1.
Irish language
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Irish, also referred to as Gaelic or Irish Gaelic, is a Goidelic language of the Indo-European language family originating in Ireland and historically spoken by the Irish people. Irish is spoken as a first language by a minority of Irish people. Irish enjoys constitutional status as the national and first official language of the Republic of Ireland and it is also among the official languages of the European Union. The public body Foras na Gaeilge is responsible for the promotion of the language throughout the island of Ireland and it has the oldest vernacular literature in Western Europe. The fate of the language was influenced by the power of the English state in Ireland. Elizabethan officials viewed the use of Irish unfavourably, as being a threat to all things English in Ireland and its decline began under English rule in the 17th century. In the latter part of the 19th century, there was a decrease in the number of speakers. Irish-speaking areas were hit especially hard, by the end of British rule, the language was spoken by less than 15% of the national population. Since then, Irish speakers have been in the minority, efforts have been made by the state, individuals and organisations to preserve, promote and revive the language, but with mixed results. Around the turn of the 21st century, estimates of native speakers ranged from 20,000 to 80,000 people. In the 2011 Census, these numbers had increased to 94,000 and 1.3 million, there are several thousand Irish speakers in Northern Ireland. It has been estimated that the active Irish-language scene probably comprises 5 to 10 per cent of Irelands population, there has been a significant increase in the number of urban Irish speakers, particularly in Dublin. In Gaeltacht areas, however, there has been a decline of the use of Irish. Údarás na Gaeltachta predicted that, by 2025, Irish will no longer be the language in any of the designated Gaeltacht areas. Survey data suggest that most Irish people think highly of Irish as a marker of identity. It has also argued that newer urban groups of Irish speakers are a disruptive force in this respect. In An Caighdeán Oifigiúil the name of the language is Gaeilge, before the spelling reform of 1948, this form was spelled Gaedhilge, originally this was the genitive of Gaedhealg, the form used in Classical Irish. Older spellings of this include Gaoidhealg in Classical Irish and Goídelc in Old Irish, the modern spelling results from the deletion of the silent dh in the middle of Gaedhilge, whereas Goidelic languages, used to refer to the language family including Irish, comes from Old Irish
2.
Tumulus
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A tumulus is a mound of earth and stones raised over a grave or graves. Tumuli are also known as barrows, burial mounds or kurgans, a cairn, which is a mound of stones built for various purposes, may also originally have been a tumulus. Tumuli are often categorised according to their external apparent shape, in this respect, a long barrow is a long tumulus, usually constructed on top of several burials, such as passage graves. A round barrow is a tumulus, also commonly constructed on top of burials. The internal structure and architecture of both long and round barrows has a range, the categorization only refers to the external apparent shape. The method of inhumation may involve a dolmen, a cist, a mortuary enclosure, examples of barrows include Duggleby Howe and Maeshowe. The funeral of Patroclus is described in book 23 of the Iliad, Patroclus is burned on a pyre, and his bones are collected into a golden urn in two layers of fat. The barrow is built on the location of the pyre, achilles then sponsors funeral games, consisting of a chariot race, boxing, wrestling, running, a duel between two champions to the first blood, discus throwing, archery and spear throwing. Beowulfs body is taken to Hronesness, where it is burned on a funeral pyre, during cremation, the Geats lament the death of their lord, a widows lament being mentioned in particular, singing dirges as they circumambulate the barrow. Afterwards, a mound is built on top of a hill, overlooking the sea, a band of twelve of the best warriors ride around the barrow, singing dirges in praise of their lord. Parallels have also drawn to the account of Attilas burial in Jordanes Getica. Jordanes tells that as Attilas body was lying in state, the best horsemen of the Huns circled it, as in circus games. An Old Irish Life of Columcille reports that every funeral procession halted at a mound called Eala, whereupon the corpse was laid, archaeologists often classify tumuli according to their location, form, and date of construction. Some British types are listed below, Bank barrow Bell barrow Bowl barrow D-shaped barrow - round barrow with a flat edge at one side often defined by stone slabs. Disc barrow Fancy barrow - generic term for any Bronze Age barrows more elaborate than a hemispherical shape. Long barrow Oval barrow - a Neolithic long barrow consisting of an elliptical, platform barrow - The least common of the recognised types of round barrow, consisting of a flat, wide circular mound that may be surrounded by a ditch. They occur widely across southern England with a concentration in East and West Sussex. Pond barrow - a barrow consisting of a circular depression, surrounded by a bank running around the rim of the depression
3.
Spirit
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The English word spirit, from Latin spiritus breath, has many different meanings and connotations, most of them relating to a non-corporeal substance contrasted with the material body. It can also refer to a subtle as opposed to gross material substance, the word spirit is often used metaphysically to refer to the consciousness or personality. e. A manifestation of the spirit of a deceased person, the term may also refer to any incorporeal or immaterial being, such as demons or deities. In the Bible, the Spirit, specifically denotes the Holy Spirit, the English word spirit comes from the Latin spiritus, meaning breath, but also spirit, soul, courage, vigor, ultimately from a Proto-Indo-European *peis. It is distinguished from Latin anima, soul, in Greek, this distinction exists between pneuma, breath, motile air, spirit, and psykhē, soul. The word spirit came into Middle English via Old French, the distinction between soul and spirit also developed in the Abrahamic religions, Arabic nafs opposite rūħ, Hebrew neshama or nephesh נֶ֫פֶשׁ nép̄eš opposite ruach. In a lecture delivered to the literary Society of Augsburg, October 20,1926, on the theme of “Nature and Spirit, the mistrust of verbal concepts, inconvenient as it is, nevertheless seems to me to be very much in place in speaking of fundamentals. Spirit and Life are familiar enough words to us, very old acquaintances in fact, pawns that for thousands of years have pushed back. It can scarcely be an accident onomatopoeic words like ruach, ruch, roho mean ‘spirit’ no less clearly than the Greek πνεύμα and the Latin spiritus”. In spiritual and metaphysical terms, spirit has acquired a number of meanings, An incorporeal but ubiquitous, unlike the concept of souls a spirit develops and grows as an integral aspect of a living being. This concept of the individual spirit occurs commonly in animism, note the distinction between this concept of spirit and that of the pre-existing or eternal soul, belief in souls occurs specifically and far less commonly, particularly in traditional societies. One might more properly term this type/aspect of spirit life or aether rather than spirit, people usually conceive of a ghost as a wandering spirit from a being no longer living, having survived the death of the body yet maintaining at least vestiges of mind and consciousness. In religion and spirituality, the respiration of a human has for obvious reasons become seen as linked with the very occurrence of life. A similar significance has become attached to human blood, Spirit, in this sense, means the thing that separates a living body from a corpse—and usually implies intelligence, consciousness, and sentience. Latter-day Saint prophet Joseph Smith Jr. taught that the concept of spirit as incorporeal or without substance was incorrect, all spirit is matter, but it is more fine or pure, and can only be discerned by purer eyes. In some Native American spiritual traditions the Great Spirit or Wakan Tanka is a term for the Supreme Being, individual spirits envisaged as interconnected with all other spirits and with The Spirit. This concept relates to theories of a unified spirituality, to universal consciousness, the experience of such a connection can become a primary basis for spiritual belief. Christian spiritual theology can use the term Spirit to describe God, or aspects of God — as in the Holy Spirit, Spirit forms a central concept in pneumatology
4.
