1.
Italy
–
Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
Italy
–
The
Colosseum in Rome, built c. 70 – 80 AD, is considered one of the greatest works of
architecture and
engineering of ancient history.
Italy
–
Flag
Italy
–
The
Iron Crown of Lombardy, for centuries symbol of the
Kings of Italy.
Italy
–
Castel del Monte, built by German Emperor
Frederick II,
UNESCO World Heritage site
2.
Palestrina
–
Palestrina is an ancient city and comune with a population of about 21,000, in Lazio, about 35 kilometres east of Rome. It is connected to the latter by the Via Prenestina and it is the birthplace of composer Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina. Palestrina is sited on a spur of the Monti Prenestini, a range in the central Apennines. Palestrina borders the municipalities, Artena, Castel San Pietro Romano, Cave, Gallicano nel Lazio, Labico, Rocca di Cave, Rocca Priora, Rome, San Cesareo, Valmontone. Early burials show that the site was occupied in the 8th or 7th century BC. The ancient necropolis lay on a plateau at the foot of the hill below the ancient town, from these come the famous bronze boxes and hand mirrors with inscriptions partly in Etruscan. Also famous is the bronze Ficoroni Cista, engraved pictures of the arrival of the Argonauts in Bithynia. An example of archaic Latin is the inscription on the Ficoroni Cista, the caskets are unique in Italy, but a large number of mirrors of precisely similar style have been discovered in Etruria. Hence, although it would be reasonable to conjecture that objects with Etruscan characteristics came from Etruria, other imported objects in the burials show that Praeneste traded not only with Etruria but also with the Greek east. The origin of Praeneste was attributed by the ancients to Ulysses, the name derives probably from the word Praenesteus, referring to its overlooking location. Praeneste was probably under the hegemony of Alba Longa while that city was the head of the Latin League and it withdrew from the league in 499 BC, according to Livy, and formed an alliance with Rome. After Rome was weakened by the Gauls of Brennus, Praeneste switched allegiances, from 373 to 370, it was in continual war against Rome or her allies, and was defeated by Cincinnatus. Eventually in 354 and in 338 the Romans were victorious and Praeneste was punished by the loss of portions of its territory, as such, it furnished contingents to the Roman army, and Roman exiles were permitted to live at Praeneste, which grew prosperous. The roses of Praeneste were a byword for profusion and beauty, præneste was situated on the Via Labicana. Its citizens were offered Roman citizenship in 90 BC in the Social War, in Sullas second civil war, Gaius Marius the Younger was blockaded in the town by the forces of Sulla. When the city was captured, Marius slew himself, the inhabitants were massacred in cold blood. From an inscription it appears that Sulla delegated the foundation of the new colony to Marcus Terentius Varro Lucullus, within a decade the lands of the colonia had been assembled by a few large landowners. From the late Republic to the late Empire, markets, baths, shrines and even a second forum were built in the lower city, the poet Horace ranked cool Praeneste with Tibur and Baiae as favored resorts
Palestrina
–
Palestrina
Palestrina
–
Remains of the Sanctuary of Fortuna Primigenia.
Palestrina
–
Reconstruction of the temple of the Fortuna Primigenia by
Palladio.
3.
Valmontone
–
Valmontone is a comune in the Metropolitan City of Rome in the Italian region Lazio, located about 45 kilometres southeast of Rome. The historic part of the town is situated on a hill,303 metres above sea level, part of a morphological system of valleys and low relieves. There are many natural springs due to the water levels underground. Because of this the landscape is covered by forest and farmland, to preserve this water system, in Valmontone exists the C. E. R. I. A center for the prevention and control of hydro-geological risks, perhaps these are the remains of the ancient Labicum, which, according to the myth, was founded by Glaucus, Minos’ son, the name of the village derives from a kind of Greek shield. Later on, the castle was rebuilt on the site in the Late Roman Empire. The presence of a Castrum Lateranense goes back to the 1052, the Pamphili family became Doria-Pamphili-Landi in the 18th century. In 1843 Valmontone assumed the rank of “city” by decision of Pope Gregory XVI, with the post-war reconstruction the town lost its medieval and baroque appeal, of which only a few sights survive. Palazzo Doria-Pamphilj was originally a castle, until the Barberini decided to replace it with a bigger fortress. On the Piano Nobile are frescoes divided by themes, the four rooms of Elements, the four dedicated to the Continents, the ceiling frescoes were made between 1657 and the 1661 by Pier Francesco Mola, Gaspard Dughet, Guglielmo Cortese, Francesco Cozza and Mattia Preti. Valmontone Archeological Museum, situated in the Palazzo Doria-Pamphilj, the ground floor houses a section which introduces the municipal area, the upper floor offers an introduction to the archeological sites and to related topics, through several media. Such topics include the coal miners village in Colle Carbone, the Colle dei Lepri settlement, the Mansio, the Thermal Baths, collegiate Church of Santa Maria dellAssunta, built on an ancient Gothic church with the same name, under Camillo Pamphilj, in the 17th century. The church has a composed by two bell towers and a curved colonnade with four Ionic columns. The plan is elliptic, with four chapels along each side, including numerous Baroque pictures, in front of the main entrance, fontana del Colle, in Baroque style, is part of the original Prince Pamphilj project. It is composed by a pedestal with four round-shaped basins, one at each angle, on the pedestal is a column surmounted by the bronze statue of the Labicanus, a Roman warrior, symbol of Valmontone. This fountain was destroyed under the World War II bombings, except one of the basins and the pedestal. The Church of SantAntonio was not bombed during World War II, the interior is decorated with Baroque stuccoes, a Madonna with the Son and a SantAntonio Abate, both painted by anonymous. Sanctuary of Madonna del Gonfalone, this church was built in 1508, with a Gothic plan, in origin, the sanctuary had 15 altars
Valmontone
–
Valmontone
Valmontone
–
Valmontone seen by
Rocca di Cave: the massive white building is Palazzo Doria-Pamphilj.
Valmontone
–
Mattia Preti, ceiling fresco of Stanza dell'Aria, Palazzo Doria-Pamphilij
Valmontone
–
Valmontone, Colleggiata.
4.
Monterotondo
–
Monterotondo is a town and comune in the Metropolitan City of Rome, central Italy. According to some historians, Monterotondo is the heir of ancient Sabine town of Eretum, the name derives from the medieval corruption of the original Mons Eretum. In the Middle Ages, due to its location across the Via Salaria, initially under the Capocci family, it was sold in the 12th century to the Orsini, who held it until the 18th century. In 1432 it was seized by the condottiero Niccolò Fortebraccio, in 1634 the Barberini acquired the town, restoring or enlarging several edifices, and building the Cathedral. On 28 April 1864 the Rome and Monterotondo Rail Road was opened for service, in 1943, after the Italian armistice with the Allies,800 German paratroopers tried unsuccessfully to reconquer it. The Baroque Duomo Church of Madonna delle Grazie Palazzo Orsini, including frescoes by Girolamo Siciolante, archaeological museum, with remains from Eretum, Crustumerium and Nomentum
Monterotondo
–
The Cathedral of Monterotondo.
Monterotondo
Monterotondo
–
The Tiber valley seen from Monterotondo, looking almost exactly north (≈ 5°).
5.
Colonna family
–
The Colonna family, also known as Sciarrillo or Sciarra, is an Italian noble family. It was powerful in medieval and Renaissance Rome, supplying one Pope and many other Church, the family is notable for its bitter feud with the Orsini family over influence in Rome, until it was stopped by Papal Bull in 1511. According to tradition, the Colonna are a branch of the Counts of Tusculum — by Peter son of Gregory III, called Peter de Columna from his property the Columna Castle in Colonna, Alban Hills. The first cardinal from the family was appointed in 1206 when Giovanni Colonna di Carbognano was made Cardinal Deacon of SS and he served as the Provincial of the Roman province of the Dominican Order and led the provincial chapter of 1248 at Anagni. Colonna was appointed as Archbishop of Messina in 1255, in 1248, after having dedicated her entire life to serving God and the poor, Margherita Colonna died. A member of the Franciscan Order, she was beatified by Pope Pius IX in 1848, at this time a rivalry began with the pro-papal Orsini family, leaders of the Guelph faction. This reinforced the pro-Emperor Ghibelline course that the Colonna family followed throughout the period of conflict between the Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire, in 1297, Cardinal Jacopo disinherited his brothers Ottone, Matteo, and Landolfo of their lands. The latter three appealed to Pope Boniface VIII who ordered Jacopo to return the land, and furthermore hand over the familys strongholds of Colonna, Palestrina, Jacopo refused, in May, Boniface removed him from the College of Cardinals and excommunicated him and his followers. The Colonna family declared that Boniface had been elected illegally following the abdication of Pope Celestine V. The dispute led to warfare, and in September Boniface appointed Landolfo to the command of his army. By the end of 1298 Landolfo had captured Colonna, Palestrina and other towns, the familys lands were distributed among Landolfo and his loyal brothers, the rest of the family fled Italy. The exiled Colonna allied with the Popes other great enemy, Philip IV of France, in September 1303, Sciarra and Philipps advisor, Guillaume de Nogaret, led a small force into Anagni to arrest of Boniface VIII and bring him to France, where was to stand trial. While the two managed to apprehend the Pope and Sciarra reportedly slapped the pope in the face in the process, the attempt eventually failed after a few days, when locals freed the Pope. However, Boniface VIII died on the 11th October, allowing France to dominate his weaker successors during the Avignon papacy, the family remained at the centre of civic and religious life throughout the late Middle Ages. Cardinal Egidio Colonna died at the court in Avignon in 1314. An Augustinian, he had studied theology in Paris under St. Thomas of Aquinas to become one of the most authoritative thinkers of his time, in the 14th century, the family sponsored the decoration of the Church of San Giovanni, most notably the floor mosaics. In 1328, Louis IV of Germany marched into Italy for his coronation as Holy Roman Emperor. As Pope John XXII was residing in Avignon and had declared that he would not crown Louis, the King decided to be crowned by a member of the Roman aristocracy
Colonna family
–
Princely arms of the family
6.
