1.
ISO 4217
–
The ISO4217 code list is used in banking and business globally. ISO4217 codes are used on tickets and international train tickets to remove any ambiguity about the price. The first two letters of the code are the two letters of the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country codes and the third is usually the initial of the currency itself, so Japans currency code is JPY—JP for Japan and Y for yen. This eliminates the problem caused by the dollar, franc, peso and pound being used in dozens of different countries. Also, if a currency is revalued, the currency codes last letter is changed to distinguish it from the old currency. Other changes can be seen, however, the Russian ruble, for example, changed from RUR to RUB and these currency units are denominated as one troy ounce of the specified metal as opposed to USD1 or EUR1. The code XTS is reserved for use in testing, the code XXX is used to denote a transaction involving no currency. There are also codes specifying certain monetary instruments used in international finance, the codes for most supranational currencies, such as the East Caribbean dollar, the CFP franc, the CFA franc BEAC and the CFA franc BCEAO. The predecessor to the euro, the European Currency Unit, had the code XEU, the use of an initial letter X for these purposes is facilitated by the ISO3166 rule that no official country code beginning with X will ever be assigned. Because of this rule ISO4217 can use X codes without risk of clashing with a country code. ISO3166 country codes beginning with X are used for private custom use, consequently, ISO4217 can use X codes for non-country-specific currencies without risk of clashing with future country codes. The inclusion of EU in the ISO 3166-1 reserved codes list, the ISO4217 standard includes a crude mechanism for expressing the relationship between a major currency unit and its corresponding minor currency unit. This mechanism is called the exponent and assumes a base of 10. For example, USD is equal to 100 of its currency unit the cent. So the USD has exponent 2, the code JPY is given the exponent 0, because its minor unit, the sen, although nominally valued at 1/100 of a yen, is of such negligible value that it is no longer used. Usually, as with the USD, the currency unit has a value that is 1/100 of the major unit, but in some cases 1/1000 is used. Mauritania does not use a decimal division of units, setting 1 ouguiya equal to 5 khoums, some currencies do not have any minor currency unit at all and these are given an exponent of 0, as with currencies whose minor units are unused due to negligible value. There is also a code number assigned to each currency
2.
Cent (currency)
–
In many national currencies, the cent, commonly represented by the cent sign is a monetary unit that equals 1⁄100 of the basic monetary unit. Etymologically, the word cent derives from the Latin word centum meaning hundred, cent also refers to a coin worth one cent. In the United States and Canada, the 1¢ coin is known by the nickname penny, alluding to the British coin. In Ireland the 1c coin is sometimes known as a penny in reference to the Irish penny. A cent is commonly represented by the cent sign, a letter c crossed by a diagonal stroke or a vertical line, ¢, or a simple c. Cent amounts from 1 cent to 99 cents can be represented as one or two digits followed by the abbreviation, or as a subdivision of the base unit. The cent sign has not survived the changeover from typewriters to computer keyboards, for the US International keyboard, <Right Alt> <Shift> c. On Macintosh systems, hold ⌥ Option and press 4 on the number row, on Unix/Linux systems with a compose key, Compose+|+C is a typical sequence. The cent sign has Unicode code point, U+00A2 ¢ cent sign, usage of the cent symbol varies from one currency to another. In the United States, Canada and Mexico, the usage ¢ is more common, while in Australia, New Zealand and the eurozone, in South Africa and Ireland, only the c is used. When written in English, the cent sign follows the amount, in contrast with a currency symbol. For example, 2¢ and $0.02, or 2c, greek coins have ΛΕΠΤΟ on the obverse of the one-cent coin and ΛΕΠΤΑ on the obverse of the others. Actual usage varies depending on language, South Korean Won no fractional denomination in circulation, formerly divided into 100 jeon
3.
Currency symbol
–
A currency symbol is a graphic symbol used as a shorthand for a currencys name, especially in reference to amounts of money. The European Commission considers the global recognition of the euro sign € part of its success, in 2009, India launched a public competition to replace the ₨ ligature it shared with neighbouring countries. It finalised its new symbol, ₹ on 15 July 2010. It is a blend of the Latin letter R with the Devanagari letter र, when writing currency amounts the location of the symbol varies by currency. Many currencies in the English-speaking world and Latin America, place it before the amount, the Cape Verdean escudo places its symbol in the decimal separator position. The usage of many European countries, such as France, Germany, the decimal separator also follows local countries standards. For instance, the United Kingdom often uses an interpunct as the point on price stickers. Commas or decimal points are common separators used in other countries, see decimal separator for information on international standards. Older currency symbols have evolved slowly, often from previous currencies, the dollar and peso symbols originated from the mark employed to denote the Spanish real de a ocho, whereas the pound and lira symbols evolved from an L standing for libra, a Roman pound of silver. Newly invented currencies and currencies adopting new symbols have symbolism closer to their adopter, the added center bar in the real sign is meant to symbolize stability. The new Indian rupee symbol, ₹, is a combination of Latin. There are also considerations, such as the perception of the business community. For a new symbol to be used, software to render it needs to be promulgated, the EU was criticized for not considering how the euro symbol would need to be customized to work in different fonts. The original design was exceptionally wide. These two factors have led to most typefaces employing customized, font-specific versions, usually with reduced width, List of currencies List of circulating currencies Currency Symbols
4.
Barbados
–
Barbados is a sovereign island country in the Lesser Antilles, in the Americas. It is 34 kilometres in length and up to 23 km in width, Barbados is outside of the principal Atlantic hurricane belt. Inhabited by Kalinago people since the 13th century, and prior to that by other Amerindians, Barbados was visited by Spanish navigators in the late 15th century and it first appeared in a Spanish map in 1511. The Portuguese visited the island in 1536, but they left it unclaimed, an English ship, the Olive Blossom, arrived in Barbados in 1625, its men took possession of it in the name of King James I. In 1627, the first permanent settlers arrived from England, and it became an English, in 1966, Barbados became an independent state and Commonwealth realm with the British Monarch as hereditary head of state. It has a population of 280,121 people, predominantly of African descent, despite being classified as an Atlantic island, Barbados is considered to be a part of the Caribbean, where it is ranked as a leading tourist destination. Forty percent of the come from the UK, with the US. In 2014, Transparency Internationals Corruption Perceptions Index ranked Barbados joint second in the Americas, the name Barbados is either the Portuguese word Barbados or the Spanish equivalent los Barbados, both meaning the bearded ones. In 1519, a map produced by the Genoese mapmaker Visconte Maggiolo showed and named Barbados in its correct position, furthermore, the island of Barbuda in the Leewards is very similar in name and was once named Las Barbudas by the Spanish. It is uncertain which European nation arrived first in Barbados, one lesser known source points to earlier-revealed works predating contemporary sources indicating it could have been the Spanish. Others believe the Portuguese, en route to Brazil, were the first Europeans to come upon the island, colloquially Barbadians refer to their home island as Bim or other nicknames associated with Barbados includes Bimshire. The origin is uncertain but several theories exist, the name could have arisen due to the relatively large percentage of enslaved Igbo people from modern-day southeastern Nigeria arriving in Barbados in the 18th century. The words Bim and Bimshire are recorded in the Oxford English Dictionary, another possible source for Bim is reported to be in the Agricultural Reporter of 25 April 1868, where the Rev. N. Greenidge suggested the listing of Bimshire as a county of England. Expressly named were Wiltshire, Hampshire, Berkshire and Bimshire, lastly, in the Daily Argosy of 1652 there is a reference to Bim as a possible corruption of Byam, the name of a Royalist leader against the Parliamentarians. That source suggested the followers of Byam became known as Bims, amerindian settlement of Barbados dates to about the 4th to 7th centuries AD, by a group known as the Saladoid-Barrancoid. In the 13th century, the Kalinago arrived from South America, the Spanish and Portuguese briefly claimed Barbados from the late 16th to the 17th centuries. The Arawaks are believed to have fled to neighbouring islands, apart from possibly displacing the Caribs, the Spanish and Portuguese made little impact and left the island uninhabited. Some Arawaks migrated from British Guiana in the 19th century and continue to live in Barbados, during the Cromwellian era this included a large number of prisoners-of-war, vagrants and people who were illicitly kidnapped, who were forcibly transported to the island and sold as servants
5.
Central bank
–
A central bank, reserve bank, or monetary authority is an institution that manages a states currency, money supply, and interest rates. Central banks also usually oversee the commercial banking system of their respective countries, Central banks in most developed nations are institutionally designed to be independent from political interference. Still, limited control by the executive and legislative bodies usually exists, prior to the 17th century most money was commodity money, typically gold or silver. However, promises to pay were widely circulated and accepted as value at least five hundred years earlier in both Europe and Asia. The Song dynasty was the first to issue generally circulating paper currency, in 1455, in an effort to control inflation, the succeeding Ming Dynasty ended the use of paper money and closed much of Chinese trade. The Bank of Amsterdam, established in the Dutch Republic in 1609, is considered to be the forerunner to modern central banks. The Wisselbanks innovations helped lay the foundations for the birth and development of the banking system that now plays a vital role in the worlds economy. Along with a number of local banks, it performed many functions of a central banking system. Lucien Gillard calls it the European guilder, and Adam Smith devotes many pages to explaining how the bank guilder works, the model of the Wisselbank as a state bank was adapted throughout Europe, including the Bank of Sweden and the Bank of England. Established by Dutch-Latvian Johan Palmstruch in 1668, Sveriges Riksbank is often considered by many as the worlds oldest central bank, the lenders would give the government cash and also issue notes against the government bonds, which could be lent again. A Royal Charter was granted on 27 July through the passage of the Tonnage Act 1694, the bank was given exclusive possession of the governments balances, and was the only limited-liability corporation allowed to issue banknotes. The £1. 2M was raised in 12 days, half of this was used to rebuild the Navy and these modern central banking functions evolved slowly through the 18th and 19th centuries. The currency crisis of 1797, caused by panicked depositors withdrawing from the Bank led to the government suspending convertibility of notes into specie payment. The bank was accused by the bullionists of causing the exchange rate to fall from over issuing banknotes. Nevertheless, it was clear that the Bank was being treated as an organ of the state, henry Thornton, a merchant banker and monetary theorist has been described as the father of the modern central bank. An opponent of the real bills doctrine, he was a defender of the bullionist position, thorntons process of monetary expansion anticipated the theories of Knut Wicksell regarding the cumulative process which restates the Quantity Theory in a theoretically coherent form. Until the mid-nineteenth century, commercial banks were able to issue their own banknotes, many consider the origins of the central bank to lie with the passage of the Bank Charter Act of 1844. Under this law, authorisation to issue new banknotes was restricted to the Bank of England, at the same time, the Bank of England was restricted to issue new banknotes only if they were 100% backed by gold or up to £14 million in government debt
6.
