1.
Town
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A town is a human settlement larger than a village but smaller than a city. The size definition for what constitutes a town varies considerably in different parts of the world, the word town shares an origin with the German word Zaun, the Dutch word tuin, and the Old Norse tun. The German word Zaun comes closest to the meaning of the word. An early borrowing from Celtic *dunom, in English and Dutch, the meaning of the word took on the sense of the space which these fences enclosed. In England, a town was a community that could not afford or was not allowed to build walls or other larger fortifications. In the Netherlands, this space was a garden, more specifically those of the wealthy, in Old Norse tun means a place between farmhouses, and is still used in a similar meaning in modern Norwegian. If there was any distinction between toun and burgh as claimed by some, it did not last in practice as burghs, for example, Edina Burgh or Edinburgh was built around a fort and eventually came to have a defensive wall. In some cases, town is a name for city or village. Sometimes, the town is short for township. A places population size is not a determinant of urban character. In many areas of the world, as in India at least until recent times, in the United Kingdom, there are historical cities that are far smaller than the larger towns. Some forms of settlement, such as temporary mining locations, may be clearly non-rural. Towns often exist as governmental units, with legally defined borders. In the United States these are referred to as incorporated towns, in other cases the town lacks its own governance and is said to be unincorporated. Note that the existence of a town may be legally set forth through other means. In the case of planned communities, the town exists legally in the form of covenants on the properties within the town. Australian geographer Thomas Griffith Taylor proposed a classification of towns based on their age, although there is no official use of the term for any settlement. In Albanian qytezë means small city or new city, while in ancient times small residential center within the walls of a castle
2.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
3.
U.S. state
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A U. S. state is a constituent political entity of the United States of America. There are 50 states, which are together in a union with each other. Each state holds administrative jurisdiction over a geographic territory. Due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the government, Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside. State citizenship and residency are flexible, and no government approval is required to move between states, except for persons covered by certain types of court orders. States range in population from just under 600,000 to over 39 million, four states use the term commonwealth rather than state in their full official names. States are divided into counties or county-equivalents, which may be assigned some local authority but are not sovereign. County or county-equivalent structure varies widely by state, State governments are allocated power by the people through their individual constitutions. All are grounded in principles, and each provides for a government. States possess a number of powers and rights under the United States Constitution, Constitution has been amended, and the interpretation and application of its provisions have changed. The general tendency has been toward centralization and incorporation, with the government playing a much larger role than it once did. There is a debate over states rights, which concerns the extent and nature of the states powers and sovereignty in relation to the federal government. States and their residents are represented in the federal Congress, a legislature consisting of the Senate. Each state is represented in the Senate by two senators, and is guaranteed at least one Representative in the House, members of the House are elected from single-member districts. Representatives are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census, the Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50, alaska and Hawaii are the most recent states admitted, both in 1959. The Constitution is silent on the question of states have the power to secede from the Union. Shortly after the Civil War, the U. S. Supreme Court, in Texas v. White, as a result, while the governments of the various states share many similar features, they often vary greatly with regard to form and substance
4.
Maine
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Maine is the northernmost state in the New England region of the northeastern United States. Maine is the 39th most extensive and the 41st most populous of the U. S. states and territories and it is bordered by New Hampshire to the west, the Atlantic Ocean to the east, and the Canadian provinces of New Brunswick and Quebec to the north. Maine is the easternmost state in the contiguous United States, and it is known for its jagged, rocky coastline, low, rolling mountains, heavily forested interior, and picturesque waterways, and also its seafood cuisine, especially clams and lobster. There is a continental climate throughout the state, even in areas such as its most populous city of Portland. For thousands of years, indigenous peoples were the inhabitants of the territory that is now Maine. At the time of European arrival in what is now Maine, the first European settlement in the area was by the French in 1604 on Saint Croix Island, by Pierre Dugua, Sieur de Mons. The first English settlement was the short-lived Popham Colony, established by the Plymouth Company in 1607, as Maine entered the 18th century, only a half dozen European settlements had survived. Loyalist and Patriot forces contended for Maines territory during the American Revolution, Maine was part of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts until 1820, when it voted to secede from Massachusetts to become an independent state. On March 15,1820, it was admitted to the Union as the 23rd state under the Missouri Compromise, there is no definitive explanation for the origin of the name Maine, but the most likely origin is the name given by early explorers after a province in France. Whatever the origin, the name was fixed for English settlers in 1665 when the English Kings Commissioners ordered that the Province of Maine be entered from then on in official records. The state legislature in 2001 adopted a resolution establishing Franco-American Day, other theories mention earlier places with similar names, or claim it is a nautical reference to the mainland. Attempts to uncover the history of the name of Maine began with James Sullivans 1795 History of the District of Maine. He made the allegation that the Province of Maine was a compliment to the queen of Charles I, Henrietta Maria. MAINE appears in the Domesday Book of 1086 in reference to the county of Dorset, the view generally held among British place name scholars is that Mayne in Dorset is Brythonic, corresponding to modern Welsh maen, plural main or meini. Some early spellings are, MAINE1086, MEINE1200, MEINES1204, mason had served with the Royal Navy in the Orkney Islands where the chief island is called Mainland, a possible name derivation for these English sailors. Initially, several tracts along the coast of New England were referred to as Main or Maine, Maine is the only state whose name has exactly one syllable. The original inhabitants of the territory that is now Maine were Algonquian-speaking Wabanaki peoples, including the Abenaki, Passamaquoddy, Maliseet and Penobscot, who had a loose confederacy. European contact with what is now called Maine started around 1200 CE when Norwegians interacted with the native Penobscot in present-day Hancock County, most likely through trade
5.
Hancock County, Maine
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Hancock County is a county located in the U. S. state of Maine. As of the 2010 census, the population was 54,418, the county was incorporated on June 25,1789 and named for John Hancock, the first governor of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. The Commissioners are Antonio Blasi, Steven Joy, Percy Brown, according to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 2,345 square miles, of which 1,587 square miles is land and 758 square miles is water. The population density was 33 people per square mile, there were 33,945 housing units at an average density of 21 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 97. 61% White,0. 25% Black or African American,0. 37% Native American,0. 38% Asian,0. 03% Pacific Islander,0. 20% from other races, and 1. 15% from two or more races. 0. 65% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,27. 90% of all households were made up of individuals and 11. 60% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.31 and the family size was 2.81. In the county, the population was out with 22. 30% under the age of 18,7. 40% from 18 to 24,27. 50% from 25 to 44,26. 80% from 45 to 64. The median age was 41 years, for every 100 females there were 95.70 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.10 males, the median income for a household in the county was $35,811, and the median income for a family was $43,216. Males had an income of $30,461 versus $22,647 for females. The per capita income for the county was $19,809, about 7. 00% of families and 10. 20% of the population were below the poverty line, including 11. 90% of those under age 18 and 9. 50% of those age 65 or over. The 1990 Census counted 46,948, though the 1998 population estimate is 49,932.1 The gender division was 22,996 males,23,952 females in 1989. Of the 31,475 persons over 25 years old, 83% had a school degree or higher. Twenty-one percent had a degree or higher. As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 54,418 people,24,221 households, the population density was 34.3 inhabitants per square mile. There were 40,184 housing units at a density of 25.3 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 96. 9% white,0. 8% Asian,0. 4% American Indian,0. 4% black or African American,0. 3% from other races, and 1. 2% from two or more races
6.
Hulls Cove, Maine
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Bar Harbor is a town on Mount Desert Island in Hancock County, Maine, United States. As of the 2010 census, its population is 5,235, Bar Harbor is a popular tourist destination in the Down East region of Maine and home to the College of the Atlantic, Jackson Laboratory, and MDI Biological Laboratory. Prior to a catastrophic 1947 fire the town was a summer colony for the super-affluent elite. Bar Harbor is home to the largest parts of Acadia National Park, including Cadillac Mountain, the highest point within twenty-five miles of the coastline of the Eastern United States. The town is served by the Hancock County-Bar Harbor Airport, which has flights on Cape Air and PenAir to Boston, as well as flights to Newark and Portland. The town of Bar Harbor was founded on the northeast shore of Mount Desert Island, the Wabanaki seasonally fished, hunted and gathered berries, clams, and other shellfish in the area. They spoke of Bar Harbor as Man-es-aydik or Ah-baysauk, leaving piles of shells as evidence of this abundance. In early September 1604, French explorer Samuel de Champlain ran aground on a rock ledge believed to be just off Otter Cliffs, Champlain named the island Isles des Monts Deserts, meaning island of barren mountains—now called Mount Desert Island, the largest in Maine. The community was first settled by Europeans in 1763 by Israel Higgins and John Thomas and incorporated on February 23,1796 as Eden, after Sir Richard Eden, early industries included fishing, lumbering and shipbuilding. With the best soil on Mount Desert Island, it also developed agriculture, in the 1840s, its rugged maritime scenery attracted the Hudson River School and Luminism artists Thomas Cole, Frederic Edwin Church, William Hart and Fitz Henry Lane. Inspired by their paintings, journalists, sportsmen and rusticators followed, agamont House, the first hotel in Eden, was established in 1855 by Tobias Roberts. Birch Point, the first summer estate, was built in 1868 by Alpheus Hardy, by 1880, there were 30 hotels, including the Mira Monte Inn, a historic landmark that would later survive a massive fire, in 1947. Tourists were arriving by train and ferry to the Gilded Age resort that would rival Newport, a glimpse of their lifestyles was available from the Shore Path, a walkway skirting waterfront lawns. Yachting, garden parties at the Pot & Kettle Club, others enjoyed horse-racing at Robin Hood Park-Morrell Park. President William Howard Taft played golf in 1910 at the Kebo Valley Golf Club. On March 3,1918, Eden was renamed Bar Harbor, after the sand and gravel bar, visible at low tide, the name would become synonymous with elite wealth. It was the birthplace of vice-president Nelson Rockefeller on July 8,1908, Bar Harbor was also used for naval practices during World War II. More specifically, Bald Porcupine Island was used to fire live torpedoes, on October 10,1944 the submarine USS Piper fired 12 live torpedoes at the island
7.