Nobility of Italy
–
They often held lands as fiefs and were sometimes endowed with hereditary titles or nobiliary particles. From the Middle Ages until 1861, Italy was not a country but was a number of separate kingdoms and other states. These were often related through marriage to other and to other European royal families. Before Italian Unification there was a relatively large nobility in Italy, there were also families which had been part of Italian nobility for many decades or even centuries. These families freely intermarried with aristocratic nobility, like other noble families, those with both papal power and money were able to purchase comunes or other tracts of land and elevate family patriarchs and other relatives to noble titles. Hereditary patriarchs were appointed Duke, Marquis and even Prince of various 16th-, according to Ranke, Popes commonly elevated members of prominent families to the position of Cardinal, especially second and third sons who would not otherwise inherit hereditary titles. Popes also elevated their own family members – especially nephews – to the position of Cardinal-Nephew. The period was famous for papal nepotism and many families, such as the Barberini and Pamphili, modern Italy is dotted with the fruits of their success – various family palazzi remain standing today as a testament to their sometimes meteoric rise to power. The architect of Italian unification was Count Camillo Benso di Cavour, rome itself remained for a further decade under the Papacy, and became part of the Kingdom of Italy only in 1870. Those nobles who maintained allegiance to the pope became known as the Black Nobility, after the unification, the kings of Italy continued to create titles of nobility to eminent Italians, this time with a validity for all of the Italian territory. For example, General Enrico Cialdini was created Duca di Gaeta for his role during the unification, the practice continued until the 20th century, when nominations would be made by the Prime Minister of Italy and approved by the Crown. In the aftermath of the First World War, most Italians who were ennobled received their titles through the patronage of the Mussolini government, examples include General Armando Diaz, Admiral Paolo Thaon di Revel, Commodore Luigi Rizzo, Costanzo Ciano, Dino Grandi and Cesare Maria de Vecchi. Many of these were victory titles for services rendered to the nation in the Great War, the writer and aviator Gabriele dAnnunzio was created Principe di Montenevoso in 1924, and the physicist, inventor, and Nobel laureate Guglielmo Marconi was also ennobled in 1924 as Marchese Marconi. In 1937, Ettore Tolomei was ennobled as Conte della Vetta, after the successful Italian invasion of Abyssinia, the Mussolini government recommended further Italians to the king for titles of nobility. For example, Marshal Pietro Badoglio was created Marchese del Sabotino and later Duke of Addis Abeba, in 1946, the Kingdom of Italy was replaced by a republic. Under the Italian Constitution adopted in 1948, titles of nobility are not legally recognised, certain predicati recognised before 1922 may continue to be attached to surnames and used in legal documents. Often these were historic feudal territories of noble families, a high court ruling in 1967 definitively established that the heraldic-nobiliary legislation of the Kingdom of Italy is not current law. The southern kingdoms of Naples, Sicily and Sardinia, as well as the Papal states, granted the titles typical of such as Spain, France or England, Prince, Duke, Marquis, Count
Nobility of Italy
–
Caserta Palace
Nobility of Italy
–
Coat of Arms of the
House of Savoy
Nobility of Italy
–
Castle of Valentino
Nobility of Italy
–
Farinata degli Uberti (?-1264)
7.
Rome
–
Rome is a special comune and the capital of Italy. Rome also serves as the capital of the Lazio region, with 2,873,598 residents in 1,285 km2, it is also the countrys largest and most populated comune and fourth-most populous city in the European Union by population within city limits. It is the center of the Metropolitan City of Rome, which has a population of 4.3 million residents, the city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, within Lazio, along the shores of the Tiber. Romes history spans more than 2,500 years, while Roman mythology dates the founding of Rome at only around 753 BC, the site has been inhabited for much longer, making it one of the oldest continuously occupied sites in Europe. The citys early population originated from a mix of Latins, Etruscans and it was first called The Eternal City by the Roman poet Tibullus in the 1st century BC, and the expression was also taken up by Ovid, Virgil, and Livy. Rome is also called the Caput Mundi, due to that, Rome became first one of the major centres of the Italian Renaissance, and then the birthplace of both the Baroque style and Neoclassicism. Famous artists, painters, sculptors and architects made Rome the centre of their activity, in 1871 Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, and in 1946 that of the Italian Republic. Rome has the status of a global city, Rome ranked in 2014 as the 14th-most-visited city in the world, 3rd most visited in the European Union, and the most popular tourist attraction in Italy. Its historic centre is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, monuments and museums such as the Vatican Museums and the Colosseum are among the worlds most visited tourist destinations with both locations receiving millions of tourists a year. Rome hosted the 1960 Summer Olympics and is the seat of United Nations Food, however, it is a possibility that the name Romulus was actually derived from Rome itself. As early as the 4th century, there have been alternate theories proposed on the origin of the name Roma. There is archaeological evidence of occupation of the Rome area from approximately 14,000 years ago. Evidence of stone tools, pottery and stone weapons attest to about 10,000 years of human presence, several excavations support the view that Rome grew from pastoral settlements on the Palatine Hill built above the area of the future Roman Forum. Between the end of the age and the beginning of the Iron age. However, none of them had yet an urban quality, nowadays, there is a wide consensus that the city was gradually born through the aggregation of several villages around the largest one, placed above the Palatine. All these happenings, which according to the excavations took place more or less around the mid of the 8th century BC. Despite recent excavations at the Palatine hill, the view that Rome has been indeed founded with an act of will as the legend suggests in the middle of the 8th century BC remains a fringe hypothesis. Traditional stories handed down by the ancient Romans themselves explain the earliest history of their city in terms of legend and myth
Rome
Rome
Rome
Rome
8.
Pope Urban VIII
–
Pope Urban VIII, reigned as Pope from 6 August 1623 to his death in 1644. He expanded the territory by force of arms and advantageous politicking, and was also a prominent patron of the arts. However, the debts incurred during his pontificate greatly weakened his successors. He was also involved in a controversy with Galileo and his theory on heliocentrism during his reign and he is the most recent pope to date to take the pontifical name of Urban upon being elected as pope. He was born Maffeo Barberini in April 1568 to Antonio Barberini, a Florentine nobleman and his father died when he was only three years old and his mother took him to Rome, where he was put in the charge of his uncle, Francesco Barberini, an apostolic protonotary. At the age of 16 he became his uncles heir and he was educated by the Society of Jesus, and received a doctorate of law from the University of Pisa in 1589. In 1601, Barberini, through the influence of his uncle, was able to secure from Pope Clement VIII appointment as a legate to the court of King Henry IV of France. In 1604, the pope appointed him as the Archbishop of Nazareth. At the death of his uncle, he inherited his riches, on 6 August 1623, at the papal conclave following the death of Pope Gregory XV, Barberini was chosen as Gregory XVs successor and took the name Urban VIII. Upon Pope Urban VIIIs election, Zeno, the Venetian envoy, wrote the description of him. His Holiness is tall, dark, with features and black hair turning grey. He is exceptionally elegant and refined in all details of his dress, has a graceful and aristocratic bearing and he is an excellent speaker and debater, writes verses and patronises poets and men of letters. Urban VIIIs papacy covered 21 years of the Thirty Years War, despite an early friendship and encouragement for his teachings, Urban VIII was responsible for summoning the scientist and astronomer Galileo to Rome in 1633 to recant his work. Urban VIII practiced nepotism on a scale, various members of his family were enormously enriched by him. He elevated his brother Antonio Marcello Barberini and then his nephews Francesco Barberini and he also bestowed upon their brother, Taddeo Barberini, the titles Prince of Palestrina, Gonfalonier of the Church, Prefect of Rome and Commander of SantAngelo. Historian Leopold von Ranke estimated that during his reign, Urban VIIIs immediate family amassed 105 million scudi in personal wealth, Urban VIII was a skilled writer of Latin verse, and a collection of Scriptural paraphrases as well as original hymns of his composition have been frequently reprinted. The 1638 papal bull Commissum Nobis protected the existence of Jesuit missions in South America by forbidding the enslavement of natives who were at the Jesuit Reductions. At the same time, Urban VIII repealed the Jesuit monopoly on missionary work in China and Japan, opening these countries to missionaries of other orders and missionary societies
Pope Urban VIII
–
A portrait of Pope Urban VIII by
Pietro da Cortona (1627)
Pope Urban VIII
–
Circa 1598 painting of Maffeo Barberini at age 30 by
Caravaggio.
