1.
Gun barrel
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A gun barrel is a part of firearms and artillery pieces. The hollow interior of the barrel is called the bore, a gun barrel must be able to hold in the expanding gas produced by the propellants to ensure that optimum muzzle velocity is attained by the projectile as it is being pushed out by the expanding gas. Modern small arms barrels are made of known and tested to withstand the pressures involved. Artillery pieces are made by various techniques providing reliably sufficient strength, early firearms were muzzle-loading, with powder, and then shot loaded from the muzzle, capable of only a low rate of fire. During the 19th century effective mechanical locks were invented that sealed a breech-loading weapon against the escape of propellant gases, the early Chinese, the inventors of gunpowder, used bamboo, a naturally tubular stalk, as the first barrels in gunpowder projectile weapons. Early European guns were made of iron, usually with several strengthening bands of the metal wrapped around circular wrought iron rings. The Chinese were the first to master cast-iron cannon barrels, early cannon barrels were very thick for their caliber. Bore evacuator Bore snake Cannon Muzzle Polygonal rifling Rifling Slug barrel Smoothbore
2.
The Angels' Share
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The Angels Share is a Scottish comedy-drama film directed by Ken Loach, starring Paul Brannigan, John Henshaw, William Ruane, Gary Maitland, Jasmin Riggins, and Siobhan Reilly. It tells the story of a young Glaswegian father who narrowly avoids a prison sentence and he is determined to turn over a new leaf and when he and his friends from the same community payback group visit a whisky distillery, a route to a new life becomes apparent. The title is from the share, a term for the portion of a whiskys volume that is lost to evaporation during aging in oak barrels. In the opening scenes, the protagonists are sentenced to hours of community payback, during his first community payback session, Robbie, under the guidance of Harry, is interrupted and taken to the hospital by Harry as his girlfriend, Leonie, has gone into labour. At the hospital, Robbie is assaulted by two of his girlfriends uncles and her dad before he can see her, Harry takes Robbie back to his house to clean him up, at which point Leonie calls to announce Robbies son, Luke, has been born. Harry insists that he and Robbie celebrate, and brings out a vintage whisky, with Leonies encouragement, Robbie agrees to meet with a victim of his former violent crimes, Anthony, who recollects the attack in front of both his family and Leonie. Afterwards, Leonie makes clear that she not want her son to grow up around violence. Harry takes the group to a distillery as a reward for their good behaviour, afterwards, the tour guide gives them each a dram of whisky and asks them to smell it, and Robbie is complimented on his ability to identify flavours. However, Robbie is still being pursued by his old enemy and he is about to undergo a beating by Clancy and his followers when he is unexpectedly rescued by Leonies father. Robbie pleads to be one last chance but the older man tells him that its too late. Leonies father tells him that the way for him to escape the cycle is to leave Glasgow altogether and go to London. He offers Robbie £5,000 to sweeten the deal and leaves Robbie to think it over, at the next community service session, Harry approaches Robbie and asks if hed like to come to a whisky tasting session in Edinburgh. Robbie and Leonie view a flat which they could rent for six months while the owner is away, Robbie seems touched but it is then revealed they have been followed by one of Clancys men and Clancy will know where they are going to live. Robbie, realising that he cant continue living under threat of assault on himself and his family, at the auction, the group see Thaddeus outbid by an American, who tastes the cask, and is apparently happy with the slightly diluted blend. Afterwards, Robbie approaches Thaddeus and negotiates a sale of three bottles for £200,000, and a real job. They plan to make the exchange in Glasgow, and so begin the trek home, Robbie is furious, but goes ahead with meeting Thaddeus, and negotiates a sale for £100,000 and a permanent job far away from Glasgow. Afterwards, Robbie reveals to his friends that he didnt sell two bottles, but one and he smells the bottle and rejoices at the Malt Mill inside. In the final scene, we see Robbie and Leonie leave for Stirling in an immaculate old Volkswagen Type 2, after they leave, the rest of the group resolve to go get wasted
3.
Microbrewery
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A microbrewery or craft brewery is a brewery that produces small amounts of beer, typically much smaller than large-scale corporate breweries, and is independently owned. Such breweries are generally characterized by their emphasis on quality, flavor, the microbrewing movement began in the United Kingdom in the 1970s although traditional artisanal brewing existed in Europe for centuries and subsequently spread to other countries. As the movement grew and some breweries expanded their production and distribution, a brewpub is a pub that brews its own beer for sale on the premises. The term and trend spread to the US in the 1980s and was used as a designation of breweries that produce fewer than 15,000 U. S. beer barrels annually. Their influence has been greater than their market share, which amounts to only 2% in the UK. However, when the failed, the corporate breweries invested in microbreweries or, in many cases. Microbreweries gradually appeared in countries, such as New Zealand. The website The Food Section defines a nanobrewery as a microbrewery, often run by a solo entrepreneur. The US Department of the Treasury defines nanobreweries as very small brewery operations that produce beer for sale, Craft brewing is a more encompassing term for developments in the industry succeeding the microbrewing movement of the late 20th century. The definition is not entirely consistent but typically applies to small, independently-owned commercial breweries that employ traditional brewing methods and emphasize flavor. The term is reserved for breweries established since the 1970s. A United States trade group, the Brewers Association, interested in brand transparency, offers a definition of craft breweries as small, independent, according to Russ Phillips, author of Canned. Artwork of the Modern American Beer Can, the use of cans by craft brewers in the US has doubled since 2012, however, since drinking directly from a can may still result in a metallic taste, most craft brewers recommend pouring beer into a glass prior to consumption. In June 2014, the BA estimated 3% of craft beer is sold in cans, 60% is sold in bottles, Brewpub is an abbreviated term combining the ideas of a brewery and a pub or public-house. A brewpub can be a pub or restaurant that brews beer on the premises, Beer arrived in Australia at the beginning of British colonisation. In 2004, Australia was ranked fourth internationally in per capita consumption, at around 110 litres per year. The most popular style in modern-day Australia is lager. The oldest brewery still in operation is the Cascade Brewery, established in Tasmania in 1824, fosters Lager is made mostly for export or under licence in other countries, particularly the UK
4.
Nottingham
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Nottingham is a city and unitary authority area in Nottinghamshire, England, located 128 miles north of London, in the East Midlands. Nottingham has links to the legend of Robin Hood and to the lace-making, bicycle and it was granted its city charter in 1897 as part of Queen Victorias Diamond Jubilee celebrations. Nottingham is a tourist destination, in 2011, visitors spent over £1.5 billion - the thirteenth highest amount in Englands 111 statistical territories. In 2015, Nottingham had an population of 321,550 with the wider urban area. Its urban area is the largest in the east Midlands and the second largest in the Midlands, the population of the Nottingham/Derby metropolitan area is estimated to be 1,610,000. Its metropolitan economy is the seventh largest in the United Kingdom with a GDP of $50. 9bn, the city is also ranked as a sufficiency-level world city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. It is also a sporting centre, and in October 2015 was named Home of English Sport. The city also has rugby, ice hockey and cricket teams, and the Aegon Nottingham Open. This accolade came just over a year after Nottingham was named as the UKs first City of Football, on 11 December 2015, Nottingham was named a Unesco City of Literature, joining Norwich, Melbourne, Prague and Barcelona as one of only a handful in the world. The title reflects Nottinghams literary heritage, with Lord Byron, DH Lawrence and it has two universities, the University of Nottingham and Nottingham Trent University, which are attended by over 70,610 students. In modern Welsh it is known poetically as Y Ty Ogofog, when it fell under the rule of a Saxon chieftain named Snot it became known as Snotingaham, the homestead of Snots people. Some authors derive Nottingham from Snottenga, caves, and ham, Nottingham Castle was constructed in 1068 on a sandstone outcrop by the River Leen. Following the Norman Conquest the Saxon settlement developed into the English Borough of Nottingham and housed a Town Hall, a settlement also developed around the castle on the hill opposite and was the French borough supporting the Normans in the castle. Eventually, the space between was built on as the town grew and the Old Market Square became the focus of Nottingham several centuries later, defences, consisted initially of a ditch and bank in the early 12th century. The ditch was later widened, in the mid 13th century, a short length of the wall survives, and is visible at the northern end of Maid Marian Way, and is protected as a Scheduled Monument. On the return of Richard the Lionheart from the Crusades, the Castle was occupied by supporters of Prince John and it was besieged by Richard and, after a sharp conflict, was captured. In the legends of Robin Hood, Nottingham Castle is the scene of the showdown between the Sheriff and the hero outlaw. By the 15th century Nottingham had established itself as a centre of an export trade in religious sculpture made from Nottingham Alabaster
5.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
6.
