1.
Adullam Grove Nature Reserve
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Adullam Grove Nature Reserve is a nature reserve in central Israel, south of Beit Shemesh, managed by the Israel Nature and National Parks Protection Authority. The reserve was established in 1994, covering 5,380 dunams and was extended to include another 1,152 dunams in 2004, the reserve was declared in order to protect Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub that grow naturally in the area. Horvat Midras or Khirbet Midras, sometimes spelled Madras, dated to the 10th century BCE until approximately the 4th century CE, is located within the boundaries of the reserve. Burial caves, hiding tunnels and caves used during the Bar Kokhba revolt in 132-135 CE, a columbarium, flora include Buckthorn trees, Oak trees, Greek Strawberry trees, Pistacia lentiscus trees, and various types of Cistus and Hyssop. Adullam Cave of Adullam profile on The Israel Nature and Parks Authority website
2.
Tisha B'Av
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Tisha BAv is regarded as the saddest day in the Jewish calendar and it is thus believed to be a day which is destined for tragedy. Tisha BAv falls in July or August in the Western calendar, the observance of the day includes five prohibitions, most notable of which is a 25-hour fast. According to Rabbinic tradition, the sin of the Ten Spies produced the annual fast day of Tisha BAv. When the Israelites accepted the report that the land of Canaan would be impossible to conquer. The night that the people cried was the ninth of Av, the fast commemorates the destruction of the Jewish First Temple and the Second Temple, both of which occurred on the 9th of the Hebrew month of Av, about 655 years apart. The three weeks leading up to Tisha BAv are known as The Three Weeks, while the nine days leading up to Tisha BAv are known as The Nine Days. According to the Mishnah, five specific events occurred on the ninth of Av that warrant fasting, only two of the spies, Joshua and Caleb, brought a positive report, while the others spoke disparagingly about the land. The majority report caused the Children of Israel to cry, panic, for this, they were punished by God that their generation would not enter the land. Because of the Israelites lack of faith, God decreed that for all generations this date would become a day of crying and misfortune for their descendants. According to the Talmud in tractate Taanit, the destruction of the First Temple began on the Ninth of Av. The Second Temple built by Ezra and Nehemiah was destroyed by the Romans in August 70 CE, scattering the people of Judea, the Romans subsequently crushed Bar Kokhbas revolt and destroyed the city of Betar, killing over 500,000 Jewish civilians on August 4,135 CE. Following the Bar Kokhba revolt, Roman commander Turnus Rufus plowed the site of the Temple in Jerusalem, note, Due to a two-year difference within the Hebrew calendar, the years in which the First and Second Temple were destroyed have been disputed. Regardless of the dates of these events, for many Jews, Tisha BAv is the designated day of mourning for them. The Jews were expelled from England on July 18,1290, the Jews were expelled from France on July 22,1306. The Jews were expelled from Spain on July 31,1492, germany entered World War I on August 1–2,1914, which caused massive upheaval in European Jewry and whose aftermath led to the Holocaust. On August 2,1941, SS commander Heinrich Himmler formally received approval from the Nazi Party for The Final Solution, as a result, the Holocaust began during which almost one third of the worlds Jewish population perished. On July 23,1942, began the deportation of Jews from the Warsaw Ghetto. The Israeli disengagement from Gaza starts in the Gaza Strip, expelling 8000 Jews who lived in Gush Katif,15 August 2005,10 Av,5765, Tisha BAv falls in July or August in the Western calendar
3.
Judea (Roman province)
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It was named after Herod Archelauss Tetrarchy of Judea, but the Roman province encompassed a much larger territory. The name Judea was derived from the Kingdom of Judah of the 6th century BCE, Judea province was the scene of unrest at its founding in 6 CE during the Census of Quirinius and several wars were fought in its history, known as the Jewish–Roman wars. The first intervention of Rome in the dates from 63 BCE, following the end of the Third Mithridatic War. After the defeat of Mithridates VI of Pontus, Pompey sacked Jerusalem and established Hasmonean prince Hyrcanus II as Ethnarch and High Priest, a later appointment by Julius Caesar was Antipater the Idumaean, also known as Antipas, as the first Roman Procurator. Herod the Great, Antipaters son, was designated King of the Jews by the Roman Senate in 40 BCE and he did not gain military control until 37 BCE. During his reign the last representatives of the Hasmoneans were eliminated, and he died in 4 BCE, and his kingdom was divided mostly among three of his sons, who became tetrarchs. One of these tetrarchies was Judea corresponding to the territory of the historic Judea, plus Samaria, Herods son Herod Archelaus, ruled Judea so badly that he was dismissed in 6 CE by the Roman emperor Augustus, after an appeal from his own population. Another, Herod Antipas, ruled as tetrarch of Galilee and Perea from 4 BCE to 39 CE, the third tetrarch, Herods son Philip, ruled over the northeastern part of his fathers kingdom. In 6 CE Archelaus tetrachy came under direct Roman administration, even though Iudaea is simply derived from the Latin for Judea, many historians use it to distinguish the Roman province from the previous territory and history. Iudaea province did not initially include Galilee, Gaulanitis, nor Peraea or the Decapolis, the capital was at Caesarea, not Jerusalem. Quirinius became Legate of Syria and conducted the first Roman tax census of Syria and Iudaea, pontius Pilate, whose name was recorded in the Pilate Stone, was one of these prefects, from 26 to 36 CE. Still, Jews living in the province maintained some form of independence and could judge offenders by their own laws, including capital offences, until c.28 CE. The Province of Judea, during the late 2nd Temple period was divided into five conclaves, or administrative districts, 1) Jerusalem, 2) Gadara, 3) Amathus, 4) Jericho. Caiaphas was one of the appointed High Priests of Herods Temple, both were deposed by the Syrian Legate Lucius Vitellius in 36 CE. The Crisis under Caligula has been proposed as the first open break between Rome and the Jews and he elevated Iudaeass procurator whom he trusted to imperial governing status because the imperial legate of Syria was not sympathetic to the Judeans. Following Agrippas death in 44 CE, the returned to direct Roman control, incorporating Agrippas personal territories of Galilee and Peraea. Nevertheless, Agrippas son, Agrippa II was designated King of the Jews in 48 and he was the seventh and last of the Herodians. From 70 CE until 135 CE, Iudaeas rebelliousness required a governing Roman legate capable of commanding legions
4.
Syria Palaestina
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Syria Palaestina was a Roman province between 135 and about 390. It was established by the merger of Roman Syria and Roman Judaea, shortly after 193, the northern regions were split off as Syria Coele in the north and Phoenice in the south, and the province Syria Palaestina was reduced to Judea. The earliest numismatic evidence for the name Syria Palaestina comes from the period of emperor Marcus Aurelius, Syria was an early Roman province, annexed to the Roman Republic in 64 BC by Pompey in the Third Mithridatic War, following the defeat of Armenian King Tigranes the Great. Following the partition of the Herodian Kingdom into tetrarchies in 6 AD, it was absorbed into Roman provinces, with Roman Syria annexing Iturea. The Roman province of Judea incorporated the regions of Judea, Samaria, and Idumea and it was named after Herod Archelauss Tetrarchy of Judea, but the Roman province encompassed a much larger territory. H. Ben-Sasson, had been the capital of the region beginning in 6 AD. Judea province was the scene of unrest at its founding in 6 AD during the Census of Quirinius and several wars were fought in its history, the Temple was destroyed in 70 as part of the Great Jewish Revolt resulting in the institution of the Fiscus Judaicus. Disturbances followed throughout the region during the Kitos War in 117–118, between 132–135, Simon Bar Kokhba led a revolt against the Roman Empire, controlling parts of Judea but seemingly not Jerusalem, for three years. As a result, Hadrian sent Sextus Julius Severus to the region, after crushing the Bar Kokhba revolt, the Roman Emperor Hadrian applied the name Syria Palestina to the entire region, that had formerly included Judea province. The city of Aelia Capitolina was built by the emperor Hadrian on the ruins of Jerusalem, the capital of the enlarged province remained in Antiochia. In 193, the province of Syria-Coele was split from Syria Palaestina, in the 3rd century, Syrians even reached for imperial power, with the Severan dynasty. Syria was of strategic importance during the Crisis of the Third Century. Beginning in 212, Palmyras trade diminished as the Sassanids occupied the mouth of the Tigris, in 232, the Syrian Legion rebelled against the Roman Empire, but the uprising went unsuccessful. Septimius Odaenathus, a Prince of the Aramean state of Palmyra, was appointed by Valerian as the governor of the province of Syria Palaestina. After Valerian was captured by the Sassanids in 260, and died in captivity in Bishapur, Odaenathus campaigned as far as Ctesiphon for revenge, when Odaenathus was assassinated by his nephew Maconius, his wife Septimia Zenobia took power, ruling Palmyra on behalf of her son, Vabalathus. Zenobia rebelled against Roman authority with the help of Cassius Longinus and took over Bosra and lands as far to the west as Egypt, next, she took Antioch and large sections of Asia Minor to the north. In 272, the Roman Emperor Aurelian finally restored Roman control and Palmyra was besieged and sacked, Aurelian captured Zenobia, bringing her back to Rome. He paraded her in chains in the presence of the senator Marcellus Petrus Nutenus, but allowed her to retire to a villa in Tibur
5.
Roman Empire
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Civil wars and executions continued, culminating in the victory of Octavian, Caesars adopted son, over Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC and the annexation of Egypt. Octavians power was then unassailable and in 27 BC the Roman Senate formally granted him overarching power, the imperial period of Rome lasted approximately 1,500 years compared to the 500 years of the Republican era. The first two centuries of the empires existence were a period of unprecedented political stability and prosperity known as the Pax Romana, following Octavians victory, the size of the empire was dramatically increased. After the assassination of Caligula in 41, the senate briefly considered restoring the republic, under Claudius, the empire invaded Britannia, its first major expansion since Augustus. Vespasian emerged triumphant in 69, establishing the Flavian dynasty, before being succeeded by his son Titus and his short reign was followed by the long reign of his brother Domitian, who was eventually assassinated. The senate then appointed the first of the Five Good Emperors, the empire reached its greatest extent under Trajan, the second in this line. A period of increasing trouble and decline began with the reign of Commodus, Commodus assassination in 192 triggered the Year of the Five Emperors, of which Septimius Severus emerged victorious. The assassination of Alexander Severus in 235 led to the Crisis of the Third Century in which 26 men were declared emperor by the Roman Senate over a time span. It was not until the reign of Diocletian that the empire was fully stabilized with the introduction of the Tetrarchy, which saw four emperors rule the empire at once. This arrangement was unsuccessful, leading to a civil war that was finally ended by Constantine I. Constantine subsequently shifted the capital to Byzantium, which was renamed Constantinople in his honour and it remained the capital of the east until its demise. Constantine also adopted Christianity which later became the state religion of the empire. However, Augustulus was never recognized by his Eastern colleague, and separate rule in the Western part of the empire ceased to exist upon the death of Julius Nepos. The Eastern Roman Empire endured for another millennium, eventually falling to the Ottoman Turks in 1453, the Roman Empire was among the most powerful economic, cultural, political and military forces in the world of its time. It was one of the largest empires in world history, at its height under Trajan, it covered 5 million square kilometres. It held sway over an estimated 70 million people, at that time 21% of the entire population. Throughout the European medieval period, attempts were made to establish successors to the Roman Empire, including the Empire of Romania, a Crusader state. Rome had begun expanding shortly after the founding of the republic in the 6th century BC, then, it was an empire long before it had an emperor
6.