2010 United States Census
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The 2010 United States Census, is the twenty-third and currently most recent United States national census. National Census Day, the day used for the census, was April 1,2010. As part of a drive to increase the accuracy,635,000 temporary enumerators were hired. The population of the United States was counted as 308,745,538, as required by the United States Constitution, the U. S. census has been conducted every 10 years since 1790. The 2000 U. S. Census was the previous census completed, participation in the U. S. Census is required by law in Title 13 of the United States Code. On January 25,2010, Census Bureau Director Robert Groves personally inaugurated the 2010 Census enumeration by counting World War II veteran Clifton Jackson, more than 120 million census forms were delivered by the U. S. Post Office beginning March 15,2010, the number of forms mailed out or hand-delivered by the Census Bureau was approximately 134 million on April 1,2010. The 2010 Census national mail participation rate was 74%, from April through July 2010, census takers visited households that did not return a form, an operation called non-response follow-up. In December 2010, the Census Bureau delivered population information to the president for apportionment, personally identifiable information will be available in 2082. The Census Bureau did not use a form for the 2010 Census. In several previous censuses, one in six households received this long form, the 2010 Census used only a short form asking ten basic questions, How many people were living or staying in this house, apartment, or mobile home on April 1,2010. Were there any additional people staying here on April 1,2010 that you did not include in Question 1, mark all that apply, Is this house, apartment, or mobile home – What is your telephone number. What is Person 1s age and Person 1s date of birth, is Person 1 of Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin. Does Person 1 sometimes live or stay somewhere else, the form included space to repeat some or all of these questions for up to twelve residents total. In contrast to the 2000 census, an Internet response option was not offered, detailed socioeconomic information collected during past censuses will continue to be collected through the American Community Survey. The survey provides data about communities in the United States on a 1-year or 3-year cycle, depending on the size of the community, rather than once every 10 years. A small percentage of the population on a basis will receive the survey each year. In June 2009, the U. S. Census Bureau announced that it would count same-sex married couples, however, the final form did not contain a separate same-sex married couple option
8.
Eastern Time Zone
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Places that use Eastern Standard Time when observing standard time are 5 hours behind Coordinated Universal Time. Eastern Daylight Time, when observing daylight saving time DST is 4 hours behind Coordinated Universal Time, in the northern parts of the time zone, on the second Sunday in March, at 2,00 a. m. EST, clocks are advanced to 3,00 a. m. EDT leaving a one-hour gap, on the first Sunday in November, at 2,00 a. m. EDT, clocks are moved back to 1,00 a. m, southern parts of the zone do not observe daylight saving time. The Uniform Time Act of 1966 ruled that daylight saving time would run from the last Sunday of April until the last Sunday in October in the United States, the act was amended to make the first Sunday in April the beginning of daylight saving time as of 1987. The Energy Policy Act of 2005 extended daylight saving time in the United States beginning in 2007. So local times change at 2,00 a. m. EST to 3,00 a. m. EDT on the second Sunday in March, in Canada, the time changes as it does in the United States. However, a handful of communities unofficially observe Eastern Time because they are part of the Columbus, Georgia metropolitan area – Phenix City, Smiths Station, Lanett, and Valley. Florida, All of Florida is in the Eastern Time zone except for the portion of the Florida Panhandle west of the Apalachicola River, as the Eastern–Central zone boundary approaches the Gulf of Mexico, it follows the Bay/Gulf county line. Indiana, All of Indiana observes Eastern Time except for six counties in the Chicago metropolitan area. Kentucky, Roughly, the half of the state, including all of metropolitan Louisville, is in the Eastern Time Zone. Historically the entire state observed Central Time, when daylight saving time was first introduced, the Lower Peninsula remained on DST after it formally ended, effectively re-aligning itself into the Eastern Time Zone. The Upper Peninsula continued to observe Central Time until 1972, when all, Tennessee, Most of the eastern third of Tennessee is legally on Eastern Time. Eastern Time is also used somewhat as a de facto official time for all of the United States, since it includes the capital and the largest city. Major professional sports leagues also post all game times in Eastern time, for example, a game time between two teams from Pacific Time Zone will still be posted in Eastern time. Most cable television and national broadcast networks advertise airing times in Eastern time, national broadcast networks generally have two primary feeds, an eastern feed for Eastern and Central time zones, and a tape-delayed western feed for the Pacific Time Zone. The prime time is set on Eastern and Pacific at 8,00 p. m. with the Central time zone stations receiving the eastern feed at 7,00 p. m. local time. Mountain Time Zone stations receive a separate feed at 7,00 p. m. local time, as Arizona does not observe daylight saving time, during the summer months, it has its own feed at 7,00 p. m. local time
9.
UTC-5
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UTC−05,00 is a time offset that subtracts five hours from Coordinated Universal Time. In North America, it is observed in the Eastern Time Zone during standard time, the western Caribbean uses it year round. The southwestern and northwestern portions of Indiana Mexico – Central Zone Central, in most of Mexico, daylight time starts a few weeks after the United States. Communities on the U. S. border that observe Central Time follow the U. S. daylight time schedule
10.
Daylight saving time
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Daylight saving time is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months by one hour so that evening daylight lasts an hour longer, while sacrificing normal sunrise times. Typically, regions that use Daylight Savings Time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring, American inventor and politician Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784. New Zealander George Hudson proposed the idea of saving in 1895. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation, starting on April 30,1916, many countries have used it at various times since then, particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s. The practice has both advocates and critics, DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel, billing, record keeping, medical devices, heavy equipment, and sleep patterns. Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically, but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates, industrialized societies generally follow a clock-based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year. The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, North and south of the tropics daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater as one moves away from the tropics. However, they will have one hour of daylight at the start of each day. Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, DST is also of little use for locations near the equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year. After ancient times, equal-length civil hours eventually supplanted unequal, so civil time no longer varies by season, unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as some monasteries of Mount Athos and all Jewish ceremonies. This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells, despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST, 18th-century Europe did not even keep precise schedules. However, this changed as rail transport and communication networks came to require a standardization of time unknown in Franklins day. Modern DST was first proposed by the New Zealand entomologist George Hudson, whose shift work job gave him time to collect insects. An avid golfer, he also disliked cutting short his round at dusk and his solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, a proposal he published two years later. The proposal was taken up by the Liberal Member of Parliament Robert Pearce, a select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearces bill did not become law, and several other bills failed in the following years. Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915, william Sword Frost, mayor of Orillia, Ontario, introduced daylight saving time in the municipality during his tenure from 1911 to 1912. Starting on April 30,1916, the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria-Hungary were the first to use DST as a way to conserve coal during wartime, Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed suit. Russia and a few other countries waited until the year
11.
ZIP Code
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ZIP Codes are a system of postal codes used by the United States Postal Service since 1963. The term ZIP, an acronym for Zone Improvement Plan, was chosen to suggest that the travels more efficiently, and therefore more quickly. The basic format consists of five numerical digits, an extended ZIP+4 code, introduced in 1983, includes the five digits of the ZIP Code, a hyphen, and four additional digits that determine a more specific location within a given ZIP Code. The term ZIP Code was originally registered as a servicemark by the U. S. Postal Service, USPS style for ZIP is all caps and the c in code is also capitalized, although style sheets for some publications use sentence case or lowercase. The early history and context of postal codes began with postal district/zone numbers, the United States Post Office Department implemented postal zones for numerous large cities in 1943. For example, Mr. John Smith 3256 Epiphenomenal Avenue Minneapolis 16, by the early 1960s a more organized system was needed, and on July 1,1963, non-mandatory five-digit ZIP Codes were introduced nationwide. Three months later, on October 1,1963, the U. S, an earlier list in June had proposed capitalized abbreviations ranging from two to five letters. The abbreviations have remained unchanged, with one exception, according to the historian of the U. S. Robert Moon, an employee of the post office, is considered the father of the ZIP Code, he submitted his proposal in 1944 while working as a postal inspector. The post office gives credit to Moon only for the first three digits of the ZIP Code, which describe the sectional center facility or sec center, an SCF is a central mail processing facility with those three digits. The SCF sorts mail to all post offices with those first three digits in their ZIP Codes, the mail is sorted according to the final two digits of the ZIP Code and sent to the corresponding post offices in the early morning. Sectional centers do not deliver mail and are not open to the public, Mail picked up at post offices is sent to their own SCF in the afternoon, where the mail is sorted overnight. The United States Post Office used a character, which it called Mr. ZIP. He was often depicted with a such as USE ZIP CODE in the selvage of panes of stamps or on labels contained in, or the covers of. In 1983, the U. S. Postal Service introduced an expanded ZIP Code system that it called ZIP+4, often called plus-four codes, add-on codes, or add ons. But initial attempts to promote use of the new format met with public resistance. For Post Office Boxes, the rule is that each box has its own ZIP+4 code. However, there is no rule, so the ZIP+4 Code must be looked up individually for each box. It is common to use add-on code 9998 for mail addressed to the postmaster,9999 for general delivery, for a unique ZIP Code, the add-on code is typically 0001
12.
Schooner
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A schooner /ˈskuːnər/ is a type of sailing vessel with fore-and-aft sails on two or more masts, the foremast being shorter than the main and no taller than the mizzen if there is one. While the schooner was originally gaff-rigged, modern schooners typically carry a Bermuda rig, such vessels were first used by the Dutch in the 16th or 17th century. They were further developed in North America from the early 18th century, the most common type, with two masts, were popular in trades requiring speed and windward ability, such as slaving, privateering, blockade running, and offshore fishing. In the Chesapeake Bay area several distinctive schooner types evolved, including the Baltimore clipper, bugeye, schooners were also popular among pirates in the West Indies during the Golden Age of Piracy, for their speed and agility. They could also sail in shallow waters, and while being smaller than other ships of the time period. Schooners first evolved in the late 17th century from a variety of small two-masted gaff-rigged vessels used in the coast, most were working craft but some pleasure yachts with schooner rigs were built for wealthy merchants and Dutch nobility. Following the arrival of the Dutch monarch William of Orange on the British throne and this vessel, captured in a detailed Admiralty model, is the earliest fully documented schooner. Royal Transport was quickly noted for its speed and ease of handling, North American shipbuilders quickly developed a variety of schooner forms for trading, fishing and privateering. According to the language scholar Walter William Skeat, the term comes from scoon. The Dutch word schoone means nice, good looking, robinson replied, A schooner let her be. The launch is variously described as being in 1713 or 1745, naval architects such as Howard Chapelle have dismissed this invention story as a childish fable, but some language scholars feel that the legend may support a Gloucester origin of the word. Other sources state the etymology as unknown and uncertain, the first detailed definition of a schooner, describing the vessel as two-masted vessel with fore and aft gaff-rigged sails appeared in 1769 in William Falconers, Universal Dictionary of the Marine. Although a schooner may have up to four masts, the schooner has only two, with the foremast shorter than the mainmast. There may be a bowsprit to help balance the rig, the principal issue with a schooner sail plan is how to fill the space between the two masts most effectively. Traditional schooners were rigged, and the trapezoid shape of the foresail occupied the inter-mast space to good effect, with a useful sail area. A Bermuda rigged schooner typically has four sails, a mainsail, a main staysail abaft the foremast, plus a forestaysail. An advantage of the schooner is that it is easily handled and reefed by a small crew. The main staysail will not overlap the mainsail, and so little to prepare the wind for the mainsail
13.
