced the demonetisation of ₹500 and ₹1000 banknotes with effect from midnight of the same day, a newly redesigned series of ₹500 banknote, in addition to a new denomination of ₹2000 banknote is in circulation since 10 November 2016. The new redesigned series is expected to be enlarged with banknotes in the denominations of ₹1000, ₹100. The word rupee was derived from the Sanskrit word रूप्यकम् or rupaya, the modern Indian rupee has a direct lineage from the rupiya, the silver coin, issued by Sher Shah Suri, continued by the Mughal rulers. Rūpa means to form or shape, example, Rūpyarūpa, rūpya — wrought silver, however, in the region of Bengal, the term taka has always been used to refer to currency. In the 14th century, Ibn Battuta noticed that people in the Bengal Sultanate referred to gold, today, the currency of Bangladesh is officially known as taka. The word taka in Bengali is also used generically to mean any money, currency. Thus, colloquially, a person speaking in Bengali may use taka to refer to money regardless of what currency it is denominated in, thus, in the states of West Bengal and Tripura the Indian rupee is officially known টাকা. Whereas, in the states of Assam and Odisha, the Indian rupee is known by names derived from the Sanskrit word ṭaṅka, টকা in Assamese. During his five-year rule from 1540 to 1545, Sultan Sher Shah Suri issued a coin of silver, weighing 178 grains, the silver coin remained in use during the Mughal period, Maratha era as well as in British India. Among the earliest issues of paper rupees include, the Bank of Hindustan, the General Bank of Bengal and Bihar, historically, the rupee was a silver coin. This had severe consequences in the century when the strongest economies in the world were on the gold standard. The discovery of large quantities of silver in the United States and several European colonies resulted in a decline in the value of relative to gold
23.
Partition of Bengal (1947)
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The Partition of Bengal in 1947, part of the Partition of India, divided the British Indian province of Bengal based on the Radcliffe Line between India and Pakistan. Predominantly Hindu West Bengal became a province of India, and predominantly Muslim East Bengal became a province of Pakistan, liberal Muslim leaders had earlier proposed an independent United Bengal, but met opposition from various parties, particularly Muslim and Hindu conservatives. The partition, with the transferred to Pakistan and India on 14–15 August 1947, was done according to what has come to be known as the 3 June Plan or Mountbatten Plan. India’s independence on 15 August 1947 ended over 150 years of British influence in the Indian subcontinent, in 1905, the first partition in Bengal was implemented as an administrative preference, making governing the two provinces, West and East Bengal, easier. While the Muslims were in favour of the partition, as they would have their own province and this controversy led to increased violence and protest and finally, in 1911, the two provinces were once again united. This was followed by the meeting of the members of the non-Muslim-majority areas of Bengal who by a division of 58–21 voted for partition of the province. This set the stage for the creation of West Bengal as a province of the Union of India, also in accordance with the Mountbatten Plan, in a referendum held on 7 July, the electorate of Sylhet voted to join East Bengal. Further, the Boundary Commission headed by Sir Cyril Radcliffe decided on the demarcation between the two newly created provinces. Power was transferred to Pakistan and India on 14 and 15 August, respectively, most important of all, Calcutta, then the largest city in India, an industrial and commercial hub and the largest port, would also go to the western part. Suhrawardy floated his idea on 24 April 1947 at a conference in Delhi. However, the plan directly ran counter to that of the Muslim Leagues, initially, Bengal provincial Muslim League leadership opinion was divided. Barddhamans League leader Abul Hashim supported it, on the other hand, Nurul Amin and Mohammad Akram Khan initially opposed it. But Muhammad Ali Jinnah realised the validity of Suhrawardys argument and gave his support to the plan. After Jinnahs approval, Suhrawardy started gathering support for his plan, on the Congress side, only a handful of leaders agreed to the plan. Among them was the influential Bengal provincial congress leader Sarat Chandra Bose, however most other BPCC leaders and Congress leadership including Nehru and Patel rejected the plan. The Hindu nationalist party Hindu Mahasabha under the leadership of Shyama Prasad Mukherjee vehemently opposed it. They also opined that though the plan asked for a sovereign Bengal state, in practice it will be a virtual Pakistan. Like Suhrawardy, Bose also felt that the partition would severely hamper Bengals economy, the agreement was published on 24 May 1947
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East Bengal