Central Bank of Barbados
–
The Central Bank of Barbados is the national monetary authority responsible for providing advice to government of Barbados on banking and other financial and monetary matters. The Central Bank of Barbados, was established by Act of parliament on 2 May 1972, prior to the establishment of CBB, Barbados monetary policies were governed through its membership in the Eastern Caribbean Currency Authority. The Central Bank operates as the issuing authority for Barbadian currency. The name of the Central Banks building is the Tom Adams Financial Centre, as part of the complex, there is a 491-seat theatre/auditorium known as the Frank Collymore Hall. The building was constructed between 1982 and 1986 and it was opened September 18th 1986, the Global Competitiveness Report for 2008-09 ranked the soundness of Barbadoss commercial banks as 21st out of 134 global jurisdictions assessed. At its inception the Central Bank of Barbados had certain objectives, the Barbadian economy is reviewed regularly by several notable Wall Street investment firms including, PricewaterhouseCoopers, Standard & Poors, and Moodys. The head of the Central Bank is the Governor, who is appointed by the Banks Board of Directors, the current Governor of the Central Bank of Barbados is Dr Delisle Worrell as of November 2009
7.
Fixed exchange-rate system
–
There are benefits and risks to using a fixed exchange rate. In doing so, the rate between the currency and its peg does not change based on market conditions, the way floating currencies do. A fixed exchange-rate system can also be used as a means to control the behavior of a currency, however, in doing so, the pegged currency is then controlled by its reference value. In other words, a currency is dependent on its reference value to dictate how its current worth is defined at any given time. The central bank provides the assets and/or the foreign currency or currencies which are needed in order to any payments imbalances. In the 21st century, the associated with large economies typically do not fix or peg exchange rates to other currencies. The last large economy to use a fixed exchange system was the Peoples Republic of China which, in July 2005. The European Exchange Rate Mechanism is also used on a basis to establish a final conversion rate against the Euro from the local currencies of countries joining the Eurozone. The gold standard or gold standard of fixed exchange rates prevailed from about 1870 to 1914. The period between the two wars was transitory, with the Bretton Woods system emerging as the new fixed exchange rate regime in the aftermath of World War II. It was formed with an intent to rebuild war-ravaged nations after World War II through a series of currency stabilization programs, the early 1970s saw the breakdown of the system and its replacement by a mixture of fluctuating and fixed exchange rates. Timeline of the exchange rate system, The earliest establishment of a gold standard was in the United Kingdom in 1821 followed by Australia in 1852. Under this system, the value of all currencies was denominated in terms of gold with central banks ready to buy. Each central bank maintained gold reserves as their official reserve asset, for example, during the “classical” gold standard period, the U. S. dollar was defined as 0.048 troy oz. of pure gold. Following the Second World War, the Bretton Woods system replaced gold with the U. S. dollar as the reserve asset. The regime intended to combine binding legal obligations with multilateral decision-making through the International Monetary Fund, the rules of this system were set forth in the articles of agreement of the IMF and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development. S. Dollar and to exchange rates within 1% of parity by intervening in their foreign exchange markets. In December 1971, the Smithsonian Agreement paved the way for the increase in the value of the price of gold from US$35.50 to US$38 an ounce
8.
United States dollar
–
The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common
9.
Standard & Poor's
–
Standard & Poors Financial Services LLC is an American financial services company. It is a division of S&P Global that publishes research and analysis on stocks, bonds. S&P is known for its stock market such as the U. S. -based S&P500, the Canadian S&P/TSX. S&P is considered one of the Big Three credit-rating agencies, which also include Moodys Investors Service and its head office is located on 55 Water Street in Lower Manhattan, New York City. The company traces its history back to 1860, with the publication by Henry Varnum Poor of History of Railroads and this book compiled comprehensive information about the financial and operational state of U. S. railroad companies. In 1868, Henry Varnum Poor established H. V. and H. W, Poor Co. with his son, Henry William Poor, and published two annually updated hardback guidebooks, Poors Manual of the Railroads of the United States and Poors Directory of Railway Officials. In 1906, Luther Lee Blake founded the Standard Statistics Bureau, instead of an annually published book, Standard Statistics would use 5 ×7 cards, allowing for more frequent updates. In 1941, Poors Publishing and Standard Statistics merged to become Standard & Poors Corp, in 1966, the company was acquired by The McGraw-Hill Companies, extending McGraw-Hill into the field of financial information services. As a credit-rating agency, the company issues credit ratings for the debt of public and private companies and it is one of several CRAs that have been designated a nationally recognized statistical rating organization by the U. S. Securities and Exchange Commission. S&P issues both short-term and long-term credit ratings, below is a partial list, see S&Ps website for more information. The company rates borrowers on a scale from AAA to D, intermediate ratings are offered at each level between AA and CCC. For some borrowers, the company may also offer guidance as to whether it is likely to be upgraded, downgraded or uncertain, investment Grade AAA, An obligor rated AAA has extremely strong capacity to meet its financial commitments. AAA is the highest issuer credit rating assigned by Standard & Poors, AA, An obligor rated AA has very strong capacity to meet its financial commitments. It differs from the highest-rated obligors only to a small degree, a+, equivalent to A1 A, equivalent to A2 BBB, An obligor rated BBB has adequate capacity to meet its financial commitments. However, adverse conditions or changing circumstances are more likely to lead to a weakened capacity of the obligor to meet its financial commitments. Non-Investment Grade BB, An obligor rated BB is less vulnerable in the term than other lower-rated obligors. B, An obligor rated B is more vulnerable than the obligors rated BB, adverse business, financial, or economic conditions will likely impair the obligors capacity or willingness to meet its financial commitments. CCC, An obligor rated CCC is currently vulnerable, and is dependent upon favorable business, financial, CC, An obligor rated CC is currently highly vulnerable
10.
Eastern Caribbean
–
It also performs the role of spreading responsibility and liability in the event of natural disaster, such as a hurricane. The main organ of the OECS, the Commission, is based in the city of Castries. The OECS was created on 18 June 1981, with the Treaty of Basseterre, the OECS is the successor of the Leewards Islands political organisation known as the West Indies Associated States. One prominent aspect of the modern day OECS economic bloc has been the accelerated pace of integration among its member states. All of the members-states of the OECS are either Full or Associate members of the Caribbean Community and were among the second batch of countries that joined the CARICOM Single Market, Martinique is currently negotiating to become an associate member of the Caribbean Community as well. The OECS currently has ten members, spread across the Eastern Caribbean, together, they form a near-continuous archipelago across the Leeward Islands and Windward Islands. The two most geographically isolated members, Anguilla and the British Virgin Islands, have associate membership of the organisation. As a result, diplomatic missions of the OECS do not represent these two states, nor do OECS diplomatic missions represent Martinique, the third associate member. For the purposes of discussing the membership, they are treated as equals of the full members. Six of the members were formerly colonies of the United Kingdom, three others, Anguilla, the British Virgin Islands, and Montserrat remain overseas territories of the UK while Martinique continues to be an overseas department and region of France. Eight of the ten members consider Queen Elizabeth II to be sovereign, as well, the Queens likeness appears on the East Caribbean dollars coins and banknotes. All seven full members are also the members of the OECS. The British Virgin Islands was the first associate member, joining on 22 November 1984 and Anguilla was the second, on 1 February 2015, it was announced that Martinique would become a new associate member of the OECS on 4 February 2015. The occasion will be marked by a ceremony in Martiniques capital. It also follows the unanimous vote in favour of Martiniques associate membership of the OECS in Martiniques Regional Assembly in November 2013, OECS Director General, Dr. Martinique officially acceded as an associate member on 4 February 2015. Didacus Jules, Director General of OECS, said that the OECS was fortunate that Martinique is now an Associate Member, the table lists full members in alphabetical order and associate members in chronological order of their joining the OECS. Although almost all of the current full and associate members are past or present British dependencies, the first was the United States Virgin Islands, which applied for associate membership in February 1990 and requested that US Federal Government allow the territory to participate as such. At that time, it was felt by the US government that it was not a time to make such a request
11.
Spanish dollar
–
Its purpose was to correspond to the German thaler. The Spanish dollar was used by many countries as the first international currency because of its uniformity in standard. Some countries countersigned the Spanish dollar so it could be used as their local currency, the Spanish dollar was the coin upon which the original United States dollar was based, and it remained legal tender in the United States until the Coinage Act of 1857. Because it was used in Europe, the Americas. Diverse theories link the origin of the $ symbol to the columns, millions of Spanish dollars were minted over the course of several centuries. They were among the most widely circulating coins of the period in the Americas. In the 16th century, Count Hieronymus Schlick of Bohemia began minting coins known as Joachimsthalers, named for Joachimsthal, the Joachimsthalers weighed 451 Troy grains of silver. So successful were these coins that similar thalers were minted in Burgundy, the Burgundian Cross Thaler depicted the Cross of Burgundy and was prevalent in the Burgundian Netherlands that were revolting against the Spanish king and Duke of Burgundy Philip II. After 1575, the Dutch revolting provinces replaced the currency with a daalder depicting a lion, specifically to facilitate export trade, the leeuwendaalder was authorized to contain 427.16 grains of.750 fine silver, lighter than the large denomination coins then in circulation. Clearly it was advantageous for a Dutch merchant to pay a foreign debt in leeuwendaalders rather than in other heavier. Thus, the leeuwendaalder or lion dollar became the coin of choice for foreign trade and it became popular in the Middle East, and colonies in the east and west. They also circulated throughout the English colonies during the Seventeenth and early Eighteenth centuries, from New Netherland the lion dollar spread to all thirteen colonies in the west. After the introduction of the Guldengroschen in Austria in 1486, the concept of a silver coin with high purity eventually spread throughout the rest of Europe. Monetary reform in Spain brought about the introduction of an 8-real coin in 1497, in 1537 the Spanish escudo gold coin was introduced, which was worth 16 reales. The later Gold Doubloon was worth 32 reales or 2 escudos and it is this divisibility into 8 which caused the silver coins to be named pieces of eight. In the following centuries, the coin was minted with different designs at various mints in Spain. In the 19th century, the denomination was changed to 20 reales. Spains adoption of the peseta in 1869 and its joining the Latin Monetary Union meant the end of the last vestiges of the Spanish dollar in Spain itself
12.