Pope Urban VIII
–
Pope Urban VIII, 1643
Pope Urban VIII
–
Engraving of Pope Urban VIII
9.
Palazzo Barberini
–
The Palazzo Barberini is a 17th-century palace in Rome, facing the Piazza Barberini in Rione Trevi. It houses the Galleria Nazionale dArte Antica, the sloping site had formerly been occupied by a garden-vineyard of the Sforza family, in which a palazzetto had been built in 1549. The sloping site passed from one cardinal to another during the sixteenth century, when Cardinal Alessandro Sforza met financial hardships, the still semi-urban site was purchased in 1625 by Maffeo Barberini, of the Barberini family, who became Pope Urban VIII. Three great architects worked to create the Palazzo, each contributing his own style, Maderno began in 1627, assisted by his nephew Francesco Borromini. When Maderno died in 1629, Borromini was passed over and the commission was awarded to Bernini, Borromini stayed on regardless and the two architects worked together, albeit briefly, on this project and at the Palazzo Spada. Works were completed by Bernini in 1633, after the Wars of Castro and the death of Urban VIII, the palace was confiscated by Pamphili Pope Innocent X and was only returned to the Barberini in 1653. The palazzo is disposed around a forecourt centered on Berninis grand two-storey hall backed by an oval salone, with an extended wing dominating the piazza, which lies on a lower level. At the rear, a long wing protected the garden from the piazza below, the main block presents three tiers of great arch-headed windows, like glazed arcades, a formula that was more Venetian than Roman. On the uppermost floor, Borrominis windows are set in a perspective that suggests extra depth. Flanking the hall, two sets of stairs lead to the piano nobile, a large squared staircase by Bernini to the left, the salon ceiling is graced by Pietro da Cortonas masterpiece, the Baroque fresco of the Allegory of Divine Providence and Barberini Power. Also in the palace is a masterpiece by Andrea Sacchi, a critic of the Cortona style. The garden is known as a giardino segreto, for its concealment from an outsiders view and it houses a monument to Bertel Thorwaldsen, who had a studio in the nearby Teatro delle Quattro Fontane in 1822-1834. Today, Palazzo Barberini houses the Galleria Nazionale dArte Antica, one of the most important painting collections in Italy and it includes Raphaels portrait La fornarina, Caravaggios Judith Beheading Holofernes and a Hans Holbein portrait of Henry VIII. The palace also houses the Italian Institute of Numismatics, the European Convention on Human Rights, which created the European Court of Human Rights, was signed here on 4 November 1950, a milestone in the protection of human rights. Hidden in the cellars of the part of the building. Blunt, Anthony, The Palazzo Barberini, Journal of the Warburg, il palazzo Barberini, official site Rome Art-Lover, Palazzo Barberini Palazzo Barberini and Veneto Rome guide Italian army ends museum stand-off, BBC News, Friday,13 October 2006 Google Maps. The complex constituting the Palazzo Barberini is in the center, set back from the road on all sides, on the lower side of the image are the start of the Quirinal Palace gardens. Below, and in the first corner on the right, is the San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane, diagonally opposite and above is the triangular Piazza Barberini with the Triton Fountain
Palazzo Barberini
–
Palazzo Barberini façade
Palazzo Barberini
–
Celebrations for
Christina of Sweden at Palazzo Barberini on 28 February 1656.
Palazzo Barberini
–
Palazzo Barberini, exterior. Brooklyn Museum Archives, Goodyear Archival Collection
Palazzo Barberini
–
The famous helicoidal staircase by Borromini.
10.
Gian Lorenzo Bernini
–
Gian Lorenzo Bernini was an Italian sculptor and architect. While a major figure in the world of architecture, he was the sculptor of his age. Bernini was also a figure in the emergence of Roman Baroque architecture along with his contemporaries, the architect Francesco Borromini. Early in their careers they had all worked at the time at the Palazzo Barberini, initially under Carlo Maderno and, following his death. Later on, however, they were in competition for commissions, Peters Basilica, completed under Pope Paul V with the addition of Madernos nave and facade and finally re-consecrated by Pope Urban VIII on 18 November 1626, after 150 years of planning and building. Berninis design of the Piazza San Pietro in front of the Basilica is one of his most innovative, during his long career, Bernini received numerous important commissions, many of which were associated with the papacy. At an early age, he came to the attention of the nephew, Cardinal Scipione Borghese. Although he did not fare so well during the reign of Innocent X, under Alexander VII, he again regained pre-eminent artistic domination. Bernini and other artists fell from favor in later neoclassical criticism of the Baroque, the art historian Howard Hibbard concludes that, during the seventeenth century, there were no sculptors or architects comparable to Bernini. Bernini was born in Naples in 1598 to Angelica Galante and Mannerist sculptor Pietro Bernini and he was the sixth of their thirteen children. Gianlorenzo Bernini was the definition of childhood genius and he was “recognized as a prodigy when he was only eight years old, he was consistently encouraged by his father, Pietro. His precocity earned him the admiration and favor of powerful patrons who hailed him as ‘the Michelangelo of his century’” and his father was so impressed by his son’s obvious talent that he took him to Rome to showcase him to the cardinals and Pope. Bernini was presented before Pope Paul V, for whom he did a sketch of Saint Paul, once he was brought to Rome, he never left. “For Bernini there could be only one Rome, ‘You are made for Rome, ’ said Pope Urban VIII to him, ‘and Rome for you’”. It was in world of 17th century Rome and religious power. Under the patronage of the wealthy and most powerful Cardinal Scipione Borghese. By the time he was twenty-two, he was considered talented enough to have given a commission for a papal portrait. Berninis reputation, however, was established by four masterpieces
Gian Lorenzo Bernini
–
Self-portrait of Bernini, c. 1623
Gian Lorenzo Bernini
–
Apollo and Daphne (1622–25)
Gian Lorenzo Bernini
–
Baldacchino in
St. Peter's Basilica
Gian Lorenzo Bernini
–
Bust of Cardinal Armand de Richelieu (1640–41)
11.
Florence
–
Florence is the capital city of the Italian region of Tuscany and of the Metropolitan City of Florence. It is the most populous city in Tuscany, with 383,083 inhabitants, Florence was a centre of medieval European trade and finance and one of the wealthiest cities of the time. It is considered the birthplace of the Renaissance, and has called the Athens of the Middle Ages. A turbulent political history includes periods of rule by the powerful Medici family, from 1865 to 1871 the city was the capital of the recently established Kingdom of Italy. The Historic Centre of Florence attracts 13 million tourists each year and it was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1982. The city is noted for its culture, Renaissance art and architecture, the city also contains numerous museums and art galleries, such as the Uffizi Gallery and the Palazzo Pitti, and still exerts an influence in the fields of art, culture and politics. Due to Florences artistic and architectural heritage, it has been ranked by Forbes as one of the most beautiful cities in the world, in 2008, the city had the 17th highest average income in Italy. Florence originated as a Roman city, and later, after a period as a flourishing trading and banking medieval commune. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, it was politically, economically, and culturally one of the most important cities in Europe, the language spoken in the city during the 14th century was, and still is, accepted as the Italian language. Starting from the late Middle Ages, Florentine money—in the form of the gold florin—financed the development of all over Europe, from Britain to Bruges, to Lyon. Florentine bankers financed the English kings during the Hundred Years War and they similarly financed the papacy, including the construction of their provisional capital of Avignon and, after their return to Rome, the reconstruction and Renaissance embellishment of Rome. Florence was home to the Medici, one of European historys most important noble families, Lorenzo de Medici was considered a political and cultural mastermind of Italy in the late 15th century. Two members of the family were popes in the early 16th century, Leo X, catherine de Medici married king Henry II of France and, after his death in 1559, reigned as regent in France. Marie de Medici married Henry IV of France and gave birth to the future king Louis XIII, the Medici reigned as Grand Dukes of Tuscany, starting with Cosimo I de Medici in 1569 and ending with the death of Gian Gastone de Medici in 1737. The Etruscans initially formed in 200 BC the small settlement of Fiesole and it was built in the style of an army camp with the main streets, the cardo and the decumanus, intersecting at the present Piazza della Repubblica. Situated along the Via Cassia, the route between Rome and the north, and within the fertile valley of the Arno, the settlement quickly became an important commercial centre. Peace returned under Lombard rule in the 6th century, Florence was conquered by Charlemagne in 774 and became part of the Duchy of Tuscany, with Lucca as capital. The population began to again and commerce prospered
Florence
–
A collage of Florence showing the
Galleria degli Uffizi (top left), followed by the
Palazzo Pitti, a sunset view of the city and the
Fountain of Neptune in the
Piazza della Signoria
Florence
–
A wooden model of Florence as it would have probably looked during Roman times, showing the ancient amphitheatre
Florence
–
The façade of the Cathedral
Florence
–
Leonardo da Vinci statue outside the
Uffizi Gallery.