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East Bengal was the name used during two periods in the 20th century for a territory that roughly corresponded to the modern state of Bangladesh. Both instances involved a violent partition of Bengal which made one half East Bengal or Bangladesh, the area compromises roughly two-thirds of the ethno-linguistic region of Bengal. The first instance of the name was during the British rule of India, British governance of large swathes of Indian territory began with Robert Clives victory over the Nawab of Bengal, Siraj ud-Daulah, at the Battle of Plassey in 1757. The victory gave the British East India Company dominion over Bengal, after the Indian rebellion of 1857, the British government took direct control away from the East India Co. and established its imperial capital at Calcutta, the city founded by the Company. By 1900, the British province of Bengal constituted a huge territory, with the assumption of Lord Curzon to the office of Viceroy of India, British India was finally put under the charge of a man who considered himself an expert in Indian affairs. Curzon, seeing the logistical problems of administering such a large province, Bengal, henceforth, would encompass Calcutta and the western territories, roughly comprising modern West Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand, and Orissa. Eastern Bengal and Assam, the new province, would roughly encompass modern Bangladesh, the partition of Bengal, effected in July 1905, sparked a firestorm in the nationalist movement. In the now divided Bengal, East Bengal comprised an area of 196,540 square miles that included 18 million Muslims and 12 million Hindus, the Bengal area had 141,580 square miles with a majority of 42 million Hindus and 9 million Muslims. Bengal was divided into two provinces on 3 July 1946 in preparation for the partition of India - the Muslim-majority East Bengal, the two provinces each had their own Chief Minister. In August 1947, West Bengal became part of India, tensions between East Bengal and the western wing of Pakistan led to the One Unit policy. In 1955, most of the wing was combined to form a new West Pakistan province while East Bengal became the new province of East Pakistan. This system lasted until 1971 when East Pakistan declared independence during the Liberation War of Bangladesh, after absorption into the Dominion of Pakistan, the province of East Pakistan was administered by a ceremonial Governor and an indirectly elected Chief Minister. During the year from May 1954 to August 1955, executive powers were exercised by the Governor, British India History of Pakistan History of Bangladesh Barak Valley East Bengal CFL2015 points table top
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Union of Pakistan
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Pakistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a federal parliamentary republic in South Asia on the crossroads of Central Asia and Western Asia. It is the sixth-most populous country with a population exceeding 200 million people, in terms of area, it is the 33rd-largest country in the world with an area covering 881,913 square kilometres. It is separated from Tajikistan by Afghanistans narrow Wakhan Corridor in the north, Pakistan is unique among Muslim countries in that it is the only country to have been created in the name of Islam. As a result of the Pakistan Movement led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah and it is an ethnically and linguistically diverse country, with a similar variation in its geography and wildlife. Initially a dominion, Pakistan adopted a constitution in 1956, becoming an Islamic republic, an ethnic civil war in 1971 resulted in the secession of East Pakistan as the new country of Bangladesh. The constitution also states that all laws are to conform to the injunctions of Islam as laid down in the Quran, Pakistan has a semi-industrialised economy with a well-integrated agriculture sector, and a growing services sector. The Pakistani economy is the 24th-largest in the world in terms of purchasing power and it is characterised among the emerging and growth-leading economies of the world, and is backed by one of the worlds largest and fastest-growing middle classes. The post-independence history of Pakistan has been characterised by periods of military rule and it is also an associate member of CERN. Pakistan is a signatory to the Kyoto Protocol, the Paris Agreement, the name Pakistan literally means land of the pure in Urdu and Persian. It is a play on the word pāk meaning pure in Persian and Pashto, the letter i was incorporated to ease pronunciation and form the linguistically correct and meaningful name. Some of the earliest ancient human civilisations in South Asia originated from areas encompassing present-day Pakistan, the earliest known inhabitants in the region were Soanian during the Lower Paleolithic, of whom stone tools have been found in the Soan Valley of Punjab. The Vedic Civilization, characterised by Indo-Aryan culture, laid the foundations of Hinduism, Multan was an important Hindu pilgrimage centre. The Vedic civilisation flourished in the ancient Gandhāran city of Takṣaśilā, the Indo-Greek Kingdom founded by Demetrius of Bactria included Gandhara and Punjab and reached its greatest extent under Menander, prospering the Greco-Buddhist culture in the region. Taxila had one of the earliest universities and centres of education in the world. At its zenith, the Rai Dynasty of Sindh ruled this region, the Pala Dynasty was the last Buddhist empire, which, under Dharampala and Devapala, stretched across South Asia from what is now Bangladesh through Northern India to Pakistan. The Arab conqueror Muhammad bin Qasim conquered the Indus valley from Sindh to Multan in southern Punjab in 711 AD, the Pakistan governments official chronology identifies this as the time when the foundation of Pakistan was laid. The Early Medieval period witnessed the spread of Islam in the region, during this period, Sufi missionaries played a pivotal role in converting a majority of the regional Buddhist and Hindu population to Islam. These developments set the stage for the rule of several successive Muslim empires in the region, including the Ghaznavid Empire, the Ghorid Kingdom, the Lodi dynasty, the last of the Delhi Sultanate, was replaced by the Mughal Empire
26.