Mexican peso
–
The Mexican peso is the currency of Mexico. Modern peso and dollar currencies have a origin in the 15th–19th century Spanish dollar, most continuing to use its sign. The Mexican peso is the 8th most traded currency in the world, the third most traded currency originating from the Americas, the current ISO4217 code for the peso is MXN, prior to the 1993 revaluation, the code MXP was used. The peso is subdivided into 100 centavos, represented by ¢, as of March 31,2017, the pesos exchange rate was $19.94 per Euro and $18.71 per U. S. dollar. The name was used in reference to pesos oro or pesos plata. The Spanish word peso means weight, the peso was originally the name of the eight-real coins issued in Mexico by Spain. These were the so-called Spanish dollars or pieces of eight in wide circulation in the Americas, in 1863, the first issue was made of coins denominated in centavos, worth one hundredth of the peso. This was followed in 1866 by coins denominated one peso, coins denominated in reales continued to be issued until 1897. In 1905, the content of the peso was reduced by 49. 3%. However, from 1918 onward, the weight and fineness of all the coins declined, until 1977. On January 1,1993 the Bank of Mexico introduced a new currency, one new peso, or N$1.00, was equal to 1000 of the obsolete MXP pesos. The ISO4217 code, however, remained unchanged as MXN, thanks to the stability of the Mexican economy and the growth in foreign investment, the Mexican peso is now among the 15 most traded currency units in recent years. The first coins of the currency were 1 centavo pieces minted in 1863. Emperor Maximilian, ruler of the Second Mexican Empire from 1864–1867 and his portrait was on the obverse, with the legend Maximiliano Emperador, the reverse shows the imperial arms and the legends Imperio Mexicano and 1 Peso and the date. They were struck from 1866 to 1867, the New Mexican republic continued to strike the 8 reales piece, but also began minting coins denominated in centavos and pesos. In addition to copper 1 centavo coins, silver coins of 5,10,25 and 50 centavos and 1 peso were introduced between 1867 and 1869, gold 1, 2½,5,10 and 20-peso coins were introduced in 1870. The obverses featured the Mexican eagle and the legend Republica Mexicana, the reverses of the larger coins showed a pair of scales, those of the smaller coins, the denomination. One-peso coins were made from 1865 to 1873, when 8 reales coins resumed production, in 1882, cupro-nickel 1,2 and 5 centavos coins were issued but they were only minted for two years
13.
Pound sterling
–
It is subdivided into 100 pence. A number of nations that do not use sterling also have called the pound. At various times, the sterling was commodity money or bank notes backed by silver or gold. The pound sterling is the worlds oldest currency still in use, the British Crown dependencies of Guernsey and Jersey produce their own local issues of sterling, the Guernsey pound and the Jersey pound. The pound sterling is also used in the Isle of Man, Gibraltar, the Bank of England is the central bank for the pound sterling, issuing its own coins and banknotes, and regulating issuance of banknotes by private banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland. Sterling is the fourth most-traded currency in the exchange market, after the United States dollar, the euro. Together with those three currencies it forms the basket of currencies which calculate the value of IMF special drawing rights, Sterling is also the third most-held reserve currency in global reserves. The full, official name, pound sterling, is used mainly in formal contexts, otherwise the term pound is normally used. The abbreviations ster. or stg. are sometimes used, the term British pound is commonly used in less formal contexts, although it is not an official name of the currency. The pound sterling is also referred to as cable amongst forex traders, the origins of this term are attributed to the fact that in the 1800s, the dollar/pound sterling exchange rate was transmitted via transatlantic cable. Forex brokers are sometimes referred to as cable dealers, as another established source notes, the compound expression was then derived, silver coins known as sterlings were issued in the Saxon kingdoms,240 of them being minted from a pound of silver. Hence, large payments came to be reckoned in pounds of sterlings, in 1260, Henry III granted them a charter of protection. And because the Leagues money was not frequently debased like that of England, English traders stipulated to be paid in pounds of the Easterlings, and land for their Kontor, the Steelyard of London, which by the 1340s was also called Easterlings Hall, or Esterlingeshalle. For further discussion of the etymology of sterling, see sterling silver, the currency sign for the pound sign is £, which is usually written with a single cross-bar, though a version with a double cross-bar is also sometimes seen. The ISO4217 currency code is GBP, occasionally, the abbreviation UKP is used but this is non-standard because the ISO3166 country code for the United Kingdom is GB. The Crown dependencies use their own codes, GGP, JEP, stocks are often traded in pence, so traders may refer to pence sterling, GBX, when listing stock prices. A common slang term for the pound sterling or pound is quid, since decimalisation in 1971, the pound has been divided into 100 pence. The symbol for the penny is p, hence an amount such as 50p properly pronounced fifty pence is more colloquially, quite often, pronounced fifty pee /fɪfti, pi and this also helped to distinguish between new and old pence amounts during the changeover to the decimal system
14.
Shilling
–
The shilling is a unit of currency formerly used in the United Kingdom, Australia, United States, and other British Commonwealth countries. The word shilling comes from scilling, a term that dates back to Anglo-Saxon times, and from there back to Old Norse. Slang terms for the old shilling coins include bob and hog, while the derivation of bob is uncertain, John Camden Hotten in his 1864 Slang Dictionary says the original version was bobstick and wonders if it is connected with Sir Robert Walpole. One abbreviation for shilling is s, often it was represented by a solidus symbol, which may have originally stood for a long s or ſ, thus 1/9 would be one shilling and ninepence. A price with no pence was sometimes written with a slash, the solidus symbol is still used for the shilling currency unit in former British East Africa, rather than sh. During the Great Recoinage of 1816, the mint was instructed to coin one troy pound of silver into 66 shillings. This set the weight of the shilling, and its subsequent decimal replacement 5 new pence coin, at 87.2727 grains or 5.655 grams from 1816 until 1990, in the past, the English world has had various myths about the shilling. One myth was that it was deemed to be the value of a cow in Kent or a sheep elsewhere, a shilling was a coin used in England from the reign of Henry VII. The term shilling was in use in Scotland from early medieval times, the common currency created in 1707 by Article 16 of the Articles of Union continued in use until decimalisation in 1971. In the traditional pounds, shillings and pence system, there were 20 shillings per pound and 12 pence per shilling, three coins denominated in multiple shillings were also in circulation at this time. In the Irish Free State and Republic of Ireland the shilling was issued as scilling in Irish and it was worth 1/20th of an Irish pound, and was interchangeable at the same value to the British coin, which continued to be used in Northern Ireland. The coin featured a bull on the reverse side, the first minting, from 1928 until 1941, contained 75% silver, more than the equivalent British coin. The original Irish shilling coin ) was withdrawn from circulation on 1 January 1993, Australian shillings, twenty of which made up one Australian pound, were first issued in 1910, with the Australian coat of arms on the reverse and King Edward VII on the face. The coat of arms design was retained through the reign of King George V until a new head design was introduced for the coins of King George VI. This design continued until the last year of issue in 1963, in 1966, Australias currency was decimalised and the shilling was replaced by a ten cent coin, where 10 shillings made up one Australian dollar. The slang term for a coin in Australia was deener. The slang term for a shilling as currency unit was bob, after 1966, shillings continued to circulate, as they were replaced by 10-cent coins of the same size and weight. New Zealand shillings, twenty of which made up one New Zealand pound, were first issued in 1933, in 1967, New Zealands currency was decimalised and the shilling was replaced by a ten cent coin of the same size and weight
15.
Penny
–
A penny is a coin or a unit of currency in various countries. Borrowed from the Carolingian denarius, it is usually the smallest denomination within a currency system, presently, it is the formal name of the British penny and the informal name of one American cent as well as the informal Irish designation of 1 cent euro coin. It is the name of the cent unit of account in Canada. The name is used in reference to various historical currencies also derived from the Carolingian system, such as the French denier. It may also be used to refer to any similar smallest-denomination coin. The Carolingian penny was originally a. 940-fine silver coin weighing 1/240 pound, the British penny remained a silver coin until the expense of the Napoleonic Wars prompted the use of base metals in 1797. Despite the decimalization of currencies in the United States and, later, throughout the British Commonwealth, no penny is currently formally subdivided, although farthings, halfpennies, and half cents have previously been minted and the mill remains in use as a unit of account in some contexts. Penny is first attested in a 1394 Scots text, a variant of Old English peni, a development of numerous variations including pennig, penning, and pending. The etymology of the penny is uncertain, although cognates are common across almost all Germanic languages and suggest a base *pan-, *pann-. Recently, it has proposed that it may represent an early borrowing of Punic PN. Following decimalization, the British and Irish coins were marked new penny until 1982 and 1985, the regular plural pennies fell out of use in England from the 16th century, except in reference to coins considered individually. The informal name for the American cent seems to have spread from New York, in British English, prior to decimalization, values from two to eleven pence and of twenty pence are often written and spoken as a single word, as twopence, threepence, &c. Where a single coin represented a number of pence, it was treated as a single noun, thus, a threepence would be single coin of that value whereas three pence would be its value and three pennies would be three penny coins. In British English, divisions of a penny were added to such combinations without a conjunction, as sixpence-farthing, adjectival use of such coins used the ending -penny, as sixpenny. The British abbreviation d. derived from the Latin denarius and it followed the amount after a space. It has been replaced since decimalization by p, usually written without a space or period, from this abbreviation, it is common to speak of pennies and values in pence as p. In North America, it is common to abbreviate cents with the currency symbol ¢, elsewhere, it is usually written with a simple c. The medieval silver penny was modeled on similar coins in antiquity, such as the Greek drachma, the Carthaginian shekel, forms of these seem to have reached as far as Norway and Sweden
16.