Hadrian
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Hadrian was Roman emperor from 117 to 138. He is known for building Hadrians Wall, which marked the limit of Britannia. He also rebuilt the Pantheon and constructed the Temple of Venus, philhellene in most of his tastes, he is considered by some to have been a humanist, and he is regarded as the third of the Five Good Emperors. Hadrian was born Publius Aelius Hadrianus into a Hispano-Roman family, although Italica near Santiponce is often considered his birthplace, his actual place of birth remains uncertain. It is generally accepted that he came from a family with roots in Hispania. His predecessor, Trajan, was a cousin of Hadrians father. Trajan did not designate an heir officially, but according to his wife Pompeia Plotina, Trajans wife and his friend Licinius Sura were well disposed towards Hadrian, and he may well have owed his succession to them. During his reign, Hadrian travelled to every province of the Empire. An ardent admirer of Greece, he sought to make Athens the cultural capital of the Empire and he used his relationship with his Greek lover Antinous to underline his philhellenism, and this led to the establishment of one of the most popular cults of ancient times. Hadrian spent a deal of time with the military, he usually wore military attire and even dined. He ordered rigorous military training and drilling and made use of reports of attacks to keep the army on alert. On his accession to the throne, Hadrian withdrew from Trajans conquests in Mesopotamia, Assyria and Armenia, late in his reign he suppressed the Bar Kokhba revolt in Judaea, renaming the province Syria Palaestina. In 138 Hadrian adopted Antoninus Pius on the condition that he adopt Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus as his own heirs and they would eventually succeed Antoninus as co-emperors. Hadrian died the year at Baiae. In Hadrians time, there was already an established convention that one could not write a contemporary Roman imperial history for fear of competing with the emperors themselves. Information on the history of Hadrians reign comes mostly from later. A general account of his reign is Book 69 of the early 3rd century Roman History by Cassius Dio and his original Greek text of this book is lost, what survives is a brief, much later, Byzantine-era abridgment by the 11th century monk Xiphilinius. He selected from Dios account of Hadrians reign based on his religious interests
7.
Simon bar Kokhba
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Simon bar Kokhba was the Jewish leader of what is known as the Bar Kokhba revolt against the Roman Empire in 132 CE, establishing an independent Jewish state which he ruled for three years as Nasi. His state was conquered by the Romans in 135 following a two and half-year war, documents discovered in the 20th century in the Cave of Letters give his original name, with variations, Simeon bar Kosevah, Bar Koseva or Ben Koseva. It is probable that his name was Bar Koseva. The name may indicate that his father or his place of origin was named Koseva, the name Bar Kokhba does not appear in the Talmud but in ecclesiastical sources. Rabbinical writers subsequent to Rabbi Akiva did not share Rabbi Akivas estimation of ben Kosiva, Akivas disciple, Yose ben Halaphta, in the Seder Olam called him bar Koziba, meaning, son of the lie. Bar Kokhba, the leader of resistance at the time. Two and a years later, the war had ended. The Roman Emperor Hadrian at this time barred Jews from entering Jerusalem, the second Jewish rebellion took place 60 years after the first and established an independent state lasting three years. For many Jews of the time, this turn of events was heralded as the long hoped for Messianic Age, the excitement was short-lived, however, and after a brief span of glory, the revolt was crushed by the Roman legions. Bar Kokhba took up refuge in the fortress of Betar, If you should come to take into account, you would find that they amounted to three-hundred measures. ”Rabban Gamliel said, “Five-hundred schools were in Betar, while the smallest of them wasnt less than three-hundred children. So costly was the Roman victory that the Emperor Hadrian, when reporting to the Roman Senate, did not see fit to begin with the customary greeting If you, for I and the army are all in good health. These letters can now be seen at the Israel Museum, according to Israeli archaeologist Yigael Yadin, Bar Kokhba tried to revive Hebrew and make Hebrew the official language of the Jews as part of his messianic ideology. Simon bar Kokhba is portrayed in literature as being somewhat irrational. The Talmud says that he presided over an army of Jewish insurgents numbering some 200,000, the Sages of Israel complained to him why he marred the people of Israel with such blemishes. Whenever he would go forth into battle, he was reported as saying, O Master of the universe, there is no need for you to assist us, Bar Kokhba was a ruthless leader, punishing any Jew who refused to join his ranks. According to Eusebius Chronicon, he punished the sect of Christians with death by different means of torture for their refusal to fight against the Romans. The work was written in the wake of pogroms against Jews following the 1881 assassination of Czar Alexander II of Russia, haye Bar-Kokhba A Star in Its Course, The Life of Bar-Kokhba, a Hebrew novel by S. J. John Zorns Masada Chamber Ensemble recorded an album called Bar Kokhba, showing a photograph of the Letter of Bar Kokhba to Yeshua, son of Galgola on the cover
8.
Rabbi Akiva
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Akiva ben Yosef, widely known as Rabbi Akiva, was a tanna of the latter part of the first century and the beginning of the second century. Rabbi Akiva was a contributor to the Mishnah and to Midrash halakha. He is referred to in the Talmud as Rosh la-Hakhamim Chief of the Sages and he was executed by the Romans in the aftermath of the Bar Kokhba revolt. Akiva ben Yosef came of humble parentage, when he married the daughter of Kalba Savua, a wealthy citizen of Jerusalem, Akiva was an uneducated shepherd in Kalba Savuas employ. His wifes first name is not given in the earlier sources and she stood loyally by her husband during that critical period of his life in which Akiva dedicated himself to the study of Torah. Rabbi Akiva has many famous quotes in the Babylonian Talmud, a different tradition narrates that at the age of 40, Akiva attended the academy of his native town, Lod, presided over by Eliezer ben Hurcanus. Hurcanus was a neighbor of Yosef, the father of Akiva, the fact that Eliezer was his first teacher, and the only one whom Akiva later designates as rabbi, is of importance in settling the date of Akivas birth. These legends set the beginning of his years of study at about 75–80, besides Eliezer, Akiva studied under Joshua ben Hananiah and Nahum Ish Gamzu. He was on equal footing with Gamaliel II, whom he met later, Rabbi Tarfon was considered as one of Akivas masters, but the pupil outranked his teacher and he became one of Akivas greatest admirers. Akiva remained in Lod as long as Eliezer dwelt there, and then removed his own school to Beneberak, five Roman miles from Jaffa Akiva also lived for time at Ziphron. For another identification of the place, and other forms of its name, see Neubauer, La Géographie du Talmud, p.391, according to the Talmud, Akiva was a shepherd for Kalba Savua when the latters daughter noticed his modesty and fine character traits. She offered to him if he would agree to begin studying Torah, as at the time he was 40 years old. When her father found out she was betrothed to an unlearned man. He drove his daughter out of his house, swearing that he would never help her while Akiva remained her husband, Akiva and his wife lived in such poverty that they used straw for their bed. The Talmud relates that once Elijah the prophet assumed the guise of a poor man, when Akiva and his wife saw that there were people even poorer than they, Rachel said to him, Go, and become a scholar. By agreement with his wife, Akiva spent twelve years away from home, without crossing the threshold, Akiva went back to the academy. He returned twelve years later escorted by 24,000 disciples, when his wife went out to greet him, some of his students, not knowing who she was, sought to restrain her. But Akiva exclaimed, Let her alone, for what is mine, not knowing who he was, Kalba Savua also approached Akiva and asked him for help annulling his vow to disown his daughter and her husband
9.
Capital punishment
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Capital punishment, also known as the death penalty, is a government sanctioned practice whereby a person is put to death by the state as a punishment for a crime. The sentence that someone be punished in such a manner is referred to as a death sentence, etymologically, the term capital in this context alluded to execution by beheading. Fifty-six countries retain capital punishment,103 countries have abolished it de jure for all crimes, six have abolished it for ordinary crimes. Capital punishment is a matter of controversy in various countries and states. In the European Union, Article 2 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union prohibits the use of capital punishment, also, the Council of Europe, which has 47 member states, prohibits the use of the death penalty by its members. The United Nations General Assembly has adopted, in 2007,2008,2010,2012 and 2014, non-binding resolutions calling for a moratorium on executions. Although most nations have abolished capital punishment, over 60% of the population live in countries where executions take place, such as China, India. Execution of criminals and political opponents has been used by nearly all societies—both to punish crime, in most countries that practise capital punishment it is reserved for murder, terrorism, war crimes, espionage, treason, defection or as part of military justice. In many countries use the death penalty, drug trafficking is also a capital offence. In China, human trafficking and serious cases of corruption are punished by the death penalty, in militaries around the world courts-martial have imposed death sentences for offences such as cowardice, desertion, insubordination, and mutiny. The use of formal execution extends to the beginning of recorded history, most historical records and various primitive tribal practices indicate that the death penalty was a part of their justice system. Communal punishment for wrongdoing generally included compensation by the wrongdoer, corporal punishment, shunning, banishment, usually, compensation and shunning were enough as a form of justice. The response to crime committed by neighbouring tribes or communities included a formal apology, a blood feud or vendetta occurs when arbitration between families or tribes fails or an arbitration system is non-existent. This form of justice was common before the emergence of a system based on state or organized religion. It may result from crime, land disputes or a code of honour, acts of retaliation underscore the ability of the social collective to defend itself and demonstrate to enemies that injury to property, rights, or the person will not go unpunished. However, in practice, it is difficult to distinguish between a war of vendetta and one of conquest. Elaborations of tribal arbitration of feuds included peace settlements often done in a religious context, compensation was based on the principle of substitution which might include material compensation, exchange of brides or grooms, or payment of the blood debt. Settlement rules could allow for animal blood to replace human blood, the person offered for execution did not have to be an original perpetrator of the crime because the system was based on tribes, not individuals
10.
Legio III Cyrenaica
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Legio tertia Cyrenaica was a legion of the Imperial Roman army. The origins of the legion remain unknown, one source believes the legion was probably founded by Mark Antony around 36 BC, when he was governor of Cyrenaica. Equally, the origins may come from the fact it was commanded by Lucius Pinaris Scarpus. There are still records of the legion in Syria in the beginning of the 5th century, Legion III Cyrenaica was one of the longest-living Roman legions. The origin of the title/name Cyrenaica is not known - it may have given to the Legion to signify its origin in Cyrene. Difficulties tracing the history of any Roman legion, including III Cyrenaica, are multiple, distinguishing between the legions is only done via regional title such as III Cyrenaica etc. Jona Lendering - Livius. org Peter Connolly - Greece and Rome at War, phil Barker - The Armies and Enemies of Imperial Rome, Wargames Research Group Publications 1981. Bishop & Coulston - Roman Military Equipment, Oxbow Books 1993, a. Sanders, The Origin of the Third Cyrenaic Legion, American Journal of Philology,62, pp. 84–87. Johannes Kramer, Die Wiener Liste von Soldaten der III, gatier, La Legio III Cyrenaica et lArabie, in dans Les légions de Rome sous le Haut-Empire, I, Lyon,2000, p. 341-344 A. Kindler, The Coinage of Bostra 87-95. D. Kennedy originally, Legio VI Ferrata, The Annexation and Early Garrison of Arabia, Harvard Studies in Classical Philology,84 282-309
11.