East Pakistan
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Inter-religious violence during the partition drove Bengali Muslims and Hindus further apart, leading to political upheaval in Bengal. From 1947 until 1954, East Bengal was an independent administrative unit which was governed by the Pakistan Muslim League led by Nurul Amin. In 1955, the Bengali Prime minister Muhammad Ali Bogra devolved the province of East Bengal, in the 1954 elections the Pakistan Muslim League were completely defeated by the United Front coalition of the Awami League, the Krishak Praja Party, the Democratic Party and Nizam-e-Islam. The Awami League gained the control of East Pakistan after appointing Huseyn Suhrawardy for the office of prime minister and this authoritarian period that existed from 1958 until 1971, is often regarded as period of mass repression, resentment, and political neglect and ignorance. Allying with the population of West Pakistan, the Easts population unanimously voted for Fatima Jinnah during the 1965 presidential elections against Ayub Khan. The elections were widely believed to be rigged in the favour of Ayub Khan using state patronage. The economic disparity, impression that West Pakistan, despite being less populated than East Pakistan, was ruling and prospering at its cost further popularize the Bengali nationalism. As response to this operation, the Awami League announced the declaration of independence of East Pakistan on 26 March 1971, East Pakistan had an area of 147,610 km2. India bordered it on three sides with the Bay of Bengal to the South, East Pakistan was one of the largest provincial states of Pakistan, with the largest population, the largest political representation, and the largest economy. Finally, on 16 December 1971, East Pakistan was officially disestablished and was succeeded by the independent state of Bangladesh, many notable Muslim Bengali figures were among the Founding fathers of present date, State of Pakistan. The country came into existence on 14 August 1947 confronted by seemingly insurmountable problems, until 1947, the East Wing of Pakistan, separated from the West Wing by 1,600 km of Indian territory, had been heavily dependent on Hindu management. Bengal was divided into two provinces on the midnight of 14 August 1947 following the Radcliffe Line, the two provinces each had their own chief ministers and governors. In August 1947, the West Bengal became part of India, throughout this time, the tensions between East Bengal and the West Pakistan led to the One-Unit policy by Bengali Prime Minister Muhammad Ali Bogra. In 1955, most of the wing was combined to form a new West Pakistan province while East Bengal became the new province of East Pakistan. In 1955, Bogra appointed communist leader Abu Hussain Sarkar as chief minister, the main objective of the new government was to end disruptive provincial politics and to provide the country with a new constitution. After a revision, the Supreme Court of Pakistan declared that the Pakistan Constituent Assembly must be called, governor-General Ghulam Mohammad was unable to circumvent the order, and the new Constituent Assembly, elected by the provincial assemblies, met for the first time in July 1955. Bogra, who had support in the new assembly, fell in August and was replaced by Choudhry. Ghulam Mohammad, plagued by health, was succeeded as governor-general in September 1955 by Mirza
27.
Pakistani rupee
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The Pakistani rupee is the currency of Pakistan. The issuance of the currency is controlled by the State Bank of Pakistan, the most commonly used symbol for the rupee is Rs, used on receipts when purchasing goods and services. In Pakistan, the rupee is also spelled as rupees, rupaya or rupaye, as standard in Pakistani English, large values of rupees are counted in terms of thousands, lakh and crore,1 Arab,1 Kharab. It is derived from the noun rūpa shape, likeness, image, rūpaya was used to denote the coin introduced by Sher Shah Suri during his reign from 1540 to 1545 CE. The Pakistani rupee was put into circulation in Pakistan after the dissolution of the British Raj in 1947, initially, Pakistan used British Indian coins and notes simply over-stamped with Pakistan. New coins and banknotes were issued in 1948, like the Indian rupee, it was originally divided into 16 annas, each of 4 pice or 12 pie. The currency was decimalised on 1 January 1961, with the rupee subdivided into 100 pice, however, coins denominated in paise have not been issued since 1994. = In 1948, coins were introduced in denominations of 1 pice, 1⁄2,1 and 2 annas, 1⁄4,1 pie coins were added in 1951. In 1961, coins for 1,5 and 10 pice were issued, followed later the year by 1 paisa,5 and 10 paise coins. In 1963,10 and 25 paise coins were introduced, followed by 2 paise the next year,1 rupee coins were reintroduced in 1979, followed by 2 rupees in 1998 and 5 rupees in 2002. 2 paise coins were last minted in 1976, with 1 paisa coins ceasing production in 1979, the 5,10,25 and 50 paise all ceased production in 1996. There are two variations of 2 rupee coins, most have clouds above the Badshahi Masjid but many dont, the one and two rupee coins were changed to aluminium in 2007. Paisa coins ceased to be legal tender in 2013, leaving Rs.1 coin as the legal tender.10 coin was introduced in circulation. Regular government issues commenced in 1948 in denominations of 1,5,10 and 100 rupees. The government continued to issue 1 rupee notes until the 1980s but other note issuing was taken over by the State Bank of Pakistan in 1953, only a few 2 rupees notes were issued. 50 rupees notes were added in 1957, with 2 rupees notes reintroduced in 1985, in 1986,500 rupees notes were introduced, followed by 1000 rupees the next year. 2 and 5 rupees notes were replaced by coins in 1998 and 2002,20 rupee notes were added in 2005, followed by 5000 rupees in 2006. Until 1971, Pakistani banknotes were bilingual, featuring Bengali translation of the Urdu text, all banknotes other than the 1 and 2 rupees feature a portrait of Muhammad Ali Jinnah on the obverse along with writing in Urdu
28.