Cruise ship
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Transportation is not the only purpose of cruising, particularly on cruises that return passengers to their originating port, with the ports of call usually in a specified region of a continent. There are even cruises to nowhere or nowhere voyages where the ship makes 2–3 night round trips without any ports of call, by contrast, dedicated transport oriented ocean liners do line voyages and typically transport passengers from one point to another, rather than on round trips. The gradual evolution of passenger ship design from ocean liners to cruise ships has seen passenger cabins shifted from inside the hull to the superstructure with private verandas, the distinction between ocean liners and cruise ships has blurred, particularly with respect to deployment. Larger cruise ships have also engaged in longer trips such as transoceanic voyages which may not return to the port for months. Some former ocean liners operate as cruise ships, such as Marco Polo, the only dedicated transatlantic ocean liner in operation as a liner of December 2013 is Queen Mary 2 of the Cunard fleet. The industrys rapid growth has seen nine or more newly built ships catering to a North American clientele added every year since 2001, smaller markets, such as the Asia-Pacific region, are generally serviced by older ships. These are displaced by new ships in the growth areas. The worlds largest cruise ship is currently Royal Caribbean Internationals Harmony of the Seas beating her sister ships by about 2.15 meters, the birth of leisure cruising began with the formation of the Peninsular & Oriental Steam Navigation Company in 1822. The company started out as a line with routes between England and the Iberian Peninsula, adopting the name Peninsular Steam Navigation Company. It won its first contract to deliver mail in 1837, in 1840, it began mail delivery to Alexandria, Egypt, via Gibraltar and Malta. The company was incorporated by Royal Charter the same year, becoming the Peninsular, P&O first introduced passenger cruising services in 1844, advertising sea tours to destinations such as Gibraltar, Malta and Athens, sailing from Southampton. The forerunner of modern cruise holidays, these voyages were the first of their kind, the company later introduced round trips to destinations such as Alexandria and Constantinople. It underwent a period of expansion in the latter half of the 19th century, commissioning larger. Some sources mention Francesco I, flying the flag of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and she was built in 1831 and sailed from Naples in early June 1833, preceded by an advertising campaign. The cruise ship was boarded by nobles, authorities, and royal princes from all over Europe, however, it was restricted to the aristocracy of Europe and was not a commercial endeavour. Christian Wilhelm Allers published an account of it as Backschisch. The first vessel built exclusively for cruising, was Prinzessin Victoria Luise of Germany, designed by Albert Ballin. The ship was completed in 1900, the practice of luxury cruising made steady inroads on the more established market for transatlantic crossings
14.
New England town
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The New England town is the basic unit of local government and local division of state authority in each of the six New England states. Without a direct counterpart in most other U. S, New England towns are often governed by a town meeting legislative body. County government in New England states is typically weak at best, Connecticut, for example, has no county governments, nor does Rhode Island. Both of those states retain counties only as geographic subdivisions with no governmental authority, with few exceptions, counties serve mostly as dividing lines for the states judicial systems. Towns are laid out so that all land within the boundaries of a state is allocated to a town or other corporate municipality. Except in some sparsely populated areas of the three northern New England states, all land is incorporated into the bounds of a municipal corporations territory. Towns are municipal corporations, with their powers defined by a combination of municipal charter, state statutes. In most of New England, the laws regarding their authority have historically been very broadly construed. In practice, most New England towns have significant autonomy in managing their own affairs, New Hampshire and Vermont follow Dillons Rule, which holds that local governments are largely creatures of the state. Traditionally, a legislative body is the open town meeting. Only several Swiss cantons with Landsgemeinde remain as democratic as the small New England town meetings, a town almost always contains a built-up populated place with the same name as the town. Additional built-up places with different names are found within towns, along with a mixture of additional urban. There is no territory that is not part of a town between each town, leaving one town means entering another town or other municipality, in most parts of New England, towns are irregular in shape and size and are not laid out on a grid. The town center contains a town common, often used today as a small park. In Connecticut, Rhode Island and most of Massachusetts, county government has been completely abolished, in other areas, some counties provide judicial and other limited administrative services. In many cases, the numbers on rural roads in New England reset to zero upon crossing a town line. Residents usually identify with their town for purposes of identity, thinking of the town in its entirety as a single. There are some cases where residents identify more strongly with villages or sections of a town than with the town itself, particularly in Rhode Island, more than 90% of the municipalities in the six New England states are towns
15.
Mount Desert Island
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Mount Desert Island, in Hancock County, Maine, is the largest island off the coast of Maine. With an area of 108 square miles it is the 6th largest island in the contiguous United States and it is the second-largest island on the Eastern seaboard, behind Long Island and ahead of Marthas Vineyard. According to the 2010 census, the island has a population of 10,615. The island is home to numerous summer colonies such as Northeast Harbor. Current notable summer residents include George Mitchell, Tim Robbins, David Rockefeller, Susan Sarandon, some natives stress the second syllable, in the French fashion, although many others pronounce it in a fashion similar to the English name of a landscape devoid of vegetation. Deep shell heaps indicate American Indian encampments dating back 6,000 years in Acadia National Park, the Wabanaki Indians knew Mount Desert Island as Pemetic, the sloping land. They built bark-covered conical shelters, and traveled in exquisitely designed birch bark canoes, historical notes record that the Wabanaki wintered in interior forests and spent their summers near the coast. Archeological evidence suggests the opposite pattern, in order to avoid harsh inland winters and to take advantage of salmon runs upstream, American Indians wintered on the coast, the first meeting between the people of Pemetic and the Europeans is a matter of conjecture. But it was a Frenchman, Samuel de Champlain, who made the first important contribution to the record of Mount Desert Island. Champlain led an expedition from the St. Croix Settlement and he was tasked with exploring the coast in a patache with twelve sailors and two American Indian guides. They were in search of a walled and wealthy American Indian city named Norumbega. On September 6,1604 the expedition crossed Frenchman Bay and sailed towards Otter Creek, during high tide the ship hit a ledge off Otter Cliff and while repairing a hole two American Indians boarded the ship as guides. Je l’ay nommée l’Isle des Monts-déserts, which translates to The mountain summits are all bare, I name it Isles des Monts Desert. In 1613, French Jesuits, welcomed by Indians, established the first French mission in America—Saint Sauveur Mission—on what is now Fernald Point, Saint Sauveur Mountain, overlooking the point, still bears the name of the mission. The French missionaries began to build a fort, plant their corn, two months later, on 2 July 1613, Captain Samuel Argall of the Colony of Virginia arrived on board the Treasurer and destroyed their mission. Three of the missionaries were killed and three were wounded, the rest of the company, some twenty in all, were taken prisoner. Argall took many of the prisoners to Jamestown and he eventually returned to Saint-Sauveur and cut down the cross the Jesuits had planted, replacing it with a Protestant version. He then set fire to the few buildings that were there and he then went on to burn the remaining French buildings on Saint Croix Island and Port Royal, Nova Scotia
16.
Down East
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The phrase apparently derives from sailing terminology, sailors from western ports sailed downwind toward the east to reach the area. A person from this area may be called a down-easter, within Maine, the phrase Down East may refer specifically to the states easternmost regions, also called Down East Maine. The origin of the phrase Down East is typically traced to nautical terminology referring to direction, in the warm months most suitable for sailing, the prevailing winds along the coast of New England and Canada blow from the southwest, meaning ships sail downwind to go east. As such, the northeastern stretches were said to be Down East in relation to western cities such as Boston. Correspondingly, sailors spoke of going up to Boston from Down East ports, the term can be used as an adverb, adjective, or noun. The Oxford English Dictionary traces the earliest known use in print to 1825, the phrase down-easter, meaning a person from Down East, appeared in print in 1828. The phrase Down East is used in several ways, most broadly, it refers to areas from northeastern New England into Canadas Maritime Provinces. Sargent F. Collier wrote that Down East extended from Maine into Canada as far as Chaleur Bay and this area is similar to the boundaries of the historical French colony of Acadia, Collier regarded this as a cultural legacy of the former colony. According to Maine author John Gould, Down East is a never-never land always east of where you are, the term is relational, with Boston being the traditional referent for determining what is Down East. As such, sailors going from one port in Maine to another nearby may have said they were going down Maine or eastard, within New England, Down East often refers specifically to Maine, especially the coastal areas. The phrase has widespread use in the state, Maines largest monthly magazine is titled Down East, amtrak named its passenger train service between Boston and Brunswick, Maine the Downeaster. The term Down East provided the name for a prominent type of sailing ship developed in Maine in the later 19th century, down Easters were a modification of the earlier clipper, with new lines and rigging enabling it to carry substantially more cargo. Primarily used to transport wheat and other goods from California to European markets, Down Easters were characteristically built in Maine, a significant part of Maines maritime legacy, they were among the last prominent sailing ships built before steamships came to dominate the industry. In Maine, Down East may refer more narrowly to the easternmost section of the state along the Canada–US border and this was among the last parts of the state settled by Europeans. Due to its thankless climate it saw little settlement by the French, initially attracted by the availability of land for farming, the early British settlers soon turned to fishing to survive, fishing remains a significant economic driver. Largely due to its climate and remoteness, Down East Maine has remained one of the states least developed areas. In Canada, Down East typically refers to the Maritime Provinces, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, newfoundland and the Gaspé Peninsula of Quebec are sometimes included. The term gave its name to Down East fiddling, which developed in the Maritimes and has one of the most prominent styles of Canadian fiddling
17.