Croatia
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Croatia, officially the Republic of Croatia, is a sovereign state between Central Europe, Southeast Europe, and the Mediterranean. Its capital city is Zagreb, which one of the countrys primary subdivisions. Croatia covers 56,594 square kilometres and has diverse, mostly continental, Croatias Adriatic Sea coast contains more than a thousand islands. The countrys population is 4.28 million, most of whom are Croats, the Croats arrived in the area of present-day Croatia during the early part of the 7th century AD. They organised the state into two duchies by the 9th century, tomislav became the first king by 925, elevating Croatia to the status of a kingdom. The Kingdom of Croatia retained its sovereignty for nearly two centuries, reaching its peak during the rule of Kings Petar Krešimir IV and Dmitar Zvonimir, Croatia entered a personal union with Hungary in 1102. In 1527, faced with Ottoman conquest, the Croatian Parliament elected Ferdinand I of the House of Habsburg to the Croatian throne. In 1918, after World War I, Croatia was included in the unrecognized State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs which seceded from Austria-Hungary, a fascist Croatian puppet state backed by Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany existed during World War II. After the war, Croatia became a member and a federal constituent of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. On 25 June 1991 Croatia declared independence, which came wholly into effect on 8 October of the same year, the Croatian War of Independence was fought successfully during the four years following the declaration. A unitary state, Croatia is a republic governed under a parliamentary system, the International Monetary Fund classified Croatia as an emerging and developing economy, and the World Bank identified it as a high-income economy. Croatia is a member of the European Union, United Nations, the Council of Europe, NATO, the World Trade Organization, the service sector dominates Croatias economy, followed by the industrial sector and agriculture. Tourism is a significant source of revenue during the summer, with Croatia ranked the 18th most popular tourist destination in the world, the state controls a part of the economy, with substantial government expenditure. The European Union is Croatias most important trading partner, since 2000, the Croatian government constantly invests in infrastructure, especially transport routes and facilities along the Pan-European corridors. Internal sources produce a significant portion of energy in Croatia, the rest is imported, the origin of the name is uncertain, but is thought to be a Gothic or Indo-Aryan term assigned to a Slavic tribe. The oldest preserved record of the Croatian ethnonym *xъrvatъ is of variable stem, the first attestation of the Latin term is attributed to a charter of Duke Trpimir from the year 852. The original is lost, and just a 1568 copy is preserved—leading to doubts over the authenticity of the claim, the oldest preserved stone inscription is the 9th-century Branimir Inscription, where Duke Branimir is styled as Dux Cruatorvm. The inscription is not believed to be dated accurately, but is likely to be from during the period of 879–892, the area known as Croatia today was inhabited throughout the prehistoric period
7.
Cylinder
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In its simplest form, a cylinder is the surface formed by the points at a fixed distance from a given straight line called the axis of the cylinder. It is one of the most basic curvilinear geometric shapes, commonly the word cylinder is understood to refer to a finite section of a right circular cylinder having a finite height with circular ends perpendicular to the axis as shown in the figure. If the ends are open, it is called an open cylinder, if the ends are closed by flat surfaces it is called a solid cylinder. The formulae for the area and the volume of such a cylinder have been known since deep antiquity. The area of the side is known as the lateral area. An open cylinder does not include either top or bottom elements, the surface area of a closed cylinder is made up the sum of all three components, top, bottom and side. Its surface area is A = 2πr2 + 2πrh = 2πr = πd=L+2B, for a given volume, the closed cylinder with the smallest surface area has h = 2r. Equivalently, for a surface area, the closed cylinder with the largest volume has h = 2r. Cylindric sections are the intersections of cylinders with planes, for a right circular cylinder, there are four possibilities. A plane tangent to the cylinder meets the cylinder in a straight line segment. Moved while parallel to itself, the plane either does not intersect the cylinder or intersects it in two line segments. All other planes intersect the cylinder in an ellipse or, when they are perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder, a cylinder whose cross section is an ellipse, parabola, or hyperbola is called an elliptic cylinder, parabolic cylinder, or hyperbolic cylinder respectively. Elliptic cylinders are also known as cylindroids, but that name is ambiguous, as it can also refer to the Plücker conoid. The volume of a cylinder with height h is V = ∫0 h A d x = ∫0 h π a b d x = π a b ∫0 h d x = π a b h. Even more general than the cylinder is the generalized cylinder. The cylinder is a degenerate quadric because at least one of the coordinates does not appear in the equation, an oblique cylinder has the top and bottom surfaces displaced from one another. There are other unusual types of cylinders. Let the height be h, internal radius r, and external radius R, the volume is given by V = π h
8.
Quercus robur
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Quercus robur, commonly known as pedunculate oak or English oak, is a species of flowering plant in the beech and oak family Fagaceae. It is native to most of Europe west of the Caucasus, the tree is widely cultivated in temperate regions and has escaped into the wild in scattered parts of China and North America. Quercus robur is the species of the genus, and a member of the white oak section Quercus section Quercus. The populations in Italy, southeast Europe, and Asia Minor, a close relative is the sessile oak, which shares much of its range. Q. robur is distinguished from this species by its leaves having only a short stalk 3–8 mm long. The two often hybridise in the wild, the hybrid being known as Quercus × rosacea, Q. robur should not be confused with Q. rubra, the red oak, which is a native of North America and only distantly related. Quercus robur is a deciduous tree, with circumference of grand oaks from 4 m to exceptional 12 m. The Majesty Oak with a circumference of 12.2 m is the thickest tree in Great Britain, Quercus robur has lobed and nearly sessile leaves 7–14 cm long. Flowering takes place in mid spring, and their fruit, called acorns, the acorns are 2–2.5 cm long, pedunculate with one to four acorns on each peduncle. Q. robur is very tolerant to soil conditions and the climate but it prefers fertile. It is a tree, with a large wide spreading crown of rugged branches. While it may live to an age of a few centuries, many of the oldest trees are pollarded or coppiced. Yet another can be found in Kvilleken, Sweden, that is over 1,000 years old and 14 metres around, of maiden specimens, one of the oldest is the great oak of Ivenack, Germany. Tree-ring research of this tree and other oaks nearby gives an age of 700 to 800 years. Also the Bowthorpe Oak in Lincolnshire, England is estimated to be 1,000 years old, making it the oldest in the UK, highest density of the grand oak trees Q. robur with a circumference 4 metres and more is in Latvia. Within its native range Q. robur is valued for its importance to insects, numerous insects live on the leaves, buds, and in the acorns. Q. robur supports the highest biodiversity of insect herbivores of any British plant, the acorns form a valuable food resource for several small mammals and some birds, notably Eurasian jays Garrulus glandarius. Mammals, notably squirrels who tend to hoard acorns and other nuts most often leave them too abused to grow in the action of moving or storing them
9.
Oak (wine)
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Oak is used in winemaking to vary the color, flavor, tannin profile and texture of wine. It can be introduced in the form of a barrel during the fermentation or aging periods, Oak barrels can impart other qualities to wine through evaporation and low level exposure to oxygen. In early wine history, the amphora was the vessel of choice for the storage, due to the perishable nature of wood material it is difficult to trace the usage of barrels in history. The Greek historian Herodotus noted that ancient Mesopotamians used barrels made of wood to transport wine along the Euphrates. Palm is a material to bend and fashion into barrels, however. The use of oak has been prevalent in winemaking for at least two millennia, first coming into use during the time of the Roman Empire. In time, winemakers discovered that beyond just storage convenience, wine kept in oak barrels took on properties that improved it by making it softer and, in some cases, better-tasting. Robert Mondavi is credited with expanding the knowledge of winemakers in the United States about the different types of oak, the porous nature of an oak barrel allows evaporation and oxygenation to occur in wine but typically not at levels that would cause oxidation or spoilage. The typical 59-gallon barrel can lose anywhere from 5 1⁄2 to 6 1⁄2 gallons in a year through evaporation and this allows the wine to concentrate its flavor and aroma compounds. Small amounts of oxygen are allowed to pass through the barrel, the chemical properties of oak can have a profound effect on wine. Phenols within the wood interact to produce vanilla type flavors and can give the impression of tea notes or sweetness, the degree of toast on the barrel can also impart different properties affecting the tannin levels as well as the aggressive wood flavors. The hydrolyzable tannins present in wood, known as ellagitannins, are derived from structures in the wood. They help protect the wine from oxidation and reduction, wines can be barrel fermented in oak or placed in oak after fermentation for a period of aging or maturation. Wine matured in oak receives more oak flavors and properties than wine fermented in oak because yeast cells present in fermentation interact with, when dead yeast cells are removed as lees some oak properties go with them. Characteristics of white wines fermented in oak include a pale color, white wines fermented in steel and matured in oak will have a darker coloring due to heavy phenolic compounds still present. Flavor notes commonly used to describe wines exposed to oak include caramel, cream, smoke, spice, chardonnay is a varietal with very distinct flavor profiles when fermented in oak, which include coconut, cinnamon and cloves notes. The toastiness of the barrel can bring out varying degrees of mocha, the length of time a wine spends in the barrel is dependent on the varietal and finished style the winemaker desires. New World Pinot noir may spend less than a year in oak, premium Cabernet Sauvignon may spend two years
10.