12.
Florentine Republic
–
The Republic of Florence, also known as the Florentine Republic, was a medieval and early modern state that was centered on the Italian city of Florence in Tuscany. The republic originated in 1115, when the Florentine people rebelled against the Margraviate of Tuscany upon the death of Matilda, the Florentines formed a commune in her successors place. The republic was ruled by a council, known as the signoria, the signoria was chosen by the gonfaloniere, who was elected every two months by Florentine guild members. The republic had a history of coups and counter-coups against various factions. The Medici faction gained governance of the city in 1434, upon Cosimo de Medicis counter-coup against the faction that had sent him into exile the previous year, the Medici kept control of Florence until 1494. Giovanni de Medici re-conquered the republic in 1512, Florence repudiated Medici authority for a second time in 1527, during the War of the League of Cognac. The Medici re-assumed their rule in 1531, after an 11-month siege of the city, the republican government was disestablished in 1532, when Pope Clement VII appointed Alessandro de Medici Duke of the Florentine Republic, making the republic a hereditary monarchy. The city of Florence was established in 59 B. C. by Julius Caesar, the city had been part of the Marquisate of Tuscany before the death of Margravine Matilda in 1115. The city did not submit readily to her successor, Rabodo, the first official mention of the republic was in 1138 when several cities around Tuscany formed a league against Henry X of Bavaria. The country was part of the Holy Roman Empire. Florence prospered in the 12th century, trading extensively with foreign countries and this, in turn, provided a platform for demographic growth of the city. The growth of Florences population mirrored the rate of construction, many churches and this prosperity was shattered when Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa invaded the Italian peninsula in 1185. The Margraves of Tuscany re-acquired Florence and its townlands, the Florentines re-asserted their independence when Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI died in 1197. Florences population continued to grow into the 13th century, reaching 30,000 inhabitants, as has been said, the extra inhabitants supported the citys trade and vice versa. Several new bridges and churches were built, most prominently the cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore, the buildings from the era serve as Florences best example of Gothic Architecture. Politically, Florence was barely able to maintain peace between factions, the precarious peace that existed at the beginning of the century was destroyed in 1216 when two factions known as the Guelphs and the Ghibellines began to war. The Ghibellines were the rulers of Florence. The Ghibellines, who under Frederick of Antioch had ruled the city since 1244, were deposed in 1250 by the Guelphs, the Guelphs led Florence to prosper further
Florentine Republic
–
Front and back of a Florentine florin
Florentine Republic
–
Flag
Florentine Republic
–
Cosimo de' Medici, founder of the
House of Medici
Florentine Republic
–
Lorenzo de' Medici
13.
Medici
–
The family originated in the Mugello region of the Tuscan countryside, gradually rising until they were able to fund the Medici Bank. The bank was the largest in Europe during the 15th century, the Medici produced three Popes of the Catholic Church—Pope Leo X, Pope Clement VII, and Pope Leo XI, two regent queens of France—Catherine de Medici and Marie de Medici. In 1531, the family became hereditary Dukes of Florence, in 1569, the duchy was elevated to a grand duchy after territorial expansion. They ruled the Grand Duchy of Tuscany from its inception until 1737, the grand duchy witnessed degrees of economic growth under the earlier grand dukes, but by the time of Cosimo III de Medici, Tuscany was fiscally bankrupt. Their wealth and influence initially derived from the textile trade guided by the guild of the Arte della Lana. They, along with families of Italy—such as the Visconti and Sforza of Milan, the Este of Ferrara. The Medici Bank was one of the most prosperous and most respected institutions in Europe, there are some estimates that the Medici family were the wealthiest family in Europe for a time. From this base, they acquired political power initially in Florence and later in wider Italy, a notable contribution to the profession of accounting was the improvement of the general ledger system through the development of the double-entry bookkeeping system for tracking credits and debits. The Medici family were among the earliest businesses to use the system, the Medici family came from the agricultural Mugello region, north of Florence, being mentioned for the first time in a document of 1230. The origin of the name is uncertain, Medici is the plural of medico, also written del medico or delmedigo, meaning, medical doctor. It has been suggested that the derived from one Medico di Potrone, a castellan of Potrone in the late 11th century. The dynasty began with the founding of the Medici Bank, until the late 14th century, prior to the Medici, the leading family of Florence was the House of Albizzi. In 1293 the Ordinances of Justice were enacted, which became the constitution of the republic of Florence throughout the Italian Renaissance. The citys numerous luxurious palazzi were becoming surrounded by townhouses, built by the ever prospering merchant class. In 1298, one of the leading banking families of Europe, the main challengers to the Albizzi family were the Medicis, first under Giovanni de Medici, later under his son Cosimo di Giovanni de Medici and great-grandson, Lorenzo de Medici. The Medici controlled the Medici bank—then Europes largest bank—and an array of other enterprises in Florence, in 1433, the Albizzi managed to have Cosimo exiled. The next year, however, a pro-Medici Signoria was elected, the Medici became the citys leading family, a position they would hold for the next three centuries. Cosimo and Lorenzo rarely held official posts but were the unquestioned leaders, some examples of these families include the Bardi, Salviati, Cavalcanti, and the Tornabuoni
Medici
–
Giovanni di Bicci de' Medici, founder of the Medici bank.
Medici
–
Medici
Medici
–
The Confirmation of the Rule by
Domenico Ghirlandaio.
Medici
–
Cosimo I the Great, founder of the
Grand Duchy of Tuscany
14.
Antonio Marcello Barberini
–
Cap. was an Italian cardinal and the younger brother of Maffeo Barberini, later Pope Urban VIII. He is sometimes referred to as Antonio the Elder to distinguish him from his nephew Antonio Barberini, born Marcello Barberini in Florence 1569 into the Barberini family, he entered the Order of Capuchins in 1585. In 1592 he changed his name to Antonio. He served as a priest until the election of his brother Maffeo to the throne as Pope Urban VIII in 1623. He traveled to Rome with a group of Capuchin brothers to serve his brother and was elevated to cardinal in 1624, on January 26,1625, he was appointed Bishop of Senigallia. Later he was appointed Grand Inquisitor of the Roman Inquisition between 1629 and 1633, Librarian of the Holy Roman Church between 1633 and 1646 and Major Penitentiary between 1633 and 1646 and he served as the Camerlengo of the Sacred College of Cardinals twice. While bishop, he was the consecrator of
Antonio Marcello Barberini
–
Portrait of Antonio Marcello Barberini by
Antonio Alberti, ca. 1629-1631.
Antonio Marcello Barberini
–
Bust of Antonio Barberini by
Bernini.
15.
Francesco Barberini (seniore)
–
Francesco Barberini was an Italian Catholic Cardinal. The nephew of Pope Urban VIII, he benefited immensely from the nepotism practiced by his uncle and he was given various roles within the Vatican administration but his personal cultural interests, particularly in literature and the arts, meant that he became a highly significant patron. His secretary was the antiquarian Cassiano dal Pozzo who was also a patron of the arts. Francesco was the brother of Cardinal Antonio Barberini and Taddeo Barberini who became Prince of Palestrina. On 2 October the same year, his uncle, Maffeo Barberini, newly elected as Pope Urban VIII, made him a cardinal, state secretary and he held the latter position until 1633. In 1625, he went to Paris as special legate and from March to September, overall, the negotiations were not a political success for the papacy but as a ‘sweetener’ he received a gift of six tapestries from King Louis XIII, designed by Peter Paul Rubens. In 1625 he travelled to Spain as papal legate and this mission was also unsuccessful and he returned to Rome the following year. In 1632 he was appointed papal Vice-Chancellor, here they remained under the protection of Cardinal Mazarin. Two years later, Francesco was pardoned by the pope who restored confiscated properties to him, on his return to Rome, Francesco resumed his role as a patron of arts although on a reduced scale. In 1666 he became Dean of the College of Cardinals, taking part in the conclaves of 1667 and he died in Rome in 1679 at the age of eighty two. Francesco Barberini was active as a patron of the arts both as a patron and within broader spheres. Privately, he bought several paintings by Poussin during the early years in Rome. In 1625, he acquired the Sforza palace on the Quirinal Hill in Rome, Francesco and Urban were on hand to advise on its decoration. Also at the Palazzo Barberini, he initiated a small natural science museum and botanical garden and his collections attested to his interests in ancient sculpture, numismatics, the Libellus de Medicinalibus Indorum Herbis, sometimes referred to as the Codex Barberini, was named in his honour. Cardinal Francesco Barberini contributed financially to churches in Rome, as protector of the Academy of Saint Luke, the artists guild in Rome, he dedicated funds for the construction of the Academys church of Santi Luca e Martina, designed by Cortona. Although initially he made available for the construction of San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane designed by Francesco Borromini. He also commissioned various monuments for church interiors, including ones to G. Aleandro, guglielmi who had been his teachers, in San Lorenzo fuori le Mura and designed by Cortona). Combaluzier, F. Sacres épiscopaux à Rome de 1565 à1662, analyse intégrale du Ms. «Miscellanea XIII, 33» des Archives Vaticanes Sacris Eruduri, XVIII, p.229
Francesco Barberini (seniore)
–
Francesco Barberini in 1624, shortly after his uncle,
Pope Urban VIII, made him a
cardinal.
Francesco Barberini (seniore)
–
Cardinal Francesco Barberini by
Andrea Sacchi
16.
Antonio Barberini
–
As one of the cardinal-nephews of Pope Urban VIII and a supporter of France, he played a significant role at a number of the papal conclaves of the 17th century. With his brothers Cardinal Francesco Barberini and Taddeo Barberini he helped to shape politics, religion, art and he is sometimes referred to as Antonio the Younger or Antonio Barberini iuniore to distinguish him from his uncle Antonio Marcello Barberini. Barberini was born on 5 August 1607 in Rome, the youngest of 6 children to Carlo Barberini, like his brothers, Antonio was educated at the Collegio Romano. Barberinis uncle, Maffeo Barberini was elected as pope on 6 August 1623, almost immediately, he elevated his brother, Antonios other uncle, Antonio Marcello Barberini to the position of cardinal. In the tradition of cardinal nephews, Urban also elevated Antonios older brother Francesco Barberini to the rank of cardinal, Urbans famous nepotism wasnt sufficiently quelled by the appointment of one cardinal-nephew. Less than a month after his 20th birthday and without having established a career of his own. His elevation was made in pectore and was published on 7 February 1628, Urban also purchased the comune of the town of Palestrina outside Rome, and Antonios other brother, Taddeo Barberini, became the Prince of Palestrina. During his time in France he became unwell and employed Joseph Barsalou as his private physician and he returned to Rome and assumed the post of Camerlengo of the Holy Roman Church in 1638. In 1636, against the wish of his uncle the Pope and it has been estimated that during Urbans 21-year pontificate, Barberini amassed more than 63 million scudi in personal wealth. In 1639 Odoardo Farnese, Duke of Parma and Piacenza, came to Rome, during his visit he insulted Antonio and his brother Francesco by suggesting to the Pope that the brothers were too young to manage the Popes affairs. Pope Urban responded by banning grain shipments from Farnese controlled areas, when the Farnese were then unable to pay their debts the Pope sent debt collectors. Finally the Pope send troops to occupy Castro, the Popes forces were led by Antonio, his brother Taddeo and mercenary field commander Luigi Mattei. Castro fell to Urbans forces without significant resistance and the victory was celebrated in song by Barberini family composer, but the victory was short lived and thereafter Antonio and his troops suffered a series of decisive losses and Antonio himself was almost captured. Pope Urban was forced to defeat and signed a peace treaty with the Farnese Dukes in an attempt to prevent them from marching on Rome itself. When Urban died, the Church was facing financial struggle, the cardinals were divided between France and Spain and the Farnese were moving toward Rome with an army in tow. Mazarin became so angry because of Antonios attitude that he deprived him of the protectorate of the Kingdom of France, however, the conflict was of short duration and both cardinals quickly reconciled with each other. For reasons unknown, Pope Innocent X reneged on the deal and Antonio, the two went into exile in 1645 in Paris under the protection of Cardinal Mazarin, and were joined a year later by Francesco. Before leaving Rome, Antonio had the crest of the King of France affixed above his door as a warning to his rivals that he was now protected by the French Kingdom
Antonio Barberini
–
Portrait of Antonio Barberini shortly after his elevation to
cardinal by his uncle,
Pope Urban VIII.
Simone Cantarini, c. 1630.
Antonio Barberini
–
Antonio Barberini in 1625
Antonio Barberini
–
Engraving of Cardinal Barberini, c. 1645.
Antonio Barberini
–
Portrait of cardinal Antonio Barberini by
Carlo Maratta.
17.
Taddeo Barberini
–
Taddeo Barberini was an Italian nobleman of the House of Barberini who became Prince of Palestrina and Gonfalonier of the Church, commander of the Papal Army. He was a nephew of Pope Urban VIII and brother of Cardinals Francesco Barberini, thanks to their uncles famous nepotism, the brothers shaped 17th-century Italian politics, religion, art, music and architecture. Barberini was born in 1603, the son of Carlo Barberini and he was the nephew of brothers cardinal Maffeo Barberini and Antonio Marcello Barberini and of Lorenzo Magalotti. He was the brother of Francesco Barberini and Antonio Barberini, both of whom became Cardinals when their uncle became pope, like his brothers, Taddeo was educated at the Collegio Romano. In 1623, Maffeo Barberini was elected as Pope Urban VIII, Pope Urbans nepotism became legendary and later 17th-century popes vowed to be different. In 1624, Taddeo took control of the Duchy of Urbino, when Francesco Maria died in 1631, the duchy was transferred to the Papal States. On 14 October 1627 Barberini married Anna Colonna, daughter of Filippo I Colonna and it is thought the transfer of the Palestrina comune between the two families was tied to the agreement, part of Anna Colonnas dowry. Taddeos son Carlo Barberini later renounced his right to inherit his fathers titles to become a cardinal, Taddeos hereditary titles therefore passed to his second son, Maffeo. As Prince of Palestrina, Taddeo worked to improve local buildings and establish new services and he rebuilt the Palazzo Barberini and his son Maffeo later commissioned a new church nearby. Taddeo built a private casino which operated for a few years during his administration. Pope Urban further honoured his nephew in 1631 by appointing him Governor of the Borgo, Commander of SantAngelo, Taddeos investiture as prefect was celebrated with much pomp and extravagance. It is estimated that by 1632, Taddeos property was worth as much as 4 million scudi, by 1635, income from Taddeos property was estimated at 100,000 scudi per year. In 1639 Odoardo Farnese, Duke of Parma and Piacenza, came to Rome, Pope Urban responded by banning grain shipments from Farnese controlled areas. When the Farnese were then unable to pay their debts the Pope sent debt collectors, finally the Pope troops to occupy Castro. The Popes forces were led by Antonio Barberini, his field commander Luigi Mattei. When Savelli proved to be a commander, he was returned to Rome. Castro fell without significant resistance and the victory was celebrated in song by Barberini family composer, but the victory was short lived and thereafter papal troops suffered a series of decisive losses. Pope Urban was forced to defeat and signed a peace treaty with the Farnese Dukes in an attempt to prevent them from marching on Rome itself
Taddeo Barberini
–
Bust of Don Taddeo Barberini
Taddeo Barberini
–
Investiture of Taddeo Barberini as Prefect by Pope Urban
Taddeo Barberini
–
Camilla Barberini as a child, shortly before her death; painted by Tiberio Tito.
18.
Gonfalonier of the Church
–
The Gonfalonier of the Church or Papal Gonfalonier was a military and political office of the Papal States. Originating from the use of the Papal banner during combat, the later became largely ceremonial and political. At his nomination, the Gonfalonier was given two banners, one with the arms of the Church and another with the arms of the reigning pope. The Gonfalonier was entitled to include ecclesiastical emblems upon his own arms, usually only during his term of office, gonfalone of the Church Captain General of the Church
Gonfalonier of the Church
–
1059 —?
Gonfalonier of the Church
–
The Gonzaga family arms, displaying the papal insignia acquired by
Federico II as Papal Gonfalonier.
Gonfalonier of the Church
–
c. 1296
Gonfalonier of the Church
–
1384 — 1385
19.
Prefect
–
Prefect is a magisterial title of varying definition, but which, basically, refers to the leader of an administrative area. A prefects office, department, or area of control is called a prefecture, the words prefect and prefecture are also used, more or less conventionally, to render analogous words in other languages, especially Romance languages. They did have authority in their prefecture such as controlling prisons. The Praetorian prefect began as the commander of a generals guard company in the field. From the Emperor Diocletians tetrarchy they became the administrators of the four Praetorian prefectures, Praefectus urbi, or praefectus urbanus, city prefect, in charge of the administration of Rome. Praefectus vigilum, commander of the Vigiles, Praefectus aerarii, nobles appointed guardians of the state treasury. Praefectus aerarii militaris, prefect of the military treasury Praefectus annonae, Praefectus alae, commander of a cavalry unit. Praefectus cohortis, commander of a cohort, Praefectus fabrum, officer in charge of fabri, i. e. well-trained engineers and artisans. Praefectus legionis agens vice legati, equestrian acting legionary commander, Praefectus orae maritimae, official in charge with the control and defense of an important sector of sea coast. Praefectus socium, Roman officer appointed to a function in an ala sociorum. For some auxiliary troops, specific titles could even refer to their peoples, less important provinces though were entrusted to prefects, military men who would otherwise only govern parts of larger provinces. The most famous example is Pontius Pilate, who governed Judaea at a time when it was administered as an annex of Syria, septimius Severus, after conquering Mesopotamia, introduced the same system there too. Praefectus urbi, a prefect of the era who guarded the city during the annual sacrifice of the Latin. His former title was custos urbi, especially in Medieval Latin, præfectus was used to refer to various officers—administrative, military, judicial, etc. —usually alongside a more precise term in the vernacular. The term is used by the Roman Catholic Church, which based much of its canon law terminology on Roman law, the Roman Curia has the nine Prefects of all the Congregations as well as the two of the Papal Household and of the Economic Affairs of the Holy See. The title also attaches to the heads of some Pontifical Council, who are titled president. For example, the president of the Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue is also the prefect of the Commission for Religious Relations with Muslims, traditionally these Curial officials are Cardinals, hence often called Cardinal-Prefect or Cardinal-President. There was a custom that those who were not cardinals when they were appointed were titled Pro-Prefect or Pro-President, then these officials would be appointed prefect or president after their elevation to the Sacred College
Prefect
–
Prefect of the
Bouches-du-Rhône departement (France) during
Bastille Day ceremony.
Prefect
–
Saint Margaret attracts the attention of the Roman prefect, by
Jean Fouquet from an
illuminated manuscript
20.
John Bargrave
–
John Bargrave, was an English author and collector and a canon of Canterbury Cathedral. Bargrave was born in Kent in 1610, the son of Captain John Bargrave and his father had fought in the war between the English and the Spanish and had returned to Bridge to raise a family. Bargrave was a nephew of Isaac Bargrave, Dean of the Canterbury Cathedral, Bargrave was first educated at The Kings School, Canterbury and then at St. Peters College at Cambridge. Bargrave became librarian there and then a fellow of the college in 1637, bargraves uncle Isaac was a strong supporter of the monarchy and thus the Cavaliers and at the outbreak of the English Civil War in 1642 he was imprisoned. He was released the year but died soon after and John Bargrave was ejected from the fellowship of the college. Thereafter, Bargrave devoted his time chiefly to travelling across the European continent, in 1646 and 1647 he was in Italy with his nephew, John Raymond, author of an itinerary in which Bargrave is supposed to have had a considerable hand. He was again at Rome in 1650,1655, and 1659–60 and he experienced, first-hand, the power of the Roman Inquisition and was privy to the goings-on of the papal court in Rome, its cardinals, secular leaders and scandals. After the Restoration he obtained several preferments in Kent and in 1662 was made a canon of Canterbury and he acquitted himself successfully of his mission, and spent the rest of his life at home, dying at Canterbury on 11 May 1680. In 1665 Bargrave married the widow, Frances Osborne. The work consists of scraps selected from three anonymous contemporary Italian publications, with additions of his own. The profiles were originally designed to illustrate a collection of portraits of the pope, bargraves work was edited by James Craigie Robertson for the Camden Society in 1867, with a memoir of Bargrave and a descriptive catalogue of the curiosities he had acquired in his travels. Chaney, Edward, The Grand Tour and the Great Rebellion Chaney, Edward, Chaney, Edward, Roma Britannica and the Cultural Memory of Egypt, Lord Arundel and the Obelisk of Domitian, in Roma Britannica, Art Patronage and Cultural Exchange in Eighteenth-Century Rome, eds. D. Marshall, K. Wolfe and S. Russell, British School at Rome,2011, pp. 147–70
John Bargrave
–
Detail of a page from John Bargrave's travel diary, showing the French wine-producing hilltop town of
Sancerre in the centre, the
Loire River on the right and the village of
Saint-Thibault on the left.
21.
War of Castro
–
The Wars of Castro were a series of conflicts during the mid-17th century revolving around the ancient city of Castro, which eventually resulted in the citys destruction on 2 September 1649. Papal politics of the century were complicated, with frequently shifting military. In 1611 a group of conspirators, nobles from Modena and Mantua, was accused of devising a plot to assassinate Ranuccio I Farnese, Duke of Parma, in reality, the plot had been uncovered when a prisoner confessed to it and implicated members of various noble houses. Though the accusations were untrue,100 of the conspirators were tortured. Many of their estates were confiscated leaving a number of now legitimately discontented nobles. Until his death in 1622, Ranuccio remained paranoid about future assassination attempts and about curses from witches and he persecuted witches and alleged conspirators savagely and even had his own mistress, Claudia Colla, burned to death. He remained convinced that other families were plotting his downfall. However, tensions between the Farnese and other Italian nobility were not limited to events in Parma. Historian Leopold von Ranke gives an account of a 1639 visit to Rome by Odoardo Farnese, Duke of Parma, the Duke arrived in Rome to great fanfare - he was given gifts and escorted around the city by Pope Urbans Cardinal-nephews, Antonio Barberini and Francesco Barberini. But the Duke refused to pay due deference to the Popes other nephew, as the Duke prepared to leave, he suggested that an escort from the city would be appropriate. The Duke took his leave but urged the Pope to chastise both Cardinal-nephews, Duke Odoardos Roman creditors saw their chance - the Duke was unable to pay his debts, which he had accumulated in military adventures against the Spanish in Milan and in luxurious living. The unpaid and unhappy creditors sought relief from the pope, who turned to action in an attempt to force payment. Pope Urban VIII responded to the requests of Duke Odoardos creditors by sending his nephew Antonio, Fabrizio Savelli, Papal forces also included commanders Achille dÉtampes de Valençay and Marquis Cornelio Malvasia. At the same time, the pope sent cardinal Bernardino Spada as plenipotentiary in an effort to resolve the crisis, Spada later published a manifesto detailing his version of events which, according to contemporary John Bargrave, many accepted to be the truth. Indeed, Urban VIII had been amassing troops in Rome throughout 1641, mercenaries and regular troops filled the streets and Antonio Barberini was forced to institute special measures to maintain authority over the city. But the papacy needed yet more troops, on 12 October 1641, Luigi Mattei led 12,000 infantry and up to 4,000 cavalry against the fortified town. The popes forces were met by a contingent of 40 troops guarding a bridge leading to the town, Castro, and several other small towns nearby, surrendered. Fabrizio Savelli, though, proved to be an unenthusiastic commander, the army was split into three and the Popes nephew, Taddeo Barberini, replaced Savelli as Generalissimo, arriving with one contingent in the papal city of Ferrara on 5 January 1642
War of Castro
–
The city of Castro, on which the Wars of Castro centered.
War of Castro
–
Pope Innocent X, on whose orders Castro was destroyed. Portrait by
Diego Velázquez.
22.
Scudi
–
The scudo was the name for a number of coins used in Italy until the 19th century. The name, like that of the French écu and the Spanish, from the 16th century, the name was used in Italy for large silver coins. Sizes varied depending on the issuing country, first scudo dargento was issued in 1551 by Charles V in Milan. Under Maria Theresa and Joseph II the scudo dargento had a weight of 23.10 g, in the Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia, the Lombardy-Venetia scudo was equivalent to the Conventionsthaler and was subdivided into six lire. Before the Napoleonic Wars, the lira was subdivided into 20 soldi, later, the lira was made up of 100 centesimi. When Austria-Hungary decimalized in 1857, the scudo was replaced by the florin at a rate of 2 florin =1 scudo, coins of ½ and 1 soldo were issued, equal to ½ and 1 kreuzer, for use in Lombardy and Venetia. In the Papal States, the Papal States scudo was the currency until 1866 and it was divided into 100 baiocchi, each of 5 quattrini. It was replaced by the lira, equal to the Italian lira, the Duchy of Modena and Reggio also issued scudi, worth four lire or one third of a tallero. In Malta under the Order of St John, the Maltese scudo circulated from the 16th century until the Order was expelled in 1798, the currency remained the official currency of Malta until 1825 and the last coins were removed from circulation in 1886. The Sovereign Military Order of Malta has issued coins denominated in scudi since 1961, manuale del collezionista di monete italiane
Scudi
–
Papal States, Quadruple Scudo d'Oro (1689) depicting
Pope Alexander VIII (obv) and Saints
Peter and
Paul (rev)
Scudi
–
100 Scudi note issued in the 19th century
23.
Pantheon, Rome
–
The Pantheon is a former Roman temple, now a church, in Rome, Italy, on the site of an earlier temple commissioned by Marcus Agrippa during the reign of Augustus. The present building was completed by the emperor Hadrian and probably dedicated about 126 AD and he retained Agrippas original inscription, which has confused its date of construction as the original Pantheon burnt down so it is not certain when the present one was built. The building is circular with a portico of large granite Corinthian columns under a pediment, a rectangular vestibule links the porch to the rotunda, which is under a coffered concrete dome, with a central opening to the sky. Almost two thousand years after it was built, the Pantheons dome is still the worlds largest unreinforced concrete dome, the height to the oculus and the diameter of the interior circle are the same,43.3 metres. Mary and the Martyrs but informally known as Santa Maria Rotonda, the square in front of the Pantheon is called Piazza della Rotonda. The Pantheon is a property, ruled by Italys Ministry of Cultural Heritage and Activities and Tourism through the Polo Museale del Lazio. The Pantheons large circular domed cella, with a temple portico front, is unique in Roman architecture. Nevertheless, it became a standard exemplar when classical styles were revived, Pantheon is derived from the Ancient Greek Pantheion meaning of, relating to, or common to all the gods. His uncertainty strongly suggests that Pantheon was merely a nickname, not the name of the building. In fact, the concept of a dedicated to all the gods is questionable. The only definite pantheon recorded earlier than Agrippas was at Antioch in Syria and it seems highly significant that Dio does not quote the simplest explanation for the name—that the Pantheon was dedicated to all the gods. Godfrey and Hemsoll maintain that the word Pantheon need not denote a group of gods, or, indeed, even all the gods. Certainly the word pantheus or pantheos, could be applicable to individual deities…, bearing in mind also that the Greek word θεῖος need not mean of a god but could mean superhuman, or even excellent. It seems likely that the Pantheon and the Basilica of Neptune were Agrippas sacra privata and this less solemn designation would help explain how the building could have so easily lost its original name and purpose in such a relatively short period of time. However, archaeological excavations have shown that the Pantheon of Agrippa had been destroyed except for the façade. Lise Hetland argues that the present construction began in 114, under Trajan and her argument is particularly interesting in light of Heilmeyers argument that, based on stylistic evidence, Apollodorus of Damascus, Trajans architect, was the obvious architect. The form of Agrippas Pantheon is debated and this description was widely accepted until the late 20th century. The only passages referring to the decoration of the Agrippan Pantheon written by an eyewitness are in Plinys Natural History, from him we know that the capitals, too, of the pillars, which were placed by M
Pantheon, Rome
–
Pantheon
Pantheon, Rome
Pantheon, Rome
–
The Pantheon and the Fontana del Pantheon.
Pantheon, Rome
–
The Pantheon dome. The concrete for the
coffered dome was poured in moulds, probably mounted on temporary scaffolding. The oculus is the main source of natural light.
24.
Wars of Castro
–
The Wars of Castro were a series of conflicts during the mid-17th century revolving around the ancient city of Castro, which eventually resulted in the citys destruction on 2 September 1649. Papal politics of the century were complicated, with frequently shifting military. In 1611 a group of conspirators, nobles from Modena and Mantua, was accused of devising a plot to assassinate Ranuccio I Farnese, Duke of Parma, in reality, the plot had been uncovered when a prisoner confessed to it and implicated members of various noble houses. Though the accusations were untrue,100 of the conspirators were tortured. Many of their estates were confiscated leaving a number of now legitimately discontented nobles. Until his death in 1622, Ranuccio remained paranoid about future assassination attempts and about curses from witches and he persecuted witches and alleged conspirators savagely and even had his own mistress, Claudia Colla, burned to death. He remained convinced that other families were plotting his downfall. However, tensions between the Farnese and other Italian nobility were not limited to events in Parma. Historian Leopold von Ranke gives an account of a 1639 visit to Rome by Odoardo Farnese, Duke of Parma, the Duke arrived in Rome to great fanfare - he was given gifts and escorted around the city by Pope Urbans Cardinal-nephews, Antonio Barberini and Francesco Barberini. But the Duke refused to pay due deference to the Popes other nephew, as the Duke prepared to leave, he suggested that an escort from the city would be appropriate. The Duke took his leave but urged the Pope to chastise both Cardinal-nephews, Duke Odoardos Roman creditors saw their chance - the Duke was unable to pay his debts, which he had accumulated in military adventures against the Spanish in Milan and in luxurious living. The unpaid and unhappy creditors sought relief from the pope, who turned to action in an attempt to force payment. Pope Urban VIII responded to the requests of Duke Odoardos creditors by sending his nephew Antonio, Fabrizio Savelli, Papal forces also included commanders Achille dÉtampes de Valençay and Marquis Cornelio Malvasia. At the same time, the pope sent cardinal Bernardino Spada as plenipotentiary in an effort to resolve the crisis, Spada later published a manifesto detailing his version of events which, according to contemporary John Bargrave, many accepted to be the truth. Indeed, Urban VIII had been amassing troops in Rome throughout 1641, mercenaries and regular troops filled the streets and Antonio Barberini was forced to institute special measures to maintain authority over the city. But the papacy needed yet more troops, on 12 October 1641, Luigi Mattei led 12,000 infantry and up to 4,000 cavalry against the fortified town. The popes forces were met by a contingent of 40 troops guarding a bridge leading to the town, Castro, and several other small towns nearby, surrendered. Fabrizio Savelli, though, proved to be an unenthusiastic commander, the army was split into three and the Popes nephew, Taddeo Barberini, replaced Savelli as Generalissimo, arriving with one contingent in the papal city of Ferrara on 5 January 1642
Wars of Castro
–
The city of Castro, on which the Wars of Castro centered.
Wars of Castro
–
Pope Innocent X, on whose orders Castro was destroyed. Portrait by
Diego Velázquez.
25.
Odoardo Farnese
–
See also, Odoardo Farnese, Hereditary Prince of Parma for Odoardo II Farnese, grandson of this Odoardo and father of Elizabeth Farnese. Odoardo Farnese, also known as Odoardo I Farnese to distinguish him from his grandson Odoardo II Farnese, was Duke of Parma, Piacenza, Odoardo was the eldest legitimate son of Ranuccio I Farnese and Margherita Aldobrandini. He came of age in 1628 and in the year he married Margherita de Medici. His first notable act as Duke was an alliance with France in 1633 and he also asked for loans to improve the army, but his first campaigns were ineffective, Piacenza was occupied by the Spanish troops, and his army was defeated by Francesco I dEste. Spanish troops overran the duchy and devastated the countryside, but did not attempt to lay siege to the cities, in the absence of French assistance, Odoardo was convinced by Pope Urban VIII to sign a treaty of peace with Spain in 1637. His aggressive rule of Castro, a Farnese fief in the Papal States north of Rome, instead of reconciliation, he sought alliances with Venice, Florence and the Duchy of Modena, and invaded northern Lazio with 7,000 troops. His army was composed mostly of cavalry, and were unable to recover Castro by siege, Odoardo died suddenly in Piacenza, his favorite residence, on 11 September 1646. Odoardo Farnese married Margherita de Medici on 11 October 1628, the daughter of Cosimo II de Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany
Odoardo Farnese
–
Odoardo Farnese
Odoardo Farnese
–
Odoardo Farnese depicted on a gold 2 doppie coin (1626).
Odoardo Farnese
–
Margherita de' Medici
26.
Piacenza
–
Piacenza listen is a city and comune in the Emilia-Romagna region of northern Italy. It is the capital of the province of Piacenza, modern forms of the name descend from Latin Placentia. The etymology is long-standing, tracing an origin from the Latin verb placēre, in French, and occasionally in English, it is called Plaisance. The name means a pleasant abode, or as James Boswell reported some of the etymologists of his time to have translated it and this was a name of good omen. Piacenza is located at a crossroads at the intersection of Route E35/A1 between Bologna and Milan, and Route E70/A21 between Brescia and Tortona. Piacenza is also at the confluence of the Trebbia, draining the northern Apennine Mountains, Piacenza also hosts two universities, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore and Polytechnic University of Milan. Before then, says Polybius, These plains were anciently inhabited by Etruscans before the Gauls took the entire Po Valley from them, Piacenza and Cremona were founded as Roman military colonies in May 218 BC. The Romans had planned to them after the successful conclusion of the latest war with the Gauls ending in 219 BC. In the spring of 218 BC, after declaring war on Carthage, the reaction of the regions Gauls was swift, they drove the colonists off the lands. Taking refuge in Mutina, the latter sent for military assistance, a small force under Lucius Manlius was prevented from reaching the area. The Senate then sent two legions under Gaius Atelius, collecting Manlius and the colonists, they descended on Piacenza and Cremona and successfully placed castra there of 480 square metres to support the building of the city. Piacenza must have been walled immediately, as the walls were in place when the Battle of the Trebia was fought around the city in December. There is no evidence either textual or archaeological of a settlement at that exact location, however. Piacenza was the 53rd colony to be placed by Rome since its foundation and it was the first among the Gauls of the Po valley. It had to be supplied by boat after the Battle of Trebbia, in 209 BC, Hasdrubal Barca crossed the Alps and laid siege to the city, but he was unable to take it and withdrew. In 200 BC, the Gauls sacked and burned it, selling the population into slavery, subsequently, the victorious Romans restored the city and managed to recover 2000 citizens. In 198 BC, a force of Gauls and Ligurians plundered the whole region. As the people had never recovered from being sold into slavery, in 190 BC they complained to Senate of underpopulation, the construction of the Via Aemilia in the 180s made the city easily accessible from the Adriatic ports, which improved trade and the prospects for timely defense
Piacenza
–
Francesco Mochi 's 1615 equestrian statue of
Ranuccio II Farnese in the city’s main square, Piazza dei cavalli.
Piacenza
–
Two gold Doppie (1626) depicting
Odoardo Farnese (obv) and Placentia floret ("Piacenza flourishes")(rev).
Piacenza
–
The French Pass the River Po at Piacenza, by Giuseppe Pietro Bagetti, 1803.
Piacenza
–
Piacenza railway bridge over Po river in a 19th-century image.
27.
College of Cardinals
–
The College of Cardinals, formerly styled Sacred College of Cardinals, is the body of all cardinals of the Catholic Church. A function of the college is to advise the pope about church matters when he summons them to an ordinary consistory and it also attends various functions as a matter of protocol, for example, during the canonization process. Historically, cardinals were the clergy serving parishes of the city of Rome under its bishop, the College acquired particular importance following the crowning of Henry IV as King of Germany and Holy Roman Emperor at the age of six, after the unexpected death of Henry III in 1056. This was significant as the aims and views of the Holy Roman Emperor, churchmen involved in what has become known as the Gregorian Reform took advantage of the new kings lack of power and in 1059 reserved the election of the pope to the clergy of the Church in Rome. Reserving to the cardinals the election of the pope represented a significant shift in the balance of power in the Early Medieval world. From the beginning of the 12th century, the College of Cardinals started to meet as such, in the Catholic church, the Dean of the College of Cardinals and the Cardinal Vice-Dean are the president and vice-president of the college. Both are elected by and from the six Cardinal-bishops, but the election requires Papal confirmation, except for presiding and delegating administrative tasks, they have no authority over the cardinals, acting as primus inter pares. The Fundamental Law of Vatican City State requires that appointees to the legislative body. The word cardinal is derived from the Latin cardo, meaning hinge, the office of cardinal as it is known today slowly evolved during the first millennium from the clergy of Rome. In 845 the Council of Meaux required Bishops to establish Cardinal titles or parishes in their towns and those who were assigned to the latter roles were given the titles of Legatus a latere and Missus Specialis. During the pontificate of Stephen V, the three classes of the College that are present today began to form, Stephen decreed that all cardinal-bishops were bound to sing Mass on rotation at the high altar at St. Peters Basilica, one per Sunday. The first class to form was that of the cardinal-deacons, direct descendants of the original seven ordained in Acts 6, followed by the cardinal-priests, and finally. The College played a part in various reforms within the Church as well. In the 12th century, the Third Lateran Council declared that only Cardinals could assume the papacy, in 1130, under Urban II, all the classes were permitted to take part in papal elections, up to this point, only cardinal-bishops had this role. By the end of the 14th century, the practice of solely Italian cardinals had ceased, between the 14th century and 17th century, there was much struggle for the College between the cardinals of the day and the reigning popes. The most effective way for a pope to increase his power was to increase the number of cardinals and those cardinals in power saw these actions as an attempt to weaken their influence. In 1517, Pope Leo X added another thirty-one cardinals, bringing the total to sixty-five so that he could have a majority in the College of Cardinals. Paul IV brought the total to seventy, Pope Pius IV raised an additional six
College of Cardinals
–
St. Peter's Basilica,
Vatican City
28.
Pope Innocent X
–
Pope Innocent X, born Giovanni Battista Pamphilj, was Pope from 15 September 1644 to his death in 1655. Trained as a lawyer, he succeeded Pope Urban VIII on 15 September 1644, as one of the most politically shrewd pontiffs of the era, Giovanni Battista Pamphili was born in Rome on 5 May 1574, the son of Camillo Pamphili, of the Roman Pamphili family. The family, originally from Gubbio, was descended from Pope Alexander VI. In 1594 he graduated from the Collegio Romano and followed a conventional cursus honorum and he served as a Consistorial lawyer in 1601, and in 1604 succeeded his uncle, Cardinal Girolamo Pamphilj, as auditor of the Roman Rota, the ecclesiastical appellate tribunal. He was also a canonist of the Sacred Apostolic Penitentiary, a second tribunal, in 1623 Pope Gregory XV sent him as nuncio to the court of the Kingdom of Naples. In 1625 Urban VIII sent him to accompany his nephew, Francesco Barberini, in January 1626 Pamphili was appointed titular Latin Patriarch of Antioch. The 1644 conclave for the election of a successor to Urban VIII was long and stormy, the large French faction led by Pope Urbans nephews objected to the Spanish candidate, as an enemy of Cardinal Mazarin, who guided French policy. They put up their own candidate but could not establish enough support for him and agreed to Pamphilj as an acceptable compromise, Mazarin, bearing the French veto of Cardinal Pamphilj, arrived too late, and the election was accomplished. Soon after his accession, Innocent X initiated legal action against the Barberini for misappropriation of public funds, the brothers Francesco Barberini, Antonio Barberini and Taddeo Barberini fled to Paris, where they found a powerful protector in Cardinal Mazarin. The French parliament declared the ordinance void in France. In 1653, Innocent X with the Cum occasione papal bull condemned five propositions of Janseniuss Augustinus, inspired by St. Augustine, as heretical and close to Lutheranism. The death of Pope Urban VIII is said to have been hastened by chagrin at the result of the First War of Castro, a war he had undertaken against Odoardo Farnese, the duke of Parma. Hostilities between the papacy and the Duchy of Parma resumed in 1649, and forces loyal to Pope Innocent X destroyed the city of Castro on 2 September 1649, the protests were ignored by the European powers. Olimpia Maidalchini, who had married to his late brother, was believed to be Innocent Xs mistress because of her influence over him in matters of promotion. The relationship between Olimpia and Innocent X, both before and during his papacy, is the concern of the book Mistress of the Vatican by Eleanor Hermann. The less-than-subtle political statement still hangs in a chapel of the Capuchin friars Church of the Conception in Rome. During the papacy of Pope Urban VIII, Giovanni Battista Pamphilj was the popes most significant rival among the College of Cardinals, Antonio Barberini, the popes brother, was a cardinal who had begun his career with the Capuchin brothers. He raised Colegio de Nuestra Senora del Santisimo Rosario to a University in November 20,1645 during his pontificate, in 1650, Innocent X celebrated a Jubilee
Pope Innocent X
–
Pope Innocent X
Pope Innocent X
–
Guido Reni's
archangel Michael (Capuchin church of Santa Maria della Concezione, Rome) tramples a
Satan with the vividly recognizable features of Pope Innocent X.
Pope Innocent X
–
Giovanni Battista Pamphili
29.
Pamphili
–
The Pamphili are one of the papal families deeply entrenched in Roman Catholic Church, Roman and Italian politics of the 16th and 17th centuries. Later, the Pamphili family line merged with the Doria and Landi family lines to form the Doria-Pamphili-Landi family line, the Pamphili surname originated in Gubbio and went to Rome under the pontificate of Pope Innocent VIII. The peak of Pamphili power came with the election of Giovanni Battista Pamphili as Pope Innocent X, like the reign of his predecessor Pope Urban VIII, Innocent Xs rule was littered with examples of nepotism. Members of the Pamphili family members did exceptionally well from the Innocent X papacy, the following family members were created cardinals, Camillo Francesco Maria Pamphili, the Popes nephew and son of Olimpia Maidalchini, the Popes sister-in-law and close adviser. He later renounced his cardinalate to marry Olimpia Aldobrandini, widow of Paolo Borghese Francesco Maidalchini, Camillo Astalli a cousin of Olimpia Maidalchini whom the Pope had adopted as a Cardinal-Nephew. He was later deprived of this title for disloyalty to Innocent X Benedetto Pamphili, son of Camillo Pamphili and Olimpia Aldobrandini, like other Italian noble families, the Pamphili bought property and created self-styled principalities. Family members regularly had princely titles bestowed upon them by family patriarchs or matriarchs, Olimpia Maidalchini received the honorific title of Princess of San Martino, effectively turning the small enclave of San Martino into a principality in its own right. After he left the cardinalate to marry, Camillo Pamphili was given the titles Prince of San Martino, Pope Innocent X was elected to replace him. Innocent set about investigating some of the related to the conflict which had been administered by the Barberini. On the orders of Innocent X, Castro was razed on 2 September 1649 by troops of the Papal Army, from 1652, on Saturdays and Sundays in August, the piazza was turned into a lake to celebrate the Pamphili family, a festival that was suppressed in 1866. Today, the functions as the Brazilian Embassy in Rome. The tomb of Innocent X is located in SantAgnese, another building in central Rome is the Palazzo Doria Pamphilj, which houses the gallery of the same name
Pamphili
–
The
Palazzo Pamphili in Rome.
.JPG)
One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Barberini". Encyclopædia Britannica. 3 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 386. This cites:
