1.
Indonesia
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Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a unitary sovereign state and transcontinental country located mainly in Southeast Asia with some territories in Oceania. Situated between the Indian and Pacific oceans, it is the worlds largest island country, with more than seventeen thousand islands. At 1,904,569 square kilometres, Indonesia is the worlds 14th-largest country in terms of area and worlds 7th-largest country in terms of combined sea. It has an population of over 260 million people and is the worlds fourth most populous country. The worlds most populous island, Java, contains more than half of the countrys population, Indonesias republican form of government includes an elected legislature and president. Indonesia has 34 provinces, of which five have Special Administrative status and its capital and countrys most populous city is Jakarta, which is also the most populous city in Southeast Asia and the second in Asia. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, other neighbouring countries include Singapore, Vietnam, the Philippines, Australia, Palau, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the second highest level of biodiversity. The country has abundant natural resources like oil and natural gas, tin, copper, agriculture mainly produces rice, palm oil, tea, coffee, cacao, medicinal plants, spices and rubber. Indonesias major trading partners are Japan, United States, China, the Indonesian archipelago has been an important region for trade since at least the 7th century, when Srivijaya and then later Majapahit traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries CE, Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Indonesia consists of hundreds of native ethnic and linguistic groups. The largest – and politically dominant – ethnic group are the Javanese, a shared identity has developed, defined by a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a Muslim-majority population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. Indonesias national motto, Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, articulates the diversity that shapes the country, Indonesias economy is the worlds 16th largest by nominal GDP and the 8th largest by GDP at PPP, the largest in Southeast Asia, and is considered an emerging market and newly industrialised country. Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950, Indonesia is a member of the G20 major economies and World Trade Organization. The name Indonesia derives from the Greek name of the Indós, the name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians—and, his preference, in the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago. However, Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia, they preferred Malay Archipelago, the Netherlands East Indies, popularly Indië, the East, and Insulinde
2.
River mouth
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A river mouth is the part of a river where the river flows into a larger river, a lake, a reservoir or an ocean. The water from a river can enter the body in a variety of different ways. The motion of the river mainly depends on the density of the river compared to the receiving water and any ambient motion in the receiving water. If the river water is denser than the surface of the receiving water, the river water will then either form an underflow or an interflow within the lake. Alongside these advective transports, inflowing water will also diffuse, at the mouth of a river, the change in flow condition can cause the river to drop any sediment it is carrying. This sediment deposition can generate a variety of landforms, such as deltas, sand bars, spits, many places in England take their names from their positions at the mouths of rivers, for example Plymouth, Sidmouth and Great Yarmouth. Confluence River delta Estuary Liman Aber and Inver
3.
Java Sea
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The Java Sea is a large shallow sea on the Sunda Shelf. It lies between the Indonesian islands of Borneo to the north, Java to the south, Sumatra to the west, karimata Strait to its northwest links it to the South China Sea. The Java Sea covers the section of the 1,790,000 km2 Sunda Shelf. A shallow sea, it has a depth of 46 m. It measures about 1,600 km east-west by 380 km north-south and it formed as sea levels rose at the end of the last ice age. The International Hydrographic Organization defines the Java Sea as being one of the waters of the East Indian Archipelago, the IHO defines its limits as follows, On the North. By the Southern limit of the South China Sea, the South coast of Borneo, by the Western limit of Flores Sea. By the Northern and Northwestern limits of Bali Sea, the North and West coasts of Java to Java Hoofd its Western point, the East coast of Sumatra between Vlakke Hoek and Lucipara Point. The Battle of the Java Sea from February to March 1942, was one of the costliest naval battles of World War II, the naval forces of the Netherlands, Britain, Australia, and the United States were nearly destroyed trying to defend Java from Japanese attack. On 28 December 2014, Indonesia AirAsia Flight 8501 crashed into the Java Sea while on route to Singapore from Surabaya, the southern section of the seafloor has long been recognized as geologically similar to northern Java, where oil fields occur and extend under the sea. Prospects are also favourable for oil fields in the waters off southeast Kalimantan, as the site of successful exploration for petroleum and natural gas, the Java Sea has become the basis of Indonesia’s export program. Fishing is an important economic activity in the Java Sea, over 3,000 species of marine life are found in the area. A number of parks exist in the area such as Karimunjawa. The Thousand Islands are located north of the national capital Jakarta, the area around the Java Sea is also a popular tourist destination. Scuba diving offers a chance to explore and photograph underwater caverns, wrecks, coral, sponges, and other marine life. Touwen, Jeroen Shipping and trade in the Java Sea region, 1870-1940, a collection of statistics on the major Java Sea ports ISBN 90-6718-162-5 Java Sea a study on its economic impacts
4.
Timber raft
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Timber rafting is a log transportation method in which logs are tied together into rafts and drifted or pulled across a water body or down a flatter river. It is arguably the second cheapest method of transportation of timber, both methods may be referred to as timber floating. On the other hand, rafting requires wider waterflows, Timber rafts were also used as a means of transportation of people and goods, both raw materials and man-made. Theophrastus records how the Romans imported Corsican timber by way of a raft propelled by as many as fifty masts. This practice used to be common in parts of the world, especially North America. Large pines in the black forest were called „Holländer“, as they were traded to the Netherlands, large timber rafts on the Rhine were 200 to 400m in length, 40m wide and consisted of several thousand logs. The crew consisted of 400 to 500 men, including shelter, bakeries, ovens, Timber rafting infrastructure allowed for large interconnected networks all over continental Europe. The advent of the railroad, steam boat vessels and improvements in trucking and it is still of importance in Finland. Timber rafts could be of enormous proportions, sometimes up to 600 metres long,50 meters wide, such rafts would contain thousands of logs. For the comfort of the raftsmen - which could number up to 500 - logs were used to build cabins. Control of the raft was done by oars and later on by tugboats, raft construction differs depending on the watercourse. Rocky and windy rivers saw rafts of simple, yet sometimes smart, for example, the front parts of the logs were joined together by wooden bars, while the rear parts were loosely roped together. The resulting slack allowed for easy adaptation for narrow and windy waterbeds, wide and quiet rivers, like the Mississippi River, allowed huge rafts to travel in caravans and even be chained into strings. Rafting was a method of transporting timber in the southeastern United States but, except on the Mississippi River. On Georgia’s Altamaha River, for example, the width was about forty feet. Maximum length was about 250 feet, that being the longest that could navigate The Narrows, several miles of the river that were not only very narrow, each raft had two oars forty to fifty feet long, one in the bow, the other at the stern. The oars were for steering, not propelling, the raft, the minimum raft crew was two men, the pilot who usually manned the stern oar, and his bow hand. Rafts usually had a shack for shelter and a mound of dirt for a hearth to warm by
5.
Drainage basin
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A drainage basin or catchment area is any area of land where precipitation collects and drains off into a common outlet, such as into a river, bay, or other body of water. Drainage basins connect into other drainage basins at elevations in a hierarchical pattern, with smaller sub-drainage basins. Other terms used to describe drainage basins are catchment, catchment basin, drainage area, river basin and water basin. In closed drainage basins the water converges to a point inside the basin, known as a sink, which may be a permanent lake. The drainage basin acts as a funnel by collecting all the water within the covered by the basin. Each drainage basin is separated topographically from adjacent basins by a perimeter, drainage basins are similar but not identical to hydrologic units, which are drainage areas delineated so as to nest into a multi-level hierarchical drainage system. Hydrologic units are defined to allow multiple inlets, outlets, or sinks, in a strict sense, all drainage basins are hydrologic units but not all hydrologic units are drainage basins. Drainage basins of the oceans and seas of the world. Grey areas are endorheic basins that do not drain to the oceans, the following is a list of the major ocean basins, About 48. 7% of the worlds land drains to the Atlantic Ocean. The two major mediterranean seas of the world also flow to the Atlantic, The Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico basin includes most of the U. S. The Mediterranean Sea basin includes much of North Africa, east-central Africa, Southern, Central, and Eastern Europe, Turkey, and the areas of Israel, Lebanon. Just over 13% of the land in the world drains to the Pacific Ocean, the Indian Oceans drainage basin also comprises about 13% of Earths land. It drains the eastern coast of Africa, the coasts of the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, the Indian subcontinent, Burma, antarctica comprises approximately eight percent of the Earths land. The five largest river basins, from largest to smallest, are the basins of the Amazon, the Río de la Plata, the Congo, the Nile, and the Mississippi. The three rivers that drain the most water, from most to least, are the Amazon, Ganga, endorheic drainage basins are inland basins that do not drain to an ocean. Around 18% of all land drains to endorheic lakes or seas or sinks, the largest of these consists of much of the interior of Asia, which drains into the Caspian Sea, the Aral Sea, and numerous smaller lakes. Some of these, such as the Great Basin, are not single drainage basins but collections of separate, in endorheic bodies of standing water where evaporation is the primary means of water loss, the water is typically more saline than the oceans. An extreme example of this is the Dead Sea, drainage basins have been historically important for determining territorial boundaries, particularly in regions where trade by water has been important
6.
South Kalimantan
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South Kalimantan is a province of Indonesia. It is located in Kalimantan, the Indonesian territory of Borneo, the population of South Kalimantan was recorded at just over 3.625 million people at the 2010 Census, the latest official estimate is 3,913,908. Based on the location, South Kalimantan Province area only 6. 98% of Kalimantan Island overall, land inclination with 4 class classification showed that 43. 31% of South Kalimantan province has 0-2% land inclination. The extensive details according to land inclination are as follows,0 - 2%,1.625.384 Ha > 2–15 %,1.182.346 Ha 15–40 %,714.127 Ha > 40%,231. e. South Kalimantan province area flowed by many rivers, the rivers include Barito, Riam Kanan, Riam Kiwa, Balangan, Batang Alai, Amandit, Tapin, Kintap, Batulicin, Sampanahan, etc. Generally, these rivers originate from Meratus mountain and empties to Java Sea, the annual rainfall intensity is high, ranging between 2,000 and 3,700 mm. The mean number of days per year is 120. Barito is the river, used as a transportation route to the northern part of the province. Other smaller rivers are mostly springing from the Meratus Mountains, the main natural resources in South Kalimantan are forest and coal. Coal deposits are found over almost the whole province, and in places they are exploited commercially. Other minor resources are oil, gold, gem stones, quartz sand, the provinces total exports rank seventh out of all provinces. In 2008 the number of visitors to the province was 339,000 of which 21,000 were international visitors, mostly from China, Philippines, the history of government in South Kalimantan is expected to start when stand Kingdom of Tanjung Puri about 5-6 century AD. This kingdom is located strategically in the Foot Meratus and on the banks of large rivers that later became the city are quite advanced. Kingdom of Tanjung Puri could also be called Kahuripan, who is known as the first container of hybridisation, afterwards, migrants from Java started establishing the Kingdom of Negara Dipa. In the 14th century appeared the Kingdom of Negara Daha which has elements of Javanese culture due to silting of the river in the territory of Dipa, an attack of Java destroy this Dipa kingdom. To save the kingdom, the new dynastic leader Sari Kaburangan Maharaja immediately ascended the throne and moved the government in the downstream direction, i. e. toward the ocean in Muhara Rampiau. The Dipa Kingdom was spared total destruction, it can even organize themselves into a state with a name of Daha with the king as the main leader. The main leader of the patih named MASIH, while the residence of the MASIHcalled Bandarmasih
7.
Tributary
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A tributary or affluent is a stream or river that flows into a larger stream or main stem river or a lake. A tributary does not flow directly into a sea or ocean, tributaries and the main stem river drain the surrounding drainage basin of its surface water and groundwater, leading the water out into an ocean. A confluence, where two or more bodies of water together, usually refers to the joining of tributaries. The opposite to a tributary is a distributary, a river or stream that branches off from, distributaries are most often found in river deltas. Right tributary and left tributary are terms stating the orientation of the relative to the flow of the main stem river. These terms are defined from the perspective of looking downstream, where tributaries have the same name as the river into which they feed, they are called forks. These are typically designated by compass direction, for example, the American River receives flow from its North, Middle, and South forks. The Chicago Rivers North Branch has the East, West, and Middle Fork, the South Branch has its South Fork, forks are sometimes designated as right or left. Here, the handedness is from the point of view of an observer facing upstream, for instance, Steer Creek has a left tributary which is called Right Fork Steer Creek. Tributaries are sometimes listed starting with those nearest to the source of the river, the Strahler Stream Order examines the arrangement of tributaries in a hierarchy of first, second, third, and higher orders, with the first-order tributary being typically the least in size. For example, a second-order tributary would be the result of two or more first-order tributaries combining to form the second-order tributary, another method is to list tributaries from mouth to source, in the form of a tree structure, stored as a tree data structure
8.
Banjarmasin
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Banjarmasin is the capital of South Kalimantan, Indonesia. It is located on an island near the junction of the Barito. As a result, Banjarmasin is sometimes called the River City and its population was 625,395 at the 2010 Census. Main economic sectors include transportation and communication, processing industries and trade, main processing industries are, plywood, rattan and rubber manufacturing. The town is served by a port, Trisakti Harbour, which is the centre of the Barito basin, exports include rubber, pepper, timber, petroleum, coal, gold. Passenger ships and ferries to and from Java also carry their operation here, the city is laced with flood-prone waterways, and many houses are built on rafts or stilts over the water. The waterways are used for travel, using relatively small rowboats. 96% of the population is Muslim, other religions include Protestants, Catholics, Hindus and Buddhists. Banjarese are the majority in the city, with Javanese, Madurese, the city is the home of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Banjarmasin. Nan Serunai was an ancient kingdom in South Kalimantan, but soon it was replaced by Buddhist kingdom of Tanjungpuri, in the fourteenth century, Banjarmasin was part of the Hindu kingdoms of Negara Dipa and Negara Daha, a vassal of Majapahit. But Pangeran Samudera converted to become a Muslim in the fifteenth century, following this Banjarmasin was founded at the junction of the Barito and Martapura Rivers on 24 September 1526. The Dutch opened trade there in 1606, the British controlled the city for several brief periods. The British East India Company started trading with the city, which they called Tamborneo or Tomborneo, in 1703 the EIC established a factory there, which the inhabitants destroyed four years later. The EIC attempted, highly unsuccessfully, to trade with the city between 1736 and 1746, and then in 1747 the Sultan signed a treaty with the Dutch giving them a trade monopoly, in 1787 it became a Dutch protectorate. Banjarmasin remained the capital until the onset of the Banjarmasin War in 1859. The Hikayat Banjar is the chronicle of Banjarmasin and this text, also called the History of Lambung Mangkurat, contains the history of the kings of Banjar and of Kota Waringin in South-east and South Borneo respectively. In 1930 the citys population was 66,000 and reached 444,000 in 1990, Banjarmasin was the capital of Dutch Borneo. It was therefore an objective for the Japanese during Japanese Occupation of Indonesia during World War II, Banjarmasin was occupied on 10 February 1942
9.
Malagasy language
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Malagasy is an Austronesian language and the national language of Madagascar. Most people in Madagascar speak it as a first language as do some people of Malagasy descent elsewhere, the Malagasy language is the westernmost member of the Malayo-Polynesian branch of the Austronesian language family. Its distinctiveness from nearby African languages was noted in 1708 by the Dutch scholar Adriaan Reland and it is related to the Malayo-Polynesian languages of Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines, and more closely to the East Barito languages spoken in Borneo except for its Polynesian morphophonemics. According to Roger Blench, the earliest form of language spoken on Madagascar could have had some non-Austronesian substrata, Madagascar was first settled by Austronesian peoples from Maritime Southeast Asia who had passed through Borneo. 1000, the original Austronesian settlers mixed with Bantus and Arabs, there is evidence that the predecessor of the Malagasy dialects first arrived in the southern stretch of the east coast of Madagascar. Malagasy has a tradition of arts and poetic histories and legends. The most well-known is the epic, Ibonia, about a Malagasy folk hero of the same name. The Malagasy language is the language spoken on the island of Madagascar. It is also spoken by Malagasy communities on neighboring Indian Ocean islands such as Réunion, large expatriate Malagasy communities speaking the language also exist in France, Québec, and to a lesser extent Belgium and Washington DC. The Merina dialect of Malagasy is considered the language of Madagascar. It is one of two official languages alongside French in the 2010 constitution putting in place the Fourth Republic, previously, under the 2007 constitution, Malagasy was one of three official languages alongside French and English. Ethnologue encodes a dozen varieties of Malagasy as distinct languages and they have about a 70% similarity in lexicon with Merina dialect. The two main dialects of Malagasy are easily distinguished by several phonological features, the language has a written literature going back presumably to the 15th century. When the French established Fort-Dauphin in the 17th century, they found an Arabico-Malagasy script in use and this Arabic Ajami script was mainly used for astrological and magical texts. The first bilingual renderings of religious texts are those by Étienne de Flacourt, who also published the first dictionary of the language. The Malagasy alphabet consists of 21 letters, a, b, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, t, v, y, z. The orthography maps rather straightforwardly to the phonemic inventory, the letters i and y both represent the /i/ sound, while o is pronounced /u/. The affricates /ʈʂ/ and /ɖʐ/ are written tr and dr, respectively, while /ts/ and /dz/ are written ts, the letter h is often silent
10.
Dayak people
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The Dayak or Dyak or Dayuh /ˈdaɪ. ək/ are the native people of Borneo. Dayak languages are categorised as part of the Austronesian languages in Asia, the Dayak were animist in belief, however, many converted to Islam and since the 19th century there has been mass conversion to Christianity. The Dayak people of Borneo possess an account of their history, mostly in oral literature, partly in writing in papan turai. The independent state of Nansarunai, established by the Maanyan Dayaks prior to the 12th century and these attacks contributed to the migration of the Maanyans to the Central and South Borneo region. In 1838, British adventurer James Brooke arrived to find the Sultan of Brunei fending off rebellion from warlike inland tribes, Brooke put down the rebellion, and was made Governor of Sarawak in 1841, with the title of Rajah. Brooke pacified the natives, including the Dayaks, who some of his most loyal followers. Brookes most famous Iban enemy was Libau Rentap, Brooke led three expeditions against him and finally defeated him at Sadok Hill, Brooke had many Dayaks in his forces at this battle, and famously said Only Dayaks can kill Dayaks. So he deployed Dayaks to kill Dayaks, sharif Mashor, a Melanau from Mukah, was another enemy of Brooke. In response, the Dayaks formed a force to assist the Allied forces. Eleven US airmen and a few dozen Australian special operatives trained a thousand Dayaks from the Kapit Division in guerrilla warfare and this army of tribesmen killed or captured some 1,500 Japanese soldiers and provided the Allies with vital intelligence about Japanese-held oil fields. The Dayak people classification are largely limited among the groups traditionally concentrated in southern and interior Sarawak. These groups though may be indigenous to coastal northeastern Borneo, they are nonetheless not Dayak, the Indigenous people of the Heart of Borneo are commonly known as Dayak. The term was coined by Europeans referring to the non-Malay and non-Muslim inhabitants of central, there are seven main ethnic divisions of Dayaks according to their respective native languages which are,1. Ot Danum Under the main classifications, there are dozens of ethnics, there are over 50 ethnic Dayak groups speaking different languages. This cultural and linguistic diversity parallels the high biodiversity and related traditional knowledge of Borneo, Dayaks do not speak just one language, even if just those on the island of Borneo are considered. Their indigenous languages belong in the classification of Malayo-Polynesian languages and to diverse groups of Bornean and Sabahan languages. Most Dayaks today are bilingual, in addition to their language, they are well-versed in Malay or Indonesian. Many of Borneos languages are endemic, in the past, the Dayak were feared for their ancient tradition of headhunting practices
11.
Harvard University
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Although never formally affiliated with any denomination, the early College primarily trained Congregationalist and Unitarian clergy. Its curriculum and student body were gradually secularized during the 18th century, james Bryant Conant led the university through the Great Depression and World War II and began to reform the curriculum and liberalize admissions after the war. The undergraduate college became coeducational after its 1977 merger with Radcliffe College, Harvards $34.5 billion financial endowment is the largest of any academic institution. Harvard is a large, highly residential research university, the nominal cost of attendance is high, but the Universitys large endowment allows it to offer generous financial aid packages. Harvards alumni include eight U. S. presidents, several heads of state,62 living billionaires,359 Rhodes Scholars. To date, some 130 Nobel laureates,18 Fields Medalists, Harvard was formed in 1636 by vote of the Great and General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. In 1638, it obtained British North Americas first known printing press, in 1639 it was named Harvard College after deceased clergyman John Harvard an alumnus of the University of Cambridge who had left the school £779 and his scholars library of some 400 volumes. The charter creating the Harvard Corporation was granted in 1650 and it offered a classic curriculum on the English university model—many leaders in the colony had attended the University of Cambridge—but conformed to the tenets of Puritanism. It was never affiliated with any denomination, but many of its earliest graduates went on to become clergymen in Congregational. The leading Boston divine Increase Mather served as president from 1685 to 1701, in 1708, John Leverett became the first president who was not also a clergyman, which marked a turning of the college toward intellectual independence from Puritanism. When the Hollis Professor of Divinity David Tappan died in 1803 and the president of Harvard Joseph Willard died a year later, in 1804, in 1846, the natural history lectures of Louis Agassiz were acclaimed both in New York and on the campus at Harvard College. Agassizs approach was distinctly idealist and posited Americans participation in the Divine Nature, agassizs perspective on science combined observation with intuition and the assumption that a person can grasp the divine plan in all phenomena. When it came to explaining life-forms, Agassiz resorted to matters of shape based on an archetype for his evidence. Charles W. Eliot, president 1869–1909, eliminated the position of Christianity from the curriculum while opening it to student self-direction. While Eliot was the most crucial figure in the secularization of American higher education, he was motivated not by a desire to secularize education, during the 20th century, Harvards international reputation grew as a burgeoning endowment and prominent professors expanded the universitys scope. Rapid enrollment growth continued as new schools were begun and the undergraduate College expanded. Radcliffe College, established in 1879 as sister school of Harvard College, Harvard became a founding member of the Association of American Universities in 1900. In the early 20th century, the student body was predominately old-stock, high-status Protestants, especially Episcopalians, Congregationalists, by the 1970s it was much more diversified
12.
Kalimantan
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Kalimantan is the Indonesian portion of the island of Borneo. It comprises 73% of the islands area, the non-Indonesian parts of Borneo are Brunei and East Malaysia. In Indonesian, the term Kalimantan refers to the island of Borneo. It consists of the two words kal and manthan, the word Kalamanthana is spelled Kalmantan, and then the indigenous people fixed it into Klemantan. The Indonesian territory makes up 73% of the island by area, the non-Indonesian parts of Borneo are of Brunei and East Malaysia, the latter comprising the states of Sabah, Sarawak and the federal territory of Labuan. The region within Indonesia is also known as Indonesian Borneo, kalimantans total area is 544,150 square kilometres. Kalimantan is divided into five provinces, 1)North Kalimantan split off East Kalimantan with resulting population, languages of Kalimantan Kalimantan travel guide from Wikivoyage
13.
Kahayan River
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The Kahayan river, or Great Dyak, is the largest river in Central Kalimantan, a province of Indonesia in Kalimantan - the Indonesian part of the island of Borneo. The provincial capital Palangkaraya lies on the river, the main inhabitants are Dyaks, who practice slash-and-burn rice cultivation and pan for gold on the upper reaches. Central Kalimantan covers 153,800 km2, with 82% tropical rain forest, the northern part of the province is mountainous, the central area has flat and fertile tropical forests and the southern area is swampy. The forests provide rattan, resin and high-quality woods, the climate is hot and humid, typically around 30° most of the year. Annual rainfall is between 2800 and 3400 mm, the Kahayan River originates in the northern mountains, then meanders for 600 km southward through the plains to the Java Sea. Tidal effects are felt 50 km -80 km inland from the sea, a recent study found 28 species of fish throughout the river,44 species in the Danau Sabuah lake and 12 species in the traditional fish ponds. The riparian wetlands were the main spawning areas, fishermen are reporting declining yields due to problems with water quality. The Dayak tribes are the dominant people in the Kahayan river region, an Austronesian people, they have preserved some of their original culture and Kaharingan religion. They speak languages of the Barito family, related to the Malagasy language spoken in Madagascar, the Kaharingan religion combines ancestor worship, animism and dynamism. It is now considered a form of Hinduism, the main Dayak tribes are the Ngaju, Ot Danum and Maanyan. The Ot Danum remain in the regions of the Kahayan, Barito, Kapuas and Rungan rivers. Many still live in longhouses and subsist through hunting, fishing, village elders practice traditional medicine and mark their status with intricate body tattoos and heavy ear adornments. The peat swamp forests were being cleared for small scale farming and plantations before 1997. In 1996 the government initiated the Mega Rice Project, which aimed to one million hectares of peat swamp forest to rice paddies. Between 1996 and 1998, more than 4,000 km of drainage and irrigation channels were dug and it turned out that the channels drained the peat forests rather than irrigating them. Where the forests had often flooded up to 2m deep in the rainy season, the government has therefore abandoned the MRP, but the drying peat is vulnerable to fires which continue to break out on a massive scale. Peat forest destruction is causing sulphuric acid pollution of the rivers, in the rainy seasons, the canals are discharging acidic water with a high ratio of pyritic sulphate into the Kahayan river up to 150 km upstream from the river mouth. This may be a factor contributing to lower fish catches, people have panned for gold in the Kahayan river for centuries
14.
Kapuas River
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The Kapuas River, is the longest river in Indonesia part of Borneo island, at the geographic center of Maritime Southeast Asia. At 1,143 kilometers in length, one of the worlds longest island rivers and it originates in the Müller mountain range at the center of the island and flows west into the South China Sea creating an extended marshy delta. The delta is located west-southwest of Pontianak, the capital of West Kalimantan province. The river is 1,143 km long and up to 700 m wide at its delta, with an area of 98,749 km2. The discharge rate varies through the year, averaging around 6, 000–7,000 m3/s at the delta and 2,000 m3/s upstream, at the confluence of the Tawang River. The discharge peaks during the seasons in April and November, during which the water level may rise by 10–12 m overnight, overflowing river banks. For about 165 km it flows through a terrain and then descends to a marshy plain. There, the elevation decreases by only 50 meters over 900 km from Putussibau to the river delta, about 350 km from the source, near the northern shore of the river, lies a system of Kapuas Lakes which are connected to the river by numerous channels. These lakes are Bekuan, Belida, Genali, Keleka Tangai, Luar, Pengembung, Sambor, Sekawi, Sentarum, Sependan, Seriang Sumbai, Sumpa and Tekenang. This outflow prevents massive flooding of the reaches of the river, it also promotes fish migration from the river to the lakes for spawning. The river discharges into the South China Sea creating a marshy delta, the delta is located west-southwest of Pontianak, the capital of West Kalimantan province, which lies at the equator. The delta has five arms, of which the northernmost one is the widest, the largest tributary is the Melawi River, which occurs to the left near the city of Sintang, about 465 km from the mouth. Other major tributaries are the Landak, Kubu, Punggur and Sekayam rivers, the temperature is rather stable with a typical minimum of 24 °C and maximum of 32 °C through the whole year. In the upper and middle reaches, the flows through dense tropical forests. Discoveries of new species are frequent, such as of the Kapuas mud snake and this species is remarkable in that it can spontaneously change its skin color, similar to the chameleon. About 300 species of fish have been identified in the river and they belong to 120 genera and 40 families with the two major groups being cyprinids and catfish. More than 30% of the species originate from the sea and inhabit the delta areas, owing to the warm climate and abundance of food, most fishes breed all through the year with only a few species like fire eel having certain reproduction periods. The number of individuals per species is relatively low, apart from fish, there are numerous crabs, prawns, water striders and other aquatic insects
15.
Kapuas River (Barito River)
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The Kapuas River is a river in the Indonesian part of Borneo island. It originates in the Müller Mountain Range at the center of the island and flows south until merging with the Barito River and discharging into the Java Sea. It should be distinguished from another Kapuas River, which starts on the side of the same mountain range in central Borneo. The river is about 600 km long and up to 6 m deep and it flows through marshy region rich in tropical forests, nearly parallel to the Barito River, and merges with the latter about 60 km from the Java Sea coast, within the town of Kualakapuas. Between 1880 and 1890, a 30 km long canal was dug by the Dutch colonizers between the Kapuas and Barito river for agricultural purposes, the Kapuas River is narrow and very winding in its upper stream. It straightens and widens up to 450 m in its lower reaches, there, it contains several elongated islands. Its discharge rate varies through the reaching the maximum in the peak of rainy seasons in April. The river is navigable up to 420 km from the mouth, significant deposits of coal and gold were discovered upstream. Because of the lack of infrastructure, the gold is mined mostly by primitive methods, with one commercial mine on the river. Several bridges cross the Kapuas River, one of them, located near the village Lungku Layang, Timpah, Kapuas District, Central Kalimantan, collapsed on 3 April 2009 killing one and injuring 6 people working under the bridge. The Barito Bridge is the third longest suspended span in Indonesia a length of 230 meters after Kutai Kartanegara Bridge, the Kutai Kartanegara Bridge collapsed in November 2011
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Lamandau River
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Lamandau River is a river of Kalimantan, southern-central Borneo, Indonesia. Downstream after passing the village of Nanga Bulik it becomes the Kotawaringin River, the ancient town of Kotawarinjin is located in the valley formed by the river and its tributary along with gold and gemstone mining areas. In the upper reaches of the valley of Arut River the Panhakalnbun town flourishes on its banks. Lamandau River flows through southern Central Kalimantan and Pangkalan Bun, discharging into the Java Sea near Kumai at 2°51′20″S 111°43′14″E and it is a major tributary of Kotawarinjin River, known by this name after its confluence below Naga Bulik village. Tributaries include the Arut River, where in its upper reaches the Panhakalnbun town is located, while the lower reaches of the river are densely populated, the upper reaches have contiguous forest areas where Orangutans can be seen. Kotawarinjin town to the west of the Lamandau River was an ancient capital of a Sultanate, the catchment of the Lamandau River comprises the western district of KalTeng and Kotawaringin Barat. Kotawaringin district has a population of 200,000 people constituted by Tuman Dayaks who are Christians, Panhakalnbun town is a waterfront town, which has a plywood manufacturing plant. Its fame is due to the mines nearby where gold and amethyst stones are extracted, in support of these mining activities, several shops selling diesel sets for use in mining have been set up. Another spin-off from the mines is the establishment of a number of gem stores in the town, the particularly popular item of sale is the five set lucky stones of dark coloured amethysts, duly polished and made to shimmer for sale. The river valley is inhabited by the Dayak peoples, particularly the Tumon in the course of the river. The river is popular with tourists who take trips along the rivers by speedboats and traditional klotok boats to visit, buddhist influence has also been traced in the Lamandau River valley in the Kotawarinjin town. Buddhist statues with god’s name of Dewata or Mahatara have been found here, much of the land between the Jelai-Bila River and the Lamandau River is developed by agriculture. The river flows through the 76, 000-hectare Lamandau River Wildlife Reserve, in the primary forest in Borneo. Human exploitation in the area has led to the pollution of the Lamandau River from gold and zircon mining, illegal logging, however, an awareness campaign has been initiated by NGOs to preserve the Orangutans in the park and also introduce agricultural practices compatible with forest preservation actions. Within the park, there are two camps namely, the Camp Siswoyo and Camp I, which are maintained by the Orangutan Foundation International and they are close to Pangkalan Bun and Pasir Pajang, on its eastern border. The infrastructure facilities in these camps have been improved here since September 2003, with funding provided by the Orangutan Foundation, United Kingdom. A guard post has also established to prevent incursions into the forest or into the river by illegal loggers who had in the past created large-scale destruction of the forests in the region
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Mahakam River
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The Mahakam River is in Indonesia. It flows 980 km from the district of Long Apari in the highlands of Borneo, the city of Samarinda, the provincial capital of East Kalimantan, lies along the river 48 km from the river mouth. The delta Mahakam river consist of specific micro climate which is influenced by high, the Mahakam River is the largest river in East Kalimantan, Indonesia, with a catchment area of approximately 77,100 km2. The catchment lies between 2˚N to 1˚S latitude and 113˚E to 118˚E longitude, the river originates in Cemaru from where it flows south-eastwards, meeting the River Kedang Pahu at the city of Muara Pahu. From there, the river flows eastward through the Mahakam lakes region, thirty shallow lakes are situated in this area, which are connected to the Mahakam through small channels. Kalimantan, where the Mahakam lies, is part of the Sunda Continental Plate, the large island has mountain ranges between Indonesia and Malaysia. Its middle course traverses a lowland plain with many marshy lakes and this intermontane depression is separated from the neighboring basin, the Barito depression, by a broad hilly tract of less than 500 metres altitude. Upstream of Long Iram the river is flowing in tertiary rocks, the presence of the large delta is explained by the formation and rejuvenation of the hilly region near Samarinda. The Mahakam catchment is around the equator, according to Seidel et al. the precipitation pattern in this area is largely determined by this large-scale atmospheric wind patterns, which is observable in several ways throughout the atmosphere. This circulation carries moisture into the air, generating rainfall in equatorial regions, within this circulation, evaporation occurs intensively around the equator on the centre of low pressure called the Intertropical Convergence Zone, characterized by accumulation of cloud in the area. The ITCZ moves following the pseudo-motion of the sun within 23. 5°N and 23. 5°S zone, the ITCZ drives the Indo-Australian monsoon phenomena which influence the regional climate including the Mahakam catchment. In December, January, February the concentration of high pressure in Asia, in June, July, August concentration of low pressure in Asia and concentration of high pressure in Australia make the east wind blows in Indonesia. This is because the ITCZ passed through the equator twice a year, from the hemisphere in September. There are about 76 lakes spread in the Mahakam river basin, the lakes levels are seasonally fluctuated from 0.5 m –1 m during dry period to seven meters during rainy season. Fishing is the source of livelihood in the Mahakam lakes area. The middle Mahakam lake area is an area of fishing activity with a productivity of 25,000 to 35,000 metric tons per year since 1970. The Mahakam delta is a mixed fluvial-tidal dominated delta, the delta has three main distributaries system directed Northeast, Southeast and South. The area between distributaries consists of a series of tidal channels generally unconnected to the main distributaries, the distributary channels are narrow and rectilinear with the depth ranging from 8 to 15 m and distributary channel bifurcations appear every 10 to 15 km
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Pawan River
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Pawan River is a major river of West Kalimantan, Indonesia. It has a length of 197 kilometres, in its mid course Pawan River passes through the little town of Tandjoengpoera. Pawan River passes through Ketapang before passing into the South China Sea at 1°49′30″S 109°55′9″E and it is 45 miles to the south of Sukadana town. Sukadana means the city of rays and known as diamond city, the Pawan river drains into the sea near the present Ketapang through two estuaries, which are meandering channels. The depth of water here is about 6 feet during spring tide, tanjungpura is situated about 35 miles in the upstream. The river forms one of the river basins in West Kalimantan Province in the Ketapang Regency whose capital is Ketapang. Tropical peats have been identified in its basin area, the river is navigable and bandungs ply on the river. Bandung is not only a means for the people but also a housing unit a sincere they travel long the river course trading along the route in villages on the banks of the river. Historically the Pawan River passed through the Kingdom of Ulu and it has been inferred that the Pawan River basin was under the influence of powerful tribal group of the “Indianised Javanese kingdom of Majapahit”, in the 15th century or earlier. Some traders of this group settled here in the valley in the town of Sukadana. Marriage alliances between the community and the tribal chiefs daughters legitimised the trading practices. The orangutans in this region are from the sub-species Pongo pygmaeus wurmbii and they are different from the species found in Sumatra. List of rivers of Indonesia Photograph
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Pembuang River
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Pembuang River is a river of Borneo, Indonesia. The river has its source near Bikit Tikung in the Schwaner Mountain Range, the eastern side of the river contains dense forest down to Sembulu lakes and is said to be a major habitat of the orangutan
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Aceh River
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The river has a catchment area of some 1775 square kilometres. The river has a flow of up to 30,000 cubic meters per second and this enormous flow frequently flooded Banda Aceh and the land upstream from the town. The Japanese Government provided Indonesia an aid package to reduce flooding,50 kilometres of 8-metre plastic mattresses were woven in Heathcote Amerys factory in Tiverton, England, and on site sewn together and injected with grout to line the sandy river banks. The 12th bridge collapsed because it had a single pre-cast beam as it was only a bridge linking two fishing villages. After President Suharto had made a speech at the opening ceremony, the President replied Carry on cycling and you will live for ever
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Kampar River
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Kampar River on the island of Sumatra in Indonesia originates in the mountainous Bukit Barisan of West Sumatra, and empties into the Malacca Strait on the islands eastern coast. The river is the confluence of two tributaries of almost equal size, Kampar Kanan River, and Kampar Kiri River, Kampar Kanan River passes through Lima Puluh Kota Regency and Kampar Regency, while Kampar Kiri River passes through Sijunjung Regency, Kuantan Singingi Regency, and Kampar Regency. The tributaries meet in the Langgam subdistrict, Pelalawan Regency, before flowing into the Malacca Strait as the Kampar River, koto Panjang, an artificial lake upstream of the river, is used to power a hydroelectric generating plant with a capacity of 114 MW. The Kampar River widens as it approaches the sea, and its volume increases as it is joined by various other tributaries. During the rainy season, normally November to December, the volume of water is greatly increased. Bono waves can persist for four hours or more, and travel as far upstream as Tanjung Pungai, Meranti, Bono is not just one wave but a series of many, sometimes on the left and right river banks and at other times in the middle of the river. Surfing the Bono waves is difficult, owing to the quantity of mud in the river. The large number of ships sunk in the Kampar Rivers estuary has been attributed to the Bono waves, called by locals as Seven Ghosts, although they still used the river as the ground for boating agility tests. The river is inhabited by crocodiles, hence the surfers are usually escorted by rescue boats for their safety. Bono wave can be seen in many location of Kampar river, such as, Tanjung Sebayang, Pulau Muda, Teluk Meranti and Tanjung Pungai, the location can be reached from Pangkalan Kerinci within 4 hours by car, or 3 hours by speedboat. Pangkalan Kerinci can be reached within 90 minutes by car from Pekanbaru or Pekanbaru international airport, the river can also be reached via nearby Singapore. Bono location is not far from Tesso Nilo National Park and Kerumutan Natural Reserve, list of rivers of Indonesia Video of river surfing in Kampar River More videos of river surfing in Kampar river Bono Sungai Kampar Schedule list of Bono waves at 2012
Media related to Barito River at Wikimedia Commons