Quercus petraea
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Quercus petraea, commonly known as the sessile oak or durmast oak, is a species of oak tree native to most of Europe and into Anatolia and Iran. The sessile oak is an emblem in Wales and Cornwall. The sessile oak is a deciduous tree up to 20–40 m tall, in the white oak section of the genus and similar to the pedunculate oak, Q. robur. The leaves are 7–14 cm long and 4–8 cm broad, evenly lobed with five to six lobes on each side, the flowers are catkins, produced in the spring. The fruit is an acorn 2–3 cm long and 1–2 cm broad, significant botanical differences from pedunculate oak include the stalked leaves, and the stalkless acorns from which one of its common names is derived. It occurs in areas over 300 m with higher rainfall and shallow, acidic. Its specific epithet petraea means of rocky places, Quercus robur, on the other hand, prefers deeper, richer soils at lower altitude. Fertile hybrids with Quercus robur named Quercus × rosacea are found wherever the two parent species occur and share or are intermediate in characters between the parents, sessile oak is one of the most important species in Europe both economically and ecologically. Oak timber is used for building, ships and furniture. Today the best woods are used for quality cabinetmaking, veneers, rougher material is used for fencing, roof beams and specialist building work. It is also a fuel wood. During autumns with good acorn crops animals are traditionally grazed under the trees to fatten them, in cultivation, this tree has gained the Royal Horticultural Societys Award of Garden Merit. What was considered to be the oldest oak tree in the UK was a sessile oak and this grew near Chirk in North Wales. It was understood to be over 1,200 years old, the hollow trunk had a girth of 12.9 metres. It was lost in April 2013 when it blew down in high winds, acute oak decline Sudden oak death The Welsh oak longhorn beetle is named for its host tree, the larvae feed at the bark interface of dead wood. Flora Europaea, Quercus petraea Bean, W. J. Trees, rushforth, K. Trees of Britain and Europe. Chênes, Quercus petraea Den virtuella floran - Distribution Quercus petraea - distribution map, genetic conservation units and related resources
11.
Quercus alba
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Quercus alba, the white oak, is one of the preeminent hardwoods of eastern and central North America. It is an oak, native to eastern and central North America and found from Minnesota, Ontario, Quebec. Specimens have been documented to be over 450 years old, although called a white oak, it is very unusual to find an individual specimen with white bark, the usual color is a light gray. In the forest it can reach a magnificent height and in the open it develops into a massive broad-topped tree with large branches striking out at wide angles. Q. alba typically reaches heights of 80 to 100 feet at maturity, trees growing in a forest will become much taller than ones in an open area which develop to be short and massive. The tallest known white oak is 144 feet tall and it is not unusual for a white oak tree to be as wide as it is tall, but specimens growing at high altitudes may only become small shrubs. White oak may live 200 to 300 years, with even older specimens known. The Wye Oak in Wye Mills, Maryland was estimated to be over 450 years old when it fell in a thunderstorm in 2002. Another noted white oak is the Great White Oak in Basking Ridge, New Jersey, the tree measures 25 feet in circumference at the base and 16 feet in circumference four feet above the ground. The tree is 75 feet tall, and its branches spread over 125 feet from tip to tip, the oak, claimed to be the oldest in the United States, began showing signs of poor health in the mid-2010s. The tree was declared dead in 2016 and was planned to be taken down in 2017, sexual maturity begins at around 20 years, but the tree does not produce large crops of acorns until its 50th year and the amount varies from year to year. Acorns deteriorate quickly after ripening, the rate being only 10% for six-month-old seeds. As the acorns are prime food for animals and insects, all may be lost in years of small crops, the bark is a light ash-gray and peels somewhat from the top, bottom and/or sides. In spring the young leaves are of a delicate, silvery pink and covered with a soft, blanket-like down. The petioles are short, and the leaves which cluster close to the ends of the shoots are pale green and this condition continues for several days, passing through the opalescent changes of soft pink, silvery white and finally yellow green. The leaves grow to be 5 to 8.5 inches long and 2.75 to 4.5 inches wide and have a glossy green upper surface. They usually turn red or brown in autumn, but depending on climate, site, some brown, dead leaves may remain on the tree throughout winter until very early spring. The lobes can be shallow, extending less than halfway to the midrib, or deep, the acorns are usually sessile, and grow to 0.5 to 1 inch in length, falling in early October
12.
Bordeaux wine
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Average vintages produce over 700 million bottles of Bordeaux wine, ranging from large quantities of everyday table wine, to some of the most expensive and prestigious wines in the world. The vast majority of wine produced in Bordeaux is red, with white wines, dry whites. Bordeaux wine is made by more than 8,500 producers or châteaux, there are 54 appellations of Bordeaux wine. The wine was introduced to the Bordeaux region by the Romans, probably in the mid-1st century, to wine for local consumption. In the 12th century, the popularity of Bordeaux wines in England increased dramatically following the marriage of Henry Plantagenet, the marriage made the province of Aquitaine part of the Angevin Empire, and thenceforth the wine of Bordeaux was exported to England. At this time, Graves was the wine region of Bordeaux. This accounts for the ubiquity of claret in England, the export of Bordeaux was interrupted by the outbreak of the Hundred Years War between France and England in 1337. By the end of the conflict in 1453 France had repossessed the province, Malbec was the dominant grape here, until the early 19th century, when it was replaced by Cabernet Sauvignon. In 1855, the châteaux of Bordeaux were classified, this classification remains widely used today, from 1875–1892 almost all Bordeaux vineyards were ruined by Phylloxera infestations. The regions wine industry was rescued by grafting native vines on to pest-resistant American rootstock, the major reason for the success of winemaking in the Bordeaux region is an excellent environment for growing vines. The geological foundation of the region is limestone, leading to a structure that is heavy in calcium. These rivers define the geographical subdivisions of the region, The right bank, situated on the right bank of Dordogne, in the northern parts of the region. Entre-Deux-Mers, French for between two seas, the area between the rivers Dordogne and Garonne, both of which are tidal, in the centre of the region. The left bank, situated on the bank of Garonne, in the west and south of the region. The left bank is further subdivided into, Graves, the upstream of the city Bordeaux. Médoc, the downstream of the city Bordeaux, situated on a peninsula between Gironde and the Atlantic. The soil of Bordeaux is composed of gravel, sandy stone, the regions best vineyards are located on the well-drained gravel soils that are frequently found near the Gironde river. An old adage in Bordeaux is the best estates can see the river from their vineyards, the majority of land facing riverward is occupied by classified estates
13.
Burgundy wine
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Burgundy wine is wine made in the Burgundy region in eastern France, in the valleys and slopes west of the Saône, a tributary of the Rhône. The most famous wines produced here—those commonly referred to as Burgundies—are dry red wines made from Pinot noir grapes, red and white wines are also made from other grape varieties, such as Gamay and Aligoté, respectively. Small amounts of rosé and sparkling wines are produced in the region. Burgundy has a number of appellations dorigine contrôlée than any other French region. The various Burgundy AOCs are classified from carefully delineated Grand Cru vineyards down to more non-specific regional appellations, the practice of delineating vineyards by their terroir in Burgundy goes back to medieval times, when various monasteries played a key role in developing the Burgundy wine industry. The Burgundy region runs from Auxerre in the north to Mâcon in the south, Chablis, a white wine made from Chardonnay grapes, is produced in the area around Auxerre. Other smaller appellations near to Chablis include Irancy, which produces red wines and Saint-Bris, eighty-five miles southeast of Chablis is the Côte dOr, where Burgundys most famous and most expensive wines originate, and where all Grand Cru vineyards of Burgundy are situated. The wine-growing part of area in the heart of Burgundy is just 40 kilometres long. The relatively ordinary Village wines are produced from the flat territory nearer the villages, the Côte de Nuits contains 24 out of the 25 red Grand Cru appellations in Burgundy, while all but one of the regions white Grand Cru wines are in the Côte de Beaune. This is explained by the presence of different soils, which favour Pinot noir and Chardonnay, below the Côte Chalonnaise is the Mâconnais region, known for producing large quantities of easy-drinking and more affordable white wine. Further south again is the Beaujolais region, famous for fruity red wines made from Gamay grapes, Burgundy experiences a continental climate characterized by cold winters and hot summers. The weather is unpredictable, with rains, hail. Because of this climate, vintages from Burgundy vary considerably, the earliest recorded praise of the wines of Burgundy was written in 591 by Gregory of Tours, who compared it to the Roman wine Falernian. Monks and monasteries of the Roman Catholic Church have had an important influence on the history of Burgundy wine, the first known donation of a vineyard to the church was by king Guntram in 587, but the influence of the church became important in Charlemagnes era. The Benedictines, through their Abbey of Cluny founded in 910, another order which exerted influence was the Cistercians, founded in 1098 and named after Cîteaux, their first monastery, situated in Burgundy. The Cistercians created Burgundys largest wall-surrounded vineyard, the Clos de Vougeot, more importantly, the Cistercians, extensive vineyard owners as they were, were the first to notice that different vineyard plots gave consistently different wines. They therefore laid the earliest foundation for the naming of Burgundy crus, the only part of Burgundy which could reach Paris in a practical way was the area around Auxerre by means of the Yonne. This area includes Chablis, but had more extensive vineyards until the 19th century
14.