College of the Atlantic
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College of the Atlantic, founded in 1969, is a private, liberal-arts college located in Bar Harbor on Mount Desert Island, Maine, United States. It awards bachelors and masters degrees solely in the field of human ecology, focus areas include arts and design, environmental sciences, humanities, international studies, sustainable food systems, and socially responsible business. The college is small, with approximately 364 students and a faculty of 35. Tenets of the pedagogy include field-based or applied learning, small, seminar-style classes, student-directed projects, community involvement and it was the first college to be carbon neutral and one of the first to divest fossil fuel holdings from its endowment. The college appears on most of the top green school lists, the campus consists of 37 acres on Frenchman Bay, two organic farms, two off-shore island research stations, and a 100-acre protected area. The farms, Beech Hill Farm and Peggy Rockefeller Farms, are living laboratories for classes, Peggy Rockefeller Farms includes livestock, crops, orchards. Both supply the award-winning dining hall with organic produce, eggs, the Edward McCormick Blair Research station on Mount Desert Rock is a center for the study of marine mammals and oceanographic issues. Brewer and Gower founded the school in 1969, when the school of ecology was granted temporary approval on June 23,1969. Three other Mount Desert residents participated in the establishment of the college - Bernard K. Sonny Cough, Richard Lewis, the institution now has approximately 300 students, as of the 2012–13 school year. Since its establishment, the College of the Atlantic has offered only one academic major, Gower helped to create the curriculum for the college and its academic programs. The majority of the campus was purchased for $1 from the Oblate Fathers of Mary Immaculate Seminary, parts of the campus were also donated by the Cough family, as Bernard K. Sonny Cough was one of the five founders of the school. The schools curriculum is based on ecology, and all first-year students are required to take an introductory course in human ecology. Other requirements include two courses in each area, one quantitative reasoning course, one history course. The intention is for students to explore and integrate ideas from different disciplines, for this senior project, students decide the methods and content which are then submitted for approval by their academic advisors. Students have come from all 50 states and 34 foreign countries and these students primarily graduate from United World Colleges and are awarded significant scholarships through the Davis United World College Scholars Program. In 2004, COA was the first campus to make a commitment to be powered entirely by renewable energy. In 2005 it was the first school to hold a zero-waste graduation, the college currently offsets those emissions it cannot reduce or avoid via truck stop electrification through Carbonfund. org. In 2016, COA was ranked as the #1 green college by The Princeton Review
18.
Jackson Laboratory
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The Jackson Laboratory is an independent, nonprofit biomedical research institution dedicated to contributing to a future of better health care based on the unique genetic makeup of each individual. The institution is a National Cancer Institute-designated Cancer Center and has NIH centers of excellence in aging, the National Institute on Aging provides $25 million to develop new treatments, future therapies based on precision modeling. The National Institutes of Health funds phase 2 of the Knockout Mouse Production, a charitable contribution of $8,410,000 from the Harold Alfond® Foundation will support The Jackson Laboratory’s efforts to enhance cancer diagnostics and treatment in Maine. The Jackson Laboratory was founded in 1929 in Bar Harbor, Maine, by former University of Maine, little under the name Roscoe B. Jackson Memorial Laboratory. Established that cancer is a disorder, a novel concept before the Laboratory’s founding in 1929. Dr. Leroy Stevens first described cells that can develop into different tissues – today known as stem cells, dr. Elizabeth Russell performed the first bone marrow transplants in a mammal, leading to new treatments for blood and immunological diseases. Dr. George Snell won the Nobel Prize in 1980 for providing an understanding of the immune system’s major histocompatibility complex. Is pioneering the use of cancer avatars – mice with implanted human tumors – to test targeted therapies for cancer patients. Recent research has provided insight into cancer cells and treatments for leukemia, progress with type 1 diabetes and lupus. The Jackson Laboratory Cancer Center first received its National Cancer Institute designation in 1983 in recognition of the cancer research conducted there. The JAXCC is one of seven NCI-designated Cancer Centers with a focus on basic research, on May 10,1989, a flash fire destroyed the Morrell Park mouse production facility. The fire raged for five hours, requiring over 100 firefighters from 15 companies, four workers of the Colwell Construction Company who were installing fiberglass wallboard in the room where the fire broke out were injured, one with burns over 15 percent of his body. While none of the strains were lost,300,000 production mice died, resulting in a national shortage of laboratory mice. This was the fire to severely affect the laboratory, the 1947 fire that burned most of the island destroyed most of the laboratory. Worldwide donations of funds and mice allowed the lab to resume operations in 1948, hosts the Mouse Genome Informatics database, the world’s source for information on mouse genetics and biology. Distributes more than 3 million JAX® mice annually to more than 20,000 investigators in at least 50 countries for research, offers more than 7,000 genetically defined strains of JAX® mice to the international research community. Provides animal husbandry, reproductive science and in drug efficacy services in a wide range of therapeutic areas for biomedical researchers. Conducts over 100 educational seminars and webinars yearly to educate and enable external biomedical researchers, nearly 700 students, researchers and physicians attend Laboratory courses, conferences and workshops annually
19.
MDI Biological Laboratory
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The MDI Biological Laboratory is an independent non-profit biomedical research institution founded in 1898 and located in Salisbury Cove, Maine, on Mount Desert Island. Its mission is to human health and well- being through basic research, education. The MDI Biological Laboratory has a staff of 63. Scientists at the MDI Biological Laboratory focus on studying regeneration and aging to promote longer, healthier lives and they are developing new approaches for treating and preventing heart disease, stroke, diabetes, and cancer, as well as Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, and Huntington’s diseases. For example, MDI Biological Laboratory scientists study the tiny nematode Caenorhabditis elegans and those same genes are present in humans. They study organisms such as zebrafish and salamanders that are able to regenerate diseased or damaged tissue, organs. However, for some reason those mechanisms have been turned off in most mammals, MDI Biological Laboratory scientists are learning how to reactivate these mechanisms to promote healing in humans. Education is an important part of the MDI Biological Laboratory’s mission, students at all levels, from middle school to medical school, receive hands-on research training that prepares them for the 21st century workforce. In 2014, the Laboratory offered 25 one- or two-week-long courses for Maine undergraduates, medical students, academic year and summer fellowships are offered for high school and undergraduate students. These fellowships provide an opportunity for students to work directly with an MDI Biological Laboratory scientist. Half of all INBRE funds are distributed across Maine among INBRE partner institutions to support student research training, the program has trained more than 2,000 Maine students in state-of-the-art research methods. Over 90% of INBRE graduates pursue careers or advanced education in scientific or medical fields, iDeA and INBRE are programs administered and funded by the National Institutes of Health. Programs at the MDI Biological Laboratory help break down the barriers that often exist between science and the public, the Laboratory offers the MDI Science Cafés, Family Science Night, Art Meets Science program, and the Community Environmental Health Laboratory. Every CEHL project relies on volunteer efforts from students and community members and she has been instrumental in the forming of the Frenchman Bay Partners, a broad-based stakeholder group committed to a sustainable future for Frenchman Bay. The summits bring together a group of stakeholders to develop actionable solutions to critical problems in environmental. In 2014, forty scientists, engineers, health officials, consumer advocates, food industry representatives, and educators addressed the global problem of arsenic in food and drinking water
20.
Acadia National Park
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Acadia National Park is a national park located in the U. S. state of Maine. It reserves much of Mount Desert Island, and associated smaller islands, initially created as the Sieur de Monts National Monument in 1916, the park was renamed Lafayette National Park in 1919, and was given its current name of Acadia in 1929. Over three million people visited the park in 2016, Acadia is the oldest designated national park area east of the Mississippi River. The area was inhabited by the Wabanaki people. While he was sailing down the coast of what is now Maine on 5 September 1604, the distance from this island to the mainland on the north is not a hundred paces. It is very high and cleft in places, giving it the appearance from the sea of seven or eight mountains one alongside the other, the tops of them are bare of trees, because there is nothing there but rocks. The woods consist only of pines, firs, and birches and he named it Mount Desert Island. Over four centuries later, the area remains essentially the same, the first French Missionary colony in America was established on Mount Desert Island in 1613. The colony was destroyed a short time later by a vessel from the Colony of Virginia as the first act of overt warfare in the long struggle leading to the French. The island was granted to Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac by Louis XIV of France in 1688, Massachusetts governor Sir Francis Bernard, 1st Baronet assumed control of the island in 1760. In 1780 Massachusetts granted the eastern half of the island to Cadillacs granddaughter, Mme. de Gregoire, the first record of summer visitors vacationing on the island was in 1855, and steamboat service from Boston was inaugurated in 1868. The first land was donated by Mrs. Eliza Homans of Boston in 1908, the landscape architect Charles Eliot is credited with the idea for the park. Dorr, called the Father of Acadia National Park, along with Eliots father Charles W. Eliot and it first attained federal status when President Woodrow Wilson established it as Sieur de Monts National Monument on July 8,1916, administered by the National Park Service. On February 26,1919, it became a park, with the name Lafayette National Park in honor of the Marquis de Lafayette. Jordan Pond Road was started in 1922 and completed as a scenic highway in 1927. The parks name was changed to Acadia National Park on January 19,1929, Schoodic Peninsula was added to the park in 1929, and the Cadillac Mountain Summit Road, begun in 1925, was completed in 1931. From 1915 to 1933, the wealthy philanthropist John D. Rockefeller, Jr. financed, designed and he sponsored the landscape architect Beatrix Farrand, with the nearby family summer home Reef Point Estate, to design the planting plans for the subtle carriage roads at the park. The network encompassed over 50 miles of carriage trails,17 granite bridges
21.
Cadillac Mountain
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Cadillac Mountain is located on Mount Desert Island, within Acadia National Park. Before being renamed in 1918, the mountain had been called Green Mountain, the new name honors the French explorer and adventurer Antoine Laumet de La Mothe, sieur de Cadillac. S. From 1883 until 1893 the Green Mountain Cog Railway ran to the summit to take visitors to the Green Mountain Hotel on the summit, the hotel was burned down in 1895. Also in 1895, the cog train was sold and moved to the Mount Washington Cog Railway in New Hampshire, there are various hiking trails to the summit of Cadillac Mountain, some more challenging than others. There is also a road to the top. Driving or hiking to the summit of Cadillac Mountain to see the nations first sunrise is an activity among visitors of Acadia National Park. However, Cadillac only sees the first sunrise in the fall and winter, during most of the spring and summer, the sun rises first on Mars Hill,150 miles to the northeast. For a few weeks around the equinoxes, the sun rises first at West Quoddy Head in Lubec, Maine. On exceptionally clear days, it is possible to see Mount Katahdin, Maines highest mountain, to the north and the Canadian province of Nova Scotia to the east, both over one hundred miles away
22.