Bangladesh Liberation War
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It resulted in the independence of the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh. The war began after the Pakistani military junta based in West Pakistan launched Operation Searchlight against the people of East Pakistan on the night of 25 March 1971 and it pursued the systematic elimination of nationalist Bengali civilians, students, intelligentsia, religious minorities and armed personnel. The junta annulled the results of the 1970 elections and arrested Prime Minister-elect Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, rural and urban areas across East Pakistan saw extensive military operations and air strikes to suppress the tide of civil disobedience that formed following the 1970 election stalemate. The Pakistan Army, which had the backing of Islamists, created radical religious militias – the Razakars, Al-Badr, members of the Pakistani military and supporting militias engaged in mass murder, deportation and genocidal rape. The capital Dhaka was the scene of massacres, including the Dhaka University killings. An estimated 10 million Bengali refugees fled to neighbouring India, while 30 million were internally displaced, sectarian violence broke out between Bengalis and Urdu-speaking immigrants. An academic consensus prevails that the committed by the Pakistani military were a genocide. The Bangladeshi Declaration of Independence was proclaimed from Chittagong by members of the Mukti Bahini – the national liberation army formed by Bengali military, paramilitary, the East Bengal Regiment and the East Pakistan Rifles played a crucial role in the resistance. Led by General M. A. G. Osmani and eleven sector commanders and they liberated numerous towns and cities in the initial months of the conflict. The Pakistan Army regained momentum in the monsoon, Bengali guerrillas carried out widespread sabotage, including Operation Jackpot against the Pakistan Navy. The nascent Bangladesh Air Force flew sorties against Pakistani military bases, by November, the Bangladesh forces restricted the Pakistani military to its barracks during the night. They secured control of most parts of the countryside, the Provisional Government of Bangladesh was formed on 17 April 1971 in Mujibnagar and moved to Calcutta as a government in exile. Bengali members of the Pakistani civil, military and diplomatic corps defected to the Bangladeshi provisional government, thousands of Bengali families were interned in West Pakistan, from where many escaped to Afghanistan. Bengali cultural activists operated the clandestine Free Bengal Radio Station, the plight of millions of war-ravaged Bengali civilians caused worldwide outrage and alarm. The Indian state led by Indira Gandhi provided substantial diplomatic, economic, British, Indian and American musicians organised the worlds first benefit concert in New York City to support the Bangladeshi people. India joined the war on 3 December 1971, after Pakistan launched preemptive air strikes on North India, the subsequent Indo-Pakistani War witnessed engagements on two war fronts. With air supremacy achieved in the theatre and the rapid advance of the Allied Forces of Bangladesh and India. The war changed the landscape of South Asia, with the emergence of Bangladesh as the seventh-most populous country in the world
29.
State Bank of Pakistan
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The State Bank of Pakistan is the central bank of Pakistan. The State Bank of Pakistan Act 1956, with subsequent amendments, the headquarters are located in the financial capital of Pakistan, Karachi with branch offices in 15 cities across Pakistan, including the capital city, Islamabad and the four provincial capitals. Before independence on 14 August 1947, during British colonial regime the Reserve Bank of India was the bank for both India and Pakistan. On the 30th of December 1948 the British Governments commission distributed the Reserve Bank of Indias reserves between Pakistan and India -30 percent for Pakistan and 70 percent for India, the losses incurred in the transition to independence, small amount taken from Pakistans share. In May,1948 Muhammad Ali Jinnah took steps to establish the State Bank of Pakistan immediately, a large section of the state banks duties were widened when the State Bank of Pakistan Act 1956 was introduced. In February 1994, the State Bank was given full autonomy, on January 21,1997, this autonomy was further strengthened when the government issued three Amendment Ordinances. Those included were the State Bank of Pakistan Act,1956, Banking Companies Ordinance,1962, the State Bank having a role in their appointment and removal. The amendments also increased the autonomy and accountability of the chief executives, the State Bank of Pakistan also performs both the traditional and developmental functions to achieve macroeconomic goals. The State Bank also has been playing a part in the process of islamization of the banking system. The Bank is active in promoting financial inclusion policy and is a member of the Alliance for Financial Inclusion. It is also one of the original 17 regulatory institutions to make specific national commitments to financial inclusion under the Maya Declaration during the 2011 Global Policy Forum held in Mexico. The state bank also regulates the volume and the direction of flow of credit to different uses and sectors, during the 1980s, Pakistan embarked upon a program of financial sector reforms, which lead to a number of fundamental changes. Due to these changed the conduct of monetary management which brought changes to the administrative controls. A reserve money management programme has developed, for intermediate target of M2. State Bank of Pakistan has changed the format and designs of bank notes which are currently in circulation in Pakistan. These steps were taken to overcome the problems of fraudulent activities, the State Bank of Pakistan looks into many ranges of banking to deal with changes in the economic climate and different purchasing and buying powers. The current Governor of State Bank of Pakistan is Mr. Ashraf Mahmood Wathra, the Directors are appointed for a term of three years. Traditionally, these directors are re-appointed for a term, though this is not a requirement of the law
30.