Cognac
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Cognac, named after the town of Cognac, France, is a variety of brandy. It is produced in the region surrounding the town from which it takes its name, in the French Departements of Charente. For a brandy to bear the name Cognac, an Appellation dorigine contrôlée, in particular, it must be made from specified grapes, of which Ugni blanc, known locally as Saint-Emilion, is the one most widely used. The brandy must be distilled in copper pot stills and aged at least two years in French oak barrels from Limousin or Tronçais. Cognac matures in the way as whiskies and wine when aged in barrels. The six zones are, Grande Champagne, Petite Champagne, Borderies, Fins Bois, Bon Bois, a blend of Grande and Petite Champagne Cognacs, with at least half coming from Grande Champagne, is known as Fine Champagne. Cognac is a type of brandy and, after the distillation and it is produced by doubly distilling white wines produced in any of the designated growing regions. The white wine used in making cognac is very dry, acidic, though it has been characterized as virtually undrinkable, it is excellent for distillation and aging. It may be only from a strict list of grape varieties. After the grapes are pressed, the juice is left to ferment for two or three weeks, with the native, wild yeasts converting the sugar into alcohol, neither sugar nor sulfur may be added. At this point, the wine is about 7% to 8% alcohol. Distillation takes place in traditionally shaped Charentais copper stills, also known as an alembic, two distillations must be carried out, the resulting eau-de-vie is a colourless spirit of about 70% alcohol. Once distillation is complete, it must be aged in Limousin oak casks for at least two years before it can be sold to the public and it is typically put into casks at an alcohol by volume strength of about 70%. As the cognac interacts with the oak barrel and the air, because the alcohol dissipates faster than the water, the alcohol concentration drops to about 40% over time. The cognac is then transferred to large glass carboys called bonbonnes, since oak barrels stop contributing to flavor after four or five decades, longer aging periods may not be beneficial. The age of the cognac is calculated as that of the youngest component used in the blend, the blend is usually of different ages and from different local areas. This blending, or marriage, of different eaux-de-vie is important to obtain a complexity of flavours absent from an eau-de-vie from a distillery or vineyard. Each cognac house has a master taster, who is responsible for blending the spirits, so that cognac produced by a company will have a consistent house style, in this respect it is similar to the process of blending whisky or non-vintage Champagne to achieve a consistent brand flavor
15.
High-density polyethylene
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High-density polyethylene or polyethylene high-density is a polyethylene thermoplastic made from petroleum. It is sometimes called alkathene or polythene when used for pipes, with a high strength-to-density ratio, HDPE is used in the production of plastic bottles, corrosion-resistant piping, geomembranes, and plastic lumber. HDPE is commonly recycled, and has the number 2 as its identification code. In 2007, the global HDPE market reached a volume of more than 30 million tons, HDPE is known for its large strength-to-density ratio. The density of HDPE can range from 0.93 to 0.97 g/cm3 or 970 kg/m3, although the density of HDPE is only marginally higher than that of low-density polyethylene, HDPE has little branching, giving it stronger intermolecular forces and tensile strength than LDPE. The difference in strength exceeds the difference in density, giving HDPE a higher specific strength and it is also harder and more opaque and can withstand somewhat higher temperatures. High-density polyethylene, unlike polypropylene, cannot withstand normally required autoclaving conditions, the lack of branching is ensured by an appropriate choice of catalyst and reaction conditions. For example, in Rotational Molding, to identify the environmental stress crack resistance of a sample the Notched Constant Tensile Load Test is put to use, HDPE is preferred by the pyrotechnics trade for mortars over steel or PVC tubes, being more durable and safer. HDPE tends to rip or tear in a malfunction instead of shattering and becoming shrapnel like the other materials. Milk jugs and other goods manufactured through blow molding are the most important application area for HDPE, accounting for one-third of worldwide production. There is some evidence that this form of recycling is less intensive than conventional recycling. Above all, China, where beverage bottles made from HDPE were first imported in 2005, is a market for rigid HDPE packaging. In India and other highly populated, emerging nations, infrastructure expansion includes the deployment of pipes, HDPE for Robotics Advantages & Disadvantages How to Recycle Plastic
16.
Cooper (profession)
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A cooper is someone in the trade of making utensils and barrels and other accessories, usually out of wood that was steamed, but sometimes using other materials. Traditionally, a cooper is someone who makes wooden, staved vessels, bound together with hoops and possessing flat ends or heads. Examples of a coopers work include casks, barrels, buckets, tubs, butter churns, hogsheads, firkins, tierces, rundlets, puncheons, pipes, tuns, butts, pins and breakers. Traditionally, a hooper was the man who fitted the metal hoops around the barrels or buckets that the cooper had made, the English name Hooper is derived from that profession. With time, many Coopers took on the role of the Hooper themselves, the word cooper is derived from Middle Dutch or Middle Low German kūper cooper from kūpe cask, in turn from Latin cupa tun, barrel. Everything a cooper produces is referred to collectively as cooperage, a cask is any piece of cooperage containing a bouge, bilge, or bulge in the middle of the container. A barrel is a type of cask, so the terms barrel-maker, the facility in which casks are made is also referred to as a cooperage. There were four divisions in the coopers craft, the dry or slack cooper made containers that would be used to ship dry goods such as cereals, nails, tobacco, fruits, and vegetables. The dry-tight cooper made casks designed to dry goods in. Gunpowder and flour casks are examples of a coopers work. The white cooper made straight-staved containers like washtubs, buckets, and butter churns, usually there was no bending of wood involved in white cooperage. The wet or tight cooper made casks for long-term storage and transportation of liquids that could even be under pressure, the general cooper worked on ships, on the docks, and in warehouses, and was responsible for cargo while in storage or transit. With a specialized skill, the general cooper could repair a broken stave without losing the contents of a cask, plastics, stainless steel, pallets, and corrugated cardboard replaced during the last half of the 20th century most wooden containers, and largely made the cooperage trade obsolete. In the 21st century, coopers mostly operate barrel-making machinery and assemble casks for the wine, there is still demand for high-quality wooden barrels, and it is thought that the highest-quality barrels are those hand-made by professional coopers. Examples may be seen in the cooperage at Seguin Moreau, a cooperage which was incorporated into the House of Rémy in 1971 for the purpose of providing casks of oak. Limousin oak is renowned for the rich vanilla-like flavor it imparts to cognac, in the United Kingdom, the trade of master cooper is dwindling, it is thought that the last remaining cooper company in England is a beer barrel manufacturer in Wetherby, West Yorkshire. Wagner, J. B. Cooperage, a treatise on modern practice and methods. National coopers journal, vol.38 CBC article on Englands last master cooper Japanese cooper from Kyoto Cooperage
17.
Bucket
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A bucket or pail is typically a watertight, vertical cylinder or truncated cone, with an open top and a flat bottom, attached to a semicircular carrying handle called the bail. Building materials and solvents have been packaged in metal pails. Plastic buckets have more uses due to the popularity of plastic for food products, the bucket has been used in many phrases and idioms in the English language. Kick the bucket, a euphemism for someones death, drop the bucket on, which refers to implicating a person. A drop in the bucket, which means a small, inadequate amount when is given in terms of how much is requested or asked, bucket list, a list of activities one wishes to undertake before death
18.
Butter churn
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A butter churn is a device used to convert cream into butter. This is done through a process, frequently via a pole inserted through the lid of the churn. The agitation of the cream, caused by the motion of the device. The membranes that surround the fats are broken down, subsequently forming clumps known as butter grains and these butter grains, during the process of churning, fuse with each other and form larger fat globules. Air bubbles are introduced into these fat globules via the continued action of the churn. The butter grains become more dense as fat globules attach to them while the air is forced out of the mixture and this process creates a liquid known as buttermilk. With constant churning, the fat globules eventually form solid butter, the buttermilk is then drained off and the butter is squeezed to eliminate excess liquid and to form it into a solid mass. The word “butter” is believed to be derived from the Greek word bou-tyron, the word churn is from the Old English ċyrin, to churn. This is probably derived from the Old English cyrnel, kernel, the butter churn gave its name to the milk churn, early examples of which were based on butter churns. The milk churn is not, however, used for the act of churning, evidence for the use of butter dates back as early as 2000 BC, and there is mention of it in biblical works. The butter churn itself may have existed as early as the 6th century AD, in the European tradition, the butter churn was primarily a device used by women, and the churning of butter was an essential responsibility along with other household chores. Some theorists believe this is how the creation process was discovered. Some cultures still use a similar to this, whereby a bag is filled with milk, tied to a stick. This type of churn is known as an ‘up and down’ churn, churning tub, plunger churn, plumping churn, knocker churn, plump-kirn. The staff used in the churn is known as the dash, dasher-staff, churn-staff, churning-stick, plunger, plumper, another prominent type of churn was the paddle churn, which was a container that contained a paddle, which was operated by a handle. The paddle churned the butter inside the container when the handle was turned, the barrel churn was also used extensively. This type of churn was a barrel turned onto its side with a crank attached, the crank either turned a paddle device inside the churn, as in the paddle churn, or turned the whole barrel, whose action converted the milk to butter. The barrel churn was one of the innovations of 18th century Europe
19.
Keg
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Traditionally, a wooden keg is made by a cooper and used to transport items such as nails, gunpowder, and a variety of liquids. More recently, a keg is often constructed of aluminum or steel and it is commonly used to store, transport, and serve beer. Other alcoholic or non-alcoholic drinks, carbonated or non-carbonated, may be housed in a keg as well, such liquids are generally kept under pressure. Beer kegs are made of steel, or less commonly. A keg has an opening on one end, called a bung. A tube called a spear extends from the opening to the other end, There is a self-closing valve that is opened by the coupling fitting which is attached when the keg is tapped. There is also an opening at the top of the spear that allows gas to drive the beer out of the keg, the coupling fitting has one or two valves that control the flow of beer out of and gas into the keg. The keg must be in the position, that is. Kegs can be contrasted to casks, which have two or more openings and no spear, most major breweries now use internally speared kegs. Historically a beer barrel was a size of 50 gallons, as opposed to a wine barrel at 32 gallons. Over the years barrel sizes have evolved and breweries throughout the world use different sized containers, even when the content capacity of two kegs are equal—e. g. Metricized to 50 liters—the keg shape and keg tap system may differ greatly, most U. S. brewers sell beer in 1⁄2 barrels of 15.5 gallons, 1⁄4 barrels of 7.75 gallons, and 1⁄6 barrels of 5.17 gallons. Since keg sizes are not standardized, the keg cannot be used as a unit of measure for liquid volumes. This size standard varies from country to country and brewery to brewery with many using the metric system rather than U. S. gallons. A keg, or half-barrel is a 15.5 U. S. gallon vessel, a quarter-barrel has a volume of 7.75 U. S. gallons. Generally a keg is a smaller than a barrel, thus. In the U. S. the terms half-barrel and quarter-barrel are derived from the U. S. beer barrel, the German DIN 6647-1 and DIN 6647-2 have also defined kegs in the sizes of 30 and 20 liters. A newer Euro regulation defines 50,30,25 and 20 liters where the keg shape is usually thicker, in some areas it is common to refer to the size not in liters but in beers
20.