Eastern Caribbean dollar
–
The Eastern Caribbean dollar is the currency of all seven full members and one associate member of the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States. The EC$ is subdivided into 100 cents and it has been pegged to the United States dollar since July 7,1976, and the exchange rate is US$1 = EC$2.70. Six of the using the EC$ are independent states, Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica, Grenada, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, and Saint Vincent. The other two are British overseas territories, Anguilla and Montserrat and these states are all members of the Eastern Caribbean Currency Union. The only OECS associate member not using the Eastern Caribbean dollar as their currency is the British Virgin Islands. The British Virgin Islands were always problematic for currency purposes due to their proximity to the Danish West Indies which became the US Virgin Islands in 1917. Officially, the British Virgin Islands used to use sterling, but in practice the situation was a lot more complicated and involved the circulation of Francs, British Guiana and Barbados had previously been members of this currency union but withdrew in 1966 and 1972 respectively. Trinidad and Tobago had been a member of the earlier British West Indies currency union, the combined population of the EC$ area is about 613,000, which is comparable to Montenegro or the American capital city of Washington, D. C. The combined GDP is 5.46 billion US dollars, which is comparable to Bermuda, Queen Elizabeth II appears on the banknotes and also on the obverse of the coins. She is the head of state of all the states and territories using the EC$, Dominica is nevertheless a member of the Commonwealth of Nations which recognises Queen Elizabeth II as Head of the Commonwealth. Queen Annes proclamation of 1704 introduced the standard to the British West Indies. Nevertheless, silver pieces of eight continued to form an important portion of the circulating coinage right up until the late 1870s, in 1822, the British government coined 1/4, 1/8, and 1/16 fractional Anchor dollars for use in Mauritius and the British West Indies. A few years later copper fractional dollars were coined for Mauritius, Sierra Leone, the first move to introduce British sterling silver coinage to the colonies came with an imperial order-in-council dated 1825. This move was inspired by a number of factors, the United Kingdom was now operating a very successful gold standard in relation to the gold sovereign that was introduced in 1816, and there was a desire to extend this system to the colonies. In addition to this, there was the fact that the supply of Spanish dollars had been cut off as a result of the revolutions in Latin America where most of the Spanish dollars were minted, the last Spanish Dollar was in fact minted at Potosi in 1825. There was now a growing desire to have a stable and steady supply of British shillings everywhere the British drum was beating. The 1825 order-in-council was largely a failure because it made sterling coinage legal tender at the unrealistic rating in relation to the Spanish dollar of $1 =4 shillings and 4 pence. The reality of the rating between the dollar and the pound was based on the content of the Spanish pieces of eight as compared to the gold content of the British gold sovereign
17.
Parliament of Barbados
–
The Parliament of Barbados is the national legislature of Barbados. It is accorded legislative supremacy by Chapter V of the Constitution of Barbados, the Parliament is bicameral in composition and is formally made up of, Elizabeth II, Queen of Barbados, an appointed Senate, and an elected House of Assembly. Both houses sit in separate chambers in the Parliament Buildings, in the national capital Bridgetown in Saint Michael, the Senate is made up of twenty-one Senators and The Queen, while the House consists of thirty Members of Parliament in addition to the Honourable Speaker of the House. The Parliament of Barbados is originally patterned after the Parliament of England, so the structure, functions, sittings of both House and Senate are usually held once per month, with other meetings called as necessary. The House sits on Tuesdays beginning at 10, 30am, and are broadcast live on the radio station. Sittings of the Senate take place on Wednesdays, the Parliament of Barbados is the third oldest legislature in the Americas, and is among the oldest in the Commonwealth of Nations. The genesis of a legislature in Barbados was introduced by Governor Henry Hawley, creating a structure of governance to Barbados, the then unicameral Parliament originally was tasked with establishing a system of laws and was completely under the domination of the islands planter-class. The first meeting of the Barbados Assembly was held in 1639, the initial location known as the Sessions House which was situated in the Marlhill, which is now known as Spry Street. Built by Captain Henry Hawley, the building may have originally accommodated his Courts of Law, by 1653, the Assembly moved to the State House then located in Bridgetown area known as Cheapside. In 1668 the State House was destroyed by a fire started by an explosion of the Bridgetown military magazine. Over the next century, the elected officials assembled at various locations all over Bridgetown. The Roebuck Tavern located on Roebuck Street was an assembly point and was also owned by Henry Hawley. The movement of the Assembly among the various taverns in the town eventually presented an irony for the thriving colony, for many years the Barbados Assembly continued to meet in various places. In 1724 an Act was passed providing for a building for the Council and Assembly, Law Courts, the building located on Coleridge Street was completed in 1731-1732, yet the House of Assembly still often met at times at different private houses and taverns. The Parliament of Barbados in its current form was first introduced following the 1961 general elections, in 1963 the colonial era Legislative Council was disestablished. In its place came the Senate in 1964, as the years went by, governance in Barbados continued to change in structure until both of the present chambers assumed their present numbers. Parliament is empowered by Article 35 of the Constitution to make laws for the Peace, order, the next general election in Barbados is constitutionally due in 2018. According to the Constitution of Barbados elections can take no longer than every five years from the first sitting of Parliament
18.
Zinc
–
Zinc is a chemical element with the symbol Zn and atomic number 30. It is the first element in group 12 of the periodic table, in some respects zinc is chemically similar to magnesium, both elements exhibit only one normal oxidation state, and the Zn2+ and Mg2+ ions are of similar size. Zinc is the 24th most abundant element in Earths crust and has five stable isotopes, the most common zinc ore is sphalerite, a zinc sulfide mineral. The largest workable lodes are in Australia, Asia, and the United States, Zinc is refined by froth flotation of the ore, roasting, and final extraction using electricity. Zinc metal was not produced on a large scale until the 12th century in India and was unknown to Europe until the end of the 16th century, the mines of Rajasthan have given definite evidence of zinc production going back to the 6th century BC. To date, the oldest evidence of pure zinc comes from Zawar, in Rajasthan, alchemists burned zinc in air to form what they called philosophers wool or white snow. The element was named by the alchemist Paracelsus after the German word Zinke. German chemist Andreas Sigismund Marggraf is credited with discovering pure metallic zinc in 1746, work by Luigi Galvani and Alessandro Volta uncovered the electrochemical properties of zinc by 1800. Corrosion-resistant zinc plating of iron is the application for zinc. Other applications are in batteries, small non-structural castings. A variety of compounds are commonly used, such as zinc carbonate and zinc gluconate, zinc chloride, zinc pyrithione, zinc sulfide. Zinc is an essential mineral perceived by the public today as being of exceptional biologic and public health importance, Zinc deficiency affects about two billion people in the developing world and is associated with many diseases. In children, deficiency causes growth retardation, delayed sexual maturation, infection susceptibility, enzymes with a zinc atom in the reactive center are widespread in biochemistry, such as alcohol dehydrogenase in humans. Consumption of excess zinc can cause ataxia, lethargy and copper deficiency, Zinc is a bluish-white, lustrous, diamagnetic metal, though most common commercial grades of the metal have a dull finish.6 pm. The metal is hard and brittle at most temperatures but becomes malleable between 100 and 150 °C, above 210 °C, the metal becomes brittle again and can be pulverized by beating. Zinc is a conductor of electricity. For a metal, zinc has relatively low melting and boiling points, the melting point is the lowest of all the transition metals aside from mercury and cadmium. Many alloys contain zinc, including brass, Other metals long known to form binary alloys with zinc are aluminium, antimony, bismuth, gold, iron, lead, mercury, silver, tin, magnesium, cobalt, nickel, tellurium, and sodium
19.
Brass
–
Brass is a metal alloy made of copper and zinc, the proportions of zinc and copper can be varied to create a range of brasses with varying properties. It is an alloy, atoms of the two constituents may replace each other within the same crystal structure. By comparison, bronze is principally an alloy of copper and tin, however, bronze and brass may also include small proportions of a range of other elements including arsenic, phosphorus, aluminium, manganese, and silicon. The term is applied to a variety of brasses. Modern practice in museums and archaeology increasingly avoids both terms for objects in favour of the all-embracing copper alloy. It is also used in zippers, Brass is often used in situations in which it is important that sparks not be struck, such as in fittings and tools used near flammable or explosive materials. Brass has higher malleability than bronze or zinc, the relatively low melting point of brass and its flow characteristics make it a relatively easy material to cast. By varying the proportions of copper and zinc, the properties of the brass can be changed, allowing hard, the density of brass is 8.4 to 8.73 grams per cubic centimetre. Today, almost 90% of all alloys are recycled. Because brass is not ferromagnetic, it can be separated from ferrous scrap by passing the scrap near a powerful magnet, Brass scrap is collected and transported to the foundry where it is melted and recast into billets. Billets are heated and extruded into the form and size. The general softness of brass means that it can often be machined without the use of cutting fluid, aluminium makes brass stronger and more corrosion-resistant. Aluminium also causes a highly beneficial hard layer of oxide to be formed on the surface that is thin, transparent. Tin has an effect and finds its use especially in seawater applications. Combinations of iron, aluminium, silicon and manganese make brass wear and tear resistant, to enhance the machinability of brass, lead is often added in concentrations of around 2%. Since lead has a melting point than the other constituents of the brass. The pattern the globules form on the surface of the brass increases the available surface area which in turn affects the degree of leaching. In addition, cutting operations can smear the lead globules over the surface and these effects can lead to significant lead leaching from brasses of comparatively low lead content
20.