Bengali nationalism
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Bengali nationalism is rooted in the expression of pride in the history and cultural, intellectual and revolutionary heritage of Bengal. The regions territory is divided between Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal and the part of the Indian state of Assam. Bengali nationalism is rooted in the expression of pride in the history, in what is described as the Bengal Renaissance, the introduction of Western culture, science and education led to a major transformation and development of Bengali society. Bengal became a centre of culture, intellectual and scientific activities, politics. The Young Bengal, and Jugantar movements and newspapers like Amrita Bazar Patrika led the development of India. The Calcutta-based Indian National Association and the British Indian Association were the earliest political organisations in India, the first Bengali nationalist agitation emerged over the 1905 Partition of Bengal by British authorities. Seeking a united Bengal and rejecting British hegemony, Bengalis also spearheaded an emerging revolutionary movement, K. Fazlul Huq, Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy – the latter two would become important leaders of the Pakistan movement. Ideological visions for a Greater Bengal also included the regions of Assam, Suhrawardy and Bose sought the formation of a coalition government between Bengali Congress and the Bengal Provincial Muslim League. Proponents of the plan urged the masses to reject communal divisions, in a press conference held in Delhi on 27 April 1947 Suhrawardy presented his plan for a united and independent Bengal and Abul Hashim issued a similar statement in Calcutta on 29 April. A few days later, Sarat Chandra Bose put forward his proposals for a Sovereign Socialist Republic of Bengal, with the support of the British governor of the Bengal province, Frederick Burrows, Bengali leaders issued the formal proposal on 20 May. The Muslim League and the Congress issued statements rejecting the notion of an independent Bengal on 28 May and 1 June respectively, in 1947, in line with the Partition of India, Bengal was partitioned between the Hindu majority west and Muslim majority East. East Bengal became part of the Islamic state of Pakistan while West Bengal became part of the Republic of India and he did so because Urdu was a neutral language – it was not the mother tongue of any one of Pakistans ethnicities. The policy, compounded by sectional tensions served as a provocation of political conflict. Despite protests in 1948, the policy was enshrined into law and reaffirmed by national leaders, facing rising tensions, the government in East Pakistan outlawed public meetings and gatherings. Defying this, the students of Dhaka University and other political activists started a procession on 21 February. Near the current Dhaka Medical College Hospital, police fired on the protesters and numerous protesters, including Abdus Salam, Rafiq Uddin Ahmed, Abul Barkat, the deaths of the students served to provoke widespread strikes and protests led mainly by Bengali political parties such as the Awami League. The central government relented, granting official status for Bengali, the Language movement served as a catalyst for the assertion of the Bengali cultural and national identity within Pakistan. The Language movement and its fallout had created substantial cultural and political animosity between the two wings of Pakistan, despite constituting a majority of the Pakistani population, Bengalis constituted a small part of Pakistans military, police and civil services
31.
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman
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Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was the founding leader of Bangladesh. He served twice as the countrys President and was its strongman premier between 1972 and 1975, Rahman was the leader of the Awami League. He is popularly known as the Bangabandhu and he is credited as the central figure in Bangladeshs liberation movement and is considered the founding father of Bangladesh. His daughter Sheikh Hasina is the current Prime Minister of Bangladesh, an advocate of socialism, Rahman rose with the ranks of the Awami League and East Pakistani politics as a charismatic and forceful orator. He became popular for his opposition to the ethnic and institutional discrimination of Bengalis in Pakistan, at the heightening of sectional tensions, he outlined a 6-point autonomy plan and was jailed by the regime of Field Marshal Ayub Khan for treason. Rahman led the Awami League to win the first democratic election of Pakistan in 1970, despite gaining a majority, the League was not invited by the ruling military junta to form a government. As civil disobedience erupted across East Pakistan, Rahman announced the Bangladeshi struggle for independence during a speech on 7 March 1971. After Bangladeshs liberation, Rahman was released from Pakistani custody and returned to Dhaka in January 1972, Rahman became the Prime Minister of Bangladesh under a parliamentary system adopted by the new country. His government enacted a constitution proclaiming socialism and secular democracy, the Awami League won a huge mandate in the countrys first general election in 1973. However, Rahman faced challenges of rampant unemployment, poverty and corruption, a famine took place in 1974. The government was criticized for denying constitutional recognition to indigenous minorities and human rights violations by its security forces, amid rising political agitation, Rahman initiated one party socialist rule in January 1975. Six months later, he and most of his family were assassinated by army officers during a coup. A martial law government was subsequently established, in a 2004 BBC Bengali opinion poll, Rahman was voted as the Greatest Bengali of All Time. He was born into a native Bengali family as the child in a family of four daughters. In 1929, Mujib entered into class three at Gopalganj Public School, and two later, class four at Madaripur Islamia High School. However, Mujib withdrew from school in 1934 to undergo eye surgery, Mujib became politically active when he joined the All India Muslim Students Federation in 1940. He enrolled at the Islamia College, a college affiliated to the University of Calcutta to study law. He joined the Bengal Muslim League in 1943, during this period, Mujib worked actively for the Leagues cause of a separate Muslim state of Pakistan, and in 1946 he went on to become general secretary of the Islamia College Students Union
32.
Baitul Mukarram National Mosque
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Baitul Mukarram, also spelled as Baytul Mukarrom is the national mosque of Bangladesh. Located at the center of Dhaka, capital of Bangladesh, the mosque was completed in 1968, the mosque has a capacity of 30,000, giving it the respectable position of being the 10th biggest mosque in the world. However the mosque is constantly getting overcrowded, Baitul Mukarrams large cube shape was modeled to that of the Kaabah at Mecca making it a noticeable structure being unlike any other mosque in Bangladesh. The mosque is on a high platform. The Baitul Mukarram Mosque’s building is eight storied and 99 feet high from the ground level, according to the original plan, the main entrance of the mosque was to be on the eastern side. The shaan on the east is 29,000 square feet with ablution space on its south and north sides, ablution or Wu’du Place cached an important part when the Baitul Mukarram was begun. The absence of a dome on the building is compensated by the two superficial domed entrance porticoes, one on the south, and the other on the north. The height of these consists of three rabbits foot shaped arches, the middle of which is bigger than the rest. Two patios ensure that enough light and air enter the hall of Baitul Mukarram Mosque. The mehrab of the hall is rectangular instead of semi-circular, excessive ornamentation is avoided throughout the mosque, since minimizing ornamentation is typical of modern architecture. The future of this garden is unknown, if the Bangladeshi government extends the mosque, the mosque complex was designed by architect, Abdulhusein M. Thariani. In 1959, owner of then Bawany Jute Mills, Haji Abdul Latif Bawany proposed to Major General Omrao Khan, then administrator of East Pakistan. Omrao Khan agreed to help on building such mosque, same year, Baitul Mukarram mosque committee had been established and 8.30 acre of land between new Dhaka and old Dhaka had been chosen. At that time, there was a pond in present mosques location. It was known as Paltan pond, the pond was filled up and on 27 January 1960 then president of Pakistan Ayub Khan commenced the work. Pray for first time took place on Friday,25 January 1963, the plan included shops, offices, libraries and parking areas within the complex. Though there has been a tradition of dome mosque for Muslim, a Mosque without a dome over the roof of its main prayer hall must have been a unique experiment. The mosque was built when the country was the Part of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan
33.