English wine cask units
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Capacities of wine casks were formerly measured and standardised according to a specific system of English units. The various units were defined in terms of the wine gallon so varied according to the definition of the gallon until the adoption of the Queen Anne wine gallon in 1707. In the United Kingdom and its colonies the units were redefined with the introduction of the system whilst the Queen Anne wine gallon was adopted as the standard US liquid gallon. The major wine producing countries use barrels extensively and have developed standards at variance with the traditional English volumes are used in the wine and wine cooperage industries. Typically a large vat or vessel, most often holding 252 wine gallons, in one example from 1507, a tun is defined as 240 gallons. Early Modern English, He that ys a gawner owght to understonde there ys in a tunne lx systerns, translation, He that is a gauger ought to understand that there is in a tunne 60 sesters, and every sester is 4 gallons, be it wine or oil. Pipe or butt The butt or pipe was half a tun, tradition has it that George, Duke of Clarence, the brother of Edward IV of England, was drowned in a butt of malmsey on 18 February 1478. In Edgar Allan Poes short story The Cask of Amontillado, the claims he has received a pipe of what passes for Amontillado. Puncheon or tertian The puncheon was a third of a tun, the term puncheon, shortened to pon in the United States, is thought to derive from the fact that it would have been marked by use of a punch to denote its contents. The unit was known as a tertian. Hogshead Of comparable size to the beer hogshead, the wine hogshead was equal to half a butt or a quarter of a tun. Tierce Closely related to the oil barrel, the tierce was half a puncheon. Barrel The wine barrel was half a wine hogshead or an eighth of a tun, rundlet The rundlet was a seventh of a butt or a fourteenth of a tun. Originally, the tun was defined as 256 wine gallons, this is the basis for the name of the quarter of 64 corn gallons. At some time before the 15th century, it was reduced to 252 gallons, so as to be divisible by other small integers. Note that a 252-gallon tun of wine has a mass of one long ton. With the adoption of the Queen Anne wine gallon of 231 cubic inches the tun approximated the volume of a cylinder with both diameter and height of 42 inches and these were adopted as the standard US liquid gallon and tun. When the imperial system was introduced the tun was redefined in the UK, the imperial tun remained evenly divisible by small integers
21.
Tun (volume)
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Capacities of wine casks were formerly measured and standardised according to a specific system of English units. The various units were defined in terms of the wine gallon so varied according to the definition of the gallon until the adoption of the Queen Anne wine gallon in 1707. In the United Kingdom and its colonies the units were redefined with the introduction of the system whilst the Queen Anne wine gallon was adopted as the standard US liquid gallon. The major wine producing countries use barrels extensively and have developed standards at variance with the traditional English volumes are used in the wine and wine cooperage industries. Typically a large vat or vessel, most often holding 252 wine gallons, in one example from 1507, a tun is defined as 240 gallons. Early Modern English, He that ys a gawner owght to understonde there ys in a tunne lx systerns, translation, He that is a gauger ought to understand that there is in a tunne 60 sesters, and every sester is 4 gallons, be it wine or oil. Pipe or butt The butt or pipe was half a tun, tradition has it that George, Duke of Clarence, the brother of Edward IV of England, was drowned in a butt of malmsey on 18 February 1478. In Edgar Allan Poes short story The Cask of Amontillado, the claims he has received a pipe of what passes for Amontillado. Puncheon or tertian The puncheon was a third of a tun, the term puncheon, shortened to pon in the United States, is thought to derive from the fact that it would have been marked by use of a punch to denote its contents. The unit was known as a tertian. Hogshead Of comparable size to the beer hogshead, the wine hogshead was equal to half a butt or a quarter of a tun. Tierce Closely related to the oil barrel, the tierce was half a puncheon. Barrel The wine barrel was half a wine hogshead or an eighth of a tun, rundlet The rundlet was a seventh of a butt or a fourteenth of a tun. Originally, the tun was defined as 256 wine gallons, this is the basis for the name of the quarter of 64 corn gallons. At some time before the 15th century, it was reduced to 252 gallons, so as to be divisible by other small integers. Note that a 252-gallon tun of wine has a mass of one long ton. With the adoption of the Queen Anne wine gallon of 231 cubic inches the tun approximated the volume of a cylinder with both diameter and height of 42 inches and these were adopted as the standard US liquid gallon and tun. When the imperial system was introduced the tun was redefined in the UK, the imperial tun remained evenly divisible by small integers
22.
Fermentation in winemaking
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The process of fermentation in winemaking turns grape juice into an alcoholic beverage. During fermentation, yeasts transform sugars present in the juice into ethanol, in winemaking, the temperature and speed of fermentation are important considerations as well as the levels of oxygen present in the must at the start of the fermentation. The natural occurrence of fermentation means it was probably first observed long ago by humans, the Latin fervere means, literally, to boil. The most common genera of yeasts found in winemaking include Candida, Klöckera/Hanseniaspora, Metschnikowiaceae, Pichia. Wild yeasts can produce high-quality, unique-flavored wines, however, they are unpredictable and may introduce less desirable traits to the wine. The cultured yeasts most commonly used in winemaking belong to the Saccharomyces cerevisiae species, the use of different strains of yeasts is a major contributor to the diversity of wine, even among the same grape variety. Alternative, non-Saccharomyces cerevisiae, yeasts are being used more prevalently in the industry to add complexity to wine. After a winery has been in operation for a number of years, the use of active dry yeasts reduces the variety of strains that appear in spontaneous fermentation by outcompeting those strains that are naturally present. The addition of cultured yeast normally occurs with the yeast first in a dried or inactive state and is reactivated in warm water or diluted grape juice prior to being added to the must. To thrive and be active in fermentation, the yeast needs access to a supply of carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus as well as access to various vitamins. These components are present in the grape must but their amount may be corrected by adding nutrients to the wine. Newly formulated time-release nutrients, specifically manufactured for wine fermentations, offer the most advantageous conditions for yeast. Oxygen is needed as well, but in making, the risk of oxidation. During this process, the carbon atom is released in the form of carbon dioxide with the remaining components becoming acetaldehyde. The absence of oxygen in this process allows the acetaldehyde to be eventually converted, by reduction. During the conversion of acetaldehyde, an amount is converted, by oxidation, to acetic acid which, in excess. After the yeast has exhausted its life cycle, they fall to the bottom of the tank as sediment known as lees. The metabolism of amino acids and breakdown of sugars by yeasts has the effect of creating other biochemical compounds that can contribute to the flavor and aroma of wine
23.
Wine
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Wine is an alcoholic beverage made from fermented grapes. These grapes are generally Vitis vinifera, or a hybrid with Vitis labrusca or Vitis rupestris, grapes are fermented without the addition of sugars, acids, enzymes, water, or other nutrients. Yeast consumes the sugar in the grapes and converts it to ethanol, different varieties of grapes and strains of yeasts produce different styles of wine. These variations result from the interactions between the biochemical development of the grape, the reactions involved in fermentation, the terroir. Many countries enact legal appellations intended to define styles and qualities of wine and these typically restrict the geographical origin and permitted varieties of grapes, as well as other aspects of wine production. There are also made from fermenting other fruits or cereals. Wines made from other than grapes include rice wine and various fruit wines such as those made from plums or cherries. Some well known examples are hard cider from apples, perry from pears, pomegranate wine, Wine has been produced for thousands of years. The earliest known traces of wine from Georgia in Eurasia where 8000-year-old wine jars were found and in Iran with 7, the earliest known winery is the 6, 100-year-old Areni-1 winery Armenia. Wine reached the Balkans by 4500 BC and was consumed and celebrated in ancient Greece, Thrace, throughout history, wine has been consumed for its intoxicating effects, which are evident after the normal serving size of five ounces. Wine has long played an important role in religion, the earliest chemically attested grape wine was discovered at Hajji Firuz in the northwestern Zagros Mountains dating back to 5400 BC. The earliest evidence of a fermented drink was found in Georgia, where wine residue inside ceramic jars dates from 6000 BC. The earliest evidence of a production facility is the Areni-1 winery in Armenia and is at least 6100 years old, presumably. A2003 report by archaeologists indicates a possibility that grapes were mixed with rice to produce mixed fermented beverages in China in the years of the seventh millennium BC. Pottery jars from the Neolithic site of Jiahu, Henan, contained traces of tartaric acid, however, other fruits indigenous to the region, such as hawthorn, cannot be ruled out. The spread of wine culture westwards was most probably due to the Phoenicians who spread outward from a base of city-states along the Lebanese, Syrian, the wines of Byblos were exported to Egypt during the Old Kingdom and then throughout the Mediterranean. Evidence includes two Phoenician shipwrecks from 750 BC discovered by Robert Ballard, whose cargo of wine was still intact. As the first great traders in wine, the Phoenicians seem to have protected it from oxidation with a layer of oil, followed by a seal of pinewood and resin
24.