Legio X Fretensis
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Legio X Fretensis was a legion of the Imperial Roman army. It was founded by the young Gaius Octavius in 41/40 BC to fight during the period of war that started the dissolution of the Roman Republic. X Fretensis is then recorded to have existed at least until the 410s, X Fretensis symbols were the bull — the holy animal of the goddess Venus — a ship, the god Neptune, and a boar. The symbol of Taurus may also mean that it was organized between 20 April and 20 May, Octavian, later known as Augustus, levied a legion and gave it the number ten, as a reference to Julius Caesars famous Tenth Legion. In 36 BC, the Tenth Legion fought under Octavian against Sextus Pompey in the Battle of Naulochus, the name refers to the fact that the battle took place near the sea Strait of Messina. In 31 BC, it fought in the Battle of Actium against Mark Antony, although Actium was a battle at sea, the legion was able to board enemy ships that had been hooked close by means of an iron grapnel known as the Corvus. Its key participation in battle is probably the reason that the legion also used a trireme as one of its symbols. Actium marked the end of the war and the rise to power of Octavian. Tiles found in Caesarea Maritima, built in the second decade BC, later X Fretensis moved to Syria. In 6 it was stationed in that together with legions III Gallica, VI Ferrata. In the same year, Publius Sulpicius Quirinus, governor of Syria, under Nero, in 58-63, X Fretensis participated in the campaigns of Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo against the Parthians. X Fretensis was centrally involved in the First Jewish-Roman War, under the command of Vespasian. In 66, the X Fretensis and V Macedonica went to Alexandria for an invasion of Ethiopia planned by Nero, however, the two legions were needed in Judaea to suppress a revolt. After spending the winter in Ptolemais Ace, X Fretensis and V Macedonica relocated in the city of Caesarea Maritima. This was due to the number of legions being mobilized in Ptolemais, under Marcus Ulpius Traianus, future governor of Syria. During that same winter, the Caesarea camp of Xth and Vth hosted Vespasian, who was forced to go to Rome the following year, vespasians son, Titus finished the suppression of the revolt. When Tarichacae and Gamla were conquered, the X Fretensis moved to Scythopolis, in the summer of 68, X Fretensis destroyed the monastery of Qumran, where the Dead Sea Scrolls are believed to have originated. Its winter camp was at Jericho, by 70, the rebellion in all of Judaea had been crushed, except for Jerusalem and a few fortresses, including Masada
12.
Legio VI Ferrata
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Legio sexta ferrata was a legion of the Imperial Roman army. It probably originated from the Republican general Pompeys 6th legion in Spain, in 30 BC it became part of the emperor Augustuss standing army. It continued in existence into the 4th century, a Legio VI fought in the Roman Republican civil wars of the 40s and 30s BC. Sent to garrison the province of Judaea, it remained there for the two centuries. The Legion was also known as Fidelis Constans, meaning loyal and it is unclear when this title was given, but several sources indicate that it may have been in the 1st century AD. The symbol for Legio VI Ferrata was the bull and it also carried the symbolic she-wolf with Romulus and Remus. Later seeing action at battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC, Julius Caesar took the 6th to Alexandria to settle the dispute in Egypt with Cleopatra, Alexandria was besieged, and the 6th suffered many casualties, losing approximately two-thirds of its strength. Caesar eventually triumphed when reinforcements under Mithridates of Pergamum arrived, Caesar took his Veteran Sixth Legion with him to Syria and Pontus. When Caesar reached Pontus he gathered all his forces together in one spot, the Legion served in Pontus under Caesar in 48 and 47 BC. This culminated in the battle of Zela where victory was won by Legio VI, the origin of our victory lay in the bitter and intense hand-to-hand battle joined on the right wing, where the veteran Sixth Legion was stationed. Caesar was quite overjoyed at such a victory, although he had been victorious in many battles and he had brought a major war to an astonishingly rapid end. He ordered the Sixth Legion back to Italy to receive their rewards, during Caesars African war against Scipio in 46 BC, the Sixth Legion deserted en masse from Scipio to reinforce Caesar and fought under him. The legion was disbanded in 45 BC after the battle of Munda, establishing a colony at Arelate, the latter had serving with him Legio V Alaudae, Legio VI Ferrata and Legio X Equestris. Soon we find Octavians army boasting of a Legio V, Legio VI and it would seem, therefore, that Octavian had used the veterans of Caesars Sixth Legion, this time from those left at Beneventum, to form the core of his own Sixth Legion used at Perusia. Later Legio VI Ferrata fought in Antonys Parthian War in 36 BC, during the war between Antony and Octavian the Legio VIs Ferrata and Victrix found themselves on opposing sides at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. Legio VI Ferrata was severely mauled by Octavians forces, from 54 AD to 68 AD the Sixth Legion Ferrata served under Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo at Artaxata and Tigranocerta against the Parthians. In 69 AD the Sixth Legion returned to Judea and fought in the Jewish War, as the War wound down, the Legion was largely responsible for Mucianus victory over the forces of Vitellius during the brief Civil War following the death of Nero. In 106 AD a vexillatio of the legion participated at the decisive battle against Dacia
13.
Legio III Gallica
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Legio tertia Gallica was a legion of the Imperial Roman army founded around 49 BC by Gaius Julius Caesar for his civil war against the conservative Republicans led by Pompey. The cognomen Gallica suggests that recruits were originally from Gaul, the legion was still active in Egypt in the early 4th century. The legions symbol was a bull, the legion took part in all Julius Caesars campaigns against his enemies, including the battles of Pharsalus and Munda. Following Caesars death, III Gallica was integrated in the army of Mark Antony and they were included in the army levied by Fulvia and Lucius Antonius to oppose Octavian, but ended by surrendering in Perugia, in the winter of 41 BC. After the battle of Actium and Antonys suicide during Antonys civil war, the III Gallica was sent again to the East, III Gallica was used in Gnaeus Domitius Corbulos campaign against the Parthians over the control of Armenia. Corbulos successes triggered the emperor Neros paranoia of persecution and eventually the general was forced to commit suicide, after this, III Gallica was transferred to the province of Moesia on the Danube. In the Year of the Four Emperors in 69, the legion, and they were instrumental in the final defeat of Vitellius in the second Battle of Bedriacum and in the accession of the Flavians to the throne of Rome. This legion during its service in Syria had developed the custom of saluting the rising sun, the Vitellian forces thought that they were saluting reinforcements from the east and lost heart. In these years, one of the tribunes of the III Gallica was Pliny the Younger. After this civil war, the legion was sent to Syria. They also took part in Lucius Verus campaign and in next Septimius Severus campaign against the Parthian Empire, during the reign of Roman Emperor Caracalla, the Legion left an inscription amongst the Commemorative stela of Nahr el-Kalb. III Gallica played a role in the early reign of Elagabalus. In 218, during Macrinus reign, Julia Maesa went to Raphana, Syria and she largely donated to the legion, which, in turn, proclaimed emperor Julia Maesas grandson, the fourteen-year-old Elagabalus, on the dawn of 16 May. On June 8,218 near Antioch, gannys, Elagabalus tutor, defeated Macrinus and his son, with the help of the III Gallica and the other legions of the East. In 219, the legion, exhausted by Elagabalus excesses, supported its commander, senator Verus, Elagabalus had Verus executed, and dispersed the legion. The legionaries were transferred namely to III Augusta, stationed in the Africa provinces, however, the following emperor, Alexander Severus, reconstituted the legion and redeployed them back in Syria. Valerius Comazon entered in Elagabalus court, becoming prefect of the Praetorian Guard, III Gallica records then become obscure. Little is known about the whereabouts, but, in 323
14.
Legio XXII Deiotariana
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Legio vigesima secunda Deiotariana was a legion of the Imperial Roman army, founded ca.48 BC and disbanded during the Bar Kokhba revolt of 132–135. Its cognomen comes from Deiotarus, a Celtic king of Galatia, the legion was levied by Deiotarus, king of the Celtic tribe of the Tolistobogii, who lived in Galatia, modern Turkey. Deiotarus became an ally of the Roman Republics general Pompey in 63 BC, who named him king of all the Celtic tribes of Asia minor, which were collectively known as Galatians. Deiotarus levied an army and trained it with Roman help, the army, cicero writes that the army was divided into thirty cohortes, which were roughly equivalent to three Roman legions of the time. This army supported the Romans in their wars against king Mithridates VI of Pontus, augustus sent the Twenty-second to camp in Nicopolis together with III Cyrenaica. These two legions had the role of garrisoning the Egyptian province from threats both within and without, given the nature of Alexandria. In 26 BC, Aelius Gallus, praefectus Aegypti, led a campaign against the Nubian kingdoms, the campaign came quickly to a halt because of the heavy losses in the troops, due to hunger and epidemics. The losses were not recovered, so in 23 BC the Nubians, led by queen Candace Amanirenas, took the initiative and attacked the Romans moving towards Elephantine. The new prefectus of Egypt, Petronius, obtained reinforcements, and after blocking the Nubians, marched up the Nile to the Nubian capital of Napata and it is highly probable that XXII fought in these wars. After this actions, the Nubian front remained calm for a long time, the legionaries were used not only as soldiers, but also as workers, as some of them were sent to the granite mines of Mons Claudianus. Other legionaries were sent in the deepest south of the Egyptian province, under Nero, the Romans fought a campaign against the Parthian Empire, which had invaded the kingdom of Armenia, allied to the Romans. After gaining and losing Armenia, the Romans sent XV Apollinaris from Pannonia to Cn, in 66, Zealot Jews killed the Roman garrison in Jerusalem. After the ignominious defeat of the legatus of Syria, T. Flavius Vespasianus in 70, in fact in 69, the year of the four emperors, Flavius Vespasianus senior returned to Italy to conquer the imperial throne after Galbas rebellion and Neros death. The Twenty-second sided with Flavius Vespasianus, who became emperor. Under Trajan, XXII is officially known as Deiotariana, even if this was its name since Claudian times. The last record of XXII Deiotariana is from 119, in 145, when a list of all existing legions was made, XXII Deiotariana was not listed. It is possible XXII Deiotariana suffered serious losses during the Jewish rebellion of Simon bar Kokhba, the disappearance of the Legio XXII Deiotariana in connection with the Bar Kokhba Revolt is uncertain and not generally accepted as fact. List of Roman legions livius. org account
15.