Sixty Dome Mosque
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The Sixty Dome Mosque, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is a mosque in Bangladesh, the largest in that country from the Sultanate period. It has been described as the most impressive Muslim monuments in the whole of the Indian subcontinent. In the middle of the 15th century, a Muslim colony was founded in the mangrove forest of the Sundarbans, near the coast in the Bagerhat District by a saint-General and he preached in an affluent city during the reign of Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud Shah, then known as Khalifalabad. Khan Jahan adorned this city with more than a dozen mosques, the construction of the mosque was started in 1442 and it was completed in 1459. The mosque was used for prayers, and also as a madrasha and it is located in Bagerhat district in southern Bangladesh which is in Khulna Division. It is about 3 miles far from the town of Bagerhat. Bagerhat is nearly 200 miles away from Dhaka which is the capital of Bangladesh, the Sixty Dome Mosque has walls of unusually thick, tapered brick in the Tughlaq style and a hut-shaped roofline that anticipates later styles. The length of the mosque is 160 feet and width is 108 feet, there are 77 low domes arranged in seven rows of eleven, and one dome on each corner, bringing the total to 81 domes. Two of four towers were used to call azaan, the interior is divided into many aisles and bays by slender columns, which culminate in numerous arches that support the roof. The mosque is known as the Shat Gombuj Masjid, which in Bangla means Sixty Domed Mosque. However, there are 77 domes over the hall and exactly 60 stone pillars. It is possible that the mosque was referred to as the Sixty Pillared Mosque where Amud meaning column in Arabic/Persian, later got corrupted to Gombuj in Bangla. Mosque City of Bagerhat Lalbagh Fort Shahbaz Khan Mosque Saith Gunbad Masjid on Archnet Website of Shat Gombuj Mosque World Heritage Site
34.
Electrotyping
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Electrotyping is a chemical method for forming metal parts that exactly reproduce a model. The method was invented by Moritz von Jacobi in Russia in 1838, in art, several important bronze sculptures created in the 19th century are actually electrotyped copper, and not bronze at all, sculptures were executed using electrotyping at least into the 1930s. In printing, electrotyping had become a method for producing plates for letterpress printing by the late 1800s. It complemented the older technology of stereotyping, which involved metal casting, by 1901, stereotypers and electrotypers in several countries had formed labor unions around these crafts. As with metal casting and stereotyping, a mold is first formed from the model, since electrotyping involves wet chemical processes and is done near room temperature, the molding material can be soft. Materials such as wax, gutta-percha, and ultimately ozokerite were used, the molds surface is made electrically conducting by coating it very thinly with fine graphite powder or paint. A wire is attached to the surface, and the mold is suspended in an electrolyte solution. Electrotyping is activated by electric currents flow between anode wires that are also immersed in the solution and the wire connected to the coated mold. For copper electrotyping, an aqueous electrolyte contains copper sulfate and sulfuric acid, and the anode is also copper. The electric current causes copper atoms to dissolve from the anodes surface, copper ions are taken up by the molds conducting surface at the same rate at which copper dissolves from the anode, thus completing the electrical circuit. When the copper layer on the mold grows to the desired thickness, the mold and its attached electrotype are removed from the solution, and the electrotype and the mold are separated. An animation of the process was produced in 2011 by the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Other metals besides copper can be electrotyped, similar procedures apply, there is a second type of electrotyping that has been used in which the copper film is deposited onto the outside of a form, and is not separated from it. In this use the form is typically waterproofed plaster, which remains as a core after electrotyping, in German this method is known as Kerngalvanoplastik, the more usual technique described in the previous paragraph is known as Hohlgalvanoplastik. Electrotyping is related to electroplating, which adds a thin metallic overlayer to a metallic object instead of creating a freestanding metal part. Electrotyping and electroforming both produce metal parts, but differ in technical details, electroforming involves the production of a metallic part around a metallic mandrel, although the term is sometimes used more broadly to encompass all electrodeposition processes. As noted above, electrotyping forms the part using a mold or form whose surface has been made conducting by applying a thin coating of graphite or metal powder. At present, most sources credit Moritz Hermann Jacobi with the invention of galvanoplasty or electrotyping in 1838, Jacobi was a Prussian scientist who was working in St. Petersburg, 19th-century accounts often credited Thomas Spencer or C. J
35.