Arrack
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The clear distillate may be blended, aged in wooden barrels, or repeatedly distilled and filtered depending upon the taste and color objectives of the manufacturer. Arrack is not to be confused with arak, an alcoholic beverage traditionally consumed in Eastern Mediterranean. The word Arrack originated from the Sinhalese word අරක්කු which means any kind of residue and this is not to be confused with the word derived from the Arabic word arak, meaning distillate. In the Middle East and Near East, the term arak is usually used for liquor distilled from grapes and flavored with anise. Unlike arak, the word arrack has been considered by experts to be derived from areca nut. In 1838, Samuel Morewoods work on the histories of liquors was published and this is largely due to the proliferation of distillation knowledge throughout the Middle East during the 14th century. Each country named its own alcohol by using various Latin alphabet forms of the word which was synonymous with distillation at the time. Arrack was banned in the states of Kerala in 1996, in Indonesia, the term arak is widely used to describe the arrack. Arak was an alcoholic beverage during the colonial era. It is considered the rum of Indonesia, because like rum and it is a pot still distillation. To start the fermentation, local fermented red rice is combined with local yeast to give a unique flavor, like rum, Batavia-arrack is often a blend of different original parcels. The Batavia Arak Company also exported arak to the Netherlands and had an office in Amsterdam, some of the arrack brand produced by Batavia Arak Company were KWT and OGL. Batavia-Arrack is said to enhance the flavor when used as a component in other products, as in the herbal and it is used as a component in liqueurs, pastries, and also in the confectionery and flavor industries. In Indonesia, arrack is often created as a form of moonshine, such illicit production may result in methanol-tainted arrack that can lead to death. The Filipino term for wine is alak, derived from the Arabic word arrak, the term arak, though, is specifically used in Ilocano. Lambanóg is commonly described as coconut wine or coconut vodka, as with coconut arrack, the process begins with the sap from the coconut flower. The sap is harvested into bamboo receptacles similar to rubber tapping, the tubà, which by itself is also a popular beverage, is further distilled to produce lambanóg. Until recently, lambanóg was considered an analogue to moonshine
25.
Sake
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Sake, also spelled saké in English, is a Japanese rice wine made by fermenting rice that has been polished to remove the bran. The brewing process for sake differs from the process for beer in that, for beer, like other rice wines, when sake is brewed, these conversions occur simultaneously. Furthermore, the alcohol content differs between sake, wine, and beer, Wine generally contains 9%–16% ABV, while most beer contains 3%–9%, and undiluted sake contains 18%–20%. In the Japanese language, the word sake can refer to any alcoholic drink, under Japanese liquor laws, sake is labelled with the word seishu, a synonym less commonly used in conversation. The origin of sake is unclear, the making of Chinese alcoholic beverages predates recorded history. The earliest reference to the use of alcohol in Japan is recorded in the Book of Wei in the Records of the Three Kingdoms and this 3rd-century Chinese text speaks of the Japanese drinking and dancing. Alcoholic beverages are mentioned several times in the Kojiki, Japans first written history, bamforth places the probable origin of true sake (which is made from rice, water, and kōji mold in the Nara period. In the Heian period, sake was used for ceremonies, court festivals. Sake production was a government monopoly for a time, but in the 10th century, temples and shrines began to brew sake. The Tamon-in Diary, written by abbots of Tamon-in from 1478 to 1618, the diary shows that pasteurization and the process of adding ingredients to the main fermentation mash in three stages were established practices by that time. In the 16th century, the technique of distillation was introduced into the Kyushu district from Ryukyu, the brewing of shōchū, called Imo—sake started, and was sold at the central market in Kyoto. The work of writers was widely disseminated throughout Europe at the beginning of the 19th century. During the Meiji Restoration, laws were written that allowed anybody with the money and know-how to construct, around 30,000 breweries sprang up around the country within a year. However, as the years went by, the government levied more and more taxes on the sake industry, most of the breweries that grew and survived this period were set up by wealthy landowners. Landowners who grew rice crops would have left over at the end of the season and, rather than letting these leftovers go to waste. The most successful of these family breweries still operate today, during the 20th century, sake-brewing technology grew by leaps and bounds. The government opened the sake-brewing research institute in 1904, and in 1907 the very first government-run sake-tasting competition was held, yeast strains specifically selected for their brewing properties were isolated and enamel-coated steel tanks arrived. The government started hailing the use of tanks as easy to clean, lasting forever
26.
Armagnac (brandy)
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Armagnac is a distinctive kind of brandy produced in the Armagnac region in Gascony, southwest France. The resulting spirit is aged in oak barrels before release. Production is overseen by the Institut national de lorigine et de la qualité, Armagnac was one of the first areas in France to begin distilling spirits, but the overall volume of production is far smaller than Cognac production and therefore is less known outside Europe. In addition, it is for the most part made and sold by small producers, Armagnac is the oldest brandy distilled in France, and, in the past, it was consumed for its therapeutic benefits. It cures gout, cankers, and fistula by ingestion, restores the paralysed member by massage and it enlivens the spirit, partaken in moderation, recalls the past to memory, renders men joyous, preserves youth and retards senility. And when retained in the mouth, it loosens the tongue and emboldens the wit, between the 15th and 17th centuries, Armagnac was traded on the markets of Saint-Sever, Mont-de-Marsan, and Aire-sur-lAdour. Subsequently, Dutch merchants began promoting the more widely. The traditional French gourmet dish ortolan has traditionally prepared by force-feeding an ortolan bunting before drowning it in Armagnac. The dish is now prohibited due to laws protecting the bird. The Armagnac region lies between the Adour and Garonne rivers in the foothills of the Pyrenees, the region was granted AOC status in 1936. The official production area is divided into three districts that lie in the departements of Gers, Landes, and Lot-et-Garonne, the region contains 15,000 hectares of grape-producing vines. The Fallières Decree of 25 May 1909 describes the three districts, Bas-Armagnac Armagnac-Ténarèze Haut-Armagnac Each of these areas is controlled by separate appellation regulations, more recently, a new appellation—Blanche dArmagnac—was established to allow the production and export of clear, white brandies that are unaged. Armagnac is traditionally distilled once, resulting in 52% of alcohol and this results in a more fragrant and flavorful spirit than Cognac, where double distillation takes place. Long aging in oak barrels softens the taste and causes the development of more complex flavours, aging in the barrel removes a part of the alcohol and water by evaporation and allows more complex aromatic compounds to appear by oxidation, which further modifies the flavour. Since alcohol evaporates faster than water, the degree is naturally reduced by an average of 0. 4% per year depending on the characteristics of the cellars. When the Armagnac is considered as matured, it is transferred to large glass bottles for storage, the main difference between Armagnac and other spirits is, that due to its relatively low proof, it is generally not diluted with water. Armagnac is sold under several classifications, mostly referring to the age of the constituent brandies, Armagnac is allowed to be sold under vintages. When Armagnacs of different ages have been blended, the age on the bottle refers to the youngest component, a three-star, or VS, Armagnac is a mix of several Armagnacs that have seen at least two years of aging in wood
27.
Sherry
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Sherry is a fortified wine made from white grapes that are grown near the town of Jerez de la Frontera in Andalusia, Spain. Sweet dessert wines are made from Pedro Ximenez or Moscatel grapes. The word Sherry is an anglicisation of Xeres, Sherry was previously known as sack, from the Spanish saca, meaning extraction from the solera. In 1933 the Jerez Denominación de Origen was the first Spanish denominación to be recognised in this way. Jerez-Xeres-Sherry and sharing the same governing council as D. O, after fermentation is complete, the base wines are fortified with grape spirit in order to increase their final alcohol content. Wines classified as suitable for aging as Fino and Manzanilla are fortified until they reach an alcohol content of 15.5 per cent by volume. As they age in barrel, they develop a layer of flor—a yeast-like growth that helps protect the wine from excessive oxidation and those wines that are classified to undergo aging as Oloroso are fortified to reach an alcohol content of at least 17 per cent. They do not develop flor and so oxidise slightly as they age, because the fortification takes place after fermentation, most sherries are initially dry, with any sweetness being added later. In contrast, port wine is fortified halfway through its fermentation, Sherry is regarded by many wine writers as underappreciated and a neglected wine treasure. Jerez has been a centre of viniculture since wine-making was introduced to Spain by the Phoenicians in 1100 BC, the practice was carried on by the Romans when they took control of Iberia around 200 BC. The Moors conquered the region in AD711 and introduced distillation, during the Moorish period, the town was called Sherish, from which both Sherry and Jerez are derived. Wines similar in style to Sherry have traditionally made in the city of Shiraz in mid-southern Iran. Wine production continued through five centuries of Arab Empires rule, in 1264 Alfonso X of Castile took the city. From this point on, the production of sherry and its export throughout Europe increased significantly, by the end of the 16th century, sherry had a reputation in Europe as the worlds finest wine. Christopher Columbus brought sherry on his voyage to the New World, Sherry became very popular in Great Britain, especially after Francis Drake sacked Cadiz in 1587. At that time Cadiz was one of the most important Spanish seaports, among the spoils Drake brought back after destroying the fleet were 2,900 barrels of sherry that had been waiting to be loaded aboard Spanish ships. This helped to popularize Sherry in the British Isles, because sherry was a major wine export to the United Kingdom, many English companies and styles developed. Many of the Jerez cellars were founded by British families, in 1894 the Jerez region was devastated by the insect phylloxera
28.