Eastern United States
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It is geographically diverse, spanning the Northeast and Southeast as well as the eastern part of the Central United States. In 2011 the 26 states east of the Mississippi had an population of 179,948,346 or 58. 28% of the total U. S. population of 308,745,358. The Southern United States constitutes a region in the south-eastern. In the last few decades, the Southern US has been attracting internal and international migrants, the American South is among the fastest-growing areas in the United States. In one of the earliest English settlements in the New World, English Pilgrims from Europe first settled in New England in 1620, New England produced the first examples of American literature and philosophy and was home to the beginnings of free public education. In the 19th century, it played a prominent role in the movement to abolish slavery in the United States and it was the first region of the United States to be transformed by the Industrial Revolution. The Midwestern United States is one of the four regions within the United States that are recognized by the United States Census Bureau. The region consists of seven states in the central and inland northeastern US, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Michigan, Minnesota, Ohio, a 2006 Census Bureau estimate put the population at 66,217,736. Both the geographic center of the contiguous U. S. the United States Census Bureau divides this region into the East North Central States and the West North Central States. Chicago is the largest city in the region, followed by Indianapolis, chicago has the largest metropolitan statistical area, followed by Detroit, and Minneapolis – Saint Paul. Marie, Michigan is the oldest city in the region, having been founded by French missionaries, the term Midwest has been in common use for over 100 years. Another term sometimes applied to the general region is the heartland. Other designations for the region have fallen into disuse, such as the Northwest or Old Northwest, since the book Middletown appeared in 1929, sociologists have often used Midwestern cities as typical of the entire nation. The region has a higher ratio than the Northeast, the West. Four of the associated with the Midwestern United States are traditionally referred to as belonging to the Great Plains region. However, in recent years they are included in the Midwestern region. The following is a list of the 24 largest cities in the East by population, East Coast of the United States Eastern Canada Territories of the United States on stamps
23.
Cape Air
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Hyannis Air Service, Inc. operating as Cape Air, is an airline headquartered at Barnstable Municipal Airport in Barnstable, Massachusetts, United States. It operates scheduled services in the Northeast, the Caribbean, Midwest, Eastern Montana. Flights in Micronesia are operated as United Express flights through a code share partnership with United Airlines, flights between Hyannis and Nantucket, Massachusetts, are operated under the Nantucket Airlines brand, also operated by Hyannis Air Service, Inc. As of November 2013, Cape Air received $32,241,274 in annual subsidies for Essential Air Services that they provided to rural airports in the U. S. The airline was co-founded in 1988 by company pilots Craig Stewart and Dan Wolf, initially, Cape Air flew between Provincetown and Boston in Massachusetts, but throughout the early 1990s new routes were added to destinations across southeastern New England. In 1994, Cape Air and Nantucket Airlines merged and now offer hourly flights between Nantucket and Hyannis, Services in Florida and the Caribbean were added in the late 1990s. 2004 marked the year of FAR Part 121 certification and a new hub of operations in Guam. This included a new fleet type consisting of three ATR-42 Turboprop aircraft, the startup team, led by Pacific Administrator, Captain Russell Price, launched scheduled service in July 2004 with the three ATR aircraft and two of the C402. Service was as a Continental Connection Carrier, flying from Guam to the Northern Mariana Islands of Saipan, in late 2007, the airline began a new round of expansion in the Northeast and Midwest. On November 1,2007, the airline service between Boston and Rutland, Vermont, with three daily round trips. The route is operated under contract with the U. S. government Essential Air Service program, with the help of an intrastate minimum revenue guarantee, Cape Air expanded into Indiana on November 13,2007, offering flights from Indianapolis to Evansville and South Bend. Passenger revenue did not grow enough to make the operation economically sustainable once the revenue guarantee ended. The airline expanded into upstate New York in early 2008, following the demise of Delta Connection carrier Big Sky Airlines. Cape Air began flying three daily round-trips on Essential Air Service routes from Boston to the Adirondack cities of Plattsburgh, the airline continued its expansion into New York when they started to fly the EAS routes out of Albany to Watertown, Ogdensburg, and Massena, and Rutland Airport. Cape Air commenced service from Rockland, Maine, and Lebanon, New Hampshire, Cape Air is currently the only airline offering commercial flights out of Lebanon. Cape Air also flies to/from Westchester County Airport to/from Nantucket and Marthas Vineyard, initially for seasonal summer flights, the company recently purchased four additional Cessna 402s to assist with the recent growth. Cape Air was also looking to offer service on the west coast, Cape Air submitted bids to offer service between Newport and Portland in the state of Oregon. The airline was hoping to be selected by the Newport city council to receive a grant to jump-start the service
24.
PenAir
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Peninsula Airways, operating as PenAir, is an American airline headquartered in Anchorage, Alaska. It is Alaskas second largest commuter airline operating a scheduled passenger and cargo service, as well as charter. Its main base is Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport, with other hubs located at Portland International Airport in Oregon and Boston Logan International Airport in Massachusetts. In 2013 Penair received $6,363,008 in annual subsidies for Essential Air Services that it provided to rural airports in Plattsburgh, New York. Peninsula Airways was founded by Orin Seybert in 1955, Seybert was 19 years old, living in Pilot Point, Alaska and owned a 1946 two-seat Taylorcraft. In 1956, a four-seat Piper Tri-Pacer was added, on March 1,1965 Peninsula Airways became incorporated and purchased the fixed base operation in King Salmon. In 1967, Peninsula Airways became a subcontractor to Reeve Aleutian Airways, meeting Reeves certificate obligations to Chignik, Perryville. In 1969, Peninsula Airways acquired all assets of Tibbetts-Herre Airmotive, by 1973, regular service was provided between King Salmon and the Pribilof Island communities, St. Paul and St. George. Charter service was extended into the Aleutian Islands, Dutch Harbor, Atka. This required setting up a base at Cold Bay, with hangars, offices. In 1983, Peninsula Airways acquired its first turboprop, a Cessna Conquest operated out of Cold Bay. Peninsula Airways was the first Alaskan air carrier to qualify for CAB Part 419 subsidy, allowing the airline to operate Essential Air Service routes to Atka, St. George, in 1985, Peninsula Airways acquired all assets of Air Transport Service, Inc. based in Kodiak. Included in the deal was a hangar and office facility with six aircraft. A base was established in Anchorage with two Cessna Conquest turboprops offering charter service from Anchorage to the Pribilof Islands, scheduled service from Anchorage to King Salmon and Dillingham was added a year later. The first Fairchild Swearingen Metroliner propjet was placed into service in 1987, in 1988, several bush operators in Dillingham had their certificates revoked by the Federal Aviation Administration, prompting Peninsula Airways to set up an operation there. A hangar and aircraft were purchased and service to the surrounding communities began, in 1989, Peninsula Airways was contracted by Exxon to support the Exxon Valdez oil spill cleanup. At the same time, a contract was awarded to Peninsula Airways by Alaska Regional Hospital to provide 24-hour medevac service, in 1991, Peninsula Airways began doing business as PenAir and became a code sharing and Mileage Plan partner with Alaska Airlines. PenAir transitioned to FAA Part 121 regulations in 1996, operating under both Part 135 and 121, PenAir was the first regional airline in the United States to make the 10-19 seat required conversion, including a dispatch department
25.
Boston
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Boston is the capital and most populous city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States. Boston is also the seat of Suffolk County, although the county government was disbanded on July 1,1999. The city proper covers 48 square miles with a population of 667,137 in 2015, making it the largest city in New England. Alternately, as a Combined Statistical Area, this wider commuting region is home to some 8.1 million people, One of the oldest cities in the United States, Boston was founded on the Shawmut Peninsula in 1630 by Puritan settlers from England. It was the scene of several key events of the American Revolution, such as the Boston Massacre, the Boston Tea Party, the Battle of Bunker Hill, and the Siege of Boston. Upon U. S. independence from Great Britain, it continued to be an important port and manufacturing hub as well as a center for education, through land reclamation and municipal annexation, Boston has expanded beyond the original peninsula. Its rich history attracts many tourists, with Faneuil Hall alone drawing over 20 million visitors per year, Bostons many firsts include the United States first public school, Boston Latin School, first subway system, the Tremont Street Subway, and first public park, Boston Common. Bostons economic base also includes finance, professional and business services, biotechnology, information technology, the city has one of the highest costs of living in the United States as it has undergone gentrification, though it remains high on world livability rankings. Bostons early European settlers had first called the area Trimountaine but later renamed it Boston after Boston, Lincolnshire, England, the renaming on September 7,1630 was by Puritan colonists from England who had moved over from Charlestown earlier that year in quest of fresh water. Their settlement was limited to the Shawmut Peninsula, at that time surrounded by the Massachusetts Bay and Charles River. The peninsula is thought to have been inhabited as early as 5000 BC, in 1629, the Massachusetts Bay Colonys first governor John Winthrop led the signing of the Cambridge Agreement, a key founding document of the city. Puritan ethics and their focus on education influenced its early history, over the next 130 years, the city participated in four French and Indian Wars, until the British defeated the French and their Indian allies in North America. Boston was the largest town in British America until Philadelphia grew larger in the mid-18th century, Bostons harbor activity was significantly curtailed by the Embargo Act of 1807 and the War of 1812. Foreign trade returned after these hostilities, but Bostons merchants had found alternatives for their investments in the interim. Manufacturing became an important component of the economy, and the citys industrial manufacturing overtook international trade in economic importance by the mid-19th century. Boston remained one of the nations largest manufacturing centers until the early 20th century, a network of small rivers bordering the city and connecting it to the surrounding region facilitated shipment of goods and led to a proliferation of mills and factories. Later, a network of railroads furthered the regions industry. Boston was a port of the Atlantic triangular slave trade in the New England colonies
26.
Newark Liberty International Airport
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Newark Liberty International Airport, originally Newark Metropolitan Airport and later Newark International Airport, is an international airport located about 15 miles southwest of Midtown Manhattan. It straddles the boundary between Newark and Elizabeth, New Jersey, the airport is owned by the city of Newark and leased to and operated by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. Newark Airport was the first major airport in the United States, in 2015 Newark Airport handled 37.5 million passengers, JFK handled 56.8 million and LaGuardia Airport handled 28.4 million. In 2016 Newark served a record 40 million passengers, Newark serves 50 carriers and is the third-largest hub for United Airlines, which is the airports largest tenant. Newarks second-largest tenant is FedEx Express, whose third-largest cargo hub uses three buildings on two square feet of airport property. During the 12-month period ending in July 2014, over 68% of all passengers at the airport were carried by United Airlines. Newark opened October 1,1928 on 68 acres of reclaimed land along the Passaic River, the Art Deco Newark Metropolitan Airport Administration Building, adorned with murals by Arshile Gorky, was built in 1934 and dedicated by Amelia Earhart in 1935. It served as the terminal until the opening of the North Terminal in 1953 and it was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1979 and is now a museum and Port Authority Police headquarters. During World War II the field was closed to commercial aviation while it was taken over by the United States Army for logistics operations. The airlines returned to Newark in February 1946 and the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey assumed control of the airport in 1948, later building new hangars, the February 1947 C&GS diagram shows 5940-ft runway 1, 7900-ft runway 6 and 7100-ft runway 10. On December 16,1951 a Miami Airlines C-46 bound for Tampa lost a cylinder on takeoff from runway 28, on January 22,1952 an American Airlines CV-240 crashed in Elizabeth, while on approach to runway 6 killing all 23 aboard and seven on the ground. On February 11,1952 a National DC-6 crashed in Elizabeth after takeoff from runway 24, killing 29 of 63 on board, a proposal to build a new airport at what is now the Great Swamp National Wildlife Refuge was defeated by local opposition. In 1964, American and TWA started flying nonstop to California, tWAs 707 nonstop to Heathrow in 1978 was probably Newarks first trans-Atlantic nonstop. In the 1970s the airport became Newark International Airport, present Terminals A and B opened in 1973, although some charter and international flights requiring customs clearance remained at the North Terminal. The main building of Terminal C was completed at the same time and it lay dormant until the mid-1980s, when for a brief time the west third of the terminal was equipped for international arrivals and used for some People Express transcontinental flights. Terminal C was finally completed and opened in June 1988, underutilized in the 1970s, Newark expanded dramatically in the 1980s. People Express struck a deal with the Port Authority to use the North Terminal as its air terminal and corporate office in 1981 and it grew quickly, increasing Newarks traffic through the 1980s. Virgin Atlantic began service between Newark and London in 1984, challenging JFKs status as New Yorks international gateway, Federal Express opened its second hub at the airport in 1986
27.