Bangladesh National Museum
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It is located at Shahbag, Dhaka. The museum also has a conservation laboratory. The ground floor consists of old guns at the entrance. The hall leads to a grand staircase, beside the hall, there is a smaller room which also acts like the hall and a simple staircase. The 1st floor is divided into 22 rooms, the first room displays a large map showing the map of Bangladesh and its 64 districts. The 2nd room consists of an under going work of a statue of a royal Bengal tiger. These rooms consist of natural beauties found in Bangladesh, in one of the room there is showcase of a tongue of a whale. The other rooms contain some historic relics of Bengal up to 1900, there is a room which shows the different boats used by the rural people. The 2nd floor consists of photos of people and showcases the Bangladesh Liberation War. There are posters used in the war, a torture machine, the 3rd floor consists of pictures of international politicians, artists, scientists, famous pictures and four international galleries - Chinese, Korean, Iranian and Swiss. Official website Banglapedia article Bangladesh Heritage Museum
36.
National Emblem of Bangladesh
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The national emblem of Bangladesh was adopted shortly after independence in 1971. Located on the emblem is a lily, that is bordered on two sides by rice sheaves. Above the water lilly are four stars and three connected jute leaves, the water lily is the countrys national flower, and is representative of the many rivers that run through Bangladesh. Rice represents its presence as the food of Bangladesh. The four stars represent the four founding principles that were enshrined in the first constitution of Bangladesh in 1972, nationalism, secularism, socialism. - Constitution of Bangladesh Article 4 Flag of Bangladesh Government Seal of Bangladesh
37.
Rohu
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The rohu, rui, or roho labeo is a species of fish of the carp family, found in rivers in South Asia. It is a omnivore and extensively used in aquaculture. The rohu is a large, silver-coloured fish of typical cyprinid shape, adults can reach a length of up to 2 m and a weight of up to 45 kg. The rohu occurs throughout northern and central India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Myanmar and Pakistan and it inhabits the freshwater section of rivers to a depth of ~550 m. The species is an omnivore with specific food preferences at different life stages and it has modified, thin hair-like gill rakers, suggesting that it feeds by sieving the water. Rohu reach sexual maturity between two and five years of age and they generally spawn during the monsoon season, keeping to the middle of flooded rivers above tidal reach. The spawning season of rohu generally coincides with the southwest monsoon, spawn may be collected from rivers and reared in tanks and lakes. The rohu is an important aquacultured freshwater species in South Asia, when cultured, it does not breed in lake ecosystems, so induced spawning is necessary. The rohu is also prized as a game fish, Rohu is very commonly eaten in Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and the Indian states of Tripura, Bihar, Odisha, Assam, West Bengal and Uttar Pradesh. A recipe for fried Rohu fish is mentioned in Manasollasa, a 12th century Sanskrit encyclopedia compiled by Someshvara III, in this recipe, the fish is marinated in asafoetida and salt after being skinned. It is then dipped in turmeric mixed in water before being fried, the Maithil Brahmins and the Kayastha community of Mithila region of India and Nepal treats it as one of their most sacred foods, to be eaten on all auspicious occasions. Rohu is the most commonly used fish in Pakistan and is eaten fried. The roe of rohu is also considered a delicacy in Bhojpur, Andhra Pradesh, Nepalis Oriyas and it is deep fried and served hot as an appetizer as part of an Bihari, Oriya and Bengali meal. It is also stuffed inside a pointed gourd to make potoler dolma which is considered a delicacy, Rohu is also very popular in northern India and Pakistan, as in the province of Punjab. In Lahore it is a speciality of Lahori cuisine in Lahori fried fish where it is prepared with batter and it is also a very popular food fish in Iraq
38.
Bengal tiger
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The Bengal tiger is the most numerous tiger subspecies. By 2011, the population was estimated at fewer than 2,500 individuals with a decreasing trend. None of the Tiger Conservation Landscapes within the Bengal tigers range is considered enough to support an effective population size of 250 adult individuals. Since 2010, it is listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List, by 2010, Bengal tiger populations in India were estimated at 1, 706–1,909. As of 2016, they had increased to an estimated 3,890 individuals. Bengal tigers number around 440 in Bangladesh and 163–253 in Nepal, prior censuses placed the tiger population in Bhutan at around 65–75 individuals. In 2015, it was estimated that 103 Bengal tigers were living in the country, the Bengal, Caspian and Siberian tigers, and lion rank among the biggest cats. It is the animal of both India and Bangladesh. The Bengal tigers coat is yellow to orange, with stripes ranging from dark brown to black, the belly and the interior parts of the limbs are white. The white tiger is a mutant of the Bengal tiger. However, it is not to be mistaken as an occurrence of albinism, in fact, there is only one fully authenticated case of a true albino tiger, and none of black tigers, with the possible exception of one dead specimen examined in Chittagong in 1846. Male Bengal tigers have a total length of 270 to 310 cm including the tail. The tail is typically 85 to 110 cm long, and on average, the weight of males ranges from 180 to 258 kg, while that of the females ranges from 100 to 160 kg. The smallest recorded weights for Bengal tigers are from the Bangladesh Sundarbans, Bengal tigers have exceptionally stout teeth, and the canines are the longest among all living felids, measuring from 7.5 to 10 cm in length. Bengal tigers are defined by three distinct mitochondrial nucleotide sites and 12 unique microsatellite alleles, the pattern of genetic variation in the Bengal tiger corresponds to the premise that they arrived in India approximately 12,000 years ago. Bengal tigers may weigh up to 325 kg and reach a head, several scientists indicated that adult male Bengal tigers from Nepal, Bhutan, and Assam, Uttarakhand and West Bengal in northern India consistently attain more than 227 kg of body weight. Seven adult males captured in Chitwan National Park in the early 1970s had a weight of 235 kg ranging from 200 to 261 kg. Males from northern India are nearly as large as Siberian tigers with a greatest length of skull of 332 to 376 mm, verifiable Sundarban tiger weights are not found in any scientific literature
39.