Legio II Traiana Fortis
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Legio secunda Traiana, was a legion of the Imperial Roman army founded by emperor Trajan in 105, along with XXX Ulpia Victrix, for the campaigns in Dacia. There are still records of the II Traiana Fortis in Egypt in the middle of the 5th century, the legions emblem was the demi-god Hercules. In 115, II Traiana Fortis was incorporated in the army used for Trajans Parthian Campaign. In 117, the legion was allocated in Iudaea, to insure peace after the rebellion that was just ending, in 125 they were sent to Aegyptus for the first time, to share camp in Nicopolis with XXII Deiotariana. Between 132-136 they were again in Iudaea to deal with another revolt, the legion was in its base in Nicopolis when a revolt against Roman rule started in south Egypt. The rebels besieged Alexandria for months, plague and famine recked the city. Rescue for the Traiana and the XXII Deiotariana was when Avidius Cassius came with the legions of Syria, the legion was awarded the Fortis title for the valiant defense of Romes Bread Basket. Cassius was ruler of the east for a time, while Marcus Aurelius was busy in his Marcomannic Wars. The legion, with the others, cut off Cassius head, and sent it to Aurelius, the history of II Traiana Fortis gives an example of the political role of the legions. In 194, Pescennius Niger, governor of the province of Syria, rebelled with the support of, among others and his rival was Septimius Severus who would become emperor. In the days before the battle, the legion changed sides. This would prove to be decisive for Pescennius defeat, in the beginnings of the 3rd century, the legion is involved in Caracallas campaign against Germanic tribes and receives the cognomen Germanica. List of Roman legions livius. org account of Legio II Traiana Fortis http, //www. legion2. yolasite. com *
16.
Legio X Gemina
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Legio decima Gemina, was a legion of the Imperial Roman army. It was one of the four used by Julius Caesar in 58 BC. There are still records of the X Gemina in Vienna in the beginning of the 5th century, the legion symbol was a bull. Early on in its history, the legion was called X Equestris, see also Legio X Equestris In the Gallic Wars, X Equestris played an important role on Caesars military success and for this reason is sometimes said to be his favorite. In Caesars campaigns they were present in the battle of the Sabis, the invasions of Britain, and they remained faithful to Caesar in the civil war against Pompey, being present in the battles of Pharsalus and Munda. In 45 BC Caesar disbanded the legion, giving the veterans farmlands near Narbonne in Gaul, the legion was reconstituted in 42 BC and fought for Augustus, Lepidus and Mark Antony in the Battle of Philippi against the murderers of Caesar. After this, they followed Mark Antony in his campaign against Parthia and were defeated with him at Actium, Augustus then took control of the legion and settled the veterans in Patras. The legion rebelled and lost its cognomen Equestris as punishment, replacements were added from other legions, and the Tenth was rebaptized Gemina. From about 30 BC the newly formed X Gemina was relocated to Petavonium in Hispania Tarraconensis and their veterans were among the first inhabitants of modern Zaragoza and Emerita Augusta, modern Mérida. The legion was sent to Carnuntum in Pannonia in about 63 AD after legio XV Apollinaris left, during the brief reign of Galba, it was transferred back to Hispania. However, its stay in Hispania was to be very brief, in 70, after the Batavian rebellion was suppressed by the new emperor Vespasian, X Gemina was sent to Batavia in Germania Inferior to police the lands and prevent new revolts. From 71 to 103, the legion was stationed at the built by II Adiutrix at Oppidum Batavorum. As part of the army of Germania Inferior, X Gemina fought against the rebellion of the governor of Germania Superior, L. Antonius Saturninus, against Emperor Domitian. During the Trajans first campaign in Dacia, the legion participated at the Second Battle of Tapae, in 103, it was moved to Aquincum and later to Vindobona, in Pannonia Superior, which would be the legions camp until the 5th century. Vexillationes of the X Gemina fought against the rebellion of Simon bar Kokhba in 132-135, in Iudaea, another major campaign was the one fought against the Quadi, Marcomanni and the Lombards, in Moravia, under the command of Emperor Marcus Aurelius. During the 3rd century, the legion fought for several emperors, who awarded the legion with titles showing the fidelity of the legion, the titles Antoniniana, Gordiana, Deciana, Floriana, and Cariniana were short-lived, however, and dropped after the death of the Emperor. For its support of Emperor Gallienus against Postumus, the Gemina was awarded the title Pia VI Fidelis VI, six times faithful, six times loyal. At the time in which Notitia Dignitatum was written, the first detachment of Decima Gemina was under the command of the Magister Militum per Orientem, the other detachment was still in Vindobona, under the command of the Dux Pannoniae primae et Norici ripensis
17.
Legio IX Hispana
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Legio nona Hispana, also Legio VIIII Hispana or Legio IX Hispana, was a legion of the Imperial Roman army that existed from the 1st century BC until at least AD120. The legion fought in various provinces of the late Roman Republic, the legion disappears from surviving Roman records after c. AD120 and there is no extant account of what happened to it, the unknown fate of the legion has been the subject of considerable research and speculation. This view was popularized by the 1954 novel The Eagle of the Ninth in which the legion is said to have marched into Caledonia,120, later than the legions supposed annihilation in Britain. The Nijmegen evidence has led to suggestions that IX Hispana was destroyed in later conflicts of the 2nd century, suggestions include the Bar Kokhba revolt or Marcus Aurelius war against Parthia in Armenia. However, some scholars have ascribed the Nijmegen evidence to a detachment of IX Hispana. They continue to favor the British scenario, but concede that the disaster must have happened closer to 120 than 108. The origin of the legion is uncertain, but a 9th legion seems to have participated in the siege of Asculum during the Social War in 90 BC. According to Stephen Dando-Collins the legion was raised, along with the 6th, 7th and 8th, when he became governor of Cisalpine Gaul in 58 BC, Julius Caesar inherited four legions, numbered VII to X, that were already based there. The Ninth may have been quartered in Aquileia to guard against attacks from the Illyrians, Caesar created two more legions, using all six for his attack on the Helvetii initiating the Gallic wars. The Caesarian Ninth Legion fought in the battles of Dyrrhachium and Pharsalus, after his final victory, Caesar disbanded the legion and settled the veterans in the area of Picenum. Following Caesars assassination, Caesars ally Ventidius Bassus made attempts to recreate the 7th, 8th and 9th legions, Octavian later recalled the veterans of the Ninth to fight against the rebellion of Sextus Pompeius in Sicily. After defeating Sextus, they were sent to the province of Macedonia, the Ninth remained with Octavian in his war of 31 BC against Mark Antony and fought by his side in the battle of Actium. With Octavian, whom the Senate later titled Augustus, established as ruler of the Roman world. The nickname Hispana is first found during the reign of Augustus, after this, the legion was probably part of the imperial army in the Rhine borderlands that was campaigning against the Germanic tribes. Following the abandonment of the Eastern Rhine area, the Ninth was relocated in Pannonia, in AD43 the legion most likely participated in the Roman invasion of Britain led by emperor Claudius and general Aulus Plautius, because they soon appear amongst the provincial garrison. In AD50, the Ninth was one of two legions that defeated the forces of Caratacus at Caer Caradoc, around the same year, the legion constructed a fort, Lindum Colonia, at Lincoln. Under the command of Caesius Nasica they put down the first revolt of Venutius between 52 and 57, the legion was later reinforced with legionaries from the Germania provinces
18.
Legio V Macedonica
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Legio quinta Macedonica was a Roman legion. It was probably levied in 43 BC by consul Gaius Vibius Pansa Caetronianus. It was based in the Balkan provinces of Macedonia, Moesia and Dacia, in the Notitia Dignitatum records from beginning of the fifth century, the legion was still stationed in Dacia, with detachments stationed in the east and Egypt. The last known evidence shows the legion, or detachments from it and its symbol was the bull, but the eagle was used as well. The Legio V was one of the original twenty-eight legions raised by Octavian, there are two fifth legions recorded, the V Gallica and the V Urbana. It is possible that both were early names for the V Macedonica. The legion probably participated in the Battle of Actium and it later moved to Macedonia, where it stayed from 30 BC to AD6, gaining its cognomen, before moving to Oescus. In 62, some vexillationes of the Fifth fought under Lucius Caesennius Paetus in Armenia against the Parthian Empire, the Fifth was probably still in the East when the Great Jewish Revolt in Iudaea Province began in 66. Nero gave the V Macedonica, the X Fretensis and the XV Apollinaris to Titus Flavius Vespasianus to counter the revolt. In 67, in Galilee, the city of Sepphoris surrendered peacefully to the Roman army, and later the V Macedonica conquered Mount Gerizim, the chief sanctuary of the Samaritans. In the Year of the Four Emperors,68, the legion stayed inactive in Emmaus, after the proclamation of Vespasian as Emperor and the end of the war under his son Titus, the V Macedonica left Iudaea and returned to Oescus. In 96, the later emperor Hadrian served the legion as tribunus militum, in 101, the legion moved to Dacia, to fight in Emperor Trajans campaign against the king Decebalus. The legate of the V Macedonica was future emperor Hadrian, after the war ended in 106, the legion remained in Troesmis, near the Danube Delta since 107. A centurion of the legion, Calventius Viator, rose to prominence under Hadrian and he was eventually promoted to commander of the emperors horse guards, the equites singulares Augusti. When Emperor Lucius Verus started his campaign against the Parthians, the moved to the east. The northern frontier was a hot border of the Empire, when emperor Marcus Aurelius had to fight against the Marcomanni, the Iazyges, and the Quadi, the V Macedonica was involved in these fights. At the beginning of the reign of Commodus, the V Macedonica, the Fifth later supported Septimius Severus, in his fight for the purple. In 185 or 187, the legion was awarded of the title Pia Constans or Pia Fidelis, while staying in Potaissa for most of the 3rd century, V Macedonica fought several times, earning honors
19.
Legio XI Claudia
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Legio undecima Claudia was a legion of the Imperial Roman army. XI Claudia dates back to the two legions recruited by Julius Caesar to invade Gallia in 58 BC, and it existed at least until the early 5th century, guarding lower Danube in Durostorum. The emblem of the legion is not known, it could have been, as all of the Caesars legions, the XI and XII legions were levied by Caesar for his Helvetii campaign in 58 BC. The legion fought in the Battle against the Nervians, and probably fought at the Siege of Alesia as well, during the civil war, the Eleventh legion fought for Caesar at the Battle of Dyrrhachium and at Pharsalus. The legion was disbanded in 45 BC, and its veterans were offered lands at Bojano, the XIth was reconstituted in 42 BC by Augustus, to fight in the civil war against the assassins of Caesar. The XIth fought in the Battle of Philippi, and was sent back to Italy to quell a revolt at Perugia. It was probably involved in the fight against Sextus Pompeius, who had seized Sicilia, in 32 BC, the XIth fought for Octavian against Mark Antony, in the civil war ending with the Battle of Actium and Octavians victory. In 42, the governor of Dalmatia, Lucius Arruntius Camillus Scribonianus, the Eleventh and the Seventh sided with the Emperor, and put down Scribonianus rebellion. Claudius awarded each of the two legions with the title Claudia Pia Fidelis. In the Year of the Four Emperors, the XI, the VII, towards the end of the 1st century, Claudia fought on the eastern bank of the Rhine, it also took part in the Domitian campaign against the Chatti in 83. In 101 XI Claudia moved to Brigetio, Pannonia Inferior, in occasion of the Dacian Wars of Trajan, in 104, the legion is in Durostorum, Moesia Inferior, to guard the Danubian frontier, and will remain there for the following centuries. The legion was responsible, with the other Moesian legions, for the protection of the Roman-allied Greek colonies of Crimea, the legion is attested togher with legion I Italica at the castra of Drajna de Sus. Some vexillationes of the XI Claudia were sent to Iudaea to quell the bloody Bar Kokhbas revolt, a Roman inscription mentioning this legion was discovered near the town Betar, a town once besieged by Roman forces. In 193, after the assassination of Pertinax, several claimants for the rose, among them were the governor of Pannonia Superior, Septimius Severus. The Claudia did not take part in Septimius march on Rome, Severus besieged Byzantium, crossed the Gülek Pass, and defeated Niger at the Battle of Issus. It is possible that XI Claudia fought also during the Parthian campaign of Emperor Severus, during the clash between Emperor Gallienus and the Emperor of the Gallic Empire Postumus, XI Claudia fought for the first, receiving the titles Pia V Fidelis V and Pia VI Fidelis VI. While still camped in Durostorum, some vexillationes of the Eleventh fought around the Empire, in 295, capidava List of Roman legions Lendering, Jona, Legio XI Claudia Pia Fidelis, at livius. org
20.
Legio XII Fulminata
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The Legio duodecima Fulminata, also known as Paterna, Victrix, Antiqua, Certa Constans, and Galliena, was a legion of the Imperial Roman army. It was originally levied by Julius Caesar in 58 BC and which accompanied him during the Gallic Wars until 49 BC, the unit was still guarding the Euphrates River crossing near Melitene at the beginning of the 5th century. The legions emblem was a thunderbolt, in later centuries it came to be called commonly, but incorrectly, the Legio Fulminatrix, the Thundering Legion. The Twelfth legion, as it is better known, fought in the Battle against the Nervians. The Twelfth fought at the Battle of Pharsalus, when Caesar defeated Pompey, after Caesar won the civil war, the legion was named Victrix, and enlisted in 43 BC by Lepidus and Mark Anthony. Mark Anthony led the Twelfth, renamed XII Antiqua during his campaign against the Parthian Empire, during the latest part of Augustus principality, XII Fulminata served in Syria, camping at Raphana. In the East, King Vologeses I had invaded Armenia, a client kingdom of Rome, the legions were shamed and removed from the war theatre. On its way back, XII Fulminata was ambushed and defeated by Eleazar ben Simon at Beit-Horon, however, XII Fulminata fought well in the last part of the war, and supported its commander T. Flavius Vespasian in his successful bid for the imperial throne. At the end of the war, XII Fulminata and XVI Flavia Firma were sent to guard the Euphrates border, in 75 AD, XII Fulminata was in Caucasus, where Emperor Vespasian had sent the legion to support the allied kingdoms of Iberia and Albania. The legion was probably in Armenia during Trajans campaign of 114 AD, in 134, the threat of the Alans was subdued by the governor of Cappadocia, Arrian, who defeated the invaders with the aid of XII Fulminata and XV Apollinaris. The Twelfth probably fought in the Parthian campaign of Emperor Lucius Verus, in 162-166, if a unit of XII. At this time, most of the Twelfth was composed chiefly of Christians, there was a belief that this had led to the emperor issuing a decree forbidding the persecution of the Christians, but this seems to have been based on a forgery. In 175, the legion was in Melitene, when Avidius Cassius revolted, after the death of Emperor Pertinax,193, XII Fulminata supported the governor of Syria, Pescennius Niger, who was in the end defeated by Emperor Septimius Severus. When the Eastern frontier of the Empire was moved from the Euphrates to the Tigris, the region around Melitene was one of the first in which Christian faith spread. Polyeuctes is a martyr under Valerian who was a soldier of the Twelfth, the Sassanid Empire was a major threat to the Roman power in the East. King Shapur II conquered the base of the XV Apollinaris, Satala, Emperor Valerian moved against Shapur, but was defeated and captured. The defeat caused the collapse of the Empire, with the secessionistic Gallic Empire in the West. It is known that the XII Fulminata was under the command of Odaenathus, ruler of the Palmyrene Empire, after these episodes, the records of the Fulminata are scarce
21.
Legio IV Flavia Felix
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Legio quarta Flavia Felix, was a legion of the Imperial Roman army founded in AD70 by the emperor Vespasian from the ashes of the Legio IV Macedonica. The legion was active in Moesia Superior in the first half of the 5th century, the legion symbol was a lion. During the Batavian rebellion, the IV Macedonica fought for Vespasian, therefore IV Macedonica was disbanded, and a new Fourth legion, called Flavian Felix was levied by the emperor, who gave the legio his nomen, Flavia. Since the symbol of the legion is a lion, it was levied in July/August 70. IV Flavia Felix was camped in Burnum, Dalmatia, where it replaced XI Claudia, in 88 the Fourth participated to the retaliation invasion of Dacia. It also participated in the Dacian Wars of Trajan, being victorious at the Second Battle of Tapae, the legion also participated at the final and decisive battle against the Dacians, conquering their capital, Sarmisegetusa. Monuments of IV Flavia Felix have been found at Aquincum and this suggests that a subunit replaced II Adiutrix during its absence during the wars of Lucius Verus against the Parthian empire. In the Marcomannic Wars, the fourth fought on the Danube against the Germanic tribes, after the death of Pertinax, the IV Flavia Felix supported Septimius Severus against usurpers Pescennius Niger and Clodius Albinus. The legion may have fought in one of the wars against the Sassanids. This Roman Legion was featured in the beginning of the movie Gladiator where Maximus Decimus Meridius was the Legion general, list of Roman legions Roman legion Legio IIII Macedonica livius. org account of Legio IIII Flavia Felix Reenactment Legion based in Southern Ontario, Canada portraying IIII Flavia Felix
22.
Herodium
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Herod the Great built a palace fortress and a small town at Herodium, between 23 and 15 BCE, and is believed to have been buried there. Herodium is 758 meters above sea level, the highest peak in the Judaean Desert, today, the site is managed by the Israel National Parks Authority. Herodion is the site that is named after King Herod the Great. It was known by the Crusaders as the Mountain of Franks, arab locals call it Jabal al-Fourdis. The Modern Hebrew name, Herodion, is actually a transliteration of the Greek spelling, some speculate that the Arabic name, Fourdis, may be a corruption of the Hebrew name. In 40 BCE, after the Parthian conquest of Syria, Herod fled to Masada, on the way, at the location of Herodion, Herod clashed with the Parthians and emerged victorious. According to the Roman Jewish historian Josephus, he built a town on that spot in commemoration of his victory, at intervals it has round towers, and it has a steep ascent formed of two hundred steps of hewn stone. Within it are costly royal apartments made for security and for ornament at the same time, the surrounding plain was built up as a city second to none, with the hill serving as an acropolis for the other dwellings. Archaeologists believe that the palace was built by slaves, paid workers, Herod was considered one of the greatest builders of his time and was not daunted by geography—his palace was built on the edge of the desert and was situated atop an artificial hill. The largest of the four towers was built on a stone base 18 meters in diameter and this was most likely where Herod lived, he decorated his rooms with mosaic floors and elaborate frescoes. The other three towers, which consisted of living spaces and storage, were 16 meters in diameter, outside, several cisterns were built to collect water that was channeled into the palace. Herodium was conquered and destroyed by the Romans in 71 CE, at the beginning of the Bar Kokhba revolt sixty years later, Simon bar Kokhba declared Herodium as his secondary headquarters. Archaeological evidence for the revolt was all over the site. Inside the water system, supporting walls built by the rebels were discovered, inside one of the caves, burned wood was found which was dated to the time of the revolt. Excavation began in 1972 and was intermittent until the lead archaeologist, Ehud Netzers, Netzer worked at Herodium on behalf of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Although there is much of the left to unearth, Netzer was the premier historian and had the most experience and knowledge of Herodium. Herod the Great built a palace within the fortress of Herodium, Herod himself commissioned a lavish palace to be built between 23 and 15 BCE atop Herodium for all to see. The palace itself consisted of four towers of seven stories, a bathhouse, courtyards, a Roman theatre, banquet rooms, once Herod died and the Great Revolt started, Herodium was abandoned
23.
Betar (fortress)
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Betar fortress was an ancient, terraced farming village in the Judean highlands. The Betar fortress was the last standing Jewish fortress in the Bar Kochba revolt of the 2nd century CE, the site of historic Betar, next to the modern Palestinian village of Battir, southwest of Jerusalem, is known as Khirbet al-Yahud in Arabic. Today, the Israeli settlement and city Beitar Illit is also located nearby, the city was the stronghold of Bar Kokhba, the leader of the Jewish Revolt under Hadrian. Hadrian sent against the city several of his Roman legions to capture the city, according to historical records, the city was besieged for three and a half years before it finally fell, and its defenders were put to death. The horrendous scene after the capture could be best described as a massacre. A stone inscription bearing Latin characters and discovered near the city shows that the Fifth Macedonian Legion, the destruction of Betar in 135 put an end to the last great Jewish revolt against Rome, and effectively quashed any Jewish hopes for self-governance in that period. Accounts of the event in Talmudic and Midrashic writings thus reflect and amplify its importance in the Jewish psyche, the best known is from the Babylonian Talmud, Gittin 57a-b, Through the shaft of a litter Bethar was destroyed. It was the custom when a boy was born to plant a tree and when a girl was born to plant a pine tree, and when they married, the tree was cut down. One day the daughter of the Emperor was passing when the shaft of her litter broke, so they lopped some branches off a cedar tree, the Jews thereupon fell upon them and beat them. They reported to the Emperor that the Jews were rebelling, and he hath cut off in fierce anger all the horn of Israel. Do you think this was near, gamaliel, What is signified by the verse, Mine eye affecteth my soul, because of all the daughters of my city. Such hyperbolic speech was used only to emphasize the horrendous scene after the capture of the city, and the ensuing massacre of its inhabitants. If you should come to take account, you would find that they amounted to three-hundred measures. ”Rabban Gamliel said, “Five-hundred schools were in Betar. Hadrian had prohibited their burial, and so all the bodies remained above ground, many years later Hadrians successor, Antoninus, allowed the dead to be afforded a decent burial. Mevo Betar David Ussishkin, Archaeological Soundings at Betar, Bar-Kochbas Last Stronghold, in, journal of the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University 20 66ff. Other Midrashic sources can be seen here
24.
Kitos War
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The Kitos War occurred during the period of the Jewish–Roman wars, 66–136. Some of the areas with the heaviest massacres were left so utterly annihilated that others were made to settle these areas to prevent the absence of any remaining presence. The rebellions were crushed by Roman legionary forces, chiefly by the Roman general Lusius Quietus, whose nomen later gave the conflict its title. Several incidents also occurred in parts of the Roman Empire, most notable the Alexandria pogroms. The escalation of tensions finally erupted as the Great Revolt of Judea and it erupted initially due to Greek and Jewish religious tensions, but later escalated due to anti-taxation protests and attacks upon Roman citizens. The Roman military garrison of Judaea was quickly overrun by rebels, cestius Gallus, the legate of Syria, brought the Syrian army, based on XII Fulminata, reinforced by auxiliary troops, to restore order and quell the revolt. The legion, however, was ambushed and defeated by Jewish rebels at the Battle of Beth Horon, the revolt ended when legions under Titus besieged and destroyed the center of rebel resistance in Jerusalem in the year 70 CE, and defeated the remaining Jewish strongholds later on. In 115, the emperor Trajan was in command of the campaign against the Parthian Empire. The Roman invasion had been prompted by the imposition of a king on the throne of Armenia after a Parthian invasion of that land. This encroachment on the sphere of influence of the Roman Empire — the two empires had shared hegemony over Armenia since the time of Nero some 50 years earlier — could only lead to war. As Trajans army advanced victoriously through Mesopotamia, Jewish rebels in its rear began attacking the small garrisons left behind, a revolt in far off Cyrenaica soon spread to Egypt and then Cyprus, inciting revolt in Judaea. A widespread uprising centered at Lydda threatened grain supplies from Egypt to the front, the Jewish insurrection swiftly spread to the recently conquered provinces. Cities with substantial Jewish populations – Nisibis, Edessa, Seleucia, Arbela – joined the rebellion, in Cyrenaica, the rebels were led by one Lukuas or Andreas, who called himself king. The 4th century Christian historian Paulus Orosius records that the violence so depopulated the province of Cyrenaica that new colonies had to be established by Hadrian, The Jews. Dio Cassius states of Jewish insurrectionaries, Meanwhile the Jews in the region of Cyrene had put one Andreas at their head and were destroying both the Romans and the Greeks. They would cook their flesh, make belts for themselves of their entrails, anoint themselves with their blood, many they sawed in two, from the head downwards. Others they would give to wild beasts and force others to fight as gladiators. In all, consequently, two hundred and twenty thousand perished, in Egypt, also, they performed many similar deeds, and in Cyprus under the leadership of Artemio
25.
Hebrew language
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Hebrew is a language native to Israel, spoken by over 9 million people worldwide, of whom over 5 million are in Israel. Historically, it is regarded as the language of the Israelites and their ancestors, the earliest examples of written Paleo-Hebrew date from the 10th century BCE. Hebrew belongs to the West Semitic branch of the Afroasiatic language family, Hebrew is the only living Canaanite language left, and the only truly successful example of a revived dead language. Hebrew had ceased to be a spoken language somewhere between 200 and 400 CE, declining since the aftermath of the Bar Kokhba revolt. Aramaic and to a lesser extent Greek were already in use as international languages, especially among elites and it survived into the medieval period as the language of Jewish liturgy, rabbinic literature, intra-Jewish commerce, and poetry. Then, in the 19th century, it was revived as a spoken and literary language, and, according to Ethnologue, had become, as of 1998, the language of 5 million people worldwide. After Israel, the United States has the second largest Hebrew-speaking population, with 220,000 fluent speakers, Modern Hebrew is one of the two official languages of the State of Israel, while premodern Hebrew is used for prayer or study in Jewish communities around the world today. Ancient Hebrew is also the tongue of the Samaritans, while modern Hebrew or Arabic is their vernacular. For this reason, Hebrew has been referred to by Jews as Leshon Hakodesh, the modern word Hebrew is derived from the word Ivri, one of several names for the Israelite people. It is traditionally understood to be a based on the name of Abrahams ancestor, Eber. This name is based upon the root ʕ-b-r meaning to cross over. Interpretations of the term ʕibrim link it to this verb, cross over, in the Bible, the Hebrew language is called Yәhudit because Judah was the surviving kingdom at the time of the quotation. In Isaiah 19,18 it is called the Language of Canaan, Hebrew belongs to the Canaanite group of languages. In turn, the Canaanite languages are a branch of the Northwest Semitic family of languages, according to Avraham ben-Yosef, Hebrew flourished as a spoken language in the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah during about 1200 to 586 BCE. Scholars debate the degree to which Hebrew was a vernacular in ancient times following the Babylonian exile. In July 2008 Israeli archaeologist Yossi Garfinkel discovered a ceramic shard at Khirbet Qeiyafa which he claimed may be the earliest Hebrew writing yet discovered, dating around 3000 years ago. The Gezer calendar also dates back to the 10th century BCE at the beginning of the Monarchic Period, classified as Archaic Biblical Hebrew, the calendar presents a list of seasons and related agricultural activities. The Gezer calendar is written in an old Semitic script, akin to the Phoenician one that through the Greeks, the Gezer calendar is written without any vowels, and it does not use consonants to imply vowels even in the places where later Hebrew spelling requires it
26.
Aelia Capitolina
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Aelia Capitolina was a Roman colony, built under the emperor Hadrian on the site of Jerusalem, which was in ruins since the siege of 70 AD, leading in part to the Bar Kokhba revolt of 132–136 AD. Aelia Capitolina remained the name of Jerusalem until 638 AD when the Arabs conquered the city. Jerusalem, once heavily rebuilt by Herod, was still in ruins following the siege of the First Jewish–Roman War in 70 AD. Josephus – a contemporary historian and apologist for Judaism who was born in Jerusalem, was so thoroughly razed to the ground by those that demolished it to its foundations, that nothing was left that could ever persuade visitors that it had once been a place of habitation. When the Roman Emperor Hadrian vowed to rebuild Jerusalem from the wreckage in 130 AD, the Jews awaited with hope, but then after Hadrian visited Jerusalem, he was told that rebuilding the Second Temple would encourage sedition. He then decided to rebuild the city as a Roman colony which would be inhabited by his legionaries, hadrians new plans included temples to the major regional deities, and certain Roman gods, in particular Jupiter Capitolinus. The Jewish Bar Kokhba revolt, which took the Romans three years to suppress, enraged Hadrian, and he determined to erase Judaism from the province. Circumcision was forbidden, Iudaea province was renamed Syria Palaestina and Jews expelled from the city, indeed, following the Bar Kokhba revolt, Emperor Hadrian combined Iudaea Province with neighboring provinces under the new name of Syria Palaestina, dispensing with the name of Judea. The city was renamed Aelia Capitolina, and rebuilt it in the style of a typical Roman town, Jews were prohibited from entering the city on pain of death, except for one day each year, during the holiday of Tisha BAv. Taken together, these measures essentially secularized the city, burial remains from the Byzantine period are exclusively Christian, suggesting that the population of Jerusalem in Byzantine times probably consisted only of Christians. Within the span of a few decades, the city shifted from Byzantine to Persian rule, in the Siege of Jerusalem of 614 AD, after 21 days of relentless siege warfare, Jerusalem was captured. The conquered city would remain in Sassanid hands for some fifteen years until the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius reconquered it in 629, Byzantine Jerusalem was conquered by the Arab armies of Umar ibn al-Khattab in 638 AD. Among Muslims of Islams earliest era it was referred to as Madinat bayt al-Maqdis which was restricted to the Temple Mount, the rest of the city was called Iliya, reflecting the Roman name given the city following the destruction of 70 CE, Aelia Capitolina. Eusebius evidence for continuation of a church at Aelia Capitolina is confirmed by the Bordeaux Pilgrim, the city was without walls, protected by a light garrison of the Tenth Legion, during the Late Roman Period. The detachment at Jerusalem, which apparently encamped all over the western hill, was responsible for preventing Jews from returning to the city. Roman enforcement of this continued through the 4th century. The urban plan of Aelia Capitolina was that of a typical Roman town wherein main thoroughfares crisscrossed the urban grid lengthwise and widthwise, the urban grid was based on the usual central north-south road and central east-west route. Tetrapylones were constructed at the junctions between the main roads
27.
Jupiter (mythology)
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Jupiter, also Jove, is the god of sky and thunder and king of the gods in Ancient Roman religion and mythology. Jupiter was the deity of Roman state religion throughout the Republican and Imperial eras. In Roman mythology, he negotiates with Numa Pompilius, the king of Rome, to establish principles of Roman religion such as offering. Jupiter is usually thought to have originated as a sky god, the two emblems were often combined to represent the god in the form of an eagle holding in its claws a thunderbolt, frequently seen on Greek and Roman coins. As the sky-god, he was a witness to oaths. Many of his functions were focused on the Capitoline Hill, where the citadel was located and he was the chief deity of the early Capitoline Triad with Mars and Quirinus. In the later Capitoline Triad, he was the guardian of the state with Juno. His sacred tree was the oak, the Romans regarded Jupiter as the equivalent of the Greek Zeus, and in Latin literature and Roman art, the myths and iconography of Zeus are adapted under the name Iuppiter. In the Greek-influenced tradition, Jupiter was the brother of Neptune, each presided over one of the three realms of the universe, sky, the waters, and the underworld. The Italic Diespiter was also a sky god who manifested himself in the daylight, usually, Tinia is usually regarded as his Etruscan counterpart. The Romans believed that Jupiter granted them supremacy because they had honoured him more than any other people had, Jupiter was the fount of the auspices upon which the relationship of the city with the gods rested. He personified the divine authority of Romes highest offices, internal organization and his image in the Republican and Imperial Capitol bore regalia associated with Romes ancient kings and the highest consular and Imperial honours. The consuls swore their oath of office in Jupiters name, to thank him for his help, they offered him a white ox with gilded horns. A similar offering was made by generals, who surrendered the tokens of their victory at the feet of Jupiters statue in the Capitol. Some scholars have viewed the triumphator as embodying Jupiter in the triumphal procession, Jupiters association with kingship and sovereignty was reinterpreted as Romes form of government changed. Originally, Rome was ruled by kings, after the monarchy was abolished and the Republic established, religious prerogatives were transferred to the patres, nostalgia for the kingship was considered treasonous. Those suspected of harbouring monarchical ambitions were punished, regardless of their service to the state, in the 5th century BC, the triumphator Camillus was sent into exile after he drove a chariot with a team of four white horses —an honour reserved for Jupiter himself. His house on the Capitoline Hill was razed, and it was decreed that no patrician should ever be allowed to live there, during the Conflict of the Orders, Romes plebeians demanded the right to hold political and religious office
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Temple Mount
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The Temple Mount, known to Muslims as the Haram esh-Sharif, a hill located in the Old City of Jerusalem, is one of the most important religious sites in the world. It has been venerated as a site for thousands of years by Judaism, Christianity. The present site is dominated by three monumental structures from the early Umayyad period, the al-Aqsa Mosque, the Dome of the Rock, Herodian walls and gates with additions dating back to the late Byzantine and early Islamic periods cut through the flanks of the Mount. Currently it can be reached through eleven gates, ten reserved for Muslims and one for non-Muslims, the Temple Mount is the holiest site in Judaism, which regards it as the place where Gods divine presence is manifested more than in any other place. According to the rabbinic sages whose debates produced the Talmud, it was here the world expanded into its present form. Several passages in the Hebrew Bible indicate that during the time when they were written, the Temple Mount was identified as Mount Zion. The Mount Zion mentioned in the parts of the Book of Isaiah, in the Book of Psalms. The name later migrated for a last time, this time to Jerusalems Western Hill, according to the Bible, both Jewish Temples stood at the Temple Mount, though archaeological evidence only exists for the Second Temple. However, the identification of Solomons Temple with the area of the Temple Mount is widespread, according to the Bible the site should function as the center of all national life—a governmental, judicial and religious center. During the Second Temple period it functioned also as an economic center, according to Jewish tradition and scripture, the First Temple was built by King Solomon the son of King David in 957 BCE and destroyed by the Babylonians in 586 BCE. The second was constructed under the auspices of Zerubbabel in 516 BCE, in the 2nd century, the site was used for a temple to Jupiter Capitolinus. It was redeveloped following the Arab conquest, Jewish tradition maintains it is here a Third and final Temple will also be built. The location is the holiest site in Judaism and is the place Jews turn towards during prayer and it was from the Holy of Holies that the High Priest communicated directly with God. The Temple was of importance in Jewish worship, in the Tanakh. In the New Testament it remains the site of events in the life of Jesus. It was to end, proof of a biblical prophecy fulfilled and of Christianitys victory over Judaism with the New Covenant. Among Sunni Muslims, the Mount is widely considered the third holiest site in Islam, revered as the Noble Sanctuary, the location of Muhammads journey to Jerusalem and ascent to heaven, the site is also associated with Jewish biblical prophets who are also venerated in Islam. Muslims preferred to the esplanade as the heart for the Muslim quarter since it had abandoned by Christians
29.
Church Fathers
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The Church Fathers, Early Church Fathers, Christian Fathers, or Fathers of the Church are ancient and generally influential Christian theologians, some of whom were eminent teachers and great bishops. The era of these scholars who set the theological and scholarly foundations of Christianity largely ended by 700 AD, the earliest Church Fathers, are usually called the Apostolic Fathers since tradition describes them as having been taught by the twelve. Important Apostolic Fathers include Clement of Rome, Ignatius of Antioch, Polycarp of Smyrna and his epistle,1 Clement, was copied and widely read in the Early Church. Clement calls on the Christians of Corinth to maintain harmony and order and it is the earliest Christian epistle aside from the New Testament. Ignatius of Antioch was the bishop or Patriarch of Antioch. En route to his martyrdom in Rome, Ignatius wrote a series of letters which have been preserved, important topics addressed in these letters include ecclesiology, the sacraments, the role of bishops, and the Incarnation of Christ. He is the second after Clement to mention Pauls epistles, Polycarp of Smyrna was a Christian bishop of Smyrna. It is recorded that he had been a disciple of John, the options for this John are John, the son of Zebedee, traditionally viewed as the author of the Gospel of John, or John the Presbyter. Traditional advocates follow Eusebius in insisting that the connection of Polycarp was with John the Evangelist, and that he was the author of the Gospel of John. Polycarp tried and failed to persuade Pope Anicetus to have the West celebrate Passover on 14 Nisan, around 155, the Smyrnans demanded Polycarps execution as a Christian, and he died a martyr. Polycarp is recognized as a saint in both the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches, very little is known of Papias apart from what can be inferred from his own writings. He is described as an ancient man who was a hearer of John, Eusebius adds that Papias was Bishop of Hierapolis around the time of Ignatius of Antioch. In this office Papias was presumably succeeded by Abercius of Hierapolis, the name Papias was very common in the region, suggesting that he was probably a native of the area. The work of Papias is dated by most modern scholars to about 95–120. Despite indications that the work of Papias was still extant in the late Middle Ages, extracts, however, appear in a number of other writings, some of which cite a book number Those who wrote in Greek are called the Greek Fathers. Justin Martyr is regarded as the foremost interpreter of the theory of the Logos in the 2nd century, Irenaeus was bishop of Lugdunum in Gaul, which is now Lyon, France. His writings were formative in the development of Christian theology. He was a notable early Christian apologist and he was also a disciple of Polycarp. His best-known book, Against Heresies enumerated heresies and attacked them, Irenaeus wrote that the only way for Christians to retain unity was to humbly accept one doctrinal authority—episcopal councils
30.
Roman governor
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A Roman governor was an official either elected or appointed to be the chief administrator of Roman law throughout one or more of the many provinces constituting the Roman Empire. A Roman governor is also known as a propraetor or proconsul, by the time of the early empire, there were two types of provinces — senatorial and imperial — and several types of governor would emerge. Only proconsuls and propraetors fell under the classification of promagistrate, aside from these financial duties, the governor was the provinces chief judge. The governor had the right to impose capital punishment. To appeal a governors decision necessitated travelling to Rome and presenting ones case before either the Praetor Urbanus, or even the Emperor himself, an expensive, and thus rare, process. An appeal was unlikely to succeed anyway, as a governor wouldn’t generally take the chance of convicting someone contrary to the Emperors wishes, the governor was also supposed to travel across his province to administer justice in the major towns where his attention was required. Finally, and most importantly, he commanded the forces within the province. In the more important provinces, this could consist of legions, as a part of his standing orders the governor had the authority to use his legions to stamp out organized criminal gangs or rebels in the area without need for the Emperors or Senates approval. Every governor had at his disposal a diversity of advisors and staff, who were known as his comites and these comites would serve as the governors executive council, with each supervising a different aspect of the province, and assisting the governor in decision making. In other provinces, governors themselves appointed non-magistrate prefects or procurators to govern a part of the province. During the era of the Roman Republic, the council was in charge of appointing governors to Romes provinces, the governors level of authority was determined by what type of imperium he possessed. Most provinces were governed by propraetors who had served a term in the praetorship the year before. Provinces that lay on the borders, thereby requiring a permanent military garrison, were governed by proconsuls who had served a term as consul the year before their governorship. They were given the authority to command provinces with actual Roman legions and these promagistrates held equality with other magistrates with the same level of imperium and were attended by the same number of lictors. Generally speaking, they had power within their provinces. In imperial provinces, the Emperor would appoint legates to govern in his name, the principate did not totally do away with the system of selecting proconsuls and propraetors. In provinces with one legion, a legate bearing praetorian imperium, thus being a propraetor, not only governed the province in the Emperor’s name, appointment to these governorships was completely at the whim of the Emperor and could last anywhere from 1 to 5 years. While the Emperor had sole authority in provinces with legions, senatorial provinces were provinces where the Senate had the right to appoint governors
31.
Modi'in
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Modiin-Maccabim-Reut is an Israeli city located in central Israel, about 35 kilometres southeast of Tel Aviv and 30 kilometres west of Jerusalem, and is connected to those two cities via Highway 443. In 2015 the population was 88,749, the name Modiin derives from the village Modiim of the high priest Mattathias and his five sons, which was located in the same area as the modern city. The name Maccabim is Hebrew for the Maccabees and is a nickname given to Mattathias. In Ancient Israel, a town named Modiin existed in the area the modern city is located in. It was the place of origin of the Jewish Hasmonean dynasty that ruled Judea in the 1st and 2nd centuries BCE, Ancient Jewish artifacts believed to date to the Hasmonean and First Temple periods have been found in the area. Modern Modiin is located near the site of the ancient Modiin described in the Talmud, possibilities are Suba, Umm el-Umdan near Route 20 to Canada Park and Latrun, al-Midya, and Khirbet el-Burj. The towns were united into Maccabim-Reut in 1990, the cornerstone of Modiin was laid in 1993. It was built as a planned city with high standards of urban planning. Environmental issues and future growth were taken into consideration from the design stages. Large greenspaces were incorporated into the layout and comprise 50% of the area within the city limits. The city was opened for residency in 1996, in 2003, the Israeli Interior Ministry unified the Modiin and Maccabim-Reut into a single city. Modiin has become a magnet for Jerusalem residents displeased with the capitals growing Haredi character, thousands of residents of Rosh HaAyin, Lod, and Ramla have also relocated to Modiin. In 2008, it was decided to cap the growth of Modiin to allow for the development of Lod, the city was planned by the well-known architect Moshe Safdie. Modiin has attracted a community of Olim from English speaking countries. The original city of Modiin is laid out around a central hub, each side of the artery is a one-way street, and in between is a wide green space, with linear parks, playgrounds, schools, and some small commercial centers. Short lateral stubs fed by continuous-flow intersection turn lanes allow drivers to traverse the green spaces and these stubs also serve as the entranceways for the schools and mini-malls, preventing parking traffic from blocking the high-speed, left lanes of the arteries. The right shoulders of most arteries do, however, allow parking, except in the pullouts for bus stops, next to fire hydrants, the city center is a large traffic circle punctuated by traffic lights. The traffic circle straddles a major northeast-southwest artery, HaHashmonaim Blvd and this keeps most of the commercial traffic out of the city proper, so that the two arteries between the city and its industrial zone carry primarily commuters rather than trucks
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Roman Syria
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Syria was an early Roman province, annexed to the Roman Republic in 64 BC by Pompey in the Third Mithridatic War, following the defeat of Armenian King Tigranes the Great. Following the partition of the Herodian Kingdom into tetrarchies in 6 AD, it was absorbed into Roman provinces, with Roman Syria annexing Iturea. Later, in 135 AD, in the aftermath of the Bar Kokhba revolt, Syrian province was merged with Judea province, one province During the early empire, the Roman army in Syria accounted for three legions with auxiliaries, they defended the border with Parthia. Syrian province forces were engaged in the Great Jewish Revolt of 66–70 AD. In 66 AD, Cestius Gallus, the legate of Syria, brought the Syrian army, based on XII Fulminata, reinforced by troops, to restore order in Judaea. The legion, however, was ambushed and destroyed by Jewish rebels at the Battle of Beth Horon, the future emperor Vespasian was put in charge of subduing the Jewish revolt. In the summer of 69, Vespasian, with the Syrian units supporting him, the governor of Syria retained the civil administration of the whole large province undiminished, and held for long alone in all Asia a command of the first rank. It was Severus who at length withdrew the first place in the Roman military hierarchy from the Syrian governor, the emperor Septimius Severus divided up Roman Syria in the fashion it would remain until the rule of the Tetrarchs. From the later 2nd century, the Roman senate included several notable Syrians, Syria was of crucial strategic importance during the crisis of the third century. In 244 AD, Rome was ruled by a native Syrian from Philippopolis in the province of Arabia Petraea, the emperor was Marcus Iulius Philippus, more commonly known as Philip the Arab. Philip became the 33rd emperor of Rome upon its millennial celebration, in 259/260 a similar event happened when Shapur I again defeated a Roman field army and captured the Roman emperor, Valerian, alive at the battle of Edessa. Again Roman Syria suffered as cities were captured, sacked and pillaged, from 268 to 273, Syria was part of the breakaway Palmyrene Empire. Following the reforms of Diocletian, Syria Coele became part of the Diocese of Oriens, after c.415 Syria Coele was further subdivided into Syria I, with the capital remaining at Antioch, and Syria II or Syria Salutaris, with capital at Apamea on the Orontes. In 528, Justinian I carved out the coastal province Theodorias out of territory from both provinces. The region remained one of the most important provinces of the Byzantine Empire and it was occupied by the Sassanids between 609 and 628, then recovered by the emperor Heraclius, but lost again to the advancing Muslims after the battle of Yarmouk and the fall of Antioch. The city of Antioch was recovered in 963 AD along with other parts of the country. A reconquest undertaken by the Fatimad caliphate in the 970s retook most parts of Syria from the Byzantines, however, the Byzantine emperor Basil II reconquered all of Syria from Muslims by 1000 AD. Frequent rebellions, however, weakened Byzantine control over Syria, by 1045 only the city of Antioch remained Byzantine
33.