Cupronickel
–
Cupronickel is an alloy of copper that contains nickel and strengthening elements, such as iron and manganese. Despite its high content, cupronickel is silver in colour. Cupronickel is highly resistant to corrosion in seawater because its potential is adjusted to be neutral with regard to seawater. Another common use of cupronickel is in silver-coloured modern-circulated coins, a typical mix is 75% copper, 25% nickel, and a trace amount of manganese. In the past, true silver coins were debased with cupronickel, Cupronickel alloys are used for marine applications due to their resistance to seawater corrosion, good fabricability, and their effectiveness in lowering macrofouling levels. Alloys ranging in composition from 90% Cu–10% Ni to 70% Cu–30% Ni are commonly specified in heat exchanger or condenser tubes in a variety of marine applications. Desalination plants, Cupronickel alloys are used in brine heaters, heat rejection and recovery, offshore oil and gas platforms and processing and FPSO vessels, Cupronickel alloys are used in systems and splash zone sheathings. Power generation, Cupronickel alloys are used in steam turbine condensers, oil coolers, auxiliary cooling systems and high pressure pre-heaters at nuclear, seawater system design, Cupronickel alloys are used in tubular heat exchangers and condensers, piping and high pressure systems. Seawater system components, Cupronickel alloys are used in condenser and heat exchanger tubes, tubesheets, piping, fittings, pumps, in Europe, Switzerland pioneered the nickel billon coinage in 1850, with the addition of silver. In 1968, Switzerland adopted the far cheaper 75,25 copper to nickel ratio then being used by the Belgians, the United States, and Germany. From 1947 to 2012, all “silver” coinage in the UK was made from cupronickel, prior to these dates, both denominations had been made only in silver in the United States. Cupronickel is the cladding on either side of United States half-dollars since 1971, currently, some circulating coins, such as the United States Jefferson nickel, the Swiss franc, and the South Korean 500 and 100 won are made of solid cupronickel. Single-core thermocouple cables use a single pair of thermocouple conductors such as iron-constantan. These have the element of constantan or nickel-chromium alloy within a sheath of copper. Cupronickel is used in cryogenic applications, beginning around the turn of the 20th century, bullet jackets were commonly made from this material. It was soon replaced with gilding metal to reduce fouling in the bore. Currently, cupronickel remains the basic material for silver-plated cutlery and it is commonly used for mechanical and electrical equipment, medical equipment, zippers, jewelry items, and as material for strings for string instruments. Fender Musical Instruments used CuNiFe magnets in their Wide Range Humbucker pickup for various Telecaster and Starcaster guitars during the 1970s, for high-quality cylinder locks and locking systems, cylinder cores are made from wear-resistant cupronickel
21.
Reuleaux triangle
–
A Reuleaux triangle is a shape formed from the intersection of three circular disks, each having its center on the boundary of the other two. It is a curve of constant width, the simplest and best known such curve other than the circle itself, Constant width means that the separation of every two parallel supporting lines is the same, independent of their orientation. Because all its diameters are the same, the Reuleaux triangle is one answer to the question Other than a circle, Reuleaux triangles have also been called spherical triangles, but that term more properly refers to triangles on the curved surface of a sphere. Among constant-width shapes with a width, the Reuleaux triangle has the minimum area. By several numerical measures it is the farthest from being centrally symmetric and it provides the largest constant-width shape avoiding the points of an integer lattice, and is closely related to the shape of the quadrilateral maximizing the ratio of perimeter to diameter. It can perform a rotation within a square while at all times touching all four sides of the square. However, although it covers most of the square in this process, it fails to cover a small fraction of the squares area. Because of this property of rotating within a square, the Reuleaux triangle is sometimes known as the Reuleaux rotor. The Reuleaux triangle is the first of a sequence of Reuleaux polygons, some of these curves have been used as the shapes of coins. Alternatively, the surface of revolution of the Reuleaux triangle also has constant width, the Reuleaux triangle may be constructed either directly from three circles, or by rounding the sides of an equilateral triangle. The three-circle construction may be performed with a compass alone, not even needing a straightedge, by the Mohr–Mascheroni theorem the same is true more generally of any compass-and-straightedge construction, but the construction for the Reuleaux triangle is particularly simple. The first step is to mark two points of the plane, and use the compass to draw a circle centered at one of the marked points. Next, one draws a circle, of the same radius, centered at the other marked point. Finally, one draws a circle, again of the same radius. The central region in the arrangement of three circles will be a Reuleaux triangle. Alternatively, a Reuleaux triangle may be constructed from an equilateral triangle T by drawing three arcs of circles, each centered at one vertex of T and connecting the two vertices. Or, equivalently, it may be constructed as the intersection of three disks centered at the vertices of T, with equal to the side length of T. In any pair of parallel supporting lines, one of the two lines will necessarily touch the triangle at one of its vertices, the other supporting line may touch the triangle at any point on the opposite arc, and their distance equals the radius of this arc
22.
Flying fish
–
The Exocoetidae are a family of marine fish in the order Beloniformes class Actinopterygii. Fish of this family are known as flying fish, about 64 species are grouped in seven to nine genera. Flying fish can make powerful, self-propelled leaps out of water into air and this uncommon ability is a natural defence mechanism to evade predators. The oldest known fossil of a flying or gliding fish, Potanichthys xingyiensis, dates back to the Middle Triassic, however, this fossil is not related to modern flying fish, which evolved independently about 66 million years ago. The term Exocoetidae is both the name and the general name in Latin for a flying fish. The suffix -idae, common for indicating a family, follows the root of the Latin word exocoetus and this means literally sleeping outside, from ἔξω outside and κοῖτος bed, resting place, so named as flying fish were believed to leave the water to sleep on the shore. A different etymological approach, more realistic, is that of Ancient Greek ἔξω outside + κύτος hull, flying fish live in all of the oceans, particularly in tropical and warm subtropical waters. They are commonly found in the epipelagic zone and this area is the top layer of the ocean that extends 200 meters from the surface down. It is often known as the zone because its where most of the visible light exists. Nearly all primary production, or photosynthesis, happens in this zone, therefore, the vast majority of plants and animals inhabit this area and can vary from plankton to the sharks. Although the epipelagic zone is an area for variety in life. Due to the vast variety of organisms it holds, there is number of prey. Small organisms such as the fish are targets for larger organisms. They especially have a hard time escaping predators and surviving until they can reproduce, along with relationship difficulties, abiotic factors also play a part. Harsh ocean currents make it difficult for small fish to survive in this habitat. Research suggests that environmental factors in the flying fishs habitat have led to the evolution of modified fins. As a result, flying fish have undergone natural selection in which species gain unique traits to better adapt to their environments, by becoming airborne, flying fish evade their predators and environment. This increase of speed and maneuverability is an advantage to flying fish
23.
Royal Canadian Mint
–
The Royal Canadian Mint is a Crown corporation of Canada, operating under the Royal Canadian Mint Act. The shares of the Mint are held in trust for the Crown in right of Canada, the Mint produces all of Canadas circulation coins, and manufactures circulation coins on behalf of other nations. The Mint also designs and manufactures, precious and base metal coins, gold, silver, palladium. It further offers gold and silver refinery and assay services, the Mint serves the publics interest but is also mandated to operate in anticipation of profit. Like private-sector companies, the Mint has a board of directors consisting of a chair, the president and CEO of the Mint, traditionally, the President of the Royal Canadian Mint is known as the Master of the Mint. The current president is Ian E. Bennett, who was appointed to the position in June 2006 and was re-appointed to a further three-year mandate effective June 12,2011, the Board of Directors, through the Chair, is accountable to the Minister of Finance. The Minister serves as the link between the Mint, Cabinet and Parliament, the Mint was named one of Canadas Top 100 Employers by Mediacorp Canada Inc. for four consecutive years. In March 2012 the Canadian Government decided to cease the production of pennies, the final penny was minted at the RCMs Winnipeg, Manitoba plant on the morning of May 4,2012. In April 2012, the Mint announced that it was developing MintChip, for the first fifty years of Canadian coinage, the coins were struck at the Royal Mint in London, though some were struck at the private Heaton Mint in Birmingham, England. As Canada emerged as a nation in its own right, its need for coinage increased, as a result, a branch of the Royal Mint was authorized to be built in Ottawa in 1901 after being first proposed in 1890. During a short ceremony, Lord Grey and his wife, Lady Grey, activated the presses for the Canadian Mint on January 2,1908, when the facility first opened, it had 61 employees. Three years later the Mint began refining gold by electrolysis in its assay department, since then, the Mint’s refinery has undergone several changes and expansions. Today’s process is a combination of chlorination and electrolysis, the silver is first upgraded in an oxygen converter and then refined by electrolysis. It wasn’t until the Great Depression that the Ottawa Mint negotiated its independence from the British Royal Mint, in 1931, the Ottawa Mint was renamed the Royal Canadian Mint and began reporting solely to the Department of Finance. Although the Mint continued to rely on the Royal Mint to produce the master tools required for the creation of its punches and dies, in 1969, the Government of Canada reorganized the Mint as a Crown corporation. As such, the Mint was no longer a branch of the Department of Finance and it would operate like a corporation with its own Board of Directors and increased decision-making powers. The Mint’s facility in Ottawa is currently responsible for producing collector and commemorative coins, bullion in the form of coins, bars, wafers and grain, medals and medallions. This is also where the master tooling is done to create the dies that strike coin designs for circulation and commemorative issues
24.
South Point Lighthouse
–
South Point Lighthouse is a lighthouse located in the south of Barbados. It is the oldest lighthouse in Barbados and it was brought to Barbados in 1852, one year after being shown at London’s Great Exhibition, and reassembled on the southernmost point of the island. Although still listed as active, the lighthouse is now considered to be more of a landmark and tourist attraction. The lighthouse has been depicted on the reverse of the 5 cent coin since 1973
25.
Barclays
–
Barclays /ˈbɑːrkliz/ is a British multinational banking and financial services company headquartered in London. It is a bank with operations in retail, wholesale and investment banking, as well as wealth management, mortgage lending. It has operations in over 50 countries and territories and has around 48 million customers, Barclays is organised into four core businesses, Personal & Corporate, Barclaycard, Investment Banking and Africa. Barclays traces its origins to a banking business established in the City of London in 1690. James Barclay became a partner in the business in 1736, in 1896 several banks in London and the English provinces, including Backhouses Bank and Gurneys Bank, united as a joint-stock bank under the name Barclays and Co. Over the following decades Barclays expanded to become a nationwide bank, in 1967, Barclays deployed the worlds first cash dispenser. Barclays has a listing on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE100 Index. It has a listing on the New York Stock Exchange. According to a 2011 paper by Vitali et al, Barclays traces its origins back to 1690 when John Freame, a Quaker, and Thomas Gould started trading as goldsmith bankers in Lombard Street, London. The name Barclays became associated with the business in 1736, when James Barclay, in 1728 the bank moved to 54 Lombard Street, identified by the Sign of the Black Spread Eagle, which in subsequent years would become a core part of the banks visual identity. In 1896 several banks in London and the English provinces, notably Backhouses Bank of Darlington and Gurneys Bank of Norwich, united under the banner of Barclays, between 1905 and 1916 Barclays extended its branch network by making acquisitions of small English banks. In 1925 the Colonial Bank, National Bank of South Africa, in 1938 Barclays acquired the first Indian exchange bank, the Central Exchange Bank of India, which had opened in London in 1936 with the sponsorship of Central Bank of India. In May 1958, Barclays was the first UK bank to appoint a female bank manager, hilda Harding managed Barclays Hanover Square branch in London until her retirement in 1970. In 1965, Barclays established a US affiliate, Barclays Bank of California in San Francisco, Barclays launched the first credit card in the UK, Barclaycard, in 1966. On 27 June 1967, Barclays deployed the worlds first cash machine, the British actor Reg Varney was the first person to use the machine. In 1969, a merger with Martins Bank and Lloyds Bank was blocked by the Monopolies and Mergers Commission. Also that year, the British Linen Bank subsidiary was sold to the Bank of Scotland in exchange for a 25% stake, Barclays DCO changed its name to Barclays Bank International in 1971. In August 1975, following the secondary banking crash, Barclays acquired Mercantile Credit Company, in 1980, Barclays Bank International expanded its business to include commercial credit and took over American Credit Corporation, renaming it Barclays American Corporation
26.
Royal Bank of Canada
–
The Royal Bank of Canada is a Canadian multinational financial services company and the largest bank in Canada. The bank serves over 16 million clients and has 80,000 employees worldwide, the company corporate headquarters are located in Toronto, Ontario. The bank was founded in 1864 in Halifax, Nova Scotia, RBC Bank was the U. S. banking subsidiary with 439 branches across six states in the Southeast, which served more than a million customers. RBC also has 127 branches across seventeen countries in the Caribbean, RBC Capital Markets is RBCs worldwide investment and corporate banking subsidiary, while the investment brokerage firm is known as RBC Dominion Securities. Investment banking services are provided through RBC Bank and the focus is on middle market clients. In 2011, RBC was the largest Canadian company by revenue, and was ranked at #50 in the 2013 Forbes Global 2000 listing. The company has operations in Canada, and 40 other countries and had US$673.2 billion of assets under management in 2014, by 1869 the Merchants Bank was officially incorporated and received its federal charter in the same year. During the 1870s and 1880s the bank expanded into the other Maritime Provinces, when both the Newfoundland Commercial Bank and Union Bank of Newfoundland collapsed on 10 December 1894, the Merchants Bank expanded to Newfoundland in 31 January 1895. As the bank grew executives changed its name to reflect its growth, in 1901, the Merchants Bank of Halifax changed its name to the Royal Bank of Canada. The centre of the Canadian financial industry had moved from Halifax to Montreal, in 1910, RBC merged with the Union Bank of Halifax. In the same year it built a branch in Winnipeg, Manitoba—designed by Carrère and Hastings. To improve its position in Ontario, RBC merged with Traders Bank of Canada in 1912 and in 1917 RBC merged with Quebec Bank, Union Bank of Canada had moved its headquarters to Winnipeg in 1912, and had built a strong presence in the Prairies. In 1935, RBC merged with Crown Saving, s and Loan Co. merged with Industrial Mortgage & Trust Co, RBC installed its first computer in 1961, the first in Canadian banking. In the 1960s, RBC Insurance was created, in 1968, it merged with Ontario Loan and Debenture Company. In 1993, RBC merged with Royal Trust, in 1998, RBC acquired Security First Network Bank in Atlanta—the first pure Internet bank. In 2000, RBC merged merchant credit/debit card acquiring business with BMO Bank of Montreals to form Moneris Solutions, in 2013, RBC completed the acquisition of the Canadian subsidiary of Ally Financial. RBC Insurance is the largest Canadian bank-owned insurance organization, with services to five million people. It provides life, health, travel, home and auto and reinsurance products as well as creditor,1882 - Merchants Bank of Halifax opened an office in Bermuda
27.
Canadian Bank of Commerce
–
The Canadian Bank of Commerce was a Canadian bank cofounded in 1867 by William McMaster. The Canadian Bank of Commerce opened in Toronto with a charter in 1866 that it purchased from the defunct Bank of Canada, which folded in 1858. The Canadian Bank of Commerce branch built at Darling and Pearson, Winnipeg, Manitoba in 1910 in beaux-arts classicism indicates the financial dominance of Winnipeg, among prairie cities. It merged with the Imperial Bank of Canada in 1961 to form the Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce, during World War I,1,701 staff from the Canadian Bank of Commerce enlisted in the war effort. In 1931, the Toronto headquarters of the bank, designed by architects John Pearson, at 34 stories, for many years it was the tallest building in the British Empire. Once again, during World War II,2,300 staff members enlisted in the armed forces, the following are on the Registry of Historical Places of Canada. The Bank of Commerce in Nanaimo, British Columbia, built in 1914, the Canadian Bank of Commerce in New Westminster, British Columbia built in 1910 to 1911. The Bank of Commerce in Vancouver, British Columbia, built in 1914 to 1915 the Canadian Bank of Commerce in Watson, the Bank of Commerce in Nokomis, Saskatchewan, built in 1910. The Bank of Commerce in Winnipeg, Manitoba, completed in 1912, the Bank of Commerce in Kelsey, Manitoba, built in The Pas in 1912. The Canadian Bank of Commerce in Innisfree, Alberta, built in 1905, the Canadian Bank of Commerce in Dawson, Yukon, built in 1901. The Canadian Bank of Commerce grew through acquisitions of other banks in Canada, Halifax Banking Company Established in 1825, gore Bank Formed in 1836 and merged with the Commerce in 1870. Eastern Townships Bank Formed in 1859 and merged with the Commerce in 1912, Bank of British Columbia Established with a Royal Charter in 1862 and merged with the Commerce in 1901. Merchants Bank of Prince Edward Island Formed Oct 6,1871, Bank of Hamilton Bank of Hamilton merged with the Commerce in 1924. The Standard Bank of Canada Formed in 1876 and merged with the Commerce in 1928
28.
George VI
–
George VI was King of the United Kingdom and the Dominions of the British Commonwealth from 11 December 1936 until his death. He was the last Emperor of India and the first Head of the Commonwealth, known as Albert until his accession, George VI was born in the reign of his great-grandmother Queen Victoria, and was named after his great-grandfather Albert, Prince Consort. As the second son of King George V, he was not expected to inherit the throne and spent his life in the shadow of his elder brother. He attended naval college as a teenager, and served in the Royal Navy, in 1920, he was made Duke of York. He married Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon in 1923 and they had two daughters, Elizabeth and Margaret, in the mid-1920s, he had speech therapy for a stammer, which he never fully overcame. Georges elder brother ascended the throne as Edward VIII upon the death of their father in 1936, however, later that year Edward revealed his desire to marry divorced American socialite Wallis Simpson. British Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin advised Edward that for political and religious reasons he could not marry a divorced woman, Edward abdicated in order to marry, and George ascended the throne as the third monarch of the House of Windsor. During Georges reign, the break-up of the British Empire and its transition into the Commonwealth of Nations accelerated, the parliament of the Irish Free State removed direct mention of the monarch from the countrys constitution on the day of his accession. The following year, a new Irish constitution changed the name of the state to Ireland, from 1939, the Empire and Commonwealth – except Ireland – was at war with Nazi Germany. War with Italy and Japan followed in 1940 and 1941, respectively, though Britain and its allies were ultimately victorious in 1945, the United States and the Soviet Union rose as pre-eminent world powers and the British Empire declined. After the independence of India and Pakistan in 1947, George remained king of countries, but relinquished the title of Emperor of India in June 1948. Ireland formally declared itself a republic and left the Commonwealth in 1949, George adopted the new title of Head of the Commonwealth. He was beset by problems in the later years of his reign. He was succeeded by his eldest daughter, Elizabeth II, George was born at York Cottage, on the Sandringham Estate in Norfolk, during the reign of his great-grandmother Queen Victoria. His father was Prince George, Duke of York, the second and eldest-surviving son of the Prince and his mother was the Duchess of York, the eldest child and only daughter of the Duke and Duchess of Teck. His birthday was the 34th anniversary of the death of his great-grandfather, Albert, uncertain of how the Prince Consorts widow, Queen Victoria, would take the news of the birth, the Prince of Wales wrote to the Duke of York that the Queen had been rather distressed. Two days later, he again, I really think it would gratify her if you yourself proposed the name Albert to her. Consequently, he was baptised Albert Frederick Arthur George at St. Mary Magdalenes Church near Sandringham three months later, within the family, he was known informally as Bertie
29.
Samuel Jackman Prescod
–
Samuel Jackman Prescod became the first person of African descent to be elected to the Parliament of Barbados, in 1843. He also helped found the Liberal Party, whose following included small landowners, businessmen, the Parliament of Barbados has enacted that he should be styled as The Right Excellent and that his life be celebrated on National Heroes Day in Barbados. Prescod was born as the son of a woman of colour, Lidia Smith. He was given his forenames for Samuel Jackman, a white planter. Prescod was excluded from politics in Barbados, a law of 1697 required that all voters should be white, own 10 acres of land and be of the Christian religion. In fact it was not until 1721 that non-whites testimony was accepted in a court in Barbados, Prescod began his political work in 1829 and it was on 9 June 1831 a major change took place that allowed coloured people the same rights to vote as white people. The new act passed by Sir James Lyon, the Governor, removed certain restraints and disabilities imposed by law on His Majestys Free Coloured, postage stamps of both Lyon and Prescod were issued in 2006 to commemorate this event. Although it was said that Prescod bore no distinguishing marks of negro complexion he was subject to the racial discrimination endemic at that time. It was not until 1836 that non-whites were given their first newspaper, Prescod served for eight months without being paid, before the job was taken away from him as it was felt that his ideas were too radical. Prescod moved on to paper, The Liberal, which was where he found his voice. This paper was targeted at working- and middle-class people irrespective of colour, the paper got into financial difficulties and Prescod was able to buy it in partnership with a man called Thomas Harris. Harris allowed him freedom and this led to problems with the establishment. In 1838, the concept of slavery was outlawed and about 80,000 slaves in Barbados lost their former status. Prescod, however, wrote, Fellow Men and Friends I have lived to see you declared free men, to live and see you made free. Prescod was aware that the laws preventing all from voting would prevent all the Barbadians from being truly free, in 1840, Prescod journeyed to London to attend the Worlds Anti-Slavery Convention on 12 June 1840. The picture above shows him in a made to commemorate the event which attracted delegates from America, France, Haiti, Australia, Ireland, Jamaica. In July 1840, Prescod wrote to the Colonial Office in Barbados as a leader of the coloured community and he was protesting at the high prices that landowners were putting on small plots of land. This was important, since the owners were using this as a device to prevent other races from entering the land-owning middle class
30.
Economy of Barbados
–
Barbados went into a deep recession in the 1990s after 3 years of steady decline brought on by fundamental macroeconomic imbalances. After a painful re-adjustment process, the economy began to again in 1993. Growth rates have averaged between 3%–5% since then, the countrys three main economic drivers are, tourism, the international business sector, and foreign direct-investment. These are supported in part by Barbados operating as a service-driven economy, although it is often quoted that Barbados’ main produce is sugar there are only two working sugar factories remaining in the country. At the end of 2013 Barbados economy continued to exhibited signs of weakness, since the first settlement by the British in 1625, through history the economy of Barbados was primarily dependent on agriculture. It had been recorded that minus the marshes and gully regions, quickly Barbados was then divided into large estate-plantations and using indentured labour mainly from the British Isles for the cultivation of tobacco and cotton crops were first introduced. The island, facing a large amount of competition from the North American colonies, cultivation of sugar cane was quickly introduced by the exiled Jewish community which immigrated into Barbados from Dutch Brazil during the mid-17th century. For about the next 100 years Barbados remained the richest of all the European colonies in the Caribbean region due to sugar, the prosperity in the colony of Barbados remained regionally unmatched until sugar cane production caught up in geographically larger countries such as Jamaica and elsewhere. Despite being eclipsed by larger makers of sugar, Barbados continued to produce the well into the 20th century. With the emancipation of African slaves in the British Empire in 1811, thereafter many Bajans started to more emphasis on upward mobility. During the 1920s, politicians in Barbados started a push for more self-government along with Barbados seeking to more of the profits from economic growth within the country. Much of the profits were being repatriated by the British government to the United Kingdom, as the 1940s–1950s rolled around, Barbados moved towards developing political ties with neighbouring Caribbean islands. By 1958 the West Indies Federation was created by Britain for Barbados, the Federation was first led by the premier of Barbados, however the experiment ended by 1962. Later Barbados tried to negotiate several other unions with other islands, the island peacefully negotiated with Britain its own independence and became a sovereign nation at midnight on 30 November 1966. After the country independent of the United Kingdom on 30 November 1966 sugar cane still remained a chief money-maker for Barbados. The islands politicians tried to diversify the economy from just agriculture, during the 1950s–1960s visitors from both Canada and the United Kingdom started transforming tourism into a huge contributor for the Barbadian economy. As the 1970s progressed, global companies started to recognise Barbados for its educated population. In May 1972 Barbados formed its own Central Bank, breaking off from the East Caribbean Currency Authority
31.
Wayback Machine
–
The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
32.
Standard Catalog of World Coins
–
The Standard Catalog of World Coins is a series of numismatic catalogs, commonly known as the Krause catalogs. They are published by Krause Publications, a division of F+W Media, the by-century volumes list by date virtually every coin type, most of which are photographed, with mintage and other information, plus market valuations in up to 5 grades. Listings are by denomination rather than series, as in earlier World coin catalogs, the proprietary Krause-Mishler numbers are widely used, for just a few countries earlier systems such as Y and C numbers are given instead. The century format is considered inconvenient and expensive for those who collect geographically. Originally covering 1835 or so to date, the main catalog evolved into an annual 20th century-only work, plus separate 17th, 18th, beginning with the 34th ed, listings covering 2001 to date are included in a separate 21st Century catalog. Data from the volumes are collated together in special editions for Crowns, Gold, German. Fantasies and medallion issues, which do not appear in the catalogs, are covered in a publication called Unusual World Coins. There is also a publication called Collecting World Coins that includes only 20th-, list priced at $73 to $85 they are often discounted, and can be found in many public libraries. Older editions are steeply discounted even though revisions between editions in many areas are minimal, following the appearance of unlicensed DVD versions, DVDs were included with the 1601-1700 4th edition, the 1901-2000 36th edition, and possibly others, but are now sold as a separate product. George S. Cuhaj is the current editor, with Thomas Michael credited as market analyst, although Krause collate contributions from many collecting experts, coin catalog Standard Catalog of World Paper Money A Guide Book of United States Coins Piedfort Vcoins. com Krause Publications Numismaster. com
33.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
34.
History of Barbados
–
Barbados was inhabited by Arawaks and Caribs at the time of European colonization of the Americas in the 16th century. The island was an English and later British colony from 1625 until 1966, since 1966, it has been a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy, modelled on the Westminster system, with Elizabeth II, Queen of Barbados, as head of state. Fully documented Amerindian settlement dates to between about 350 and 650 AD, the arrivals were a group known as the Saladoid-Barrancoid from mainland South America. A second wave of settlers appeared around the year 800 and a third in the mid-13th century and this last group was politically more organised and came to rule over the others. The Portuguese were the first Europeans to discover the island, Portuguese navigator Pedro a Campos named it Los Barbados. The Amerindians were either captured for use as slaves by the Spanish or fled to other, from about 1600 the English, French and Dutch began to found colonies in the North American mainland and the smaller islands of the West Indies. England is commonly said to have made its claim to Barbados in 1625. Nonetheless, Barbados was claimed from 1625 in the name of King James I of England, there were earlier English settlements in The Americas, and several islands in the Leeward Islands were claimed by the English at about the same time as Barbados. Nevertheless, Barbados quickly grew to become the third major English settlement in the Americas due to its eastern location. The settlement was established as a colony and funded by Sir William Courten. So the first colonists were actually tenants and much of the profits of their labour returned to Courten, the first English ship, which had arrived on 14 May 1625, was captained by John Powell. The first settlement began on 17 February 1627, near what is now Holetown, by a led by John Powells younger brother, Henry. The latter were young indentured labourers who according to some sources had been abducted, courtens title was transferred to James Hay, 1st Earl of Carlisle, in what was called the Great Barbados Robbery. Carlisle then chose as governor Henry Hawley, who established the House of Assembly in 1639, in an effort to appease the planters, in the period 1640–60, the West Indies attracted over two-thirds of the total number of English emigrants to the Americas. By 1650 there were 44,000 settlers in the West Indies, after five years of labour, they were given freedom dues of about ₤10, usually in goods. Around the time of Cromwell a number of rebels and criminals were transported there. Timothy Meads of Warwickshire was one of the rebels sent to Barbados at that time, parish registers from the 1650s show, for the white population, four times as many deaths as marriages. The death rate was very high, before this, the mainstay of the infant colonys economy was the growth export of tobacco, but tobacco prices eventually fell in the 1630s, as Chesapeake production expanded
35.
British Empire
–
The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It originated with the possessions and trading posts established by England between the late 16th and early 18th centuries. At its height, it was the largest empire in history and, for over a century, was the foremost global power. By 1913, the British Empire held sway over 412 million people, 23% of the population at the time. As a result, its political, legal, linguistic and cultural legacy is widespread, during the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain pioneered European exploration of the globe, and in the process established large overseas empires. Envious of the great wealth these empires generated, England, France, the independence of the Thirteen Colonies in North America in 1783 after the American War of Independence caused Britain to lose some of its oldest and most populous colonies. British attention soon turned towards Asia, Africa, and the Pacific, after the defeat of France in the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, Britain emerged as the principal naval and imperial power of the 19th century. In the early 19th century, the Industrial Revolution began to transform Britain, the British Empire expanded to include India, large parts of Africa and many other territories throughout the world. In Britain, political attitudes favoured free trade and laissez-faire policies, during the 19th Century, Britains population increased at a dramatic rate, accompanied by rapid urbanisation, which caused significant social and economic stresses. To seek new markets and sources of raw materials, the Conservative Party under Benjamin Disraeli launched a period of imperialist expansion in Egypt, South Africa, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand became self-governing dominions. By the start of the 20th century, Germany and the United States had begun to challenge Britains economic lead, subsequent military and economic tensions between Britain and Germany were major causes of the First World War, during which Britain relied heavily upon its empire. The conflict placed enormous strain on the military, financial and manpower resources of Britain, although the British Empire achieved its largest territorial extent immediately after World War I, Britain was no longer the worlds pre-eminent industrial or military power. In the Second World War, Britains colonies in Southeast Asia were occupied by Imperial Japan, despite the final victory of Britain and its allies, the damage to British prestige helped to accelerate the decline of the empire. India, Britains most valuable and populous possession, achieved independence as part of a larger movement in which Britain granted independence to most territories of the empire. The transfer of Hong Kong to China in 1997 marked for many the end of the British Empire, fourteen overseas territories remain under British sovereignty. After independence, many former British colonies joined the Commonwealth of Nations, the United Kingdom is now one of 16 Commonwealth nations, a grouping known informally as the Commonwealth realms, that share a monarch, Queen Elizabeth II. The foundations of the British Empire were laid when England and Scotland were separate kingdoms. In 1496, King Henry VII of England, following the successes of Spain and Portugal in overseas exploration, Cabot led another voyage to the Americas the following year but nothing was ever heard of his ships again
36.
British Windward Islands
–
The colony was known as the Federal Colony of the Windward Islands from 1871 to June 1956, and then as the Territory of the Windward Islands until its dissolution in 1960. The capital was Bridgetown on Barbados, from 1871 to 1885, the islands were not a single colony, but a confederation of separate colonies with a common governor-in-chief, while each island retained its own institutions. The Windward Islands had neither legislature, laws, revenue nor tariff in common
37.
West Indies Federation
–
The West Indian Federation, also known as the West Indies, was a short-lived political union that existed from 3 January 1958 to 31 May 1962. British Guiana and British Honduras held observer status within the West Indies Federation, the total population of the West Indies Federation was between 3 and 4 million people, with the majority being of black West African descent. Minorities included Indians from the subcontinent, Europeans, Chinese, there was also a large population of mixed descent. In terms of religion, most of the population was Protestant, with significant numbers of Catholics and some Hindus, the West Indies Federation consisted of around 24 main inhabited islands and approximately 220–230 minor offshore islands, islets and cays. The largest island was Jamaica, located in the far northwest of the Federation, to the southeast lay the second largest island, Trinidad, followed by Barbados, located at the eastern extremity of the Federation. However, most of the area along either of these distances was taken up by open water, by comparison Great Britain stretches across nearly 10 degrees of latitude and Spain extends across almost 20 degrees of longitude. Most of the islands have mountainous interiors surrounded by narrow coastal plains, the exceptions were Anguilla, Antigua, Barbuda, the Cayman Islands, the Turks and Caicos Islands, and Trinidad. The narrow coastal plains as well as historical trade is the reason why almost all of the major settlements of the Federation were located on the coast. Chief towns included Kingston, Port of Spain, Bridgetown, Spanish Town, Montego Bay, Mandeville, Castries, Roseau, St. Georges, Kingstown, St. Johns, and Basseterre. The climate in all the islands is tropical, with hot and humid weather, regions falling within the rain shadows are relatively drier. There are two seasons annually, the dry season for the first six months of the year, many of the islands fall within the traditional hurricane belt, with the exception of Trinidad and thus are at risk from potential wind and flood damage. Britain classified the Federation as being part of its Caribbean and North Atlantic Territories region which was shared alongside other possessions such as Bermuda, Guyana opted not to join at that time due to its ongoing political and internal struggles for independence from the UK, started in the 1950s. At issue were the newly formed political party with socialist leanings and it had hoped to join the federation once the issues were resolved. The Bahamas did participate in the 1960 West Indies Federation Games, with a prime minister of the Bahamas, Perry Christie. There was however possible interest by Guyana in a very loose re-attempted Caribbean Federation around 1971, the Federation was an internally self-governing, federal state made up of ten provinces, all British colonial possessions. The federation was created by the United Kingdom in 1958 from most of the British West Indies, Britain intended that the Federation would shortly become a fully independent state, thus simultaneously satisfying the demands for independence from all the colonies in the region. The legal basis for the federation was the British Caribbean Federation Act 1956, and her representative, Patrick Buchan-Hepburn, 1st Baron Hailes, was given the title of Governor-General rather than that of Governor more typical for a British colony. The title may have reflected the nature of the state
38.
Barbados Independence Act 1966
–
The Barbados Independence Act 1966 is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom that granted independence to Barbados with effect from 30 November 1966. The Act also provided for the granting of a new constitution to take effect upon independence, as a result of the Act, Barbados became the fourth English-speaking country in the West Indies to achieve full independence from the United Kingdom. At the time of independence, Barbados also became a member of the grouping known as the British Commonwealth of Nations as a Commonwealth realm. An Anglo-Barbadian dialogue, the leading to Barbados independence, 1965-66. Routledge, part of the Taylor & Francis Group
39.
Geography of Barbados
–
Barbados is a continental island in the North Atlantic Ocean and is located at 13°10 north of the equator, and 59°32 west of the Prime Meridian. As the easternmost isle of the Lesser Antilles in the West Indies, Barbados lies 100 kilometres east of the Windward Islands and Caribbean Sea. The maritime claim for Barbados is a sea of 12 nmi, with an exclusive economic zone of 200 nmi. Of the total EEZ area 70,000 km2, is set aside for offshore oil exploration, a pending application to UNCLOS has placed for consideration a continental shelf 200 nmi to the east and south. To the west, however, most of Barbados maritime boundaries consist of lines with neighbours. These neighbours include, Martinique, and Saint Lucia to the northwest, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines to the west, Trinidad and Tobago and Venezuela to the southwest, Barbados total land area is 430 km2, and it has a coastline of 97 km length. Sometimes compared to a pear or leg of mutton for its physical shape, along the north-south axis Barbados has a maximum length of 34 kilometres, and east-west maximum breadth of 23 kilometres. The physical characteristics of Barbados are its lowlands or gently sloping, terraced plains, elevations in the interior range from 180 to 240 metres above sea level. Mount Hillaby is the highest point at 340 metres above sea level, farther south, at Christ Church Ridge, elevations range from sixty to ninety metres. Eighty-five percent of the surface consists of coralline limestone twenty-four to thirty metres thick, Scotland District contains outcroppings of oceanic formations at the surface. Sugarcane is planted on almost 80 percent of the limestone surface. The soils vary in fertility, erosion is a problem, with crop loss resulting from landslides, washouts, most of the small streams are in Scotland District. The rest of the island has few streams, nevertheless. In 2009 and 2010, members of the real estate industry in Barbados proposed the creation of artificial islands to be placed off the west coast. Both proposed islands would be a distance from the Deep Water Harbour in Bridgetown. Barbados is in the Eastern Caribbean Time Zone, Barbados no longer observes Daylight Saving Time. It was last used between Sunday,20 April 1980 at 2,00 AM and Thursday,25 September 1980 at 2,00 AM and its generally pleasant maritime climate is influenced by northeast trade winds, which moderate the tropical temperature. Cool, northeasterly trade winds are prevalent during the December to June dry season, the overall annual temperature ranges from 24 to 28 °C, slightly lower temperatures prevail at higher elevations
40.
Fauna of Barbados
–
The fauna of Barbados is less diverse than that of other Caribbean islands. The islands fauna has been affected by anthropogenic activities, these range from habitat destruction to the introduction of non-native species. Species best able to adapt to the presence of humans have persisted, the island of Barbados was formed by tectonic uplift and is younger than surrounding lesser Antillean islands, which are primarily of volcanic origin. Avian colonization has occurred recently relative to the geological age of the island. Species capable of crossing the sea barrier by flight enjoyed an advantage, helping explain why avian species are more numerous than other animal groups. In addition to natural colonization of the island by animals, humans have contributed to the composition of the island. Mammals are a poorly represented group on the island, composed almost entirely of introduced species, the Norway rat, house mouse, European hare, Indian mongoose, and green monkey are the most notable examples. The now extinct Barbados raccoon is considered to have been endemic to the island, there is also some indication that the Barbados raccoon was in fact a subspecies of the common raccoon, rather than a distinct species. The only remaining native mammals are a number of bat species, the most common of which is the velvety free-tailed bat, marine mammals are not frequently seen in Barbadian waters, some species however, particularly bottlenose dolphins and humpback whales, are occasionally seen offshore. Feral dogs and cats, introduced by humans, also occur on the island, birds are fairly well represented on the island, most having adapted well to the presence of humans. Icterids such as the Carib grackle and the shiny cowbird, which parasitizes the nests of the former species, are quite common. Seedeaters include the black-faced grassquit and the grassland yellow finch, known locally as the grass canary, introduced from South America the grassland yellow finch is now faced with extirpation due to poaching for the pet trade. Until recently considered a non-sexually dimorphic subspecies of the Lesser Antillean bullfinch, there are two species of tyrant flycatcher found on the island, the gray kingbird which is quite common, often seen perched on power lines, and the Caribbean elaenia which is more rare. Representatives of the family Columbidae include the dove, common ground dove, scaly-naped pigeon. Another species, the dove, which was previously reported as an occasional visitor to the island, has now established a breeding population. Nectar consuming species include the Antillean crested hummingbird, green-throated carib, heron species include, the cattle egret and the fairly rare green heron. A recent addition to the avifauna is the little egret. Early European visitors reported finding a species of parrot on the island, the brown-throated parakeet, introduced to the island, is rarely seen
41.
Politics of Barbados
–
Executive power is vested in the Barbadian monarch, and is exercised by his or her vice-regal representative, on the advice of the Prime Minister and Cabinet, who, together, form the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of the Parliament, the political system is dominated by two main parties, the Barbados Labour Party and the Democratic Labour Party. The judiciary of Barbados is independent of the executive and the legislature, jurisprudence is based on English common law. Many of the countrys legislative practices derive from the conventions of, and precedents set by. Name Barbados Type of government Parliamentary democracy with a constitutional monarchy, Legal system English common law, accepts compulsory International Court of Justice jurisdiction, with reservations. Description of national flag Three vertical panels - the outer panels of ultramarine, a broken trident in black is the centre of the flag. Sovereign and Head of State Elizabeth II, Queen of Barbados, the present Monarch also reigned over Barbados when it was a territory. Viceroy Elliot Belgrave, Governor-General of Barbados, Head of government Prime Minister Freundel Stuart. Cabinet Ministers chosen by the Prime Minister and appointed by the Governor-Generals assent, Cabinet leads various ministries and agencies, generally with regional representation. The Governor-General is appointed according to tradition by the monarch on the advice of the Prime Minister for a non-specific term, in following legislative elections, the leader of the majority party in the House of Commons is usually designated by the Governor-General to become Prime Minister. Elizabeth II, Queen of Barbados, is the head of state and gives repository of power, as expressed in the constitution. As long as the monarch is following the advice of her ministers, the Governor-General has no term limit, the viceroy is said to serve at Her Majestys pleasure. Similarly, the Governor-General exercises the powers of state on the advice of the Crown ministers. The term the Crown is usually used to represent the power of the government overall, Government ministers are ministers of the Crown. Criminal prosecutions are made by Crown prosecutors in the name of the monarch and it has been proposed that Barbados become a republic. The Prime Minister is the head of government, in practice, the position usually goes to the leader of the political party that has the most seats in the lower house. On several occasions in Barbadian history, no party has had a majority in the House of Assembly and thus one party, usually the largest, Political parties are private organisations that are not mentioned in the constitution. By the convention of responsible government, the Prime Minister and most of the Cabinet are Members of Parliament so they can answer to Parliament for their actions, the Prime Minister selects ministers to head the various government departments and form a cabinet
42.
Parishes of Barbados
–
The country of Barbados is divided into sub-regions known as parishes. They are legally styled as the Parish of as opposed to the American naming convention with the name Parish coming after the name, the use of the term parish derives from the islands religious Anglican history under the Church of England. This system of churches was based on the system that of the Church of England and was the visible expression forming the basis of the parliamentary representation in Barbados. The differing size and shape of each parish were primarily influenced by the plantation estates of cotton, sugar cane. Thus Barbados was converted into the current eleven parishes of today, as was common under the British system, each Parish had a single main parishional church, which acted as a sort of capital for each parish. The parishes each held their own Local Government Councils until these were abolished in 1959, the nations capital Bridgetown, which is located within the parish of Saint Michael, may one day be made into its own district. Within the country, travel is unrestricted to everyone in moving about from parish-to-parish, with the rise of urban sprawl and new construction projects across the country many neighbourhoods and even parishional border-lines today are ill defined. Stamford Street and Charing Cross, London, William Clowes and Sons, Barbados Parliament, The defined Parish area borders of Barbados Barbados Parishes Barbados Statistical Service Barbados Government census by Parish
Barbados