Ilish
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Tenualosa ilisha is a species of fish in the herring family, and a popular food fish in South Asia. The fish contributes about 12% of the fish production and about 1% of GDP in Bangladesh. About 450,000 people are involved with the catching for livelihood. It is also the fish of Bangladesh. Other names include, ilish, ellis, palla fish, hilsha etc, Bengali, ইলিশ, ilish, Gujarati, મોદાર/પાલ્વા, Modar or Palva, Odia, ଇଲିଶି, Sindhī, پلو مڇي pallu machhi, Telugu, పులస, pulasa or polasa, Tamil - Ullam. The ilish word is used in Indias Assamese, Bengali-, Odia- and Telugu-speaking regions. In Iraq it is Called Sboor صبور, in Malaysia and Indonesia, it is commonly known as terubuk. Due to its features of oily and tender, some Malays call it terubuk UMNO. The fish is marine, freshwater, brackish, pelagic-neritic, anadromous, within a tropical range, 34°N - 5°N, 42°E - 97°E in marine and freshwater. It can grow up to 60 cm in length with weights of up to 3 kg. It is found in rivers and estuaries in Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, Burma and it has no dorsal spines but 18 –21 dorsal soft rays and anal soft rays. The belly has 30 to 33 scutes, there is a distinct median notch in upper jaw. Gill rakers fine and numerous, about 100 to 250 on lower part of arch, the fish shows a dark blotch behind gill opening, followed by a series of small spots along the flank in juveniles. Color in life, silver shot with gold and purple, the species filter feeds on plankton and by grubbing muddy bottoms. The fish schools in coastal waters and ascends up the rivers for around 50 –100 km to spawn during the South West monsoons, April is the most fertile month for breeding of ilish. The young fish returning to the sea are known in Bangladesh as jatka, the fish is popular food amongst the people of South Asia and in the Middle East, but especially with Bengalis. It is the fish of Bangladesh. Bengali fish curry is a dish made with mustard oil or seed
40.
Bangabandhu Bridge
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Bangabandhu Bridge, commonly called the Jamuna Multi-purpose Bridge is a bridge opened in Bangladesh in June 1998. It connects Bhuapur on the Jamuna Rivers east bank to Sirajganj on its west bank and it was the 11th longest bridge in the world when constructed in 1998 and currently the 6th longest bridge in South Asia. It was constructed over the Jamuna River, one of the three rivers of Bangladesh, and fifth largest in the world in discharge volume. The bridge established a link between the eastern and western parts of Bangladesh. It generates multifarious benefits for the people and, especially, promotes inter-regional trade in the country, apart from quick movement of goods and passenger traffic by road and rail, it facilitated transmission of electricity and natural gas, and integration of telecommunication links. The river Jamuna, along with the stretch of the Padma divides Bangladesh into nearly two equal halves. Until now all road and rail communication between the two parts of the country has had to rely on time-consuming ferry services that were disrupted because of navigability problems. The need for a bridge over the Jamuna River was felt, especially by the living in northwestern Bangladesh. This perceived need did not go unnoticed by the policy makers, the people and successive governments longed to bridge the mighty Jamuna and thereby integrate the communication systems of the region. Popular leader Maulana Abdul Hamid Khan Bhashani first raised the demand for construction of the Bangabandhu Bridge at a level in 1949. In the 1954 provincial elections of East Pakistan, the 21-point manifesto of the United Front contained a demand for the bridge. On January 6,1964, Mohammad Saifur Rahman, a member from Rangpur in the Provincial Assembly inquired about governments intentions with regard to the construction of a bridge over the Jamuna. On July 11,1966, Shamsul Haque, another member from Rangpur in the same Assembly, moved a resolution for the construction of the bridge, accordingly, a preliminary feasibility study was carried out in 1969 by Freeman Fox and Partners of UK. They recommended a bridge near Sirajganj with an estimated cost of $175 million. The estimates were preliminary and a detailed study was recommended. But all efforts were interrupted due to political unrest and liberation war, the JICA study, completed in 1976, concluded that the Jamuna project would cost $683 million with an economic rate of return of only 2. 6%. Considering that the project was not technically and economically viable, the government abandoned it, the government revived it in 1982 and commissioned a new study to determine the feasibility of transferring natural gas to western parts of the country across the Jamuna. The study concluded that an independent gas connector was not economically viable, however, the consultants made an assessment of the engineering feasibility and cost of a combined road-cum-gas transmission bridge, which introduced the concept of a multipurpose bridge
Bangladesh