Port wine
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Port wine is a Portuguese fortified wine produced exclusively in the Douro Valley in the northern provinces of Portugal. It is typically a sweet, red wine, often served as a wine, though it also comes in dry, semi-dry. Fortified wines in the style of port are also produced outside Portugal, most notably in Australia, France, South Africa, Canada, India, Argentina, under European Union Protected Designation of Origin guidelines, only the product from Portugal may be labelled as port or Porto. Port is produced from grapes grown and processed in the demarcated Douro region, the fortification spirit is sometimes referred to as brandy but it bears little resemblance to commercial brandies. The wine is stored and aged, often in barrels stored in a Lodge as is the case in Vila Nova de Gaia. The Douro valley where port wine is produced was defined and established as a region, or appellation in 1756, making it the third oldest, after Chianti. The reaches of the valley of the Douro River in northern Portugal have a microclimate that is optimal for cultivation of olives, almonds, the demarcation of the Douro River Valley includes a broad swath of land of pre-Cambrian schist and granite. Beginning around the village of Barqueiros, the valley extends eastward nearly to the Spanish border, the region is protected from the influences of the Atlantic Ocean by the Serra do Marão mountains. The area is sub-divided into 3 official zones-the Baixo Corgo, the Cima Corgo, Baixo Corgo – The westernmost zone located downstream from the river Corgo, centred on the municipality of Peso da Régua. This region is the wettest port production zone, receiving an average of 900 mm, the grapes grown here are used mainly for the production of inexpensive ruby and tawny ports. Cima Corgo – Located further upstream from the Baixo Corgo, this region is centred on the town of Pinhão, the summertime average temperature of the regions are a few degrees higher and rainfall is about 200 mm less. The grapes grown in this zone are considered of higher quality, being used in bottlings of Vintage, Reserve, aged Tawny, Douro Superior – The easternmost zone extending nearly to the Spanish border. This is the least cultivated region of Douro, due in part to the difficulties of navigating the river past the rapids of Cachão da Valeira and this is the most arid and warmest region of the Douro. The overall terrain is flat with the potential for mechanization. Over a hundred varieties of grapes are sanctioned for port production, Touriga Nacional is widely considered the most desirable port grape but the difficulty in growing it and the small yields cause Touriga Francesa to be the most widely planted grape. White ports are produced the way as red ports, except that they use white grapes—Donzelinho Branco, Esgana-Cão, Folgasão, Gouveio, Malvasia Fina, Rabigato. While a few shippers have experimented with Ports produced from a variety of grapes. Grapes grown for port are generally characterised by their small, dense fruit which produce concentrated and long-lasting flavours, in 2013, there were 8.7 million cases of port sold,3. 6% less than the previous year, at a value of $499 million
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Whisky
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Whisky or whiskey is a type of distilled alcoholic beverage made from fermented grain mash. Various grains are used for different varieties, including barley, corn, rye, Whisky is typically aged in wooden casks, generally made of charred white oak. Whisky is a strictly regulated spirit worldwide with many classes and types, the typical unifying characteristics of the different classes and types are the fermentation of grains, distillation, and aging in wooden barrels. The word whiskey is an anglicisation of the Classical Gaelic word uisce meaning water, distilled alcohol was known in Latin as aqua vitae. This was translated to Classical Gaelic as uisce beatha, which became uisce beatha in Irish, early forms of the word in English included uskebeaghe, usquebaugh, usquebath, and usquebae. Much is made of the two spellings, whiskey and whisky. There are two schools of thought on the issue, there is general agreement that when quoting the proper name printed on a label, the spelling on the label should not be altered. Some writers refer to whisky or whisky/whiskey to acknowledge the variation, the spelling whiskey is common in Ireland and the United States, while whisky is used in all other whisky producing countries. In the US, the usage has not always been consistent, from the late eighteenth century to the mid twentieth century, American writers used both spellings interchangeably until the introduction of newspaper style guides. Since the 1960s, American writers have increasingly used whiskey as the spelling for aged grain spirits made in the US. Scotch is the internationally recognized term for Scotch whisky, the earliest certain chemical distillations were by Greeks in Alexandria in the 1st century AD, but these were not distillations of alcohol. The medieval Arabs adopted the technique of the Alexandrian Greeks, and written records in Arabic begin in the 9th century. Distilling technology passed from the medieval Arabs to the medieval Latins, the earliest records of the distillation of alcohol are in Italy in the 13th century, where alcohol was distilled from wine. An early description of the technique was given by Ramon Llull and its use spread through medieval monasteries, largely for medicinal purposes, such as the treatment of colic and smallpox. The art of distillation spread to Ireland and Scotland no later than the 15th century, the practice of medicinal distillation eventually passed from a monastic setting to the secular via professional medical practitioners of the time, The Guild of Barber Surgeons. The earliest Irish mention of whisky comes from the seventeenth-century Annals of Clonmacnoise, between 1536 and 1541, King Henry VIII of England dissolved the monasteries, sending their monks out into the general public. Whisky production moved out of a setting and into personal homes. The distillation process was still in its infancy, whisky itself was not allowed to age, renaissance-era whisky was also very potent and not diluted
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Beer
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Beer is the worlds oldest and most widely consumed alcoholic drink, it is the third most popular drink overall, after water and tea. Most beer is flavoured with hops, which add bitterness and act as a natural preservative, the fermentation process causes a natural carbonation effect, although this is often removed during processing, and replaced with forced carbonation. Beer is sold in bottles and cans, it may also be available on draught, particularly in pubs, the brewing industry is a global business, consisting of several dominant multinational companies and many thousands of smaller producers ranging from brewpubs to regional breweries. The strength of beer is usually around 4% to 6% alcohol by volume, archaeologists speculate that beer was instrumental in the formation of civilisations. Approximately 5000 years ago, workers in the city of Uruk were paid by their employers in beer, the earliest known chemical evidence of barley beer dates to circa 3500–3100 BC from the site of Godin Tepe in the Zagros Mountains of western Iran. The Ebla tablets, discovered in 1974 in Ebla, Syria, a fermented beverage using rice and fruit was made in China around 7000 BC. Unlike sake, mould was not used to saccharify the rice, almost any substance containing sugar can naturally undergo alcoholic fermentation. It is likely that many cultures, on observing that a liquid could be obtained from a source of starch. Bread and beer increased prosperity to a level that allowed time for development of other technologies, Beer was spread through Europe by Germanic and Celtic tribes as far back as 3000 BC, and it was mainly brewed on a domestic scale. The product that the early Europeans drank might not be recognised as beer by most people today, alongside the basic starch source, the early European beers might contain fruits, honey, numerous types of plants, spices and other substances such as narcotic herbs. What they did not contain was hops, as that was an addition, first mentioned in Europe around 822 by a Carolingian Abbot. Beer produced before the Industrial Revolution continued to be made and sold on a scale, although by the 7th century AD, beer was also being produced. During the Industrial Revolution, the production of beer moved from artisanal manufacture to industrial manufacture, the development of hydrometers and thermometers changed brewing by allowing the brewer more control of the process and greater knowledge of the results. Today, the industry is a global business, consisting of several dominant multinational companies. As of 2006, more than 133 billion litres, the equivalent of a cube 510 metres on a side, of beer are sold per year, the process of making beer is known as brewing. A dedicated building for the making of beer is called a brewery, a company that makes beer is called either a brewery or a brewing company. Beer made on a scale for non-commercial reasons is classified as homebrewing regardless of where it is made. Brewing beer is subject to legislation and taxation in developed countries, however, the UK government relaxed legislation in 1963, followed by Australia in 1972 and the US in 1978, allowing homebrewing to become a popular hobby
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Aging of wine
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The aging of wine or ageing of wine is potentially able to improve the quality of wine. This distinguishes wine from most other consumable goods, the ability of a wine to age is influenced by many factors including grape variety, vintage, viticultural practices, wine region and winemaking style. The condition that the wine is kept in after bottling can also influence how well a wine ages and may require significant time and financial investment. There is a significant mystique around the aging of wine, as its chemistry was not understood for a long time, the Ancient Greeks and Romans were aware of the potential of aged wines. In Greece, early examples of dried straw wines were noted for their ability to age due to their high sugar contents and these wines were stored in sealed earthenware amphorae and kept for many years. In Rome, the most sought after wines—Falernian and Surrentine—were prized for their ability to age for decades, in the Book of Luke, it is noted that old wine was valued over new wine. Following the Fall of the Roman Empire, appreciation for aged wine was virtually non-existent, most of the wines produced in northern Europe were light bodied, pale in color and with low alcohol. These wines did not have much aging potential and barely lasted a few months before they rapidly deteriorated into vinegar, the older a wine got the cheaper its price became as merchants eagerly sought to rid themselves of aging wine. By the 16th century, sweeter and more alcoholic wines were being made in the Mediterranean, similarly, Riesling from Germany with its combination of acidity and sugar were also demonstrating their ability to age. In the 17th century, two innovations occurred that changed the wine industrys view on aging. One was the development of the cork and bottle which allowed producers to package, the second was the growing popularity of fortifying wines such as Port, Madeira and Sherries. The added alcohol was found to act as a preservative, allowing wines to survive long sea voyages to England, The Americas, the English, in particular, were growing in their appreciation of aged wines like Port and Claret from Bordeaux. Demand for matured wines had an effect on the wine trade. In regions like Bordeaux, Oporto and Burgundy, this dramatically increased the balance of power towards the merchant classes. There is a misconception that wine always improves with age, or that wine improves with extended aging. Some authorities state that more wine is consumed too old than too young, aging changes wine, but does not categorically improve it or worsen it. Fruitness deteriorates rapidly, decreasing markedly after only 6 months in the bottle, due to the cost of storage, it is not economical to age cheap wines, but many varieties of wine do not benefit from aging, regardless of the quality. Experts vary on precise numbers, but typically state that only 5–10% of wine improves after 1 year, in general, wines with a low pH have a greater capability of aging