Portland International Jetport
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Portland International Jetport is a public airport two miles west of downtown Portland, in Cumberland County, Maine. It is owned and operated by the city of Portland, a portion of the Jetports property, including the main runway, is in the neighboring city of South Portland. The airport is the busiest in the state, in 2007 it handled a record 1.6 million passengers, up 17. 0% from the previous year, and handled 1.7 million passengers in the years 2008–2011. In recent years, the Jetport has benefited from service by low-cost carriers such as Southwest Airlines, a survey conducted in June 2011 found PWM to be the most affordable airport in the region, and the third most affordable in New England. In October 2011, PWM completed a $75 million renovation and expansion of its terminal to allow more airline service, the airfield was founded in the late 1920s by Dr. Clifford Kip Strange, who needed space for his JN-4 Jenny Biplane. Known as Stroudwater Field, the received its first commercial service on August 1,1931. Two years later, the city of Portland bought the airfield, Westbrook referred to the location of the last directional light before the airport in the nearby city of Westbrook. The present airport started to shape in the 1950s. The March 1951 chart shows runway 14260 ft long, runway 102900 ft, the current terminal opened in 1968, when jet flights began. Boston-Maine Airways had a monopoly on passenger air travel at Portland, another airline emerged in 1962, when Atlantic Airways began service to Bostons Logan International Airport. This competition was short lived—there is no information about the airline other than one timetable. Jet flights began in 1968, and for the first time Portland got a nonstop beyond Boston when Northeast DC-9s flew to LaGuardia Airport in New York. Northeast would be alone at the airport until 1970 when Aroostook Airways began flights between Presque Isle and Portland, with stops in Augusta and Bangor and this airline too faded into obscurity, lasting until 1972. That year regional Air New England began service in Portland, competing with Northeast Airlines intrastate, in 1972 Northeast Airlines was bought by Delta Air Lines which retained its routes to Bangor, Boston, and New York. By 1979 Delta had added Burlington, Vermont, in 1981 Air New England, after serving Portland for 11 years, ceased operations and pulled out of the Jetport. This departure was followed a year later by the arrival of Air Vermont, in 1980 the passenger terminal expanded to the east with the addition of two baggage carousels. The building also expanded to the west by adding three-second-level jetways, in 1982 PWM got its first nonstop beyond New York, when Delta tried a 727 to Cincinnati for a year or so. Peoplexpress Airlines arrived in 1983, the first jet competitor to Northeast/Delta at PWM, the airline, the first low-cost carrier at the Jetport, was known for rock-bottom prices
28.
Wabanaki Confederacy
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The Wabanaki Confederacy are a First Nations and Native American confederation of five principal nations, the Mikmaq, Maliseet, Passamaquoddy, Abenaki, and Penobscot. Members of the Wabanaki Confederacy, the Wabanaki peoples, are in and named for the area which they call Wabanahkik, generally known to European settlers as Acadia. It is made up of most of present-day Maine in the United States, the Western Abenaki live on lands in New Hampshire, Vermont, and Massachusetts of the United States. In recent official statements, the Confederacy has emphasized common cause with and they gained powers under the United Nations 2010 Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples and related treaties which major powers have signed. The confederacy has historically united five North American Algonquian language-speaking First Nations peoples and it played a key role in supporting the colonial rebels of the American Revolution via the Treaty of Watertown, signed in 1776 by the Mikmaq and Passamaquoddy, two of its constituent tribes. Under this treaty, Wabanaki soldiers from Canada are still permitted to join the US military and they have done so in 21st-century conflicts in which the US has engaged, including the Afghanistan War and the Iraq War. Wabanaki were also allies of the Huron in the past, today the only remaining Huron First Nation resides mostly in the suburbs of Quebec City, a legacy of this protective alliance. The Wabanaki ancestral homeland stretches from Newfoundland, Canada to the Merrimack River valley in New Hampshire and Massachusetts and this became a hotly contested borderland between the English of colonial New England and French Acadia following the European settlement in the early 17th century. Wabanaki people freely intermarried with French Catholics in Acadia starting in 1610 after the conversion of Chief Henri Membertou, after 1783 and the end of the American Revolutionary War, Black Loyalists, freedmen from the British colonies, were resettled by the British in this historical territory. They had promised freedom if they left their rebel masters. Three thousand freedmen were evacuated to Nova Scotia by British ships from the colonies after the war, many intermarriages occurred between these peoples, especially in southwest Nova Scotia from Yarmouth to Halifax. Suppression of Acadian, Black, Mikmaq, and Irish people under British rule tended to force these peoples together as allies of necessity, some white and black parents abandoned their mixed-race children on reserves to be raised in Wabanaki culture, even as late as the 1970s. The British declared the Wabanaki Confederacy forcibly disbanded in 1862, however the five Wabanaki nations still exist, continued to meet, and the Confederacy was formally re-established in 1993. The Wabanaki Confederacy gathering was revived in 1993, the sacred Council Fire was lit again, and embers from the fire have been kept burning continually since then. Following the 2010 UN DRIP declaration, the tribes began to assert their rights as defined in it and they invited non-Indian people to participate in the Confederacy meetings, especially environmental activists. The Wabanaki leadership emphasized the role of the Confederacy in protecting natural capital. The Wabanaki are in a far better position to defend the land. No land was ceded, and thats acknowledged by both the province and the federal government. So on the basis of the treaties, what were suggesting is that you, – gkisedtanamoogk, the Gatherings fire keeper
29.
Fishing
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Fishing is the activity of trying to catch fish. Fish are normally caught in the wild, techniques for catching fish include hand gathering, spearing, netting, angling and trapping. Fishing may include catching aquatic animals other than fish, such as molluscs, cephalopods, crustaceans, the term is not normally applied to catching farmed fish, or to aquatic mammals, such as whales where the term whaling is more appropriate. According to United Nations FAO statistics, the number of commercial fishermen. Fisheries and aquaculture provide direct and indirect employment to over 500 million people in developing countries, in 2005, the worldwide per capita consumption of fish captured from wild fisheries was 14.4 kilograms, with an additional 7.4 kilograms harvested from fish farms. In addition to providing food, modern fishing is also a recreational pastime, Fishing is an ancient practice that dates back to at least the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic period about 40,000 years ago. Isotopic analysis of the remains of Tianyuan man, a 40. Archaeology features such as middens, discarded fish bones, and cave paintings show that sea foods were important for survival. During this period, most people lived a lifestyle and were, of necessity. However, where there are examples of permanent settlements such as those at Lepenski Vir. The British dogger was a type of sailing trawler from the 17th century. The Brixham trawler that evolved there was of a build and had a tall gaff rig. They were also sufficiently robust to be able to tow large trawls in deep water, the great trawling fleet that built up at Brixham, earned the village the title of Mother of Deep-Sea Fisheries. The small village of Grimsby grew to become the largest fishing port in the world by the mid 19th century, an Act of Parliament was first obtained in 1796, which authorised the construction of new quays and dredging of the Haven to make it deeper. It was only in the 1846, with the expansion in the fishing industry. The foundation stone for the Royal Dock was laid by Albert the Prince consort in 1849, the dock covered 25 acres and was formally opened by Queen Victoria in 1854 as the first modern fishing port. The elegant Brixham trawler spread across the world, influencing fishing fleets everywhere, by the end of the 19th century, there were over 3,000 fishing trawlers in commission in Britain, with almost 1,000 at Grimsby. These trawlers were sold to fishermen around Europe, including from the Netherlands, twelve trawlers went on to form the nucleus of the German fishing fleet
30.
Hunter-gatherer
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A hunter-gatherer is a human living in a society in which most or all food is obtained by foraging, in contrast to agricultural societies, which rely mainly on domesticated species. Hunting and gathering was humanitys first and most successful adaptation, occupying at least 90 percent of human history, following the invention of agriculture, hunter-gatherers who did not change have been displaced or conquered by farming or pastoralist groups in most parts of the world. Only a few contemporary societies are classified as hunter-gatherers, and many supplement their activity with horticulture and/or keeping animals. In the 1970s, Lewis Binford suggested that humans were obtaining food via scavenging. Early humans in the Lower Paleolithic lived in forests and woodlands, which allowed them to collect seafood, eggs, nuts, and fruits besides scavenging. Rather than killing large animals for meat, according to this view and this hypothesis does not necessarily contradict the scavenging hypothesis, both subsistence strategies could have been in use – sequentially, alternating or even simultaneously. It remained the only mode of subsistence until the end of the Mesolithic period some 10,000 years ago and this specialization of work also involved creating specialized tools such as, fishing nets, hooks, and bone harpoons. The transition into the subsequent Neolithic period is defined by the unprecedented development of nascent agricultural practices. Agriculture originated and spread in different areas including the Middle East, Asia, Mesoamerica. Forest gardening was also being used as a production system in various parts of the world over this period. Forest gardens originated in prehistoric times along jungle-clad river banks and in the wet foothills of monsoon regions, in the gradual process of families improving their immediate environment, useful tree and vine species were identified, protected and improved, whilst undesirable species were eliminated. Eventually superior introduced species were selected and incorporated into the gardens, many groups continued their hunter-gatherer ways of life, although their numbers have continually declined, partly as a result of pressure from growing agricultural and pastoral communities. Many of them reside in the world, either in arid regions or tropical forests. Areas that were available to hunter-gatherers were—and continue to be—encroached upon by the settlements of agriculturalists. In the resulting competition for use, hunter-gatherer societies either adopted these practices or moved to other areas. In addition, Jared Diamond has blamed a decline in the availability of wild foods, as the number and size of agricultural societies increased, they expanded into lands traditionally used by hunter-gatherers. As a result of the now near-universal human reliance upon agriculture, archaeologists can use evidence such as stone tool use to track hunter-gatherer activities, including mobility. Most hunter-gatherers are nomadic or semi-nomadic and live in temporary settlements, mobile communities typically construct shelters using impermanent building materials, or they may use natural rock shelters, where they are available
31.
Samuel de Champlain
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Samuel de Champlain, The Father of New France, was a French navigator, cartographer, draftsman, soldier, explorer, geographer, ethnologist, diplomat, and chronicler. He founded New France and Quebec City on July 3,1608 and he is important to Canadian history because he made the first accurate map of the coast and he helped establish the settlements. Born into a family of mariners, Champlain, while still a man, began exploring North America in 1603 under the guidance of François Gravé Du Pont. Then, in 1608, he established the French settlement that is now Quebec City, Champlain was the first European to explore and describe the Great Lakes, and published maps of his journeys and accounts of what he learned from the natives and the French living among the Natives. He formed relationships with local Montagnais and Innu and later with others farther west, with Algonquin and with Huron Wendat, in 1620, Louis XIII of France ordered Champlain to cease exploration, return to Quebec, and devote himself to the administration of the country. In every way but formal title, Samuel de Champlain served as Governor of New France and he established trading companies that sent goods, primarily fur, to France, and oversaw the growth of New France in the St. Lawrence River valley until his death in 1635. The most notable of these is Lake Champlain, which straddles the border between northern New York and Vermont, extending slightly across the border into Canada. Champlain was born to Antoine Champlain and Marguerite Le Roy, in either Hiers-Brouage, or the city of La Rochelle. He was born on or before August 13,1574 according to a recent baptism record found by Jean-Marie Germe, although Léopold Delayant wrote as early as 1867 that Rainguets estimate was wrong, the books of Rainguet and Laverdière have had a significant influence. The 1567 date was carved on numerous monuments dedicated to Champlain and is regarded as accurate. In the first half of the 20th century, some authors disagreed, in 1978 Jean Liebel published groundbreaking research about these estimates of Champlains birth year and concluded, Samuel Champlain was born about 1580 in Brouage, France. Liebel asserts that some authors, including the Catholic priests Rainguet and Laverdière, Champlain claimed to be from Brouage in the title of his 1603 book, and to be Saintongeois in the title of his second book. The exact location of his birth is also not known with certainty. Born into a family of mariners, Samuel Champlain learned to navigate, draw, make nautical charts and his education did not include Ancient Greek or Latin, so he did not read or learn from any ancient literature. During this time he claimed to go on a secret voyage for the king. By 1597 he was a capitaine dune compagnie serving in a garrison near Quimper, in 1598, his uncle-in-law, a navigator whose ship Saint-Julien was chartered to transport Spanish troops to Cádiz pursuant to the Treaty of Vervins, gave Champlain the opportunity to accompany him. After a difficult passage, he spent some time in Cadiz before his uncle, whose ship was chartered to accompany a large Spanish fleet to the West Indies. His uncle, who gave command of the ship to Jeronimo de Valaebrera and this journey lasted two years, and gave Champlain the opportunity to see or hear about Spanish holdings from the Caribbean to Mexico City
32.
Lumber
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Lumber, or timber is wood that has been processed into beams and planks, a stage in the process of wood production. Lumber may also refer to currently un-needed furniture, as in Lumber room, or an awkward gait, ultimately derived from the look of unfashionable, Lumber may be supplied either rough-sawn, or surfaced on one or more of its faces. Besides pulpwood, rough lumber is the raw material for furniture-making and it is available in many species, usually hardwoods, but it is also readily available in softwoods, such as white pine and red pine, because of their low cost. Lumber is mainly used for structural purposes but has other uses as well. It is classified more commonly as a softwood than as a hardwood, in Australia, Ireland, New Zealand and Britain, the term timber describes sawn wood products, such as floor boards. In the United States and Canada, generally timber describes standing or felled trees, before they are milled into boards, Timber there also describes sawn lumber not less than 5 inches in its smallest dimension. The latter includes the often partly finished lumber used in timber-frame construction, remanufactured lumber is the result of secondary or tertiary processing/cutting of previously milled lumber. Specifically, it is cut for industrial or wood-packaging use. Lumber is cut by ripsaw or resaw to create dimensions that are not usually processed by a primary sawmill, resawing is the splitting of 1-inch through 12-inch hardwood or softwood lumber into two or more thinner pieces of full-length boards. For example, splitting a ten-foot 2×4 into two ten-foot 1×4s is considered resawing, structural lumber may also be produced from recycled plastic and new plastic stock. Its introduction has been opposed by the forestry industry. Blending fiberglass in plastic lumber enhances its strength, durability, logs are converted into timber by being sawn, hewn, or split. Sawing with a rip saw is the most common method, because sawing allows logs of lower quality, with grain and large knots. There are various types of sawing, Plain sawn —A log sawn through without adjusting the position of the log, quarter sawn and rift sawn—These terms have been confused in history but generally mean lumber sawn so the annual rings are reasonably perpendicular to the sides of the lumber. Boxed heart—The pith remains within the piece with some allowance for exposure, heart center—the center core of a log. Free of heart center —A side-cut timber without any pith, free of knots —No knots are present. Dimensional lumber is lumber that is cut to standardized width and depth, carpenters extensively use dimensional lumber in framing wooden buildings. Common sizes include 2×4, 2×6, and 4×4, the length of a board is usually specified separately from the width and depth
33.
Shipbuilding
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Shipbuilding is the construction of ships and other floating vessels. It normally takes place in a facility known as a shipyard. Shipbuilders, also called shipwrights, follow a specialized occupation that traces its roots to before recorded history, Shipbuilding and ship repairs, both commercial and military, are referred to as naval engineering. The construction of boats is an activity called boat building. The dismantling of ships is called ship breaking, the ancestors of Australian Aborigines and New Guineans also went across the Lombok Strait to Sahul by boat over 50,000 years ago. Evidence from Ancient Egypt shows that the early Egyptians knew how to assemble planks of wood into a ship hull as early as 3000 BC, the Archaeological Institute of America reports that some of the oldest ships yet unearthed are known as the Abydos boats. These are a group of 14 ships discovered in Abydos that were constructed of wooden planks which were sewn together, the ship dating to 3000 BC was about 25 m,75 feet long and is now thought to perhaps have belonged to an earlier pharaoh. According to professor OConnor, the 5, 000-year-old ship may have belonged to Pharaoh Aha. Early Egyptians also knew how to assemble planks of wood with treenails to fasten them together, early Egyptians also knew how to fasten the planks of this ship together with mortise and tenon joints. The oldest known tidal dock in the world was built around 2500 BC during the Harappan civilisation at Lothal near the present day Mangrol harbour on the Gujarat coast in India, other ports were probably at Balakot and Dwarka. However, it is probable that many small-scale ports, and not massive ports, were used for the Harappan maritime trade, ships from the harbour at these ancient port cities established trade with Mesopotamia. Shipbuilding and boatmaking may have been prosperous industries in ancient India, native labourers may have manufactured the flotilla of boats used by Alexander the Great to navigate across the Hydaspes and even the Indus, under Nearchos. The Indians also exported teak for shipbuilding to ancient Persia, other references to Indian timber used for shipbuilding is noted in the works of Ibn Jubayr. The ships of Ancient Egypts Eighteenth Dynasty were typically about 25 meters in length and they mounted a single square sail on a yard, with an additional spar along the bottom of the sail. These ships could also be oar propelled, the ocean and sea going ships of Ancient Egypt were constructed with cedar wood, most likely hailing from Lebanon. The ships of Phoenicia seem to have been of a similar design, the naval history of China stems back to the Spring and Autumn period of the ancient Chinese Zhou Dynasty. The Chinese built large rectangular barges known as ships, which were essentially floating fortresses complete with multiple decks with guarded ramparts. There is considerable knowledge regarding shipbuilding and seafaring in the ancient Mediterranean and this was dually met with the introduction of the Han Dynasty junk ship design in the same century
34.
Agriculture
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Agriculture is the cultivation and breeding of animals, plants and fungi for food, fiber, biofuel, medicinal plants and other products used to sustain and enhance human life. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of human civilization. The study of agriculture is known as agricultural science, the history of agriculture dates back thousands of years, and its development has been driven and defined by greatly different climates, cultures, and technologies. Industrial agriculture based on large-scale monoculture farming has become the dominant agricultural methodology, genetically modified organisms are an increasing component of agriculture, although they are banned in several countries. Agricultural food production and water management are increasingly becoming global issues that are fostering debate on a number of fronts, the major agricultural products can be broadly grouped into foods, fibers, fuels, and raw materials. Specific foods include cereals, vegetables, fruits, oils, meats, fibers include cotton, wool, hemp, silk and flax. Raw materials include lumber and bamboo, other useful materials are also produced by plants, such as resins, dyes, drugs, perfumes, biofuels and ornamental products such as cut flowers and nursery plants. The word agriculture is a late Middle English adaptation of Latin agricultūra, from ager, field, Agriculture usually refers to human activities, although it is also observed in certain species of ant, termite and ambrosia beetle. To practice agriculture means to use resources to produce commodities which maintain life, including food, fiber, forest products, horticultural crops. This definition includes arable farming or agronomy, and horticulture, all terms for the growing of plants, even then, it is acknowledged that there is a large amount of knowledge transfer and overlap between silviculture and agriculture. In traditional farming, the two are often combined even on small landholdings, leading to the term agroforestry, Agriculture began independently in different parts of the globe, and included a diverse range of taxa. At least 11 separate regions of the Old and New World were involved as independent centers of origin, wild grains were collected and eaten from at least 105,000 years ago. Pigs were domesticated in Mesopotamia around 15,000 years ago, rice was domesticated in China between 13,500 and 8,200 years ago, followed by mung, soy and azuki beans. Sheep were domesticated in Mesopotamia between 13,000 and 11,000 years ago. From around 11,500 years ago, the eight Neolithic founder crops, emmer and einkorn wheat, hulled barley, peas, lentils, bitter vetch, chick peas and flax were cultivated in the Levant. Cattle were domesticated from the aurochs in the areas of modern Turkey. In the Andes of South America, the potato was domesticated between 10,000 and 7,000 years ago, along with beans, coca, llamas, alpacas, sugarcane and some root vegetables were domesticated in New Guinea around 9,000 years ago. Sorghum was domesticated in the Sahel region of Africa by 7,000 years ago, cotton was domesticated in Peru by 5,600 years ago, and was independently domesticated in Eurasia at an unknown time
35.
Coast
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A coastline or a seashore is the area where land meets the sea or ocean, or a line that forms the boundary between the land and the ocean or a lake. A precise line that can be called a coastline cannot be determined due to the Coastline paradox, the term coastal zone is a region where interaction of the sea and land processes occurs. Both the terms coast and coastal are often used to describe a location or region, for example, New Zealands West Coast. Edinburgh for example is a city on the coast of Scotland, a pelagic coast refers to a coast which fronts the open ocean, as opposed to a more sheltered coast in a gulf or bay. A shore, on the hand, can refer to parts of the land which adjoin any large body of water, including oceans. Similarly, the related term refers to the land alongside or sloping down to a river or to a body of water smaller than a lake. Bank is also used in parts of the world to refer to an artificial ridge of earth intended to retain the water of a river or pond. According to the UN atlas, 44% of people live within 150 kilometres of the sea, tides often determine the range over which sediment is deposited or eroded. Areas with high tidal ranges allow waves to reach farther up the shore, the tidal range is influenced by the size and shape of the coastline. Tides do not typically cause erosion by themselves, however, tidal bores can erode as the waves surge up river estuaries from the ocean. Waves erode coastline as they break on shore releasing their energy, the larger the wave the more energy it releases and the more sediment it moves. Coastlines with longer shores have more room for the waves to disperse their energy, while coasts with cliffs and short shore faces give little room for the wave energy to be dispersed. In these areas the wave energy breaking against the cliffs is higher, sediment deposited by waves comes from eroded cliff faces and is moved along the coastline by the waves. This forms an abrasion or cliffed coast, sediment deposited by rivers is the dominant influence on the amount of sediment located on a coastline. Today riverine deposition at the coast is often blocked by dams and other human regulatory devices, like the ocean which shapes them, coasts are a dynamic environment with constant change. The coast and its adjacent areas on and off shore are an important part of a local ecosystem, Salt marshes and beaches also support a diversity of plants, animals and insects crucial to the food chain. The high level of biodiversity creates a level of biological activity. More and more of the people live in coastal regions
36.
Hudson River School
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The Hudson River School was a mid-19th century American art movement embodied by a group of landscape painters whose aesthetic vision was influenced by romanticism. Neither the originator of the term Hudson River School nor its first published use has been fixed with certainty, the term is thought to have originated with the New York Tribune art critic Clarence Cook or the landscape painter Homer Dodge Martin. As originally used, the term was meant disparagingly, as the work so labeled had gone out of favor after the plein-air Barbizon School had come into vogue among American patrons and collectors. Hudson River School paintings reflect three themes of America in the 19th century, discovery, exploration, and settlement, the paintings also depict the American landscape as a pastoral setting, where human beings and nature coexist peacefully. They took as their inspiration such European masters as Claude Lorrain, John Constable and their reverence for Americas natural beauty was shared with contemporary American writers such as Henry David Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson. Several painters were members of the Düsseldorf school of painting, others were educated by the German Paul Weber, while the elements of the paintings were rendered realistically, many of the scenes were composed as a synthesis of multiple scenes or natural images observed by the artists. During these expeditions, the artists recorded sketches and memories, returning to their studios to paint the works later. The artist Thomas Cole is generally acknowledged as the founder of the Hudson River School, Cole took a steamship up the Hudson in the autumn of 1825, the same year the Erie Canal opened, stopping first at West Point, then at Catskill landing. He hiked west high up into the eastern Catskill Mountains of New York State to paint the first landscapes of the area, the first review of his work appeared in the New York Evening Post on November 22,1825. At that time, only the English native Cole, born in a landscape where autumnal tints were of browns and yellows, coles close friend, Asher Durand, became a prominent figure in the school as well. An important part of the popularity of the Hudson River School was its celebration of its themes of nationalism, nature, however, its leading artists, such as Thomas Cole, were also suspicious of the economic and technological development of the age. Works by artists of this generation are often described as examples of Luminism. In addition to pursuing their art, many of the artists, including Kensett, Gifford, most of the finest works of the Hudson River school were painted between 1855 and 1875. During that time, artists such as Frederic Edwin Church and Albert Bierstadt were celebrities and they were both influenced by the Düsseldorf school of painting, and Bierstadt had studied in that city for several years. When Church exhibited paintings such as Niagara or Icebergs of the North, thousands of people lined up around the block and paid fifty cents a head to view the solitary works. The epic size of the landscapes in these paintings, unexampled in earlier American painting, reminded Americans of the vast, untamed, such works were being painted during the period of settlement of the American West, preservation of national parks, and establishment of green city parks. One of the largest collections of paintings by artists of the Hudson River School is at the Wadsworth Atheneum in Hartford, Johnsbury Athenaeum, in St. Johnsbury, VT Westervelt Warner Museum of American Art, in Tuscaloosa, AL Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum, in Madrid, Spain. New York, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, avery, Kevin J. & Kelly, Frank
37.
Thomas Cole
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Thomas Cole was an English-born American artist known for his landscape and history paintings. He is regarded as the founder of the Hudson River School, Coles work is known for its romantic portrayal of the American wilderness. Born in Bolton le Moors, Lancashire, in 1801, Coles family emigrated to the United States in 1818, settling in Steubenville, at the age of twenty-two Cole moved to Philadelphia, and later, in 1825, to New York City with his family. Cole found work early on as an engraver and he was largely self-taught as a painter, relying on books and by studying the work of other artists. In 1822 Cole started working as a painter, and later on gradually shifted his focus to landscape. This garnered Cole the attention of John Trumbull, Asher B, among the paintings was a landscape called View of Fort Ticonderoga from Gelyna. Cole was primarily a painter of landscapes, but he also painted allegorical works, there are two versions of the latter, one at the National Gallery in Washington, D. C. the other at the Munson-Williams-Proctor Arts Institute in Utica, New York. Among Coles other famous works are the Oxbow, the Notch of the White Mountains, Daniel Boone at his cabin at the Great Osage Lake and he also painted The Garden of Eden, with lavish detail of Adam and Eve living amid waterfalls, vivid plants, and deer. In 2014, friezes painted by Cole on the walls of his home, Cole influenced his artistic peers, especially Asher B. Durand and Frederic Edwin Church, who studied with Cole from 1844 to 1846, Cole spent the years 1829 to 1832 and 1841 to 1842 abroad, mainly in England and Italy. Thomas Cole is best known for his work as an American landscape artist, however, he also produced thousands of sketches of varying subject matter. Over 2,500 of these sketches can be seen at The Detroit Institute of Arts, in 1842, Cole embarked on a Grand Tour of Europe in an effort to study in the style of the Old Masters and to paint its scenery. Most striking to Cole was Europes tallest active volcano, Mount Etna, Cole was so moved by the volcanos beauty that he produced several sketches and at least six paintings of it. The most famous of these works is A View from Mount Etna from Taormina which is a 78-by-120-inch oil on canvas. Cole also produced a detailed sketch View of Mount Etna which shows a panoramic view of the volcano with the crumbling walls of the ancient Greek theatre of Taormina on the far right. After 1827 Cole maintained a studio at the farm called Cedar Grove in the town of Catskill and he painted a significant portion of his work in this studio. In 1836 he married Maria Bartow of Catskill, a niece of the owner, Thomas Cole had a sister, Sarah, who was also a landscape painter. Additionally, Thomas Cole held many friendships with important figures in the art world including Daniel Wadsworth, with whom he shared a close friendship, proof of this friendship can be seen in the letters that were unearthed in the 1980s by the Trinity College, Watkinson Library
38.
Frederic Edwin Church
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Frederic Edwin Church was an American landscape painter born in Hartford, Connecticut. Churchs paintings put an emphasis on light and a respect for natural detail. In his later years, Church painted classical Mediterranean and Middle Eastern scenes and cityscapes, Church was the son of Eliza and Joseph Church. The familys wealth came from Churchs father, a silversmith and watchmaker in Hartford, Joseph, in turn, was the son of Samuel Church, who founded the first paper mill in Lee, Massachusetts in the Berkshires. Joseph later became an official and a director of The Aetna Life Insurance Company, the familys wealth allowed Frederic Church to pursue his interest in art from a very early age. At eighteen years of age, Church became the pupil of Thomas Cole in Catskill, New York after Daniel Wadsworth, in May 1849, Church was elected as the youngest Associate of the National Academy of Design and was promoted to Academician the following year. Soon after, he sold his first major work to Hartfords Wadsworth Athenaeum, Church was the product of the second generation of the Hudson River School and the pupil of Thomas Cole, the school’s founder. The Hudson River School was established by the British Thomas Cole when he moved to America and started painting landscapes, mostly of mountains, both Cole and Church were devout Protestants and the latters beliefs played a role in his paintings especially his early canvases. Cole, along with his friend Asher Durand, started school in New York. The paintings were characterized by their focus on traditional American pastoral settings, especially the Catskill Mountains and this style attempted to capture the wild realism of an unsettled America that was quickly disappearing, and the feelings of discovery and appreciation for natural beauty. His American frontier landscapes show the expansionist and optimistic outlook of the United States in the mid-nineteenth century, Church did differ from Cole in the topics of his paintings, he preferred natural and often majestic scenes over Coles propensity towards allegory. Church, like most second generation Hudson River School painters, used extraordinary detail, romanticism, romanticism was prominent in Britain and France in the early 1800s as a counter-movement to the Enlightenment virtues of order and logic. Artists of the Romantic period often depicted nature in idealized scenes that depicted the richness and beauty of nature and this tradition carries on in the works of Frederic Church, who idealizes an uninterrupted nature, highlighted by creating excruciatingly detailed art. The technical skill comes in the form of luminism, a Hudson River School innovation particularly present in Churchs works, luminism is also cited as encompassing several technical aspects, which can be seen in Church’s works. One example is the attempt to “hide brushstrokes, ” which makes the scene more realistic. Most importantly is the emphasis on light in these scenes, the several sources of light create contrast in the pictures that highlights the beauty and detailed imagery in the painting. Church began his career by painting classic Hudson River School scenes of New York and New England, Church’s method consisted of creating paintings in his studio based on sketches created of views in the summer months. In these earlier years of his career, Church’s style was reminiscent of that of his teacher, Thomas Cole, Church’s work was immediately divergent from Cole’s focus on ethereal, almost mythological, scenes, but his early work did resemble Cole’s tone
Bar Harbor travel guide from Wikivoyage
"Bar Harbor". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.
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