Irish mythology
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The mythology of pre-Christian Ireland did not entirely survive the conversion to Christianity. However, much of it was preserved in medieval Irish literature and this literature represents the most extensive and best preserved of all the branches of Celtic mythology. There are also a number of extant mythological texts that do not fit any of the cycles. Additionally, there are a number of recorded folk tales that, while not strictly mythological. Despite the dates of these sources, most of the material they contain predates their composition, the earliest of the prose can be dated on linguistic grounds to the 8th century, and some of the verse may be as old as the 6th century. The first of these part of the earliest known version of the Táin Bó Cúailnge and is housed in Trinity College. The other three are in the Royal Academy, when using these sources, it is, as always, important to question the impact of the circumstances in which they were produced. There was also a tendency to rework Irish genealogies to fit into the known schema of Greek or Biblical genealogy and it was once unquestioned that medieval Irish literature preserved truly ancient traditions in a form virtually unchanged through centuries of oral tradition back to the ancient Celts of Europe. A consensus has emerged which encourages the critical reading of the material, the Mythological Cycle, comprising stories of the former gods and origins of the Irish, is the least well preserved of the four cycles. The most important sources are the Metrical Dindshenchas or Lore of Places, Other manuscripts preserve such mythological tales as The Dream of Aengus, The Wooing Of Étain and Cath Maige Tuireadh, The Battle of Magh Tuireadh. One of the best known of all Irish stories, Oidheadh Clainne Lir, Lebor Gabála Érenn is a pseudo-history of Ireland, tracing the ancestry of the Irish back to before Noah. They faced opposition from their enemies, the Fomorians, led by Balor of the Evil Eye, Balor was eventually slain by Lug Lámfada at the second battle of Magh Tuireadh. With the arrival of the Gaels, the Tuatha Dé Danann retired underground to become the people of later myth. The Metrical Dindshenchas is the great work of early Ireland. It includes a lot of important information on Mythological Cycle figures and stories, including the Battle of Tailtiu, in which the Tuatha Dé Danann were defeated by the Milesians. It is important to note that by the Middle Ages the Tuatha Dé Danann were not viewed so much as gods as the shape-shifting magician population of an earlier Golden Age Ireland. Texts such as Lebor Gabála Érenn and Cath Maige Tuireadh present them as kings and heroes of the distant past, however, there is considerable evidence, both in the texts and from the wider Celtic world, that they were once considered deities. Even after they are displaced as the rulers of Ireland, characters such as Lug, a poem in the Book of Leinster lists many of the Tuatha Dé, but ends Although enumerates them, he does not worship them
5.
Ireland
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Ireland is an island in the North Atlantic. It is separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel, the Irish Sea, Ireland is the second-largest island of the British Isles, the third-largest in Europe, and the twentieth-largest on Earth. Politically, Ireland is divided between the Republic of Ireland, which covers five-sixths of the island, and Northern Ireland, in 2011, the population of Ireland was about 6.4 million, ranking it the second-most populous island in Europe after Great Britain. Just under 4.6 million live in the Republic of Ireland, the islands geography comprises relatively low-lying mountains surrounding a central plain, with several navigable rivers extending inland. The island has lush vegetation, a product of its mild, thick woodlands covered the island until the Middle Ages. As of 2013, the amount of land that is wooded in Ireland is about 11% of the total, there are twenty-six extant mammal species native to Ireland. The Irish climate is moderate and classified as oceanic. As a result, winters are milder than expected for such a northerly area, however, summers are cooler than those in Continental Europe. Rainfall and cloud cover are abundant, the earliest evidence of human presence in Ireland is dated at 10,500 BC. Gaelic Ireland had emerged by the 1st century CE, the island was Christianised from the 5th century onward. Following the Norman invasion in the 12th century, England claimed sovereignty over Ireland, however, English rule did not extend over the whole island until the 16th–17th century Tudor conquest, which led to colonisation by settlers from Britain. In the 1690s, a system of Protestant English rule was designed to materially disadvantage the Catholic majority and Protestant dissenters, with the Acts of Union in 1801, Ireland became a part of the United Kingdom. Northern Ireland saw much civil unrest from the late 1960s until the 1990s and this subsided following a political agreement in 1998. In 1973 the Republic of Ireland joined the European Economic Community while the United Kingdom, Irish culture has had a significant influence on other cultures, especially in the fields of literature. Alongside mainstream Western culture, an indigenous culture exists, as expressed through Gaelic games, Irish music. The culture of the island shares many features with that of Great Britain, including the English language, and sports such as association football, rugby, horse racing. The name Ireland derives from Old Irish Eriu and this in turn derives from Proto-Celtic *Iveriu, which is also the source of Latin Hibernia. Iveriu derives from a root meaning fat, prosperous, during the last glacial period, and up until about 9000 years ago, most of Ireland was covered with ice, most of the time
6.
Cloak
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Cloaks have been used by myriad historic societies, many climates favor wearing a full-body garment which is easily removed and does not constrain the wearer with sleeves. Over time cloak designs have changed to match fashion and available textiles. Cloaks generally fasten at the neck or over the shoulder, vary in length, from hip all the way down to the ankle, mid-calf being the normal length. They may have a hood, and may cover and fasten down the front. However, cloaks are almost always sleeveless, the word cloak comes from Old North French cloque meaning travelling cloak, from Medieval Latin clocca travelers cape, literally a bell, so called from the garments bell-like shape. Thus the word is related to the word clock, ancient Greeks and Romans were known to wear cloaks. Greek men and women wore the himation, from the Archaic through the Hellenistic periods, Romans would later wear the Greek-styled cloak, the pallium. The pallium was quadrangular, shaped like a square, and sat on the shoulders, Romans of the Republic would wear the toga as a formal display of their citizenship. It was denied to foreigners and was worn by magistrates on all occasions as a badge of office, the toga was claimed to have originated with Numa Pompilius, the second king of Rome. Opera cloaks are made of quality materials such as wool or cashmere, velvet, ladies may wear a long cloak usually called a cape, or a full-length cloak. Gentlemen wear an ankle-length or full-length cloak, formal cloaks often have expensive, colored linings and trimmings such as silk, satin, velvet and fur. For example, they may grant the person wearing it invisibility as in the Harry Potter series by J. K. Rowling, alternatively, they may nullify magical projectiles, as the cloak of magic resistance in NetHack. In addition, the magical hide armor that Hercules made for himself from the skin of the Nemean Lion, at the end of Hercules first labor and this latter was notable because it was said to be impervious to all cutting and impact weapons. Figuratively, a cloak may be anything that disguises or conceals something, in many science fiction worlds such as Star Trek, there are cloaking devices, which provide a way to avoid detection or to make objects appear invisible. Because they keep a person hidden and conceal a weapon, the cloak and dagger has come to refer to espionage and secretive crimes. Cloak and dagger stories are thus mystery, detective, and crime stories of this, the vigilante duo of Marvel comics Cloak and Dagger is a reference to this. ISBN 0-8109-6317-5 Baumgarten, Linda, What Clothes Reveal, The Language of Clothing in Colonial and Federal America, ISBN 0-300-09580-5 Payne, Blanche, History of Costume from the Stone Age to the Twentysecond Century, Harper & Row,2965. No ISBN for this edition, ASIN B0006BMNFS Picken, Mary Brooks, The Fashion Dictionary, Funk and Bagnalls,1957
7.