Egypt (Roman province)
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The province encompassed most of modern-day Egypt except for the Sinai Peninsula. Aegyptus was bordered by the provinces of Creta et Cyrenaica to the West, the province came to serve as a major producer of grain for the empire and had a highly developed urban economy. Aegyptus was by far the wealthiest Eastern Roman province, in Alexandria, its capital, it possessed the largest port, and the second largest city, of the Roman Empire. As a province, Egypt was ruled by a uniquely styled Augustal prefect, the prefect was a man of equestrian rank and was appointed by the Emperor. The second prefect, Aelius Gallus, made an expedition to conquer Arabia Petraea. The Red Sea coast of Aegyptus was not brought under Roman control until the reign of Claudius, the third prefect, Gaius Petronius, cleared the neglected canals for irrigation, stimulating a revival of agriculture. Petronius even led a campaign into present-day central Sudan against the Kingdom of Kush at Meroe, failing to acquire permanent gains, in 22 BC he razed the city of Napata to the ground and retreated to the north. From the reign of Nero onward, Aegyptus enjoyed an era of prosperity which lasted a century, under Trajan a Jewish revolt occurred, resulting in the suppression of the Jews of Alexandria and the loss of all their privileges, although they soon returned. Hadrian, who twice visited Aegyptus, founded Antinoöpolis in memory of his drowned lover Antinous, from his reign onward buildings in the Greco-Roman style were erected throughout the country. Under Antoninus Pius oppressive taxation led to a revolt in 139, of the native Egyptians and this Bucolic War, led by one Isidorus, caused great damage to the economy and marked the beginning of Egypts economic decline. Avidius Cassius, who led the Roman forces in the war, declared emperor in 175. On the approach of Marcus Aurelius, Cassius was deposed and killed, a similar revolt broke out in 193, when Pescennius Niger was proclaimed emperor on the death of Pertinax. The Emperor Septimius Severus gave a constitution to Alexandria and the capitals in 202. There was a series of revolts, both military and civilian, through the 3rd century, under Decius, in 250, the Christians again suffered from persecution, but their religion continued to spread. This warrior queen claimed that Egypt was a home of hers through a familial tie to Cleopatra VII. She was well educated and familiar with the culture of Egypt, its religion, two generals based in Aegyptus, Probus and Domitius Domitianus, led successful revolts and made themselves emperors. Diocletian captured Alexandria from Domitius in 298 and reorganised the whole province and his edict of 303 against the Christians began a new era of persecution. This was the last serious attempt to stem the growth of Christianity in Egypt
34.
Arabia Petraea
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It was bordered on the north by Syria, on the west by Iudaea and Aegyptus, and on the south and east by the rest of Arabia, known as Arabia Deserta and Arabia Felix. It produced no usurpers and no emperors, as a frontier province, it included a desert populated by the nomadic Saraceni, and bordering the Parthian hinterland. The geographic makeup of Arabia has some variation, inhospitability is the norm, though, and along with the desert proper that is the Sinai, the arid Negev, which extends north of the Sinai, is practically such. Along with this are the areas around the Red Sea, the badlands known as Hismā that develop to the north of that coast. Most of Arabia was sparsely populated, and its cities can be concentrated to the north. The only major port is Aqaba, which can be found at the tip of a wide gulf from the Red Sea bearing the same name. Petra served as the base for Legio III Cyrenaica, and the governor of the province would spend time in both cities, issuing edicts from both. Upon annexation of the province, Bostra gained the appellative “Traiane” when Trajan declared it the capital while Hadrian performed the ceremonial act for Petra when he became emperor. Before Roman control, the area was ruled by Rabbel II, last king of the Nabataeans until 106 AD. When Rabbel II, who had ruled since 70 AD, died, the Third Cyrenaica legion moved north from Egypt into Petra, while the Sixth Ferrata legion, the conquest of Arabia was not officially celebrated until completion of the Via Nova Traiana. This road extended down the center of the province from Bostra to Aqaba and it isn’t until the project is finished that coins, featuring Trajan’s bust on the obverse and a camel on the reverse, appear commemorating the acquisition of Arabia. These coins are minted until 115, at time the Roman imperial focus was turning farther eastward. With Roman conquest came the imposition of Latin and Greek in official discourse, after the conquest, though, Greek was adopted popularly, as well as officially, practically supplanting Nabataean and Aramaic, as evidenced by inscriptions at Umm al Quttain. The occurrence of Latin in the province was rare and limited to cases as the tomb inscription of T. Aninius Sextius Florentinus, governor in 127. Millar makes a case for a Graeco-Roman Hellenization in Arabia and it is an area, after all, that was not significantly hellenized during the rule of Alexander, and the locals originally spoke Aramaic and Nabataean, not Greek. Arabia acclimates to the new culture so fully that it seems the original linguistic groups faded away, there were scattered Nabataean inscriptions during the period of imperial Roman rule. Arabia responded similarly when the governor of Syria, Pescennius Niger, in addition, the governor of Arabia, P. Aelius Severianus Maximus, was allowed to continue in his post in reward for his loyalty. Syria was later split into two and Arabia was expanded to include the Leja’ and Jebel Drūz, rough terrain south of Damascus, Severus had enlarged a province that was already huge
35.
Roman emperor
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The Roman emperor was the ruler of the Roman Empire during the imperial period. The emperors used a variety of different titles throughout history, often when a given Roman is described as becoming emperor in English, it reflects his taking of the title Augustus or Caesar. Another title often used was imperator, originally a military honorific, early Emperors also used the title princeps. Emperors frequently amassed republican titles, notably Princeps Senatus, Consul, the first emperors reigned alone, later emperors would sometimes rule with co-Emperors and divide administration of the Empire between them. The Romans considered the office of emperor to be distinct from that of a king, the first emperor, Augustus, resolutely refused recognition as a monarch. Although Augustus could claim that his power was authentically republican, his successor, Tiberius, nonetheless, for the first three hundred years of Roman Emperors, from Augustus until Diocletian, a great effort was made to emphasize that the Emperors were the leaders of a Republic. Elements of the Republican institutional framework were preserved until the end of the Western Empire. The Eastern emperors ultimately adopted the title of Basileus, which had meant king in Greek, but became a title reserved solely for the Roman emperor, other kings were then referred to as rēgas. In addition to their office, some emperors were given divine status after death. The Western Roman Empire collapsed in the late 5th century, Romulus Augustulus is often considered to be the last emperor of the west after his forced abdication in 476, although Julius Nepos maintained a claim to the title until his death in 480. Constantine XI was the last Byzantine Roman emperor in Constantinople, dying in the Fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453, a Byzantine group of claimant Roman Emperors existed in the Empire of Trebizond until its conquest by the Ottomans in 1461. In western Europe the title of Roman Emperor was revived by Germanic rulers, the Holy Roman Emperors, in 800, at the end of the Roman Republic no new, and certainly no single, title indicated the individual who held supreme power. Insofar as emperor could be seen as the English translation of imperator, then Julius Caesar had been an emperor, however, Julius Caesar, unlike those after him, did so without the Senates vote and approval. Julius Caesar held the Republican offices of four times and dictator five times, was appointed dictator in perpetuity in 45 BC and had been pontifex maximus for a long period. He gained these positions by senatorial consent, by the time of his assassination, he was the most powerful man in the Roman world. In his will, Caesar appointed his adopted son Octavian as his heir, a decade after Caesars death, Octavians victory over his erstwhile ally Mark Antony at Actium put an end to any effective opposition and confirmed Octavians supremacy. His restoration of powers to the Senate and the people of Rome was a demonstration of his auctoritas, some later historians such as Tacitus would say that even at Augustus death, the true restoration of the Republic might have been possible. Instead, Augustus actively prepared his adopted son Tiberius to be his successor, the Senate disputed the issue but eventually confirmed Tiberius as princeps
36.
Roman legion
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A Roman legion was the largest unit of the Roman army involving from 3000 men in early times to over 5200 men in imperial times, consisting of centuries as the basic units. Until the middle of the first century,10 cohorts made up a Roman Legion and this was later changed to nine cohorts of standard size and one cohort, the first cohort, of double strength. In the early Roman Kingdom the legion may have meant the entire Roman army but sources on this period are few, Legions also included a small ala or cavalry unit. By the third century AD, the legion was a smaller unit of about 1,000 to 1,500 men. In the fourth century AD, East Roman border guard legions may have even smaller. The Roman army, for most of the Imperial period, consisted mostly of auxiliaries rather than legions, because legions were not permanent units until the Marian reforms, and were instead created, used, and disbanded again, several hundred legions were named and numbered throughout Roman history. To date, about 50 have been identified, toward the end of the 2nd Century BC, Rome started to experience manpower shortages brought about by property and financial qualifications to join the army. In the time of Augustus, there were nearly 50 upon his succession but this was reduced to about 25–35 permanent standing legions, a legion consisted of several cohorts of heavy infantry known as legionaries. The recruitment of non-citizens was rare but appears to have occurred in times of great need, For example, Caesar appears to have recruited the Legio V Alaudae mostly from non-citizen Gauls. In the period before the raising of the legio and the years of the Roman Kingdom. These centuries were grouped together as required and answered to the leader who had hired or raised them, the roles of century leader, second in command and standard bearer are referenced in this early period. Much Roman history of the era is shrouded in legend, but it is believed that during the reign of Servius Tullius, the census was introduced. Joining the army was both a duty and a mark of Roman citizenship, during the entire pre-Marian period the wealthiest land owners performed the most years of military service. These individuals would have had the most to lose should the state have fallen. The first and wealthiest common class was armed in the fashion of the hoplite with spear, sword, helmet, breast plate and round shield, there were 82 centuries of these, Roman soldiers had to purchase their own equipment. The second and third class also acted as spearmen but were heavily armoured and carried a larger oval or rectangular shield. The fourth class could afford no armour, perhaps bearing a shield and armed with spear. All three of the latter made up about 26 centuries
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