1.
Barbara Jordan (tennis)
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Barbara Jordan is a former professional female tennis player from the United States who won the 1979 Australian Open singles title. Jordan also won the doubles title at the 1983 French Open with Eliot Teltscher. Jordan was a three-time All-American at Stanford University, where she obtained her degree in economics in three years and she won the 1978 AIAW College National doubles with sister Kathy Jordan in 1978. Jordan made her first appearance on the computer in August 1977 at No.95 and she was a five-time member of WTA board of directors as well as served as chairman of the tournament committee in 1980. Jordan also won the USTA under 21-National Championship in 1978 in singles and doubles and she went on to earn her Juris Doctorate from UCLA
2.
United States House of Representatives
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The United States House of Representatives is the lower chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the Senate, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the House are established by Article One of the United States Constitution, since its inception in 1789, all representatives are elected popularly. The total number of voting representatives is fixed by law at 435, the House is charged with the passage of federal legislation, known as bills, which, after concurrence by the Senate, are sent to the President for consideration. The presiding officer is the Speaker of the House, who is elected by the members thereof and is traditionally the leader of the controlling party. He or she and other leaders are chosen by the Democratic Caucus or the Republican Conferences. The House meets in the wing of the United States Capitol. Under the Articles of Confederation, the Congress of the Confederation was a body in which each state was equally represented. All states except Rhode Island agreed to send delegates, the issue of how to structure Congress was one of the most divisive among the founders during the Convention. The House is referred to as the house, with the Senate being the upper house. Both houses approval is necessary for the passage of legislation, the Virginia Plan drew the support of delegates from large states such as Virginia, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania, as it called for representation based on population. The smaller states, however, favored the New Jersey Plan, the Constitution was ratified by the requisite number of states in 1788, but its implementation was set for March 4,1789. The House began work on April 1,1789, when it achieved a quorum for the first time, during the first half of the 19th century, the House was frequently in conflict with the Senate over regionally divisive issues, including slavery. The North was much more populous than the South, and therefore dominated the House of Representatives, However, the North held no such advantage in the Senate, where the equal representation of states prevailed. Regional conflict was most pronounced over the issue of slavery, One example of a provision repeatedly supported by the House but blocked by the Senate was the Wilmot Proviso, which sought to ban slavery in the land gained during the Mexican–American War. Conflict over slavery and other issues persisted until the Civil War, the war culminated in the Souths defeat and in the abolition of slavery. Because all southern senators except Andrew Johnson resigned their seats at the beginning of the war, the years of Reconstruction that followed witnessed large majorities for the Republican Party, which many Americans associated with the Unions victory in the Civil War and the ending of slavery. The Reconstruction period ended in about 1877, the ensuing era, the Democratic and the Republican Party held majorities in the House at various times. The late 19th and early 20th centuries also saw an increase in the power of the Speaker of the House
3.
Texas
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Texas is the second largest state in the United States by both area and population. Other major cities include Austin, the second most populous state capital in the U. S. Texas is nicknamed the Lone Star State to signify its former status as an independent republic, and as a reminder of the states struggle for independence from Mexico. The Lone Star can be found on the Texan state flag, the origin of Texass name is from the word Tejas, which means friends in the Caddo language. Due to its size and geologic features such as the Balcones Fault, although Texas is popularly associated with the U. S. southwestern deserts, less than 10 percent of Texas land area is desert. Most of the centers are located in areas of former prairies, grasslands, forests. Traveling from east to west, one can observe terrain that ranges from coastal swamps and piney woods, to rolling plains and rugged hills, the term six flags over Texas refers to several nations that have ruled over the territory. Spain was the first European country to claim the area of Texas, Mexico controlled the territory until 1836 when Texas won its independence, becoming an independent Republic. In 1845, Texas joined the United States as the 28th state, the states annexation set off a chain of events that caused the Mexican–American War in 1846. A slave state before the American Civil War, Texas declared its secession from the U. S. in early 1861, after the Civil War and the restoration of its representation in the federal government, Texas entered a long period of economic stagnation. One Texan industry that thrived after the Civil War was cattle, due to its long history as a center of the industry, Texas is associated with the image of the cowboy. The states economic fortunes changed in the early 20th century, when oil discoveries initiated a boom in the state. With strong investments in universities, Texas developed a diversified economy, as of 2010 it shares the top of the list of the most Fortune 500 companies with California at 57. With a growing base of industry, the leads in many industries, including agriculture, petrochemicals, energy, computers and electronics, aerospace. Texas has led the nation in export revenue since 2002 and has the second-highest gross state product. The name Texas, based on the Caddo word tejas meaning friends or allies, was applied by the Spanish to the Caddo themselves, during Spanish colonial rule, the area was officially known as the Nuevo Reino de Filipinas, La Provincia de Texas. Texas is the second largest U. S. state, behind Alaska, though 10 percent larger than France and almost twice as large as Germany or Japan, it ranks only 27th worldwide amongst country subdivisions by size. If it were an independent country, Texas would be the 40th largest behind Chile, Texas is in the south central part of the United States of America. Three of its borders are defined by rivers, the Rio Grande forms a natural border with the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas to the south
4.
Texas's 18th congressional district
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Texas District 18 of the United States House of Representatives is a Congressional district that serves much of inner city Houston and the surrounding area. It has been the Downtown Houston district since 1973, the current Representative from District 18 is Sheila Jackson Lee. Since the district was moved to Houston in 1972, it has voted for a Democrat in every presidential election, the district gave George McGovern 69% in 1972 and Walter Mondale 72% in 1984. In the TV series The West Wing, Texass 18th congressional district was represented by fictional Democratic presidential candidate Matt Santos, list of United States congressional districts Martis, Kenneth C. The Historical Atlas of Political Parties in the United States Congress, the Historical Atlas of United States Congressional Districts. Congressional Biographical Directory of the United States 1774–present
5.
Bob Price (Texas politician)
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Robert Dale Price, known as Bob Price, was a Republican U. S. representative from Pampa, Texas, who served from 1967 to 1975. He was subsequently from 1978 to 1981 a member of the Texas State Senate, considered to have been among the most conservative members of his party, Price was only the second Republican since Reconstruction to hold the 18th District U. S. House seat. The first Republican representative from the reconfigured district, Ben H. Guill, also of Pampa. Price was born to Mr. and Mrs. Benjamin F. Price and he was educated in the Reading public schools and in 1951 received his bachelors degree from Oklahoma State University in Stillwater, Oklahoma. After graduation, he married the former Martha A, from 1951 to 1955, Price served in the United States Air Force. He flew twenty-seven combat missions during the Korean War and received the Air Medal, the Prices moved to Texas after his discharge from the Air Force. Throughout his adult life, he owned and operated a ranch near Pampa, the ranch was located in portions of four counties and had been in the Price family since 1907. Price became involved in state Republican politics and he was a delegate to the state GOP conventions in 1964,1966, and 1968. He was a delegate to the 1968 Republican National Convention in Miami Beach, in 1964, Price made his first race in the 18th District by challenging the 14-year Democratic incumbent, Walter Edward Rogers, who prevailed with 58,701 votes to Prices 48,050. Rogers had been elected to congress in November 1950, when he unseated the short-term Representative Guill. Price ran again in 1966, but Rogers decided not to seek reelection to a term. Price defeated Miller,45,209 votes to 30,822, Price was joined in the Texas delegation by a second better-known Republican, George Herbert Walker Bush of Houston, the future U. S. president. Prices party gained forty-seven U. S. House seats nationally and he was the first Republican to win a full term in this district. Price served on the House Agriculture Committee and on the Manned Space Flight, voters in this area had begun splitting their tickets as early as the 1940s, though conservative Democrats continued to hold most local offices. Price was reelected in 1968 with 65.2 percent of the ballots cast, in 1972, even though Texas had gained a seat in redistricting, the Texas Legislature merged Prices district with the Wichita Falls-based District 13, held by six-term Democrat Graham Purcell. The reconfigured district retained Purcells district number, it was geographically and demographically more Prices district than Purcells, as a result, Price defeated Purcell,87,084 to 71,730. Price was defeated by Democrat Jack Hightower of Vernon in Wilbarger County west of Wichita Falls, Hightower had a solid majority,53,094 to Prices 39,087. Hightowers winning total was twenty thousand below Purcells losing tally in 1972
6.
Mickey Leland
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George Thomas Mickey Leland was an anti-poverty activist who later became a congressman from the Texas 18th District and chair of the Congressional Black Caucus. Leland was born in Lubbock, Texas to the parents of Alice and George Thomas Leland, at a very early age, the Lelands moved to Houstons Fifth Ward neighborhood. While attending Texas Southern University in the late 1960s, he emerged as a leader of the Houston-area civil rights movement and had brought national leaders of the movement to Houston. Leland graduated from Texas Southern in 1970 with a Bachelors degree in Pharmacy and it was during the administration of then-Texas Southern University President Leonard O. Spearman, where Leland received an honorary doctorate degree from his alma mater. In 1972, Texas for the first time allowed its State House of Representatives, the congressional district included the neighborhood where he had grown up, and he was recognized as a knowledgeable advocate for health, children and the elderly. His leadership abilities were noticed in Washington, and he was named to serve as Freshman Majority Whip in his first term. Leland was re-elected to each succeeding Congress until his death, Leland was an effective advocate on hunger and public health issues. Leland pioneered many afro-centric cultural norms in Washington which included wearing a dashiki, as he visited soup kitchens and makeshift shelters, he became increasingly concerned about the hungry and homeless. The work for which he is best remembered began when Leland co-authored legislation with U. S. Rep. Ben Gilman in establishing the House Select Committee on Hunger, U. S. Speaker of the House Tip ONeill named Leland chairman when it was enacted in 1984. The Select Committees mandate was to conduct a continuing, comprehensive study and review of the problems of hunger, although the committee had no legislative jurisdiction, the committee, for the first time, provided a single focus for hunger-related issues. The committees impact and influence would stem largely from Congressman Lelands ability to generate awareness of complex hunger alleviation issues, Lelands sensitivity to the immediate needs of poor and hungry people would soon make him a spokesperson for hungry people on a far broader scale. Reports of acute famine in sub-Saharan Africa immediately prompted Speaker ONeill to ask Leland to lead a bipartisan Congressional delegation to assess conditions and that legislation provided $800 million in food and humanitarian relief supplies. The international attention Leland had focused on the famine brought additional support for non-governmental efforts and his ability in reaching out to others with innovative ideas and to gain support from unlikely sources was a key to his success in effectively addressing the problems for the poor and minorities. He met with both Pope John Paul II about food aid to Africa and Cuban President Fidel Castro about reuniting Cuban families. In Moscow as part of the first Congressional delegation led by a Speaker of the House as part of the post-Cold War Era, he proposed a joint US-Soviet food initiative to Mozambique. As Chairman of the Congressional Black Caucus, Leland proudly presented the first awards the Caucus had ever given a non-black, rock musician Bob Geldorf, Geldorf honored for his Band Aid concert and fund-raising efforts for African famine victims and Koppel for his news stories on the African famine. Leland was an advocate on other major issues as well. He chaired the Subcommittee on Postal Operations and Services and served on the Committee on Post Office and Civil Service, Leland was a very effective promoter of responsible and realistic broadcast television and cable programming
7.
Texas Senate
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The Texas Senate is the upper house of the Texas State Legislature. There are 31 members of the Senate, representing single-member districts across the U. S. state of Texas, with populations of approximately 806,000 per constituency, there are no term limits, and each term is four years long. Elections are held in even numbered years on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November, in elections ending in years ending in 2, all seats are up for election. Half of the senators serve a two-year term, based on a drawing. As such, in elections, about half of the Texas Senate is on the ballot. The Senate meets at the Texas State Capitol in Austin, the Republicans currently control the chamber, which is made up of 20 Republicans and 11 Democrats, as of January 10,2017. The Lieutenant Governor of Texas serves as the President of the Senate, the Lieutenant Governor may also cast a vote should a Senate floor vote end in a tie. Unlike other state legislatures, the Texas Senate does not include majority or minority leaders, instead, the President Pro Tempore is considered the second most powerful position, and can be reserved to any political party in the chamber regardless if the party is a majority or not. Presidents Pro Tempore are usually the most senior members of the Senate, the President Pro Tempore presides when the Lieutenant Governor is not present or when the legislature is not in regular session. For the 82nd Legislative Session, which began in 2011, there were two new, or freshman, senators, Brian Birdwell, a Republican from Granbury, and José R. Rodríguez. For the 83rd Legislative Session, which began in 2013, there were six new senators, including Sylvia Garcia, for this term of the Legislature the President of the Senate is Texas Lieutenant Governor Dan Patrick. The President Pro Tempore is Republican Craig Estes of District 30, Senator John Whitmire, a Democrat from Houston, is the Dean of the Senate, meaning he is the most senior member, having served since 1987. Senator Chris Harris, a Republican from Arlington, is the most senior member of his party, new senators elected in 2014 are Bob Hall, Paul Bettencourt, Van Taylor, Don Huffines, and Konni Burton, all Republicans. There have been at least three cases of quorum-busting in Texas Senate history. The first case was in 1870, with the Rump Senate, followed by the 1979 killer bees and finally the Texas Eleven in the summer of 2003, the following represents the Senate committee structure for the 85th Legislature. †Elected in a special election Edward Clark, Lieutenant Governor of Texas, wayne Connally, Senator from Wilson County, brother of Governor John Connally. Lloyd Doggett, Texas Supreme Court Justice, U. S. House of Representatives, robert L. Duncan, State Senator from Lubbock, 1996-2014, Chancellor of the Texas Tech University System since 2014 Chet Edwards, U. S. House of Representatives. Glenn Hegar, current Texas Comptroller of Public Accounts, John Ireland, Texas Supreme Court Justice, Governor of Texas
8.
Houston
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Houston is the most populous city in the state of Texas and the fourth-most populous city in the United States. With a census-estimated 2014 population of 2.239 million within an area of 667 square miles, it also is the largest city in the southern United States and the seat of Harris County. Located in Southeast Texas near the Gulf of Mexico, it is the city of Houston–The Woodlands–Sugar Land. Houston was founded on August 28,1836, near the banks of Buffalo Bayou and incorporated as a city on June 5,1837. The city was named after former General Sam Houston, who was president of the Republic of Texas and had commanded, the burgeoning port and railroad industry, combined with oil discovery in 1901, has induced continual surges in the citys population. Houstons economy has an industrial base in energy, manufacturing, aeronautics. Leading in health care sectors and building equipment, Houston has more Fortune 500 headquarters within its city limits than any city except for New York City. The Port of Houston ranks first in the United States in international waterborne tonnage handled, the city has a population from various ethnic and religious backgrounds and a large and growing international community. Houston is the most diverse city in Texas and has described as the most diverse in the United States. It is home to cultural institutions and exhibits, which attract more than 7 million visitors a year to the Museum District. Houston has a visual and performing arts scene in the Theater District. In August 1836, two real estate entrepreneurs from New York, Augustus Chapman Allen and John Kirby Allen, purchased 6,642 acres of land along Buffalo Bayou with the intent of founding a city. The Allen brothers decided to name the city after Sam Houston, the general at the Battle of San Jacinto. The great majority of slaves in Texas came with their owners from the slave states. Sizable numbers, however, came through the slave trade. New Orleans was the center of trade in the Deep South. Thousands of enslaved African Americans lived near the city before the Civil War, many of them near the city worked on sugar and cotton plantations, while most of those in the city limits had domestic and artisan jobs. Houston was granted incorporation on June 5,1837, with James S. Holman becoming its first mayor, in the same year, Houston became the county seat of Harrisburg County and the temporary capital of the Republic of Texas
9.
Austin, Texas
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Austin is the capital of the U. S. state of Texas and the seat of Travis County. It is the 11th-most populous city in the U. S. and it is the fastest growing large city in the United States and the second most populous capital city after Phoenix, Arizona. As of the U. S. Census Bureaus July 1,2015 estimate and it is the cultural and economic center of the Austin–Round Rock metropolitan area, which had an estimated population of 2,056,405 as of July 1,2016. In the 1830s, pioneers began to settle the area in central Austin along the Colorado River, in 1839, the site was officially chosen to replace Houston as the new capital of the Republic of Texas and was incorporated under the name Waterloo. Shortly thereafter, the name was changed to Austin in honor of Stephen F. Austin, the Father of Texas and the republics first secretary of state. The city subsequently grew throughout the 19th century and became a center for government and education with the construction of the Texas State Capitol and the University of Texas at Austin. After a lull in growth from the Great Depression, Austin resumed its development into a city and, by the 1980s, it emerged as a center for technology. A number of Fortune 500 companies have headquarters or regional offices in Austin, including Amazon. com, cisco, eBay, Google, IBM, Intel, Oracle Corporation, Texas Instruments, 3M, and Whole Foods Market. Dells worldwide headquarters is located in nearby Round Rock, a suburb of Austin, residents of Austin are known as Austinites. They include a mix of government employees, college students, musicians, high-tech workers, blue-collar workers. The city also adopted Silicon Hills as a nickname in the 1990s due to an influx of technology. In the late 1800s, Austin was known as the City of the Violet Crown because of the glow of light across the hills just after sunset. Even today, many Austin businesses use the term Violet Crown in their name, Austin is known as a clean-air city for its stringent no-smoking ordinances that apply to all public places and buildings, including restaurants and bars. The FBI ranked Austin as the second-safest major city in the U. S. for the year 2012, U. S. News & World Report named Austin the best place to live in the U. S. in 2017. Austin, Travis County and Williamson County have been the site of habitation since at least 9200 BC. When settlers arrived from Europe, the Tonkawa tribe inhabited the area, the Comanches and Lipan Apaches were also known to travel through the area. Spanish colonists, including the Espinosa-Olivares-Aguirre expedition, traveled through the area for centuries, in 1730, three missions from East Texas were combined and reestablished as one mission on the south side of the Colorado River, in what is now Zilker Park, in Austin. The mission was in area for only about seven months
10.
Democratic Party (United States)
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The Democratic Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. The Democrats dominant worldview was once socially conservative and fiscally classical liberalism, while, especially in the rural South, since Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal coalition in the 1930s, the Democratic Party has also promoted a social-liberal platform, supporting social justice. Today, the House Democratic caucus is composed mostly of progressives and centrists, the partys philosophy of modern liberalism advocates social and economic equality, along with the welfare state. It seeks to provide government intervention and regulation in the economy, the party has united with smaller left-wing regional parties throughout the country, such as the Farmer–Labor Party in Minnesota and the Nonpartisan League in North Dakota. Well into the 20th century, the party had conservative pro-business, the New Deal Coalition of 1932–1964 attracted strong support from voters of recent European extraction—many of whom were Catholics based in the cities. After Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal of the 1930s, the pro-business wing withered outside the South, after the racial turmoil of the 1960s, most southern whites and many northern Catholics moved into the Republican Party at the presidential level. The once-powerful labor union element became smaller and less supportive after the 1970s, white Evangelicals and Southerners became heavily Republican at the state and local level in the 1990s. However, African Americans became a major Democratic element after 1964, after 2000, Hispanic and Latino Americans, Asian Americans, the LGBT community, single women and professional women moved towards the party as well. The Northeast and the West Coast became Democratic strongholds by 1990 after the Republicans stopped appealing to socially liberal voters there, overall, the Democratic Party has retained a membership lead over its major rival the Republican Party. The most recent was the 44th president Barack Obama, who held the office from 2009 to 2017, in the 115th Congress, following the 2016 elections, Democrats are the opposition party, holding a minority of seats in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a minority of governorships, and state legislatures, though they do control the mayoralty of cities such as New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston, and Washington, D. C. The Democratic Party traces its origins to the inspiration of the Democratic-Republican Party, founded by Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and that party also inspired the Whigs and modern Republicans. Organizationally, the modern Democratic Party truly arose in the 1830s, since the nomination of William Jennings Bryan in 1896, the party has generally positioned itself to the left of the Republican Party on economic issues. They have been liberal on civil rights issues since 1948. On foreign policy both parties changed position several times and that party, the Democratic-Republican Party, came to power in the election of 1800. After the War of 1812 the Federalists virtually disappeared and the national political party left was the Democratic-Republicans. The Democratic-Republican party still had its own factions, however. As Norton explains the transformation in 1828, Jacksonians believed the peoples will had finally prevailed, through a lavishly financed coalition of state parties, political leaders, and newspaper editors, a popular movement had elected the president
11.
Texas Southern University
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Texas Southern University is a historically black university located in Houston, in the U. S. state of Texas, accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools. The university was established in 1927 as the Houston Colored Junior College and it developed through its private college phase as the four-year Houston Colored College. On March 3,1947, the state declared this to be the first state university in Houston, in 1951, the name changed to Texas Southern University. Texas Southern University is one of the largest and most comprehensive HBCUs in the nation, TSU is one of only four independent public universities in Texas and the only HBCU in Texas recognized as one of Americas Top Colleges by Forbes magazine. TSU is a producer of college degrees to African Americans and Hispanics in Texas. The university is a member-school of the Thurgood Marshall College Fund, on March 7,1927, the Houston Independent School District board resolved to establish junior colleges for each race, as the state was racially segregated in all public facilities. The schools name was changed to Houston College for Negroes. In February 1946, Heman Marion Sweatt, an African American man and he was denied admission because of race, and subsequently filed suit in Sweatt v. Painter. The state had no law school for African Americans, instead of granting Sweatt a writ of mandamus to attend the University of Texas, the trial court granted a continuance for six months to allow the state time to create a law school for blacks. The school was established to serve African Americans in Texas and offer them fields of study comparable to those available to white Texans, the state took over the Houston Independent School District -run Houston College for Negroes as a basis for the new university. Houston College moved to the present site, which was donated by Hugh Roy Cullen and it had one permanent building and an existing faculty and students. The new university was charged with teaching pharmacy, dentistry, arts and sciences, journalism, education, literature, law, medicine, the legislature stipulated that these courses shall be equivalent to those offered at other institutions of this type supported by the State of Texas. It ruled that African Americans must also be admitted to the University of Texas Law School at Austin, in March 1960, Texas Southern University students organized Houstons first sit-in at the Weingartens lunch counter located at 4110 Almeda. The success of their efforts inspired more sit-ins throughout the city, today, a historical marker commissioned by the Texas Historical Commission stands on the property of the first sit-in to commemorate the courageous acts of those TSU students. That property is now a U. S, the university today has more than 45 buildings on a 150-acre urban gated campus centrally located in Houston. The campus is three miles southeast of Downtown Houston and six miles east of Uptown Houston, the schools first structure was the Thornton B. Fairchild Building, built 1947–1948 and housing administration and classroom space, temporary buildings served as faculty housing during that time. The Mack H. Hannah hall, designed by Lamar Q, cato and opened in 1950, was the second building
12.
Bachelor of Arts
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A Bachelor of Arts is a bachelors degree awarded for an undergraduate course or program in either the liberal arts, the sciences, or both. Bachelor of Arts degree programs take three to four years depending on the country, academic institution, and specific specializations, majors or minors. The word baccalaureus or baccalarium should not be confused with baccalaureatus, degree diplomas generally are printed on high-quality paper or parchment, individual institutions set the preferred abbreviation for their degrees. In Pakistan, the Bachelor of Arts degree can also be attained within two years as an external degree, in colleges and universities in Australia, New Zealand, Nepal and South Africa, the BA degree can be taken over three years of full-time study. Unlike in other countries, students do not receive a grade for their Bachelor of Arts degree with varying levels of honours. Qualified students may be admitted, after they have achieved their Bachelors program with an overall grade point average. Thus, to achieve a Bachelor Honours degree, a postgraduate year. A student who holds a Honours degree is eligible for entry to either a Doctorate or a very high research Master´s degree program. Education in Canada is controlled by the Provinces and can be different depending on the province in Canada. Canadian universities typically offer a 3-year Bachelor of Arts degrees, in many universities and colleges, Bachelor of Arts degrees are differentiated either as Bachelors of Arts or as honours Bachelor of Arts degree. The honours degrees are designated with the abbreviation in brackets of. It should not be confused with the consecutive Bachelor of Arts degree with Honours, Latin Baccalaureatus in Artibus Cum Honore, BA hon. de jure without brackets and with a dot. It is a degree, which is considered to be the equivalent of a corresponding maîtrise degree under the French influenced system. Going back in history, a three-year Bachelor of Arts degree was called a pass degree or general degree. Students may be required to undertake a long high-quality research empirical thesis combined with a selection of courses from the relevant field of studies. The consecutive B. cum Honore degree is essential if students ultimate goal is to study towards a two- or three-year very high research masters´ degree qualification. A student holding a Baccalaureatus Cum Honore degree also may choose to complete a Doctor of Philosophy program without the requirement to first complete a masters degree, over the years, in some universities certain Baccalaureatus cum Honore programs have been changed to corresponding master´s degrees. In general, in all four countries, the B. A. degree is the standard required for entry into a masters programme, in science, a BA hons degree is generally a prerequisite for entrance to a Ph. D program or a very-high-research-activity master´s programme
13.
Boston University
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Boston University is a private research university located in Boston, Massachusetts. The university is nonsectarian, and is affiliated with the United Methodist Church. The university has more than 3,900 faculty members and nearly 33,000 students and it offers bachelors degrees, masters degrees, and doctorates, and medical, dental, business, and law degrees through 17 schools and colleges on two urban campuses. The main campus is situated along the Charles River in Bostons Fenway-Kenmore and Allston neighborhoods, BU is categorized as an R1, Doctoral University in the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education. BU is a member of the Boston Consortium for Higher Education, the University was ranked 39th among undergraduate programs at national universities, and 32nd among global universities by U. S. News & World Report in its 2017 rankings. In 1876, BU professor Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone in a BU lab, American Civil Rights Movement leader and 1964 Nobel Peace Prize winner Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. received his PhD in Theology from BU in 1955. The Boston University Terriers compete in the NCAAs Division I, BU athletic teams compete in the Patriot League, and Hockey East conferences, and their mascot is Rhett the Boston Terrier. Boston University is well known for hockey, in which it has won five national championships. The University organized formal Centennial observances both in 1939 and 1969, on April 24–25,1839 a group of Methodist ministers and laymen at the Old Bromfield Street Church in Boston elected to establish a Methodist theological school. Set up in Newbury, Vermont, the school was named the Newbury Biblical Institute, in 1847, the Congregational Society in Concord, New Hampshire, invited the Institute to relocate to Concord and offered a disused Congregational church building with a capacity of 1200 people. Other citizens of Concord covered the remodeling costs, one stipulation of the invitation was that the Institute remain in Concord for at least 20 years. The charter issued by New Hampshire designated the school the Methodist General Biblical Institute, with the agreed twenty years coming to a close, the Trustees of the Concord Biblical Institute purchased 30 acres on Aspinwall Hill in Brookline, Massachusetts, as a possible relocation site. The institute moved in 1867 to 23 Pinkney Street in Boston, in 1869, three Trustees of the Boston Theological Institute obtained from the Massachusetts Legislature a charter for a university by name of Boston University. These three were successful Boston businessmen and Methodist laymen, with a history of involvement in educational enterprises and they were Isaac Rich, Lee Claflin, and Jacob Sleeper, for whom Boston Universitys three West Campus dormitories are named. Lee Claflins son, William, was then Governor of Massachusetts, on account of the religious opinions he may entertain, provided, nonetheless, that this section shall not apply to the theological department of said University. Every department of the new university was open to all on an equal footing regardless of sex, race. The Boston Theological Institute was absorbed into Boston University in 1871 as the BU School of Theology, in January 1872 Isaac Rich died, leaving the vast bulk of his estate to a trust that would go to Boston University after ten years of growth while the University was organized. Most of this bequest consisted of real estate throughout the core of the city of Boston and was appraised at more than $1.5 million, Kilgore describes this as the largest single donation to an American college or university to that time
14.
Bachelor of Laws
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The Bachelor of Laws is an undergraduate degree in law originating in England and offered in most common law jurisdictions. The LL. of the abbreviation for the degree is from the genitive plural legum, creating an abbreviation for a plural, especially from Latin, is often done by doubling the first letter, thus LL. B. Stands for Legum Baccalaureus in Latin, today in Canada the predominant first degree in common law is the Juris Doctor degree having replaced the LL. B. Bachelor of Laws is also the name of the first degree in Scots law and South African law awarded by a number of universities in Scotland and South Africa, the first academic degrees were all law degrees in medieval universities, and the first law degrees were doctorates. The foundations of the first universities were the glossators of the 11th century, the first university, that of Bologna, was founded as a school of law by four famous legal scholars in the 12th century who were students of the glossator school in that city. The University of Bologna served as the model for law schools of the medieval age. The bachelors degree originated at the University of Paris, whose system was implemented at Oxford, the arts designation of the degree traditionally signifies that the student has undertaken a certain amount of study of the classics. On continental Europe the bachelors degree was phased out in the 18th or early 19th century but it continued at Oxford, the teaching of law at Oxford University was for philosophical or scholarly purposes and not meant to prepare one to practise law. The original method of education at the Inns of Court was a mix of moot court-like practice and lecture, as well as court proceedings observation. By the seventeenth century, the Inns obtained a status as a kind of university akin to the University of Oxford, with the frequent absence of parties to suits during the Crusades, the importance of the lawyer role grew tremendously, and the demand for lawyers grew. The apprenticeship programme for solicitors thus emerged, structured and governed by the rules as the apprenticeship programmes for the trades. The training of solicitors by apprenticeship was formally established by an act of parliament in 1729, therefore, formal schools of law were called for, but not finally established until later in the century, and even then the bar did not consider a university degree in admission decisions. When law degrees were required by the English bar and bar associations in other common law countries, historically, law students studied both canon law and civil law. Today, this is less common. In most common law countries, the Bachelor of Laws programme is generally entered directly after completion of secondary school, Masters courses are also offered to university graduates, those who graduate from such courses are entitled to use the initials LL. M. Additionally, of the thirty-six Law Schools thirteen of those universities have started offering the Juris Doctor as a Graduate entry degree. Bangladesh is a common law country, like other Common Law countries, Bachelor of Laws degree is a condition precedent to practise as an Advocate in the Courts of Law of Bangladesh. Both LL. B. and LL. B. degrees are offered in different Public, only seven Public Universities offer LL. B. degree
15.
Reconstruction Era
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Johnson followed a lenient policy toward ex-Confederates. Lincolns last speeches show that he was leaning toward supporting the enfranchisement of all freedmen, whereas Johnson was opposed to this. A Republican coalition came to power in all the southern states and set out to transform the society by setting up a free labor economy, using the U. S. Army. The Bureau protected the rights of freedmen, negotiated labor contracts. Thousands of Northerners came South as missionaries, teachers, businessmen, rebuilding the rundown railroad system was a major strategy, but it collapsed when a nationwide depression struck the economy. The Radicals in the House of Representatives, frustrated by Johnsons opposition to Congressional Reconstruction, filed impeachment charges, in early 1866, Congress passed the Freedmens Bureau and Civil Rights Bills and sent them to Johnson for his signature. Meanwhile, self-styled Conservatives strongly opposed reconstruction and they alleged widespread corruption by the Carpetbaggers, excessive state spending and ruinous taxes. Southern democrats and conservatives violently counterattacked and had regained power in each redeemed Southern state by 1877, meanwhile, public support for Reconstruction policies, requiring continued supervision of the South, faded in the North, as voters decided that the Civil War and years of conflict should stop. Reconstruction was a significant chapter in the history of civil rights in the United States, in the different states Reconstruction began and ended at different times, federal Reconstruction ended with the Compromise of 1877. In recent decades most historians follow Foner in dating the Reconstruction of the south as starting in 1863 rather than 1865, Reconstruction policies were debated in the North when the war began, and commenced in earnest after Lincolns Emancipation Proclamation, issued on January 1,1863. As Confederate states came back under control of the US Army, President Abraham Lincoln set up reconstructed governments in Tennessee, Arkansas and he experimented by giving land to blacks in South Carolina. By fall 1865, the new President Andrew Johnson declared the war goals of national unity, Republicans in Congress, refusing to accept Johnsons lenient terms, rejected new members of Congress, some of whom had been high-ranking Confederate officials a few months before. Johnson broke with the Republicans after vetoing two key bills that supported the Freedmens Bureau and provided federal civil rights to the freedmen and that same year, Congress removed civilian governments in the South, and placed the former Confederacy under the rule of the U. S. Army. In ten states, coalitions of freedmen, recent black and white arrivals from the North, Conservative opponents called the Republican regimes corrupt and instigated violence toward freedmen and whites who supported Reconstruction. Most of the violence was carried out by members of the Ku Klux Klan, Klan members attacked and intimidated blacks seeking to exercise their new civil rights, as well as Republican politicians in the south favoring those civil rights. One such politician murdered by the Klan on the eve of the 1868 presidential election was Republican Congressman James M. Hinds of Arkansas, widespread violence in the south led to federal intervention by President Ulysses S. Grant in 1871, which suppressed the Klan. Nevertheless, white Democrats, calling themselves Redeemers, regained control of the state by state, sometimes using fraud. The end of Reconstruction was a process, and the period of Republican control ended at different times in different states
16.
Southern United States
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The Southern United States, commonly referred to as the American South, Dixie, or simply the South, is a region of the United States of America. The South does not fully match the geographic south of the United States, arizona and New Mexico, which are geographically in the southern part of the country, are rarely considered part, while West Virginia, which separated from Virginia in 1863, commonly is. Some scholars have proposed definitions of the South that do not coincide neatly with state boundaries, while the states of Delaware and Maryland, as well as the District of Columbia permitted slavery prior to the start of the Civil War, they remained with the Union. However, the United States Census Bureau puts them in the South, usually, the South is defined as including the southeastern and south-central United States. The region is known for its culture and history, having developed its own customs, musical styles, and cuisines, the Southern ethnic heritage is diverse and includes strong European, African, and some Native American components. Since the late 1960s, black people have many offices in Southern states, especially in the coastal states of Virginia. Historically, the South relied heavily on agriculture, and was rural until after 1945. It has since become more industrialized and urban and has attracted national and international migrants, the American South is now among the fastest-growing areas in the United States. Houston is the largest city in the Southern United States, sociological research indicates that Southern collective identity stems from political, demographic, and cultural distinctiveness from the rest of the United States. The region contains almost all of the Bible Belt, an area of high Protestant church attendance and predominantly conservative, indeed, studies have shown that Southerners are more conservative than non-Southerners in several areas, including religion, morality, international relations and race relations. Apart from its climate, the experience in the South increasingly resembles the rest of the nation. The arrival of millions of Northerners and millions of Hispanics meant the introduction of cultural values, the process has worked both ways, however, with aspects of Southern culture spreading throughout a greater portion of the rest of the United States in a process termed Southernization. The question of how to define the subregions in the South has been the focus of research for nearly a century, as defined by the United States Census Bureau, the Southern region of the United States includes sixteen states. As of 2010, an estimated 114,555,744 people, or thirty-seven percent of all U. S. residents, lived in the South, the nations most populous region. Other terms related to the South include, The Old South, the New South, usually including the South Atlantic States. The Solid South, region largely controlled by the Democratic Party from 1877 to 1964, before that, blacks were elected to national office and many to local office through the 1880s, Populist-Republican coalitions gained victories for Fusionist candidates for governors in the 1890s. Includes at least all the 11 former Confederate States, Southeastern United States, usually including the Carolinas, the Virginias, Tennessee, Kentucky, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Florida. The Deep South, various definitions, usually including Louisiana, Alabama, Mississippi, Georgia, occasionally, parts of adjoining states are included
17.
Impeachment process against Richard Nixon
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Nixon refused, but on July 24, the U. S. Supreme Court ruled against him. Two other articles of impeachment were debated but not approved, before the House could vote on the impeachment resolutions, Nixon made public one of the additional conversations, known as the Smoking Gun Tape, which made clear his complicity in the cover-up. With his political support completely eroded, Nixon resigned from office on August 9,1974 and it is widely believed that had Nixon not resigned, his impeachment by the House and removal from office by a trial before the United States Senate would have occurred. Nixon is one of only three U. S. presidents against whom articles of impeachment have been reported to the full House for consideration since the office was established in 1789. The other two–Andrew Johnson in 1868 and Bill Clinton in 1998–were both impeached, both were acquitted from all charges following a Senate trial. The impeachment process against Nixon is the only one resulting in the departure from office of its target, on May 9,1972, Representative William Fitts Ryan submitted a resolution, H. Res. The resolution was referred to the Judiciary Committee, the next day, Representative John Conyers introduced a similar resolution, H. Res. On May 18,1972, Conyers introduced his second resolution,989, calling for President Nixons impeachment. The resolutions were referred to the Judiciary Committee, where they did not progress and these actions occurred before the break-in at the Watergate complex. Representative Robert Drinan of Massachusetts on July 31,1973 called to introduce a resolution calling for the impeachment of Nixon, Drinan believed that Nixons secret bombing of Cambodia was illegal, and as such, constituted a high crime and misdemeanor. The resolution was received with enthusiasm by the House Democratic leadership. As the House Majority Leader, Tip ONeill, later stated, Morally, but politically, he damn near blew it. For if Drinans resolution had come up for a vote at the time he filed it, it would have been overwhelmingly defeated - by something like 400 to 20. After that, with most of the already on record as having voted once against impeachment. When the conspiracy was discovered and investigated by the United States Congress, as the Watergate affair heated up in the summer of 1973, Representative Drinan tried again, introducing H. Res. The resolution was referred to the Judiciary Committee, which at the time did not really want to get involved such a wrenching process. As the Watergate saga unfolded, the American Civil Liberties Union became the first national organization to call for Nixons impeachment, Civil rights attorney Charles Morgan, Jr. was involved in the ACLUs effort to have President Nixon impeached from office, in fact, he led the effort. On October 23,1973, a landslide of resolutions calling for impeachment, impeachment investigations, overall, as the Watergate scandal developed during 1973, Carl Albert, as Speaker of the House, referred some two dozen impeachment resolutions to the House Judiciary Committee for debate and study
18.
Democratic National Convention
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The Democratic National Convention is a series of presidential nominating conventions held every four years since 1832 by the United States Democratic Party. They have been administered by the Democratic National Committee since the 1852 national convention, the primary goal of the Democratic National Convention is to nominate and confirm a candidate for president and vice president, adopt a comprehensive party platform and unify the party. Pledged delegates from all fifty U. S, like the Republican National Convention, the Democratic National Convention marks the formal end of the primary election period and the start of the general election season. The partys presidential nominee is chosen in a series of state caucuses. Superdelegates, delegates whose votes are not bound to the outcome of a caucus or primary. To secure the nomination for the Democratic party in 2016, a candidate must secure 2,383 delegates and this number includes both pledged delegates and superdelegates. Prior to 1936, nomination for president was required, not merely by a majority, unless there was a popular incumbent, something that only happened three times between the Civil War and World War II, getting that many votes on the first ballot was implausible. The choice was a contentious debate that riled the passions of party leaders. Delegates were forced to vote for a nominee repeatedly until someone could capture a number of delegates needed. In 1912,1920 and most notoriously in 1924, the voting went on for dozens and dozens of ballots, backroom deals by party bosses were normal and often resulted in compromise nominees that became known as dark horse candidates. Dark horse candidates were people who never imagined they would run for president until the last moments of the convention, dark horse candidates were chosen in order to break deadlocks between more popular and powerful prospective nominees that blocked each other from gaining enough delegates to be nominated. The rules were changed to a majority in 1936. Since then only one multi-ballot convention has taken place, before about 1970, the partys choice of the vice-presidential nominee was usually not known until the last evening of the convention. This was because the nominee had little to do with the process. In order to prevent such things happening in the future, the presumptive nominee has, since 1984, announced his choice before the convention even opened. By 1824, the nominating caucus had fallen into disrepute and collapsed as a method of nominating presidential. A national convention idea had been brought up but nothing occurred until the next decade, state conventions and state legislatures emerged as the nomination apparatus until they were supplanted by the national convention method of nominating candidates. The first national convention of the Democratic Party began in Baltimore on May 21,1832, in that year the 2/3 rule was created, requiring a 2/3 vote to nominate a candidate, in order to show the partys unanimous support of Martin Van Buren for vice president
19.
Presidential Medal of Freedom
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The Presidential Medal of Freedom is an award bestowed by the President of the United States and is—along with the comparable Congressional Gold Medal—the highest civilian award of the United States. The award is not limited to U. S. citizens and, while it is an award, it can also be awarded to military personnel. It was established in 1963 by President John F. Kennedy, President John F. Kennedy established the current decoration in 1963 through Executive Order 11085, with unique and distinctive insignia, vastly expanded purpose, and far higher prestige. It was the first U. S. civilian neck decoration and, in the grade of Awarded With Distinction, is the only U. S. sash and star decoration. The Executive Order calls for the medal to be awarded annually on or around July 4, and at other convenient times as chosen by the president, Recipients are selected by the president, either on his own initiative or based on recommendations. The order establishing the medal also expanded the size and the responsibilities of the Distinguished Civilian Service Awards Board so it could serve as a source of such recommendations. The medal may be awarded to a more than once. It may also be awarded posthumously, examples include John F, golden American bald eagles with spread wings stand between the points of the star. It is worn around the neck on a ribbon with white edge stripes. When the medal With Distinction is awarded, the star may be presented descending from a neck ribbon, the sash and medal of the Presidential Medal of Freedom with distinction has never been worn in public since its inception. Andrew Presidential Medal of Freedom, an article from jfklibrary. org, Presidential Medal of Freedom Recipients, a list of recipients from May 5,1993, through August 19,2009, from senate. gov, the U. S. Senates official website. Hosted on georgewbush-whitehouse. archives. gov, a section of the U. S. National Archives, Medal of Freedom Ceremony, a news release, August 12,2009, from the White House Press Secretary at whitehouse. gov, the White Houses official website. War Figures Honored With Medal of Freedom, The New York Times, December 15,2004
20.
Peabody Award
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Reflecting excellence in quality, rather than popularity or commercial success, the Peabody is awarded to about 25–35 winners annually from more than 1,000 entries. Because submissions are accepted from a variety of sources and styles. Each entry is evaluated on the achievement of standards it establishes within its own contexts, entries are self-selected by those making submissions, for which a US$350 fee is required. In 1938, the National Association of Broadcasters formed a committee to recognize outstanding achievement in radio broadcasting. Fellow WSB employee Lessie Smithgall introduced Lambdin to John E. Drewry, of the University of Georgias Henry W. Grady College of Journalism and Mass Communication, the Peabody Award was established in 1940 with the Grady College of Journalism as its permanent home. The Peabody Awards were originally only for radio, but in 1948 television awards were introduced, in the late 1990s additional categories for material distributed via the World Wide Web were added. Materials created solely for theatrical motion picture release are not eligible, the Peabody Awards judging process is unusually rigorous. Board members discuss recommended entries as well as their own selections at intensive preliminary meetings in Los Angeles and Washington, the Board convenes at the Peabody Offices on the University of Georgia campus in late March for final screenings and deliberations. Each entrant is judged on its own merit, and only unanimously selected programs receive Peabodys, there is no set number of Peabodys, the all-time record for Peabody recipients in a single year is 46 Awards in 2013. George Foster Peabody, namesake of the awards, was a successful investment banker who devoted much of his fortune to education. John E. Drewry was the first dean of the University of Georgias Henry W. Grady College of Journalism and he accepted the position of dean when it was created in 1940. That same year he helped Lambdin Kay, general manager of Atlantas WSB Radio, dr. Worth McDougald served as Director of the Peabody Awards program from 1963 until his retirement in 1991. Barry Sherman was the Director of the George Foster Peabody Awards program at the University of Georgia from 1991 until his death in 2000. Horace Newcomb held the Lambdin Kay Chair for the Peabodys in the Grady College of Journalism, jeffrey P. Jones succeeded Horace Newcomb in July 2013 as the Lambdin Kay Chair for the Peabodys in the Grady College of Journalism and Mass Communication at the University of Georgia. Each spring, Peabody organizers announce award recipients for work covering the previous year, traditionally, the winners announcements have been made via a simple press release and/or a press conference. In recent years, however, organizers have taken to television to reveal some Peabody recipients in an effort to expand the publics awareness of the awards. An April 2014 segment of CBS This Morning included an announcement of 2013 Peabody winners, in April 2015, the 2014 Peabodys were revealed over an 8-day period, with the entertainment-based recipients revealed on ABCs Good Morning America. The formal presentations of the Peabody Awards are traditionally held in late May or early June, the ceremony for 2014 recipients were held for the first time at night in a May 31,2015 award ceremony to be hosted by Fred Armisen
21.
Texas State Cemetery
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The Texas State Cemetery is a cemetery located on about 22 acres just east of downtown Austin, the capital of the U. S. state of Texas. Originally the burial place of Edward Burleson, Texas Revolutionary general and Vice-President of the Republic of Texas, later it was expanded again to include the graves and cenotaphs of prominent Texans and their spouses. The cemetery is divided two sections. The smaller one contains around 900 graves of prominent Texans, while the larger has over 2,000 marked graves of Confederate veterans and widows. There is room for 7,500 interments, the cemetery is half full. The guidelines on who may be buried within the Texas State Cemetery were first established in 1953, currently, all persons to be buried in the cemetery must be one of the following, A former member of the legislature or a member who dies in office. A former elected official or an official who dies in office. State official appointed by the governor and confirmed by the Legislature who served at least 10 years in the office. After September 1,2015, this criterion may be used only upon approval of the State Cemetery Committee if it finds the official made a significant contribution to Texas history. The statute as written permits the committee to deny burial under this criterion even if requested by the governor or Legislature, the spouse of anyone meeting the above criteria. The child of a member, but only if he or she was dependent on another due to a long-standing physical or mental condition during the lifetime of one of the childs parents. After the death of Edward Burleson in 1851, the Texas Legislature arranged for his burial on land belonging to Andrew Jackson Hamilton. In 1854, the Legislature established a monument at Burlesons grave-site for $1,000, the burial ground was virtually ignored until the Civil War, when Texas Confederate officers killed in battle were buried there. In 1864 and 1866 more land was purchased for veterans burials, an area of 1-acre was also set aside for graves of Union veterans. The remaining Union soldier is Antonio Briones, who was left at the request of his family and he is interred alone in the far northwest corner of the cemetery. Because the Texas Confederate Mens Home and the Confederate Womens Home were located in Austin, the last Confederate veterans in the Cemetery were reinterred in 1944, the last widow, in 1963. In 1932, the State Cemetery was little known and had no roads, there was a dirt road running through the grounds of the Cemetery linked to what was then called Onion Creek Highway. The road kept its status when Texas historian Louis Kemp brought it to the attention of the Texas Highway Department that the road running through the Cemetery should be paved
22.
Fourth Ward, Houston
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Fourth Ward is one of the historic six wards of Houston, Texas, United States. The Fourth Ward is located inside the 610 Loop directly west of, the Fourth Ward is the site of Freedmens Town, which was a post-U. S. The Fourth Ward was established as one of four wards by the City of Houston in 1839, by 1906 it included much of what is, as of 2008, Downtown and Neartown, at that point the city stopped using the ward system. The area was the site of Freedmans Town, composed of recently freed slaves, the first freed slaves departed the Brazos River cotton plantations in 1866 and entered Houston via San Felipe Road. The slaves settled on the Buffalo Bayous southern edge, constructing small shanties as houses, brush arbors along the bayou and borrowed churches were used as houses of worship. Several more ex-slaves leaving plantations arrived in Freedmens Town, one brush arbor ultimately became the Antioch Missionary Baptist Church, the church where Jack Yates served as pastor. Yates and his son, Rutherford Yates, became major community leaders in the days of the Fourth Ward. The neighborhood became the center of Houstons African-American community in the late 19th century, the settlers of Freedmens Town paved the streets with bricks that they hand-made themselves. Yates, Smith, and Ned P. Pullum were three of the major Fourth Ward area ministers, the residents provided their own services and utilities. Residents included blacksmiths, brickmakers, doctors, haberdashers, lawyers, from 1905 through the 1940s, the Freedmans Town area included what was Houstons largest baseball venue through 1927, West End Park. It was home to the citys Minor League baseball team, the Houston Buffaloes, at the turn of the century, black ministers established businesses and churches and remained as community leaders. Italian Americans moved into the Fourth Ward, including Freedmens Town, the Italian Americans opened small businesses and, over a period of time, acquired more and more Fourth Ward property. Many had extended credit to customers, and seized property from the customers after they failed to pay off their debts. Their descendants, as of the year 2000, continued to be the owners of many residences in the Fourth Ward, as more and more families moved in, the neighborhood increasingly became crowded. By the 1920s and 1930s the population density of Freedmens Town was almost six times that of the average of the entire City of Houston, in the 1920s the Third Ward surpassed the Fourth Ward as the center of Houstons African-American community. The Fourth Ward lost prominence due to its inability to expand geographically, the Allen Parkway Village public housing complex opened in the 1940s. Located on the side of the Fourth Ward, it originally was an all-White development. The freeway also severed the connection with Downtown itself
23.
Baptists
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Other tenets of Baptist churches include soul competency, salvation through faith alone, Scripture alone as the rule of faith and practice, and the autonomy of the local congregation. Baptists recognize two ministerial offices, elders and deacons, Baptist churches are widely considered to be Protestant churches, though some Baptists disavow this identity. Historians trace the earliest church labeled Baptist back to 1609 in Amsterdam, in accordance with his reading of the New Testament, he rejected baptism of infants and instituted baptism only of believing adults. Baptist practice spread to England, where the General Baptists considered Christs atonement to extend to all people, while the Particular Baptists believed that it extended only to the elect. Thomas Helwys formulated a distinctively Baptist request that the church and the state be kept separate in matters of law, Helwys died in prison as a consequence of the religious persecution of English dissenters under King James I. In 1638, Roger Williams established the first Baptist congregation in the North American colonies, in the mid-18th century, the First Great Awakening contributed to Baptist growth in both New England and the South. Baptist missionaries have spread their church to every continent, the largest Baptist denomination is the Southern Baptist Convention, with the membership of associated churches totaling more than 15 million. Modern Baptist churches trace their history to the English Separatist movement in the century after the rise of the original Protestant denominations and this view of Baptist origins has the most historical support and is the most widely accepted. Adherents to this position consider the influence of Anabaptists upon early Baptists to be minimal and it was a time of considerable political and religious turmoil. Both individuals and churches were willing to give up their theological roots if they became convinced that a more biblical truth had been discovered, during the Protestant Reformation, the Church of England separated from the Roman Catholic Church. There were some Christians who were not content with the achievements of the mainstream Protestant Reformation, there also were Christians who were disappointed that the Church of England had not made corrections of what some considered to be errors and abuses. Of those most critical of the Churchs direction, some chose to stay and they became known as Puritans and are described by Gourley as cousins of the English Separatists. Others decided they must leave the Church because of their dissatisfaction, historians trace the earliest Baptist church back to 1609 in Amsterdam, with John Smyth as its pastor. Three years earlier, while a Fellow of Christs College, Cambridge, reared in the Church of England, he became Puritan, English Separatist, and then a Baptist Separatist, and ended his days working with the Mennonites. He began meeting in England with 60–70 English Separatists, in the face of great danger, Smyth and his lay supporter, Thomas Helwys, together with those they led, broke with the other English exiles because Smyth and Helwys were convinced they should be baptized as believers. In 1609 Smyth first baptized himself and then baptized the others, in 1609, while still there, Smyth wrote a tract titled The Character of the Beast, or The False Constitution of the Church. In it he expressed two propositions, first, infants are not to be baptized, and second, Antichristians converted are to be admitted into the true Church by baptism. Hence, his conviction was that a church should consist only of regenerate believers who have been baptized on a personal confession of faith
24.
Wheatley High School (Houston)
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Phillis Wheatley High School is a secondary school located at 4801 Providence Street in Houston, Texas, United States with a ZIP code of 77020. Wheatley, which serves 6 years, is a part of the Houston Independent School District, Wheatley, named after Phillis Wheatley, is located inside the 610 Loop in the Fifth Ward. Wheatley has a magnet program inherited from the closure of Middle College for Technology Careers in spring 2006. Wheatley first opened at 3415 Lyons Avenue in the former McGowan Elementary School building on January 31,1927. In 1927 Wheatley High School was one of the largest Black high schools in the United States with 2,600 students and 60 teachers, by 1949 Wheatleys first facility on Lyons Avenue became so overcrowded that students attended in shifts. During that year the 14-acre, $2.5 million 4900 Market Street campus opened, the most expensive high school built in Houston at the time, the campus was designed by the firm MacKie & Kamrath in a Frank Lloyd Wright-influenced modernist style. The campus, described by the Houston Chronicle as the finest Negro high school in the South, had a 1, 500-seat auditorium, a gymnasium, an arts facility. The school district spent attention on Wheatley in order to promote the argument that segregated minority schools can be equal to segregated White schools, the former Wheatley campus became E. O. Smith Middle School, and later the Carter Career Center. In May 1965 William Lawson, a minister, asked some Wheatley students to discuss a proposed school boycott. While the school district was integrating, African American leaders believed that it was being integrated too slowly, during the boycott, which occurred five days later, 10% of Wheatley students attended classes. In the 1970s Houston ISD had been desegregated, as the Fifth Ward as a neighborhood experienced a surge in crime, Houston ISD rezoned the Denver Harbor neighborhood, which had many White residents, to Wheatley. At that time the neighborhood was quickly becoming Hispanic, many area Hispanic students preferred to attend Austin High School and Furr High School as they became the majority population at those schools. John Nova Lomax of the Houston Press stated that pride and discipline at Wheatley began to disintegrate in the 1970s, as counselors complained about a low level of morale among the students. In addition, many of Wheatleys new White teachers, many of whom did not live in the Fifth Ward, had a lack of experience in teaching inner city Black students. Wylie Henry, a former HISD board member, said many of the new White teachers came in. In 1979 Principal Herald stated that integration caused the best students, in 1976 the school was in the bottom twelfth percentile for reading, this meant that 88% of U. S. high school students had better reading scores than Wheatley students. In 1977 it declined to the bottom 11th, in 1978 HISD proposed using smaller classes, higher teaching salary, and a redesigned educational program to ameliorate Wheatleys academic problems. In 1979 Herald stated that test scores had declined, in the mid-1980s, as crack cocaine became an epidemic in many inner-city neighborhoods, Wheatley students and teachers complained about security issues regarding some area apartments
25.
Edith S. Sampson
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Edith Spurlock Sampson was an American lawyer and judge, and the first Black U. S. delegate appointed to the United Nations. Sampson was one of eight children and was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, U. S. to Louis Spurlock and she left school at 14 due to family financial difficulties and found work cleaning and deboning fish at a market. She later returned to school and graduated from Peabody High School in Pittsburgh and she then went to work for Associated Charities and studied at the New York School of Social Work. One of her instructors, George Kirchwey of Columbia, encouraged her to become an attorney and she married Rufus Sampson and they moved to Chicago where while working full-time during the day as a social worker she studied law at night. Sampson graduated from John Marshall Law School in 1925 winning a special commendation for ranking at the top of her jurisprudence class. 1n 1924, Sampson opened a law office on the South Side of Chicago, from 1925 through 1942, she was associated with the Juvenile Court of Cook County and served as a probation officer. In 1927 Sampson became the first woman to earn a Master of Laws from Loyola Universitys Graduate Law School and she also passed the Illinois State Bar exam that year. In 1934 Sampson was admitted to practice before the Supreme Court, in 1943, she became one of the first black members of the National Association of Women Lawyers. In 1947 she was appointed an Assistant States Attorney in Cook County, in these meetings, Sampson sought to counter the propaganda in the Soviet Union during the Cold War regarding the treatment of African Americans in the United States. During one meeting in India, she said, She also stated that I would rather be a Negro in America than a citizen in any other land. Supreme Court Justice William O. Douglas said that her actions created more good will, Sampson was generally praised by US media. Sampson also attacked Soviet communism directly by comparing it to slavery and accusing, in particular, in a report circulated by the American government, Sampson reportedly told Soviet Ambassador Yakov Malik, We Negroes arent interested in Communism. We were slaves too long for that, nobody is happy with second-class citizenship, but our best chances are in the framework of American democracy. She was a member of the UNs Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural Committee and she also presented a resolution pressuring the Soviet Union to repatriate the remainder of its Prisoners of War from World War II. She was reappointed to the UN in 1952, and served until 1953, during the Eisenhower Administration, she was a member of the U. S. In 1961 and 1962, she became the first black U. S. representative to NATO, Sampson began to express great dissent from American policies in 1959–1960. Ours was not the only way and it was not even the best way. In 1962, Sampson ran for judge of the Municipal Court of Chicago
26.
University of Texas at Austin
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Founded in 1881 as The University of Texas, its campus is in Austin, Texas—approximately 1 mile from the Texas State Capitol. The institution has the nations seventh-largest single-campus enrollment, with over 50,000 undergraduate and graduate students and over 24,000 faculty, UT Austin was inducted into the American Association of Universities in 1929, becoming only the third university in the American South to be elected. It is a center for academic research, with research expenditures exceeding $550 million for the 2014–2015 school year. J. Pickle Research Campus and the McDonald Observatory, among university faculty are recipients of the Nobel Prize, Pulitzer Prize, the Wolf Prize, the Emmy Award, the Turing Award, and the National Medal of Science, as well as many other awards. UT Austin student athletes compete as the Texas Longhorns and are members of the Big 12 Conference and its Longhorn Network is the only sports network featuring the college sports of a single university. The first mention of a university in Texas can be traced to the 1827 constitution for the Mexican state of Coahuila y Tejas. Although Title 6, Article 217 of the Constitution promised to establish education in the arts and sciences. On April 18,1838, An Act to Establish the University of Texas was referred to a committee of the Texas Congress. On January 26,1839, the Texas Congress agreed to set aside fifty leagues of land towards the establishment of a publicly funded university, in addition,40 acres in the new capital of Austin were reserved and designated College Hill. In 1845, Texas was annexed into the United States, interestingly, the states Constitution of 1845 failed to mention higher education. On February 11,1858, the Seventh Texas Legislature approved O. B,102, an act to establish the University of Texas, which set aside $100,000 in United States bonds toward construction of the states first publicly funded university. The legislature also designated land reserved for the encouragement of railroad construction toward the universitys endowment, Texas secession from the Union and the American Civil War delayed repayment of the borrowed monies. At the end of the Civil War in 1865, The University of Texas endowment was just over $16,000 in warrants, the more valuable lands reverted to the fund to support general education in the state. The legislature additionally appropriated $256,272.57 to repay the funds taken from the university in 1860 to pay for frontier defense, the 1883 grant of land increased the land in the Permanent University Fund to almost 2.2 million acres. Under the Act of 1858, the university was entitled to just over 1,000 acres of land for every mile of railroad built in the state. On March 30,1881, the legislature set forth the structure and organization. By popular election on September 6,1881, Austin was chosen as the site, galveston, having come in second in the election was designated the location of the medical department. On November 17,1882, on the original College Hill, smite the earth, smite the rocks with the rod of knowledge and fountains of unstinted wealth will gush forth
27.
Debate
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Debate is a method of formally presenting an argument in a structured manner. The outcome of a debate may depend upon consensus or some way of reaching a resolution. In a formal debating contest, there are rules for participants to discuss and decide on differences, Debating is carried out in debating chambers and assemblies of various types to discuss matters and to make resolutions about action to be taken, often by voting. Deliberative bodies such as parliaments, legislative assemblies, and meetings of all sorts engage in debates, in particular, in parliamentary democracies a legislature debates and decides on new laws. Formal debates between candidates for elected office, such as the debates that are sometimes held in democracies. Debating is also carried out for educational and recreational purposes, usually associated with educational establishments, the major goal of the study of debate as a method or art is to develop the ability to debate rationally from either position with equal ease. The outcome of a contest may be decided by vote, by judges. Debating teams are often helpful to high school students in teaching the writing process, Debating societies emerged in London in the early eighteenth century, and soon became a prominent fixture of national life. The origins of these societies are not certain in many cases however, by the mid-18th century, john Henley, a clergyman, founded an Oratory in 1726 with the principal purpose of reforming the manner in which such public presentations should be performed. He made extensive use of the print industry to advertise the events of his Oratory and these changes were further implemented when Henley moved his enterprise to Lincolns Inn Fields. The public was now willing to pay to be entertained, by the 1770s, debating societies were firmly established in London society. The year 1785 was pivotal, The Morning Chronicle announced on March 27, giles, Clare-Market, Hockley in the Hole, Whitechapel, Rag-Fair, Dukes Place, Billingsgate, and the Back of the Borough. In 1780,35 differently named societies advertised and hosted debates for anywhere between 650 and 1200 people, the question for debate was introduced by a president or moderator who proceeded to regulate the discussion. Speakers were given set amounts of time to argue their point of view, and, at the end of the debate, a vote was taken to determine a decision or adjourn the question for further debate. Speakers were not permitted to slander or insult other speakers, or diverge from the topic at hand, the first of the post-revolutionary debating societies, the Dialectic and Philanthropic Societies, were formed at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in 1795 and are still active. The first student debating society in Great Britain was the St Andrews Debating Society, the Cambridge Union Society was founded in 1815, and claims to be the oldest continually operating debating society in the World. Over the next few decades, similar societies emerged at other prominent universities. Examples include the Oxford Union and the Yale Political Union, in parliaments and other legislatures, members debate proposals regarding legislation, before voting on resolutions which become laws
28.
Delta Sigma Theta
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Delta Sigma Theta is a not-for profit Greek-lettered sorority of college-educated women dedicated to public service with an emphasis on programs that target the African American community. DST was founded on January 13,1913, by 22 collegiate women at Howard University in Washington, membership is open to any woman who meets the requirements, regardless of religion, race, or nationality. Women may join through undergraduate chapters at a college or university, the current 25th national president is Dr. Paulette Camille Walker. The first public act of Delta Sigma Theta was the Womens Suffrage March in Washington D. C. on March 3,1913, today, it is the largest African-American Greek-lettered organization. Since its founding, DST has been at the forefront of creating programming to improve political, education, in addition to establishing independent programming, the sorority consistently collaborates with community organizations and corporations to further its programming goals. The new initiates wanted to establish an organization, enlarge the scope of the sororitys activities. They felt Alpha Kappa Alpha was solely a derivative of the Beta Chapter of Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity with no individual meaning and were not Greek distinctive letters. They also wanted to change the symbols, change the sorority colors, in 1912, these 22 undergraduates voted to change the organizations name to Delta Sigma Theta. This new name was to reflect the desire to change the direction of the group. The 22 undergraduate Alpha Chapter students sought to move towards social activism and greater public service, according to Delta Sigma Thetas historian Paula Giddings, the 22 young women were concerned that since Alpha Kappa Alpha was not incorporated, there was no legal entity. Since there was no charter, there was no authority to other chapters. The 22 declined and unanimously voted to reorganize, even prior to Delta Sigma Theta being approved by the Howard University administration, thus Delta Sigma Theta was founded on January 13,1913, by the 22 students. On January 20,1930, the organizations Grand Chapter was nationally incorporated, Delta Sigma Theta was one of the key African American organizations to participate in the Womens Suffrage March on March 3,1913. Immediately following the founding, Delta Sigma Theta members quickly mobilized to build and develop infrastructure, one of the first orders of business was to have an oath, which was written by Mary Church Terrell in 1914. In the early years, individual chapters would implement various programs to meet the needs of their local communities, the 1920s began a decade of significant development within Delta Sigma Theta. The organization began to develop uniformity in programming and communication between the chapters of the sorority, in 1920, May Week was inaugurated and the Official Publication of the Sorority was established as The Delta. Also in 1920, Omega Chapter was established to recognize deceased Sorors, Alexander was voted first Honorary Grand President of Delta Sigma Theta. The Official Delta Sigma Theta Hymn, written by Florence Cole Talbert, regions were established in 1925, and the Jabberwock was established as the scholarship fundraiser
29.
Boston University School of Law
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Boston University School of Law is a nationally recognized law school located in the heart of Boston Universitys campus on Commonwealth Avenue in Boston, Massachusetts. Consistently ranked among the top American law schools, U. S. News, three specialties are in the top 10, including Health Law, Tax Law, and Intellectual Property Law. Princeton Review ranks it 1st place nationally in Best Professors and 8th place for Best Classroom Experience, for the class of 2018, the median student LSAT score was 164 and median GPA was 3.68. BU was one of the first law schools in the country to students regardless of race or gender, the second-oldest law school in Massachusetts. Nearly 700 students are enrolled in the full-time J. D. degree program, the School offers more than 200 classes and seminars,21 study abroad opportunities, and 17 dual degree programs. Students learn critical legal theory and doctrine in classes that average a 10, BU also pioneered a clinic to represent victims of human trafficking in Boston. BU Laws most recent entering class comes from 32 states and the District of Columbia and these students represent 16 countries and 124 undergraduate institutions. Admission to Boston University School of Law is very competitive, there were 257 students who matriculated in the fall of 2016 out of a pool of 4,804 J. D. applicants. The 25th and 75th LSAT percentiles for the 2016 entering class were 161 and 165, the 25th and 75th undergraduate GPA percentiles were 3.42 and 3.74, respectively, with a median of 3.65. Boston University School of Law ranks #20 among American law schools in the 2016 list of best law schools compiled by U. S. News & World Report. U. S. News also ranks the Schools Health Law Program #2, Tax Law #7, on September 13,2012, media executive and former BU Law lecturer Sumner Redstone donated $18 million to expand the School’s facilities. Opened in 2014 alongside the Law Tower, the 100, 000-square-foot, five-story building houses most of the law schools classrooms, which are equipped with state-of-the-art technology. The Redstone Building welcomes visitors into the glass-enclosed Robert T. Butler Atrium on the first floor and it also provide new facilities to support clinical, transactional and professional training programs. Student locker facilities, lounges, a dining facility, and other student function. The materials, color and exterior detailing of the Redstone Building have been calibrated to respect and complement the architecture of the five original Josep Lluis Sert buildings at BU. As the new law school entry, the Redstone Building faces a paved entry forecourt off the main east-west pedestrian path, which has been re-graded, paved and landscaped with new trees and plantings. The open area to the north and east of the Law Tower has been restored and replanted to reinforce the existing character of the area and of the Alpert Mall to the east. The space between the Law Tower and Pappas Library has been redesigned to emphasize the connection between the original and the new entrances to the school
30.
Tuskegee University
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Tuskegee University is a private, historically black university located in Tuskegee, Alabama, United States. It was established by Booker T. Washington, the campus is designated as the Tuskegee Institute National Historic Site by the National Park Service and is the only one in the U. S. to have this designation. The university was home to scientist George Washington Carver and to World War IIs Tuskegee Airmen, the university is home to over 3,100 students from the U. S. and 30 foreign countries. Tuskegee University is ranked among the 2015 Best 379 Colleges and Universities by the Princeton Review, the universitys campus was designed by architect Robert Robinson Taylor, the first African American to graduate from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The school was founded on July 4,1881, as the Tuskegee Normal School for Colored Teachers and this was a result of an agreement made during the 1880 elections in Macon County between a former Confederate Colonel, W. F. Foster who was running on the ticket and a local Black Leader and Republican. At the time the majority of Macon County population was Black, Adams succeeded and Foster followed through with the school. A teachers’ school was the dream of Lewis Adams, a slave, and George W. Campbell, a banker, merchant, and former slaveholder. Despite lacking formal education, Adams could read, write, and he was an experienced tinsmith, harness-maker, and shoemaker and was a Prince Hall Freemason, an acknowledged leader of the African-American community in Macon County, Alabama. Adams and Campbell had secured $2,000 from the State of Alabama for teachers salaries but nothing for land, buildings, swanson formed Tuskegees first board of commissioners. Campbell wrote to the Hampton Institute, a black college in Virginia. Armstrong, the Hampton principal and a former Union general, recommended 25-year-old Booker T. Washington, as the newly hired principal in Tuskegee, Booker Washington began classes for his new school in a rundown church and shanty. The following year, he purchased a plantation of 100 acres in size. The earliest campus buildings were constructed on property, usually by students as part of their work-study. By the start of the 20th century, the Tuskegee Institute occupied nearly 2,300 acres, based on his experience at the Hampton Institute, Washington intended to train students in skills, morals, and religious life, in addition to academic subjects. Washingtons second wife Olivia A. Davidson, was instrumental to the success, gradually, a rural extension program was developed, to take progressive ideas and training to those who could not come to the campus. Tuskegee alumni founded smaller schools and colleges throughout the South, they continued to emphasize teacher training, as a young free man after the Civil War, Washington sought a formal education. He worked his way through Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute and attended college at Wayland Seminary in Washington and he returned to Hampton as a teacher
31.
Alabama
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Alabama is a state in the southeastern region of the United States. It is bordered by Tennessee to the north, Georgia to the east, Florida and the Gulf of Mexico to the south, Alabama is the 30th-most extensive and the 24th-most populous of the U. S. states. At nearly 1,500 miles, Alabama has one of the nations longest navigable inland waterways, Alabama is nicknamed the Yellowhammer State, after the state bird. Alabama is also known as the Heart of Dixie and the Cotton State, the state tree is the longleaf pine, and the state flower is the camellia. The largest city by population is Birmingham, which has long been the most industrialized city, the oldest city is Mobile, founded by French colonists in 1702 as the capital of French Louisiana. From the American Civil War until World War II, Alabama, like many states in the southern U. S. suffered economic hardship, like other southern states, Alabama legislators disenfranchised African Americans and many poor whites at the turn of the century. Following World War II, Alabama grew as the economy changed from one primarily based on agriculture to one with diversified interests. The state economy in the 21st century is based on management, automotive, finance, manufacturing, aerospace, mineral extraction, healthcare, education, retail, in the Alabama language, the word for a person of Alabama lineage is Albaamo. The word Alabama is believed to have come from the Alabama language, the words spelling varies significantly among historical sources. As early as 1702, the French called the tribe the Alibamon, other spellings of the name have included Alibamu, Alabamo, Albama, Alebamon, Alibama, Alibamou, Alabamu, Allibamou. Sources disagree on the words meaning, some scholars suggest the word comes from the Choctaw alba and amo. The meaning may have been clearers of the thicket or herb gatherers, the state has numerous place names of Native American origin. However, there are no correspondingly similar words in the Alabama language, an 1842 article in the Jacksonville Republican proposed it meant Here We Rest. This notion was popularized in the 1850s through the writings of Alexander Beaufort Meek, experts in the Muskogean languages have not found any evidence to support such a translation. Indigenous peoples of varying cultures lived in the area for thousands of years before the advent of European colonization, trade with the northeastern tribes by the Ohio River began during the Burial Mound Period and continued until European contact. The agrarian Mississippian culture covered most of the state from 1000 to 1600 AD, with one of its major centers built at what is now the Moundville Archaeological Site in Moundville, Alabama. This is the second-largest complex of the classic Middle Mississippian era, after Cahokia in present-day Illinois, Analysis of artifacts from archaeological excavations at Moundville were the basis of scholars formulating the characteristics of the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex. Contrary to popular belief, the SECC appears to have no links to Mesoamerican culture
32.
Texas House of Representatives
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The Texas House of Representatives is the lower house of the bicameral Texas Legislature. It consists of 150 members who are elected from districts for a term of 2 years. As of the 2010 Census, each represents a average of 167,637 people. There are no limits, with the most senior member, Tom Craddick. The House meets at the State Capitol in Austin, the Speaker of the House is the presiding officer and highest-ranking member of the House. The Speaker pro tempore is primarily a position, but does, by long-standing tradition, preside over the House during its consideration of local. Unlike other state legislatures, the House rules do not formally recognize majority or minority leaders, the unofficial leaders are the Republican Caucus Chairman and the Democratic House Leader, both of whom are elected by their respective caucuses. †Representative was first elected in a special election, eligio De La Garza, II, first Mexican-American to represent his region in the US House and the second Mexican-American from Texas to be elected to Congress. Ray Barnhart, Federal Highway Administrator Anita Lee Blair, first blind woman elected to a state legislature Jack Brooks, Representative and House Majority Leader John Nance Garner, U. S. Representative, Speaker of the House, and Vice President of the United States O. H. Ike Harris, Dallas County representative from 1963–1965, state senator Sarah T, charles Henry Nimitz Born in Bremen. In 1852, built the Nimitz Hotel in Fredericksburg, which now houses the National Museum of the Pacific War, grandfather of United States Fleet Admiral Chester Nimitz. Elected to the Texas Legislature 1890, rick Perry, longest serving Governor of Texas, Colonel Alfred P. C. Petsch Lawyer, legislator, civic leader, and philanthropist, veteran of both World War I and World War II. Representative and longest served Speaker of the House Coke R. Stevenson, Governor of Texas Sarah Weddington, weinert, coauthored bill to establish the Pasteur Institute of Texas, authored resolution for humane treatment of state convicts, coauthored the indeterminate sentence and parole law. The Chief Clerk is the custodian of all legal documents within House. When there is an update of the electronic source website. The report noted how representatives register votes for absent members on the Houses automated voting machines, each representative would vote for the nearest absent members. This practice was in violation of a Rule of the House, however
33.
President of the United States
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The President of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president directs the executive branch of the government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. The president is considered to be one of the worlds most powerful political figures, the role includes being the commander-in-chief of the worlds most expensive military with the second largest nuclear arsenal and leading the nation with the largest economy by nominal GDP. The office of President holds significant hard and soft power both in the United States and abroad, Constitution vests the executive power of the United States in the president. The president is empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves. The president is responsible for dictating the legislative agenda of the party to which the president is a member. The president also directs the foreign and domestic policy of the United States, since the office of President was established in 1789, its power has grown substantially, as has the power of the federal government as a whole. However, nine vice presidents have assumed the presidency without having elected to the office. The Twenty-second Amendment prohibits anyone from being elected president for a third term, in all,44 individuals have served 45 presidencies spanning 57 full four-year terms. On January 20,2017, Donald Trump was sworn in as the 45th, in 1776, the Thirteen Colonies, acting through the Second Continental Congress, declared political independence from Great Britain during the American Revolution. The new states, though independent of each other as nation states, desiring to avoid anything that remotely resembled a monarchy, Congress negotiated the Articles of Confederation to establish a weak alliance between the states. Out from under any monarchy, the states assigned some formerly royal prerogatives to Congress, only after all the states agreed to a resolution settling competing western land claims did the Articles take effect on March 1,1781, when Maryland became the final state to ratify them. In 1783, the Treaty of Paris secured independence for each of the former colonies, with peace at hand, the states each turned toward their own internal affairs. Prospects for the convention appeared bleak until James Madison and Edmund Randolph succeeded in securing George Washingtons attendance to Philadelphia as a delegate for Virginia. It was through the negotiations at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in the U. S. The first power the Constitution confers upon the president is the veto, the Presentment Clause requires any bill passed by Congress to be presented to the president before it can become law. Once the legislation has been presented, the president has three options, Sign the legislation, the bill becomes law. Veto the legislation and return it to Congress, expressing any objections, in this instance, the president neither signs nor vetoes the legislation
34.
Lyndon B. Johnson
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A Democrat from Texas, he previously served as a United States Representative from 1937 to 1949 and then as a United States Senator from 1949 to 1961. He spent six years as Senate Majority Leader, two as Senate Minority Leader, and two more as Senate Majority Whip, Johnson ran for the Democratic nomination in the 1960 presidential election. Although unsuccessful, he was chosen by then-Senator John F. Kennedy of Massachusetts to be his running mate and they went on to win a close election over Richard Nixon and Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. Johnson was sworn in as Vice President on January 20,1961. Two years and ten months later, on November 22,1963 and he successfully ran for a full term in the 1964 election, winning by a landslide over Republican opponent Senator Barry Goldwater of Arizona. He is one of four people who have served as President, Vice President, Senator. Johnson was renowned for his personality and the Johnson treatment. Assisted in part by an economy, the War on Poverty helped millions of Americans rise above the poverty line during his administration. With the passage of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, Johnson escalated American involvement in the Vietnam War. In 1964, Congress passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, which granted Johnson the power to use force in Southeast Asia without having to ask for an official declaration of war. The number of American military personnel in Vietnam increased dramatically, from 16,000 advisors in non-combat roles in 1963 to 550,000 in early 1968, American casualties soared and the peace process bogged down. Growing unease with the war stimulated a large, angry antiwar movement based especially on university campuses in the U. S. and abroad. Johnson faced further troubles when summer riots broke out in most major cities after 1965, while he began his presidency with widespread approval, support for Johnson declined as the public became upset with both the war and the growing violence at home. In 1968, the Democratic Party factionalized as antiwar elements denounced Johnson, Republican Richard Nixon was elected to succeed him, as the New Deal coalition that had dominated presidential politics for 36 years collapsed. After he left office in January 1969, Johnson returned to his Texas ranch, historians argue that Johnsons presidency marked the peak of modern liberalism in the United States after the New Deal era. Johnson is ranked favorably by some historians because of his policies and the passage of many major laws, affecting civil rights, gun control, wilderness preservation. Lyndon Baines Johnson was born on August 27,1908, near Stonewall, Texas, in a farmhouse on the Pedernales River. Johnson had one brother, Sam Houston Johnson, and three sisters, Rebekah, Josefa, and Lucia, the nearby small town of Johnson City, Texas, was named after LBJs cousin, James Polk Johnson, whose forebears had moved west from Oglethorpe County, Georgia. Johnson had English, German, and Ulster Scots ancestry and he was maternally descended from pioneer Baptist clergyman George Washington Baines, who pastored eight churches in Texas, as well as others in Arkansas and Louisiana
35.
United States House Committee on the Judiciary
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The U. S. House Committee on the Judiciary, also called the House Judiciary Committee, is a standing committee of the United States House of Representatives. It is charged with overseeing the administration of justice within the courts, administrative agencies. The Judiciary Committee is also the responsible for impeachments of federal officials. Because of the nature of its oversight, committee members usually have a legal background. In the 115th Congress, the chairman of the committee is Republican Bob Goodlatte of Virginia, in prior years, Lamar S. Smith of Texas was the chairman, and prior to that John Conyers served as chairman. The committee was created on June 6,1813 for the purpose of considering legislation related to the judicial system. Res. 95 Chairman, Jim Sensenbrenner, Ranking member, John Conyers The Antitrust Task Force during the 108th Congress existed from March 26,2003, all Judiciary Committee Members also served as members of the Task Force, and conducted hearings and investigations into consolidation of the Bell Telephone Companies. The task force operated like any other subcommittee, except that it only has a six-month term, a longer term for the task force would cause the Judiciary Committee to exceed this limit. Chairman, Adam Schiff, Ranking member, Bob Goodlatte Established in September 2008, the investigation was not completed by the end of the 110th Congress, and it was reestablished after the 111th Congress convened in January 2009. The responsibilities of the Task Force were expanded to include the case of Judge Samuel B, kent, leading to hearings and his subsequent impeachment by the full House of Representatives. The Task force finally voted to impeach Porteous on January 21,2010, administrative Law, Process and Procedure Project The Use and Misuse of Presidential Clemency Power for Executive Branch Officials Equal Justice for Our Military Act of 2009, HR569. Congress holds a hearing to consider granting members of the U. S, armed Forces access to the Supreme Court of the United States. 109-153, A History of the Committee on the Judiciary 1813–2006
36.
Impeachment
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Impeachment is the process by which a legislative body formally levels charges against a high official of Government. Impeachment does not necessarily mean removal from office, it is only a statement of charges, akin to an indictment in criminal law. Once an individual is impeached, he or she must then face the possibility of conviction via legislative vote, in the United States, for example, impeachment at the Federal level is reserved for those who may have committed high crimes and misdemeanors. Several Federal officials, including two Presidents and several judges, have been impeached over the course of US history, US President Richard Nixon resigned before Watergate scandal impeachment proceedings could begin. The federal procedure in the United States involves a vote for impeachment in the House of Representatives on a document known as the Article of Impeachment, each separate grounds will be a separate Article. House members who support the impeachment then appoint managers who will act like prosecutors in the preparation for the Senate hearing, the defendant has the right to legal counsel, the right to cross-examine all witnesses and to testify in his or her defense. The senators must also take an oath or affirmation that they perform their duties honestly. The hearing cannot be conducted without a 50% plus one quorum, after the hearing the deliberations are held in private. Removal requires a majority of the Senate. Impeachment has its origins in English law but fell out of use in the 18th century and it exists under constitutional law in many nations around the world, including Brazil, the Republic of Ireland, Philippines, Russia, South Korea and the United States. The word impeachment derives from Latin root impedicare expressing the idea of becoming caught or entrapped, and has analogues in the modern French verb empêcher, medieval popular etymology also associated it with derivations from the Latin impetere. Impeachment was first used in the British political system, specifically, the process was first used by the English Good Parliament against Baron Latimer in the second half of the 14th century. In private organizations, a motion to impeach can be used to prefer charges, the Austrian Federal President can be impeached by the Federal Assembly before the Constitutional Court. The constitution also provides for the recall of the president by a referendum, neither of these courses has ever been taken. This is likely because while the President is vested with considerable powers on paper, he acts as a ceremonial figurehead in practice. The President of the Federative Republic of Brazil, state governors and municipal mayors may be impeached by the Chamber of Deputies, upon conviction, the officeholder has his political rights revoked for eight years--which has the effect of barring him from running for any office. On December 30,1992, Fernando Collor de Mello, the 32nd President of Brazil, the Senate nonetheless voted to convict Collor and bar him from holding any office for eight years, due to evidence of bribery and misappropriation. On April 17,2016, the Brazilian Chamber of Deputies approved the opening of the impeachment case against the president, Dilma Rousseff, the case was later revised by the Federal Senate which, on May 12, approved the suspension of the President
37.
Richard Nixon
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Richard Milhous Nixon was an American politician who served as the 37th President of the United States from 1969 until 1974, when he became the only U. S. president to resign from office. He had previously served as a U. S, Representative and Senator from California and as the 36th Vice President of the United States from 1953 to 1961 under the presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower. Nixon was born in Yorba Linda, California, after completing his undergraduate studies at Whittier College, he graduated from Duke University School of Law in 1937 and returned to California to practice law. He and his wife Pat moved to Washington in 1942 to work for the federal government and he subsequently served on active duty in the U. S. Navy Reserve during World War II. Nixon was elected to the House of Representatives in 1946 and to the Senate in 1950 and his pursuit of the Hiss Case established his reputation as a leading anti-communist, and elevated him to national prominence. He was the mate of Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Republican Party presidential nominee in the 1952 election. Nixon served for eight years as vice president and he waged an unsuccessful presidential campaign in 1960, narrowly losing to John F. Kennedy, and lost a race for Governor of California to Pat Brown in 1962. In 1968, he ran for the presidency again and was elected by defeating incumbent Vice President Hubert Humphrey, Nixon ended American involvement in the war in Vietnam in 1973 and brought the American POWs home, and ended the military draft. His administration generally transferred power from Washington D. C. to the states and he imposed wage and price controls for a period of ninety days, enforced desegregation of Southern schools and established the Environmental Protection Agency. Nixon also presided over the Apollo 11 moon landing, which signaled the end of the moon race and he was reelected in one of the largest electoral landslides in U. S. history in 1972, when he defeated George McGovern. The year 1973 saw an Arab oil embargo, gasoline rationing, the scandal escalated, costing Nixon much of his political support, and on August 9,1974, he resigned in the face of almost certain impeachment and removal from office. After his resignation, he was issued a pardon by his successor, in retirement, Nixons work writing several books and undertaking of many foreign trips helped to rehabilitate his image. He suffered a stroke on April 18,1994. Richard Milhous Nixon was born on January 9,1913 in Yorba Linda, California and his parents were Hannah Nixon and Francis A. Nixon. His mother was a Quaker and his father converted from Methodism to the Quaker faith, Nixons upbringing was marked by evangelical Quaker observances of the time, such as refraining from alcohol, dancing, and swearing. Nixon had four brothers, Harold, Donald, Arthur, four of the five Nixon boys were named after kings who had ruled in historical or legendary England, Richard, for example, was named after Richard the Lionheart. Nixons early life was marked by hardship, and he quoted a saying of Eisenhower to describe his boyhood, We were poor. The Nixon family ranch failed in 1922, and the moved to Whittier
38.
Carl Albert
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Albert represented a southeastern Oklahoma Congressional district as a Democrat for 30 years, starting in 1947. He is best known for his service as Speaker of the United States House of Representatives from 1971 to 1977. At 5 feet 4 inches tall, Albert was often known as the Little Giant from Little Dixie. Albert was born in McAlester, Oklahoma, shortly after his birth his family moved to a small town just north of McAlester called Bugtussle. He was the son of a miner and farmer and grew up in a log cabin on his fathers farm. In high school he excelled in debate, was student body president, during this time he was an active member of his local Order of DeMolay chapter and is an inductee of the Order of DeMolay Hall of Fame. Albert later petitioned his local Masonic Lodge and became an active Freemason and he entered the University of Oklahoma in 1927. There, he majored in science and won the National Oratorical Championship in 1928. He earned enough money to fund the rest of his undergraduate education, while at Oklahoma, he was an accomplished amateur wrestler, a member of the Kappa Alpha Order Greek letter fraternity, and a member of the all-male spirit club. He graduated Phi Beta Kappa in 1931, was the top male student and he received a Bachelor of Arts in Jurisprudence and Bachelor of Civil Laws from St Peters College before returning to the United States in 1934. He opened a law practice in Oklahoma City in 1935 and he worked for a series of oil companies in leasing work, until the start of World War II. Albert joined the United States Army as a private in 1941 and he served with the Third Armored Division briefly, but was soon commissioned a second lieutenant. Most of his service was with the Judge Advocate General Corps, while in the army, Albert married Mary Harmon on August 20,1942, in Columbia, South Carolina, just before he was sent to the South Pacific. The couple had two children, Mary Frances and David, for his service, Albert earned a Bronze Star, and saw service in the Pacific Theater, where he served in the office of the judge advocate general on the staff of General Douglas MacArthur. He left the Army with the rank of lieutenant colonel in 1946, Albert was elected to Congress for the first time in 1946. He was a Cold War liberal, and supported President Harry S Trumans containment of Soviet expansionism and domestic measures like public housing, federal aid to education, and farm price supports. Speaker of the House Sam Rayburn noticed his diligence as a legislator, Rayburn also advised Albert to seek the chairmanship of the Agriculture Committee in 1949. Albert was appointed House Majority Whip in 1955 and was elected House Majority Leader after Rayburns death in 1961, however, Albert seemed to describe himself as a political moderate
39.
Jimmy Carter
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James Earl Jimmy Carter Jr. is an American politician who served as the 39th President of the United States from 1977 to 1981. In 2002, he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his work with the Carter Center, Carter was a Democrat who was raised in rural Georgia. He was a farmer who served two terms as a Georgia State Senator from 1963 to 1967, and one as the Governor of Georgia from 1971 to 1975. He was elected President in 1976, defeating incumbent President Gerald Ford in a close election. On his second day in office, Carter pardoned all evaders of the Vietnam War drafts, during Carters term as President, two new cabinet-level departments, the Department of Energy and the Department of Education, were established. He established an energy policy that included conservation, price control. In foreign affairs, Carter pursued the Camp David Accords, the Panama Canal Treaties, the round of Strategic Arms Limitation Talks. On the economic front he confronted persistent stagflation, a combination of inflation, high unemployment. The end of his tenure was marked by the 1979–1981 Iran hostage crisis, the 1979 energy crisis, the Three Mile Island nuclear accident. In response to the Soviet move he ended détente, escalated the Cold War, Carter won the 1980 primary with 51. 13% of the vote but lost the general election in an electoral landslide to Republican nominee Ronald Reagan, who won 44 of 50 states. His presidency has drawn medium-low responses from historians, with many considering him to have accomplished more with his post-presidency work and he set up the Carter Center in 1982 as his base for advancing human rights. He has also traveled extensively to conduct negotiations, observe elections. Additionally, Carter is a key figure in the Habitat for Humanity project, since surpassing Herbert Hoover in September 2012, he has been the longest-retired president in American history. He is also the first president to mark the 40th anniversary of his election and inauguration, in reference to current political views, he has criticized some of Israels actions and policies in regards to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict and has advocated for a two-state solution. James Earl Carter, Jr. was born on October 1,1924, at the Wise Sanitarium in Plains and he is a descendant of English immigrant Thomas Carter, who settled in Virginia in 1635. Numerous generations of Carters lived as farmers in Georgia. Carter is also a descendant of Thomas Cornell, an ancestor of Cornell Universitys founder and of Richard Nixon, Plains was a boomtown of 600 people at the time of Carters birth. His father, James Earl Carter, Sr. was a local businessman who ran a general store and had begun to invest in farmland
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