Ann, Lady Fanshawe
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Ann Fanshawe was an English memoirist. She was born on 25 March 1625 in the parish of St Olave Hart Street, London, to Sir John Harrison of Hertfordshire and Margaret Fanshawe and her childhood was spent in London and at Balls Park, Hertford. She liked not only French, needlework and music, but riding and running and her mother died in July 1640, and her father remarried, having a son and a daughter by his second wife. Both her husbands and her own family were Royalists, in 1644 she married at Wolverton near Oxford her second cousin, Richard Fanshawe, secretary of war to Prince Charles. They had 14 children, of four daughters and a son survived into adulthood. Richard Fanshawe published translations and kept in touch with the royal family, the family joined Charles II in Flanders, Fanshawe was appointed Latin secretary and master of requests, and knighted at Breda. He died in 1666 in Madrid and his widow and her returned to England. Ann petitioned the government for the payment of monies due to her husband and she died in 1680, probably at Ware, Hertfordshire, where she was buried on 20 January 1680. There is a portrait in oils of Lady Fanshawe by Cornelis Janssens van Ceulen held at the Valence House Museum in Dagenham, London, ten years after her husbands death, Fanshawe wrote in 1676 the manuscript Memoir of him for private family circulation. It was addressed to their son Richard and began with conventional biblical and it was also intended to vindicate the familys financial claims against the government. There is an edition of the Memoir. A book of cookery and medicaments compiled by Lady Fanshawe has also survived, the earliest entries, by an amanuensis, date from 1651. Her recipe for ice cream is thought to be the earliest recorded in Europe, ISBN0521856957 Works by Anne Harrison Fanshawe at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Ann, Lady Fanshawe at Internet Archive
8.
Jane Wilde
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Jane Francesca Agnes, Lady Wilde was an Irish poet under the pen name Speranza and supporter of the nationalist movement, and had a special interest in Irish folktales, which she helped to gather. She married Sir William Wilde on 12 November 1851, and they had three children, William Charles Kingsbury Wilde, Oscar Fingal OFlahertie Wills Wilde, and Isola Francesca Emily Wilde. Jane was the last of the four children of Charles Elgee, a Wexford solicitor and her great-grandfather was an Italian who had come to Wexford in the 18th century. Lady Wilde, who was the niece of Charles Maturin, wrote for the Young Ireland movement of the 1840s and her works included pro-Irish independence and anti-British writing, she was sometimes known as Speranza of the Nation. Charles Gavan Duffy was the editor when Speranza wrote commentary calling for armed revolution in Ireland, the authorities at Dublin Castle shut down the paper and brought the editor to court. Duffy refused to name who had written the offending article, Speranza reputedly stood up in court and claimed responsibility for the article. The confession was ignored by the authorities, but in any event the newspaper was permanently shut down by the authorities. She was an advocate of womens rights, and campaigned for better education for women. She invited the suffragist Millicent Fawcett to her home to speak on female liberty and she praised the passing of the Married Womens Property Act of 1883, preventing women from having to enter marriage as a bond slave, disenfranchised of all rights over her fortune. Mary Travers won the case and costs of £2,000 were awarded against Lady Wilde, then, in 1867, their daughter Isola died of fever at the age of nine. In 1871 the two daughters of Sir William were burned to death and in 1876 Sir William himself died. The family discovered that he was virtually bankrupt, Lady Wilde left Dublin for London in 1879, where she joined her two sons, Willie, a journalist, and Oscar, who was making a name for himself in literary circles. She lived with her son in poverty, supplementing their meagre income by writing for fashionable magazines. Lady Wilde contracted bronchitis in January 1896 and, dying, asked for permission to see Oscar and it was claimed that her fetch appeared in Oscars prison cell as she died at her home,146 Oakley Street, Chelsea, on 3 February 1896. Willie Wilde, her son, was penniless, so Oscar paid for her funeral. A headstone proved too expensive and she was buried anonymously in common ground, a monument to her, in the form of a Celtic cross, was erected at Kensal Green Cemetery by the Oscar Wilde Society in about 1999. In 1911 the American-born writer Anna de Brémont, who claimed to have had a friendship with Lady Wilde, published a memoir entitled Oscar Wilde. Jane Wilde was the grandmother of Cyril and Vyvyan Holland, the sons of Oscar Wilde, and of Dorothy Wilde, the daughter of Willie. org/stream/poems00wild_0#page/n3/mode/2up Poems by Speranza,1864
9.
More Irish than the Irish themselves
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More Irish than the Irish themselves is a phrase used in Irish historiography to describe a phenomenon of cultural assimilation in late medieval Norman Ireland. The Statutes of Kilkenny,1366, complained that, the phrase was used by the Irish priest and historian John Lynce in his work Cambrensis Eversus. He was strongly influenced by the writings of the historian Geoffrey Keating, Cambrensis Eversus was translated from the Latin, with notes and observations, by Theophilus OFlanagan, Dublin,1795. John Henry Wilson, in his Sketch of Johnathan Swift, wrote that Swift used the phrase in a discussion with his landlord, the phrase remained in use by romantic nineteenth century nationalists to promote the common Irishness of Planter and Gael. An example is found in the 1844 poem by the Young Irelander, Thomas Davis called The Geraldines, which concerns the FitzGerald dynasty, The Geraldines. While still echoing its original meaning, contemporary usage of the phrase usually takes an open interpretation of assimilation or, in the case of the diaspora. Debates of the Oireachtas demonstrate the age and range of applications of the phrase. Today it is recognized that the contemporary phrase dates only from the late eighteenth century. More German than the Germans Plastic Paddy West Brit – a somewhat opposite expression
10.
Normans
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The Normans were the people who, in the 10th and 11th centuries, gave their name to Normandy, a region in France. They were descended from Norse raiders and pirates from Denmark, Iceland and Norway who, under their leader Rollo, through generations of assimilation and mixing with the native Frankish and Gallo-Roman populations, their descendants gradually adopted the Carolingian-based cultures of West Francia. The distinct cultural and ethnic identity of the Normans emerged initially in the first half of the 10th century, the Norman dynasty had a major political, cultural and military impact on medieval Europe and even the Near East. The Normans were famed for their spirit and eventually for their Christian piety. They adopted the Gallo-Romance language of the Frankish land they settled, their becoming known as Norman, Normaund or Norman French. The Normans are noted both for their culture, such as their unique Romanesque architecture and musical traditions, and for their significant military accomplishments and their chief men were specially lavish through their desire of good report. They were, moreover, a race skillful in flattery, given to the study of eloquence, so that the boys were orators. They were enduring of toil, hunger, and cold whenever fortune laid it on them, given to hunting and hawking, delighting in the pleasure of horses, and of all the weapons and garb of war. The treaty offered Rollo and his men the French lands between the river Epte and the Atlantic coast in exchange for their protection against further Viking incursions. The area corresponded to the part of present-day Upper Normandy down to the river Seine. The territory was equivalent to the old province of Rouen. Before Rollos arrival, its populations did not differ from Picardy or the Île-de-France, the Norman language was forged by the adoption of the indigenous langue doïl branch of Romance by a Norse-speaking ruling class, and it developed into the regional language that survives today. The Normans thereafter adopted the growing feudal doctrines of the rest of France, the new Norman rulers were culturally and ethnically distinct from the old French aristocracy, most of whom traced their lineage to Franks of the Carolingian dynasty. Most Norman knights remained poor and land-hungry, and by 1066 Normandy had been exporting fighting horsemen for more than a generation, many Normans of Italy, France and England eventually served as avid Crusaders under the Italo-Norman prince Bohemund I and the Anglo-Norman king Richard the Lion-Heart. Opportunistic bands of Normans successfully established a foothold in Southern Italy, probably as the result of returning pilgrims stories, the Normans entered Southern Italy as warriors in 1017 at the latest. In 999, according to Amatus of Montecassino, Norman pilgrims returning from Jerusalem called in at the port of Salerno when a Saracen attack occurred. The Normans fought so valiantly that Prince Guaimar III begged them to stay, the Hauteville family achieved princely rank by proclaiming prince Guaimar IV of Salerno Duke of Apulia and Calabria. He promptly awarded their elected leader, William Iron Arm, with the title of count in his capital of Melfi
11.
Leinster
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Leinster is one of the Provinces of Ireland situated in the east of Ireland. It comprises the ancient Kingdoms of Mide, Osraige and Leinster, the ancient kingdoms were shired into a number of counties for administrative and judicial purposes. In later centuries, local government legislation has seen further sub-division of the historic counties, Leinster has no official function for local-government purposes. However, the province is an officially recognised subdivision of Ireland and it is listed on ISO 3166-2 as one of the four provinces of Ireland and IE-L is attributed to Leinster as its country sub-division code. Leinster had a population of 2,630,720 according to the results of the 2016 census. The traditional flag of Leinster features a harp on a green background. The first part of the name Leinster derives from Laigin, the name of a tribe that once inhabited the area. The latter part of the name either from the Irish tír or from the Old Norse staðr. Úgaine Mór, who built the hill-fort of Dún Ailinne, near Kilcullen in County Kildare. He is a likely, but uncertain candidate as the first historical king of Laigin in the 7th century BC, circa 175/185 AD, following a period of civil wars in Ireland, the legendary Cathair Mor re-founded the kingdom of Laigin. The legendary Finn Mac Cool, or Fionn mac Cumhaill, reputedly built a stronghold at the Hill of Allen, on the edge of the Bog of Allen, in Wales some of the Leinster-Irish colonists left their name on the Llŷn Peninsula, which derives its name from Laigin. In the 5th century the emerging Uí Néill dynasties from Connacht conquered areas of Westmeath, Meath and Offaly from the Uí Enechglaiss, Uí Néill Ard Righ attempted to exact the Boroimhe Laighean from the Laigin from that time, in the process becoming their traditional enemies. This southern dynasty provided all the later Kings of Leinster, the ancient Kingdom of Mide today encompasses much of counties Meath and Westmeath with five west County Offaly baronies. The Offaly parishes of Annally and Lusmagh were formerly part of Connacht while the baronies of Ballybritt, County Louth was formerly part of Ulster. The last major changes occurred with the formation of County Wicklow, from lands in the north of Carlow. The provincial borders were redrawn by Cromwell for administration and military reasons, later minor changes dealt with islands of one county in another. By the late 1700s, Leinster looked as shown in the map of 1784. Leinster represents the extended English Pale, counties controlled directly from Dublin, gradually Leinster subsumed the term of The Pale, as the difference between the old Pale area and the wider province, now under English administration, grew less distinct
12.
Cailleach
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In Gaelic mythology the Cailleach is a divine hag, a creator deity and weather deity, and an ancestor deity. She is also known as the Cailleach Bhéara or Bheur. The word cailleach means hag in modern Scottish Gaelic, and has applied to numerous mythological figures in Ireland, Scotland. Cailleach comes from the Old Gaelic Caillech, a form of caille. The Cailleach is often referred to as the Cailleach Bhéara, Cailleach Bheur, the 8th/9th-century Irish poem The Lament of the Old Woman says that the Cailleachs name is Digdi or Digde. In The Hunt of Slieve Cuilinn she is called Milucra, sister of Áine, in the tale of the Glas Gaibhnenn she is called Biróg. Elsewhere, she is called Buí or Bua, in Manx Gaelic she is known as the Caillagh. The plural of cailleach is cailleacha in Irish and cailleachan in Scottish Gaelic, the word is found as a component in terms like the Gaelic cailleach-dhubh and cailleach-oidhche, as well as the Irish cailleach feasa and cailleach phiseogach. Related words include the Gaelic caileag and the Irish cailín and the Lowland Scots carline/carlin, a more obscure word that is sometimes interpreted as hag is the Irish síle, which has led some to speculate on a connection between the Cailleach and the stonecarvings of Sheela na Gigs. In other cases she is said to have built the mountains intentionally and she carries a hammer for shaping the hills and valleys, and is said to be the mother of all the goddesses and gods. The Cailleach displays several traits befitting the personification of winter, she herds deer, she fights spring, Là Fhèill Brìghde is also the day the Cailleach gathers her firewood for the rest of the winter. As a result, people are generally relieved if Là Fhèill Brìghde is a day of foul weather, as it means the Cailleach is asleep, will run out of firewood. On the Isle of Man, where She is known as Caillagh ny Groamagh, in Scotland, the Cailleachan are also known as The Storm Hags, and seen as personifications of the elemental powers of nature, especially in a destructive aspect. They are said to be active in raising the windstorms of spring, during the period known as A Chailleach. On the west coast of Scotland, the Cailleach ushers in winter by washing her great plaid in the Gulf of Corryvreckan and this process is said to take three days, during which the roar of the coming tempest is heard as far away as twenty miles inland. When she is finished, her plaid is pure white and snow covers the land, in Scotland and Ireland, the first farmer to finish the grain harvest made a corn dolly, representing the Cailleach, from the last sheaf of the crop. The figure would then be tossed into the field of a neighbor who had not yet finished bringing in their grain. The last farmer to finish had the responsibility to take in and care for the corn dolly for the year, with the implication theyd have to feed
13.
La Llorona
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La Llorona is a legendary ghost prominent in folklore of Spanish America. This myth has a tendency to take aspects of a legend and is present throughout Mexican culture. According to the tradition, La Llorona is the ghost of a woman who lost her children and now cries while looking for them in the river and she drowns herself in the river when she realizes her children are dead. After she is challenged at the gates of heaven over the whereabouts of her children, maria is forced to wander the Earth for all eternity, searching in vain for her drowned offspring. She constantly weeps, hence her name La Llorona and she is caught between the living world and the spirit world. Parents often use this story to prevent their children from wandering out at night, in some versions of this tale, La Llorona will kidnap wandering children who resemble her missing children. She asks them for forgiveness, then drowns the children to take the place of her own, people who claim to have seen her say she appears at night or in the late evening by rivers or lakes. Some believe those who hear the wails of La Llorona are marked for death but those who escape in time are not so marked and she is said to cry, ¡Ay, mis hijos. or Oh, my children. La Llorona is also identified with La Malinche, the Nahua woman who served as Cortés interpreter. In one folk story of La Malinche, she became Hernán Cortés mistress and bore him a child, Aztec pride drove La Malinche to acts of vengeance. In this context, the tale compares the Spanish discovery of the New World, the Chumash of Southern California have their own connection to La Llorona. Chumash mythology mentions La Llorana when explaining nunašɨš called the maxulaw or mamismis, mythology says the Chumash believe in both the nunašɨš and La Llorana and specifically hear the maxulaw cry up in the trees. The maxulaw cry is considered an omen of death, the Maxulaw is described as looking like a cat with skin of rawhide leather. Outside the Americas, La Llorona bears a resemblance to the ancient Greek tale of the demonic demigodess Lamia, hera, Zeus wife, learned of his affair with Lamia and, out of anger, killed all the children Lamia had with Zeus. Out of jealousy over the loss of her own children, Lamia steals other womens children, in Greek mythology, Medea killed the two children fathered by Jason after he left her for another woman. Author Ben Radfords investigation into the legend of La Llorona, published in Mysterious New Mexico, La Llorona appeared as the monster of the week in the NBC TV series Grimm in the ninth episode of Season 2 which first aired on October 2012. La Llorona appeared as the first antagonist in the episode of the TV series Supernatural. Her ghost was known to haunt the Centennial Highway, hitchhiking unknowing motorists, mostly men, sam Winchester destroyed her ghost by smashing his car into the house where she used to live
14.
Psychopomp
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Psychopomps are creatures, spirits, angels, or deities in many religions whose responsibility is to escort newly deceased souls from Earth to the afterlife. Their role is not to judge the deceased, but simply to provide safe passage, when seen as birds, they are often seen in huge masses, waiting outside the home of the dying. Classical examples of a psychopomp are the ancient Egyptian god Anubis, the Greek ferryman Charon and deities Hermes and Hecate, the Roman god Mercury, the form of Shiva as Tarakeshwara in Hinduism performs a similar role, although leading the soul to moksha rather than an afterlife. In many beliefs, a spirit being taken to the underworld is violently ripped from its body. In the Persian tradition, Daena, the Zoroastrian Self-guide, appears as a young maiden to those who deserve to cross the Chinvat Bridge or a hideous old hag to those who don’t. In Judaism and Islam, Azrael plays the role of the angel of death who carries the soul up to the heavens, in Jungian psychology, the psychopomp is a mediator between the unconscious and conscious realms. It is symbolically personified in dreams as a man or woman. In many cultures, the shaman also fulfills the role of the psychopomp and this may include not only accompanying the soul of the dead, but also to help at birth, to introduce the newborn childs soul to the world. This also accounts for the title of midwife to the dying, or End of Life Doula. In Filipino culture, dead relations function as psychopomps, when the dying call out to specific dead persons, the spirits of the latter are supposedly visible to the former. The spirits, who wait at the foot of the deathbed, fetch the soul soon after death. Geoffrey Dennis, Abraham, Elijah, Lailah, Sandalphon, Encyclopedia of Jewish Myth, Magic, eliade, Mircea, Shamanism,1964, Chapters 6 and 7, Magical Cures, the Shaman as Psychopomp
15.
Rusalka
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A rusalka is a water nymph, a female spirit in Slavic mythology and folklore. The term is translated from Bulgarian, Belarusian, Russian and Ukrainian as mermaid. According to Vladimir Propp, the original rusalka was a used by Pagan Slavic tribes. They came out of the water in the spring to transfer life-giving moisture to the fields, in nineteenth century versions, a rusalka is an unquiet, dangerous being who is no longer alive, associated with the unclean spirit. However, the initial Slavic lore suggests that not all occurrences were linked with death from water. It is accounted by most stories that the soul of a woman who had died in or near a river or a lake would come back to haunt that waterway. This undead rusalka is not invariably malevolent, and would be allowed to die in peace if her death is avenged and her body would instantly become very slippery and not allow the victim to cling on to her body in order to reach the surface. She would then wait until the victim had drowned, or, on occasions, tickle them to death. A particular feature of such stories revolves around the fact that this behaviour would be limited to certain periods of the year. Specifics pertaining to rusalki differed among regions, although in most tales they lived without men, in Ukraine they were often linked with water. Where land was fertile, the maidens appeared naked and beautiful, in harsher areas of Russia, they appeared as large breasted amazons. The rusalki were believed to be at their most dangerous during the Rusalka Week in early June, at this time, they were supposed to have left their watery depths in order to swing on branches of birch and willow trees by night. Swimming during this week was strictly forbidden, lest mermaids would drag a swimmer down to the river floor,1829 – Rusalka is a short story of Orest Somov. 1856 – Rusalka is an opera by Alexander Dargomyzhsky,1901 – Rusalka is an opera by Antonín Dvořák. 1908 - Su Anasy is a poem by Tatar poet Ğabdulla Tuqay,1989 – Rusalka, a fantasy novel, part of the The Rusalka trilogy of novels by C. J. Cherryh features and revolves around a rusalka named Eveshka. 2005 - The Rusalka Cycle, Songs Between the Worlds is a performance piece,2013 - Fatima Rusalka, a single by alternative metal band Alesana. 2006 – A cycle of creatures in the Trading card game, Magic,2015 – The Rusalka is the name of episode three in season two of the television series Madam Secretary. Kelpie Mavka Nixie Ondine Selkie Sihuanaba Siren Hilton, Alison, Очерки русской мифологии, Умершие неестественною смертью и русалки
16.
Siren (mythology)
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In Greek mythology, the Sirens were dangerous creatures, who lured nearby sailors with their enchanting music and voices to shipwreck on the rocky coast of their island. Roman poets placed them on small islands called Sirenum scopuli. All such locations were surrounded by cliffs and rocks, although a Sophocles fragment makes Phorcys their father, when Sirens are named, they are usually as daughters of the river god Achelous, with Terpsichore, Melpomene, Sterope, or Chthon. In Euripides play, Helen, Helen in her anguish calls upon Winged maidens, although they lured mariners, the Greeks portrayed the Sirens in their meadow starred with flowers and not as sea deities. Roman writers linked the Sirens more closely to the sea, as daughters of Phorcys, Sirens are found in many Greek stories, notably in Homers Odyssey. Their number is reported as from two to five. In the Odyssey, Homer says nothing of their origin or names, according to Ovid, the Sirens were the companions of young Persephone. They were given wings by Demeter to search for Persephone when she was abducted, however, the Fabulae of Hyginus has Demeter cursing the Sirens for failing to intervene in the abduction of Persephone. Their song is continually calling on Persephone, the term siren song refers to an appeal that is hard to resist but that, if heeded, will lead to a bad conclusion. As Jane Ellen Harrison notes of The Ker as siren, It is strange and beautiful that Homer should make the Sirens appeal to the spirit, not to the flesh. The siren song is a promise to Odysseus of mantic truths, with a promise that he will live to tell them, they sing, Once he hears to his hearts content, sails on. We know all the pains that the Greeks and Trojans once endured on the plain of Troy when the gods willed it so— all that comes to pass on the fertile earth. They are mantic creatures like the Sphinx with whom they have much in common and their song takes effect at midday, in a windless calm. The end of song is death. That the sailors flesh is rotting away, suggests it has not been eaten and it has been suggested that, with their feathers stolen, their divine nature kept them alive, but unable to provide food for their visitors, who starved to death by refusing to leave. According to Hyginus, sirens were fated to live only until the mortals who heard their songs were able to pass by them, Sirens were believed to combine women and birds in various ways. In early Greek art, Sirens were represented as birds with womens heads, bird feathers. Later, they were represented as female figures with the legs of birds, with or without wings, playing a variety of musical instruments, especially harps
17.
Strigoi
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In Romanian mythology, strigoi are the troubled spirits of the dead rising from the grave. Some strigoi can be living people with certain magical properties, some of the properties of the strigoi include, the ability to transform into an animal, invisibility, and the propensity to drain the vitality of victims via blood loss. Strigoi are also known as vampires, the Croatian Jure Grando, who died in 1656, is often considered the first alleged vampire whose existence is documented. In the earliest published description of the Grando case, from Valvasors The Glory of the Duchy of Carniola, strigoiulu was the name of a Romanian-language satirical magazine published briefly in 1862 in Pest. The modern form, strigoi, is cited in an 1865 article on Transylvanian folklore by Wilhelm Schmidt and he reports a tradition in which, upon the birth of a child, one tosses a stone behind oneself and exclaims this into the mouth of the strigoi. In 1909, Franz Hartmann mentions in his book An Authenticated Vampire Story that peasant children from a village in the Carpathian Mountains started to die mysteriously, the villagers began to suspect a recently deceased count was a vampire, dwelling in his old fortress. Frightened villagers burned the castle to stop the deaths, unearthed, the corpse did not show signs of decomposition, his eyes were wide open, the face was red and twisted in the coffin. The corpse was burned to save his soul, in 1970, a series of hideous crimes shocked Bucharest. The attacks took place at midnight during rainstorms, the victims were usually waitresses returning home from work. In 1971, Ion Rîmaru was arrested and identified by teeth marks on the corpses, during the trial he was in a state of continual drowsiness. He was interrogated at night because he was not lucid at any other time, during daylight hours, Rîmaru was intractably lethargic. Sentenced to death, Rîmaru became violently agitated, several policemen were needed to restrain him. After the execution, Rîmarus father died in a suspicious accident, the similarities included the weather conditions and similar or identical names of some of the victims. It was rumored that the accident was engineered by the Securitate, during the Romanian Revolution of 1989, the corpse of Nicolae Ceaușescu did not receive a proper burial. This made the ghost of the dictator a threat in the minds of superstitious Romanians. Noted revolutionary Gelu Voican carpeted the apartment of the Conducător with braids of garlic and this is a traditional remedy against the strigoi. Before Christmas 2003, in the village of Marotinu de Sus, in February 2004, a niece of the deceased revealed that she had been visited by her late uncle. Gheorghe Marinescu, a brother-in-law, became the leader of a hunting group made up of several family members
18.
White Lady (ghost)
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A White Lady is a type of female ghost dressed in all white reportedly seen in rural areas and associated with some local legend of tragedy. While White Lady legends are found in countries around the world, they are most prominent in parts of the United States, Ireland. Most famous is the lady in white in Rochester New York, common to many of these legends is the theme of loss of a daughter or betrayal of a husband, boyfriend or fiancé. In popular medieval legend, a White Lady is fabled to appear by day as well as by night in a house in which a member is soon to die. According to The Nuttall Encyclopedia, these spirits were regarded as the ghosts of deceased ancestresses, the White Lady of Beeford, East Yorkshire resides on the Beeford Straight, a stretch of road between Beeford and Brandesburton. Motorists have reported her apparition running across the Beeford Straight toward the junction of North Frodingham, anecdotal tales also report a motorcyclist picking up a female hitchhiker on the same stretch of road. A few miles later the motorcyclist, upon turning around, noticed the passenger had vanished, in one instance, a car crashed into a tree killing 6 people. It is rumored to be her curse, another legend tells of the White Lady jumping off the Portchester Castle while she was carrying a child she didnt want. Her spirit is said to haunt the castle to this day, another legend says that she died in an automobile accident in 1983. She hitchhikes along the road she died on and when the people in the car come near the crash spot blood appears on her face and she points, the car with her soul in it will crash and kill everybody and everything inside it. A White Lady who is said to haunt Durand-Eastman Park in Rochester, legend has it that the human White Lady either killed herself in grief, or died alone and heartbroken. The Lady in White or the White Lady of Avenel, is the most commonly reported apparition at Avenel, the apparition is thought to be Mary Frances Fran Burwell, of the Burwell family of Virginia. The legend has it that she stayed on the front porch waiting for her husband to come home from the Civil War, says Adam Stupin, founder of SouthWest Virginia Ghost Hunters. The Ghostly Sphinx of Metedeconk by Stephen Crane recounts the tale of a White Lady whose lover was drowned in 1815, union Cemetery in Easton, Connecticut has reported sightings of a white lady since the late 1940s, said to haunt the nearby Stepney Cemetery in Monroe, Connecticut. Tolamato Cemetery in St. Augustine, Florida, has been home to stories of a haunting by a lady in white since the 19th century. Legend states that the ghost is the spirit of a woman who died suddenly on her way to be married. In Mukilteo, Washington, there have been many alleged reports of a Lady In White vanishing hitchhiker just off of Clearview Drive in the forest or on the road near the treeline, in Madisonville, Louisiana there is a legend about a woman called The Silk Lady. Her ghost is said to haunt Palmetto Flats by Highway 22, the story goes that back in the mid-1800s there was a woman who was riding back from town after seeing her lover off
19.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
20.
OCLC
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The Online Computer Library Center is a US-based nonprofit cooperative organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the worlds information and reducing information costs. It was founded in 1967 as the Ohio College Library Center, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat, the largest online public access catalog in the world. OCLC is funded mainly by the fees that libraries have to pay for its services, the group first met on July 5,1967 on the campus of the Ohio State University to sign the articles of incorporation for the nonprofit organization. The group hired Frederick G. Kilgour, a former Yale University medical school librarian, Kilgour wished to merge the latest information storage and retrieval system of the time, the computer, with the oldest, the library. The goal of network and database was to bring libraries together to cooperatively keep track of the worlds information in order to best serve researchers and scholars. The first library to do online cataloging through OCLC was the Alden Library at Ohio University on August 26,1971 and this was the first occurrence of online cataloging by any library worldwide. Membership in OCLC is based on use of services and contribution of data, between 1967 and 1977, OCLC membership was limited to institutions in Ohio, but in 1978, a new governance structure was established that allowed institutions from other states to join. In 2002, the structure was again modified to accommodate participation from outside the United States. As OCLC expanded services in the United States outside of Ohio, it relied on establishing strategic partnerships with networks, organizations that provided training, support, by 2008, there were 15 independent United States regional service providers. OCLC networks played a key role in OCLC governance, with networks electing delegates to serve on OCLC Members Council, in early 2009, OCLC negotiated new contracts with the former networks and opened a centralized support center. OCLC provides bibliographic, abstract and full-text information to anyone, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat—the OCLC Online Union Catalog, the largest online public access catalog in the world. WorldCat has holding records from public and private libraries worldwide. org, in October 2005, the OCLC technical staff began a wiki project, WikiD, allowing readers to add commentary and structured-field information associated with any WorldCat record. The Online Computer Library Center acquired the trademark and copyrights associated with the Dewey Decimal Classification System when it bought Forest Press in 1988, a browser for books with their Dewey Decimal Classifications was available until July 2013, it was replaced by the Classify Service. S. The reference management service QuestionPoint provides libraries with tools to communicate with users and this around-the-clock reference service is provided by a cooperative of participating global libraries. OCLC has produced cards for members since 1971 with its shared online catalog. OCLC commercially sells software, e. g. CONTENTdm for managing digital collections, OCLC has been conducting research for the library community for more than 30 years. In accordance with its mission, OCLC makes its research outcomes known through various publications and these publications, including journal articles, reports, newsletters, and presentations, are available through the organizations website. The most recent publications are displayed first, and all archived resources, membership Reports – A number of significant reports on topics ranging from virtual reference in libraries to perceptions about library funding
21.
JSTOR
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JSTOR is a digital library founded in 1995. Originally containing digitized back issues of journals, it now also includes books and primary sources. It provides full-text searches of almost 2,000 journals, more than 8,000 institutions in more than 160 countries have access to JSTOR, most access is by subscription, but some older public domain content is freely available to anyone. William G. Bowen, president of Princeton University from 1972 to 1988, JSTOR originally was conceived as a solution to one of the problems faced by libraries, especially research and university libraries, due to the increasing number of academic journals in existence. Most libraries found it prohibitively expensive in terms of cost and space to maintain a collection of journals. By digitizing many journal titles, JSTOR allowed libraries to outsource the storage of journals with the confidence that they would remain available long-term, online access and full-text search ability improved access dramatically. Bowen initially considered using CD-ROMs for distribution, JSTOR was initiated in 1995 at seven different library sites, and originally encompassed ten economics and history journals. JSTOR access improved based on feedback from its sites. Special software was put in place to make pictures and graphs clear, with the success of this limited project, Bowen and Kevin Guthrie, then-president of JSTOR, wanted to expand the number of participating journals. They met with representatives of the Royal Society of London and an agreement was made to digitize the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society dating from its beginning in 1665, the work of adding these volumes to JSTOR was completed by December 2000. The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation funded JSTOR initially, until January 2009 JSTOR operated as an independent, self-sustaining nonprofit organization with offices in New York City and in Ann Arbor, Michigan. JSTOR content is provided by more than 900 publishers, the database contains more than 1,900 journal titles, in more than 50 disciplines. Each object is identified by an integer value, starting at 1. In addition to the site, the JSTOR labs group operates an open service that allows access to the contents of the archives for the purposes of corpus analysis at its Data for Research service. This site offers a facility with graphical indication of the article coverage. Users may create focused sets of articles and then request a dataset containing word and n-gram frequencies and they are notified when the dataset is ready and may download it in either XML or CSV formats. The service does not offer full-text, although academics may request that from JSTOR, JSTOR Plant Science is available in addition to the main site. The materials on JSTOR Plant Science are contributed through the Global Plants Initiative and are only to JSTOR
22.
Elias Owen (priest)
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Rev. Elias Owen MA, F. S. A. was a Welsh cleric and antiquarian whose works include The Old Stone Crosses of the Vale of Clwyd,1886 and Welsh Folk-Lore,1896. Owen was born in Montgomeryshire, probably in the village of Llandysilio and his father was a farmer and one of the first 12 constables in the Montgomeryshire Constabulary. James Owen was the father of at least 15 children, nine by his first wife, Susannah, and five by his second wife, Mary Morris. Elias Owen married Margaret Pierce on 2 August 1858 at St. Davids Church, the Welsh chapel in Brownlow Hill, Liverpool, she was the daughter of Eleanor and William Pierce, a quarryman. They had 13 children, Edwin James Owen, who became the vicar at Brithdir, near Dolgelly, William Pierce Owen, who played international football for Wales, making 12 appearances and scoring six goals. He later became a solicitor in Aberystwyth, Elias Owen, who was the Welsh goalkeeper for three matches in 1884. He took his own life, aged 25, thomas Edward Owen, who became the vicar at Aberdaron, Caernarvonshire and then Blaenau Ffestiniog, Merionethshire. Mary Owen, who emigrated to Australia or New Zealand, susan Ellen Owen, who married William Greengrass who became headmaster at a school in Shoreditch, London. Margaret Ellen Owen, who married John James Jones who became curate at Pwllheli and then at St. Marys, Bangor, lizzie Owen, who married Edward Wilde, a farmer of Westbury, Shropshire. Myfanwy Owen, who married Albert Moss, a Cunard ships steward, gwen Lily Owen, who married David Williams, a merchant who later operated a bus and coach company in Bethesda, Caernarvonshire. Sarah Louisa Owen, who married Arthur Harris, who was employed by the electricity board in Coventry, enid Owen, about whom little is known. John Lowry Morgan Owen, who emigrated to Chile as a missionary, by the time he was six years old, the Owen family had settled in Llanidloes, about 35 miles south-west of Llandysilio. He won a scholarship to the Oxford Diocesan Training College for Schoolmasters at Culham, about eight miles south of Oxford, in October 1868, he enrolled at Trinity College, Dublin, graduating with a BA in June 1871 and being awarded an MA in the spring of 1878. At this time, students were not required to attend lectures at the college and needed only to sit the end of term examinations, Owen is said to have carried off many prizes, more especially in divinity. Owens only teaching appointment was as headmaster of the National School at Llanllechid, Owen lived at Llanllechid from the mid-1850s until 1871, during this time, he first developed his interest in antiquarian research. Together with the vicar, John Evans, he explored the local mountains and mapped a Roman encampment on Moel Faban. He subsequently created a map of the parish which was published in 1866 in the North Wales Chronicle and later, in a more elaborate form. His explorations and maps were referred to in an article by Col. Augustus Lane Fox published in the 1870 Journal of the Ethnological Society, in 2005, researchers from the nearby Moelyci Environmental Centre made use of Owens map during investigations into local hill-fort sites
23.
Walter Evans-Wentz
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Today, Evans-Wentz is best known for four texts translated from the Tibetan, Tibets Great Yogi Milarepa, Tibetan Yoga and Secret Doctrines, The Tibetan Book of the Great Liberation. He was born as Walter Yeeling Wentz in Trenton, New Jersey in 1878 and his father was a real estate businessman, of German descent, while his mother was Irish. He had two brothers and two sisters, though initially a Baptist, his father had turned to spiritualism and Theosophy. As a teenager he read Madame Blavatskys Isis Unveiled and The Secret Doctrine at his fathers library and became interested in the teachings of Theosophy and the occult. At age 24 Evans-Wentz went to Stanford University, where he studied religion, philosophy and he went on to receive B. A. and M. A degrees. He then studied Celtic mythology and folklore at Jesus College, Oxford and he performed ethnographic fieldwork collecting fairy folklore in Wales, Scotland, Ireland, Cornwall, Brittany, and the Isle of Man. In 1911 Evans-Wentz published his thesis as a book, The Fairy-Faith in Celtic Countries. While at Oxford, he added his mothers Welsh surname Evans to his name, at Oxford, Evans-Wentz met archaeologist and British Army officer T. E. Lawrence, who advised him to travel to the Orient, thereafter, funded by his rental properties in Florida, he started travelling extensively, spending time in Mexico, Europe, and the Far East. He spent the years of the First World War in Egypt and he boarded a ship from Port Said, Egypt for Colombo, Sri Lanka. Next in 1918, he travelled across India, covering important religious sites and he met spiritual figures like Yogananda, J. Krishnamurti, Paul Brunton, Ramana Maharishi, Sri Krishna Prem and Shunyata. He also visited Theosophical Society Adyar, where he met Annie Besant and Swami Satyananda Saraswati, founder of the Bihar School of Yoga and he next met Lama Kazi Dawa-Samdup, an English teacher and headmaster at Maharajas Boys School, in Gangtok, Sikkim. For the next two months, Evans-Wentz spent morning hours before the opening of the school with Samdup working on the text, during this period, they worked out the origins of what was to become The Tibetan Book of the Dead. Evans-Wentz soon left for the Swami Satyanandas ashram, where he was practicing yoga, Samdup meanwhile was appointed as a lecturer at the University of Calcutta, in the same year, and died in Calcutta three years later, long before the book could be finally published. In 1927, The Tibetan Book of the Dead was published by Oxford University Press, Evans-Wentz chose the title Book of the Dead because it reminded him of the Egyptian Book of the Dead. For Westerners, the book would become a reference on Tibetan Buddhism. Evans-Wentz credited himself only as the compiler and editor of these volumes and this book was followed by Tibets Great Yogi Milarepa, also based on Samdups translations. Evans-Wentz was a practitioner of the religions he studied and he became Dawa-Samdups disciple, wore robes, and ate a simple vegetarian diet
24.
Mythological Cycle
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It is one of the four major cycles of early Irish literary tradition, the others being the Ulster Cycle, the Fenian Cycle and the Cycles of the Kings. The term Mythological Cycle seems to have gained currency with Arbois de Jubainville, 1881–1883, usage predating this applies the term generically, e. g. to Norse mythology. In the opinion of Mackillop, use of the term is somewhat awkward today, the characters appearing in the cycle are essentially gods from the pre-Christian pagan past in Ireland. Commentators exercising caution, however, qualify them as representing only godlike beings and this is because the Christian scribes who composed the writings were generally careful not to refer to the Tuatha Dé Danann and other beings explicitly as deities. The disguises are thinly veiled nonetheless, and these writings contain discernible vestiges of early Irish polytheistic cosmology, examples of works from the cycle include numerous prose tales, verse texts, as well as pseudo-historical chronicles found in medieval vellum manuscripts or later copies. Some of the romances are of later composition and found only in manuscripts dating to near-modern times. The god-folk of the invasions are euhemerised, i. e. described as having dwelt terrestrially. Afterwards, the Tuatha Dé Danann are said to have retreated into the sídhe, having disappeared but not died, the deities oftentimes make guest appearances in narratives categorised under other cycles. Collected #lore literature, while they do not belong to the cycle in entirety, in the list that follows, citations are generally only given if the wiki page for that work is not developed. Otherwise, citations are deferred to the article in question. See #External links for additional titles, aislinge Óenguso Altram Tige Dá Medar. Cath Muige Tuired Cunga Cath Maige Tuired Ceithri cathracha i r-robadar Tuatha De Danand De Gabáil in t-Sída Echtra Nera Eachtra Léithín How the Dagda Got His Magic Staff, Oidheadh Chloinne Lir Oidheadh Chloinne Tuirenn Scél Tuáin meic Chairill Tochomlod Nemid co hErin Tochomlod mac Miledh a hEspain i nErind. Besides independent verses, a number of poems are embedded in prose tales, a number of them are also preserved in the pseudohistorical LGE, Keating, etc. Arsaidh sin a eóuin Accla Coire Érmai / Coire Goriath Collected lore are not wholly of mythological content, the Fitness of Names provides interesting explanations on names of Dian Cecht among others. Irish onomastica, the Dindshenchas, also include stories about such as Boann. Genealogical tracts and the Roll of the Kings, various glosses may also be culled for information, banshenchus Dobbs 1932 Cóir Anmann, Stokes 1897 Dindsenchas Sanas Cormaic, Nes Triads of Ireland, mention of the indeoin Dagdai, ox of Díl, etc. Chronicon Scotorum Lebor Gabála Érenn Glas Gaibhnenn The euhemerised deities arrived in five sets of migrations, remnants of the migration tales are the summarised accounts given in the LGE. Apart from these are the tale of Tuan mac Cairill, Fintan mac Bóchra colloquy, Tuan and Fintan are ancient beings from the Antediluvian past, who have reincaranted into different creatures, and are referred to in the LGE as well
25.
Aengus
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In Irish mythology, Aengus is a member of the Tuatha Dé Danann and probably a god of love, youth and poetic inspiration. He is traditionally described as having singing birds circling his head, in Old Irish his name is spelled Oíngus or Óengus, from Proto-Celtic *oino- one and gus strength. In Middle Irish this became Áengus, and in Modern Irish Aengus or Aonghus and his parents were the Dagda and Boann. He was said to have lived at Newgrange by the River Boyne, the Dagda had an affair with the river goddess Boann, wife of Nechtan. To hide her pregnancy, the Dagda made the sun stand still for nine months so that Aengus was conceived, gestated, when he came of age Aengus dispossessed the Dagda of his home, Brú na Bóinne. Irish has no article, so a day and a night is the same as day and night, which covers all time. In a different version of story, appearing in The Wooing of Etain, Aengus uses the same ploy to trick Elcmar out of Brú na Bóinne. In this version, Midir is Aenguss foster-father, while Elcmar is the husband of Boann cuckolded by the Dagda, according to Death Tales of the Tuatha de Danaan, Aengus killed his stepfather Elcmar for killing Midir. Aengus also killed Lugh Lámhfhadas poet for lying about his brother Ogma an Cermait, the poet claimed that Ogma an Cermait was having an affair with one of Lughs wives. In The Wooing of Etain, Aengus was able to lift a spell against Étaín. Midirs wife Fuamnach in a jealous rage had turned Etain into a beautiful fly, turning her into a woman at night, Aengus made her his lover until Fuamnach found out about it and drove her away. Aengus killed his mother for her treachery. In the Tale of the Two Pails, a woman, foster daughter of Aengus, got lost. The girl converted to Christianity, and Aengus could not win her back and he left, and she died of grief. Aengus fell in love with a girl he had seen in his dreams. His mother, Boann, goddess of the River Boyne, and a cow goddess whose milk formed the Milky Way, searched Ireland for a year, then his father, finally, King Bodb Derg of Munster found her after a further year. Aengus went to the lake of the Dragons Mouth and found 150 girls chained in pairs, his girl, Caer Ibormeith, on November 1, Caer and the other girls would turn into swans for a year, every second Samhain. Aengus was told he could marry Caer if he could identify her in her swan form, Aengus turned himself into a swan and they flew away, singing beautiful music that put all listeners asleep for three days and nights
26.
Anu (Irish goddess)
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Not to be confused with Annan. In Irish mythology, Anu is a goddess and she may be a goddess in her own right, or an alternate name for Danu. In the Lebor Gabála Érenn, Anand is given as a name for Morrígu. While an Irish goddess, in parts of Britain a similar figure is referred to as Gentle Annie, in an effort to avoid offense, a tactic which is similar to referring to the fairies as The Good People. As her name is often conflated with a number of other goddesses and this name may be derived the Proto-Celtic theonym *Φanon-. Anu has particular associations with Munster, the hills known as the Paps of Anu, at 52°00′55″N 9°16′09″W, near Killarney. Evidence that Anu may be the deity as Danu appears in the following comment from Sanas Cormaic. Well did she feed the gods, Oxford, Oxford University Press,1998, ISBN 0-19-280120-1. Wood, Juliette, The Celts, Life, Myth, and Art, Thorsons Publishers, ISBN 0-00-764059-5
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Banshee". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "