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Distilled beverage
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This process purifies it and removes diluting components like water, for the purpose of increasing its proportion of alcohol content. As distilled beverages contain more alcohol, they are considered harder – in North America, as examples, this term does not include beverages such as beer, wine, sake, and cider, as they are fermented but not distilled. These all have relatively low alcohol content, typically less than 15%, brandy is a spirit produced by the distillation of wine, and has an ABV of over 35%. Other examples of distilled beverages include bourbon, vodka, gin, rum, tequila, mezcal, whisky, scotch, the term spirit refers to a distilled beverage that contains no added sugar and has at least 20% alcohol by volume. Distilled beverages bottled with added sugar and added flavorings, such as Grand Marnier, Frangelico, Distilled beverages generally have an alcohol concentration higher than 30%. The origin of liquor and its close relative liquid was the Latin verb liquere, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, an early use of the word in the English language, meaning simply a liquid, can be dated to 1225. The first use the OED mentions of its meaning a liquid for drinking occurred in the 14th century and its use as a term for an intoxicating alcoholic drink appeared in the 16th century. The term spirit in reference to alcohol stems from Middle Eastern alchemy and these alchemists were more concerned with medical elixirs than with transmuting lead into gold. The vapor given off and collected during a process was called a spirit of the original material. Distilled water was described in the 2nd century AD by Alexander of Aphrodisias, the Alexandrians were using a distillation alembic or still device in the 3rd century AD. The medieval Arabs learned the process from the Alexandrians and used it extensively. Freeze distillation involves freezing the alcoholic beverage and then removing the ice, the freezing technique had limitations in geography and implementation limiting how widely this method was put to use. The earliest evidence of distillation of alcohol comes from the School of Salerno in southern Italy during the 12th century. Again, the Chinese may not have been far behind, with evidence indicating the practice of distillation began during the 12th century Jin or Southern Song dynasties. A still has been found at a site in Qinglong, Hebei. Fractional distillation was developed by Taddeo Alderotti in the 13th century, the production method was written in code, suggesting that it was being kept secret. In 1437, burned water was mentioned in the records of the County of Katzenelnbogen in Germany and it was served in a tall, narrow glass called a Goderulffe. Claims upon the origin of specific beverages are controversial, often invoking national pride, but they are plausible after the 12th century AD and these spirits would have had a much lower alcohol content than the alchemists pure distillations, and they were likely first thought of as medicinal elixirs
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Brandy
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Brandy is a spirit produced by distilling wine. Brandy generally contains 35–60% alcohol by volume and is taken as an after-dinner drink. Some brandies are aged in casks, some are coloured with caramel colouring to imitate the effect of aging. In broader sense, the term also denotes liquors obtained from distillation of pomace or mash or wine of any other fruit. These products are also named eaux-de-vie, varieties of wine brandy can be found across the winemaking world. Among the most renowned are Cognac and Armagnac from Southwestern France, the origins of brandy were clearly tied to the development of distillation. While the process was known in times, it wasnt used for significant beverage production until the 15th century. Initially wine was distilled as a method and as a way to make it easier for merchants to transport. It is also thought that wine was distilled to lessen the tax which was assessed by volume. The intent was to add the water removed by distillation back to the brandy shortly before consumption and it was discovered that after having been stored in wooden casks, the resulting product had improved over the original distilled spirit. Non-volatile substances such as pigments, sugars, and salts remained behind in the still, as a result, the taste of the distillate was often quite unlike that of the original source. This liquor, distilled only once, was called spirit of wine or brandy, purified by another distillation, this was then called spirit of wine rectified. The second distillation was made in balneo mariae and in a glass cucurbit, and this was further rectified—as long as the operator thought necessary—to produce brandy. To shorten these several distillations, which were long and troublesome, to test the purity of the rectified spirit of wine, a portion was ignited. If the entire contents were consumed by a fire without leaving any impurities behind, another, better test involved putting a little gunpowder in the bottom of the spirit. If the gunpowder could ignite after the spirit was consumed by fire, as most brandies have been distilled from grapes, the regions of the world producing excellent brandies have roughly paralleled those areas producing grapes for viniculture. In 1884, David Sarajishvili founded his brandy factory in Tbilisi, Georgia, a crossroads for Turkish, Central Asian, and Persian trade routes and a part of the Russian Empire at the time. The storehouses of the Romanov Court in St. Petersburg were regarded as the largest collections of cognacs, the Russian market was always a huge brandy-consuming region in which home-grown varieties were common but much of it was imported
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Rum
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Rum is a distilled alcoholic beverage made from sugarcane byproducts, such as molasses, or directly from sugarcane juice, by a process of fermentation and distillation. The distillate, a liquid, is then usually aged in oak barrels. The majority of the rum production occurs in the Caribbean. Rums are produced in various grades, light rums are commonly used in cocktails, whereas golden and dark rums were typically consumed straight or neat, on the rocks, or used for cooking, but are now commonly consumed with mixers. Premium rums are also available, made to be consumed straight or iced. Rum plays a part in the culture of most islands of the West Indies as well as in The Maritimes and this beverage has famous associations with the Royal Navy and piracy. Rum has also served as a medium of economic exchange, used to help fund enterprises such as slavery, organized crime. The origin of the rum is generally unclear. In an 1824 essay about the origin, Samuel Morewood. He wrote, As spirits, extracted from molasses, could not well be ranked under the name whiskey, brandy, or arrack, it would be called rum, given the harsh taste of early rum, this is unlikely. Morewood later suggested another possibility, that it was taken from the last syllable of the Latin word for sugar, saccharum, other etymologists have mentioned the Romani word rum, meaning strong or potent. These words have been linked to the ramboozle and rumfustian, both popular British drinks in the mid-17th century, however, neither was made with rum, but rather eggs, ale, wine, sugar, and various spices. The most probable origin is as a version of rumbullion or rumbustion. Both words surfaced in English about the time as rum did. This is a far more convincing explanation, and brings the image of men fighting in entanglements at island tippling houses. Another claim is the name is from the large drinking glasses used by Dutch seamen known as rummers, from the Dutch word roemer, other options include contractions of the words iterum, Latin for again, a second time, or arôme, French for aroma. A short time later in May 1657, the General Court of Massachusetts also decided to make illegal the sale of strong liquor whether knowne by the name of rumme, strong water, wine, brandy, etc. In current usage, the used for a rum is often based on its place of origin
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Tabasco sauce
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Tabasco sauce is a brand of hot sauce made exclusively from tabasco peppers, vinegar and salt. It is produced by the McIlhenny Company of Louisiana, although the name comes from the Mexican state of Tabasco, the sauce is an American product produced by the McIlhenny Company. Tabasco sauce was formulated in Mexico by a Mexican company called Salsa Mexicana, Tabasco sauce was first produced in 1868 by Edmund McIlhenny, a Maryland-born former banker who moved to Louisiana around 1840. McIlhenny initially used discarded cologne bottles to distribute his sauce to family, in 1868 when he started to sell to the public he ordered thousands of new cologne bottles from a New Orleans glassworks. Walter S. McIlhenny in turn succeeded his uncle Edward Avery McIlhenny, Edward Ned McIlhenny Simmons then ran the company as president and CEO for several years, and remained chairman of the board until his death in 2012. Paul McIlhenny, sixth in the line of McIlhenny men to run the business, assumed the presidency in 1998, in 2012, McIlhenny cousin Tony Simmons assumed the companys presidency and runs the company today. McIlhenny is one of just a few U. S. companies to have received a warrant of appointment that certifies the company as a supplier to Queen Elizabeth II. McIlhenny is one of the 850 companies around the world that have officially designated as suppliers to the queen by such warrants. The warrant held is Supplier of Tabasco Sauce HM The Queen – Master of the Household – Granted in 2009, originally all peppers used in Tabasco sauce were grown on Avery Island. Today peppers grown on the Island are used to produce seed stock, more predictable weather and readily available farmland in these locales allow a constant year-round supply. This ensures the availability of peppers should severe weather or other problems occur at a particular growing location, following company tradition, peppers are picked by hand. To ensure ripeness, pickers compare peppers to a red stick. Peppers are ground into a mash on the day of harvest, to prepare the barrel, the inside of the barrel is de-charred, torched and cleaned, to minimize the presence of any residual whiskey. The barrels are used in warehouses on Avery Island for aging the mash. After aging for up to three years, the mash is strained to remove skins and seeds, the resulting liquid is then mixed with vinegar, stirred occasionally for a month, and then bottled as finished sauce. Much of the used in Tabasco production comes from an Avery Island salt mine, one of the largest in the U. S. In 2005, Avery Island was hit hard by Hurricane Katrina, as a result, the family constructed a 17-foot -high levee around the low side of the factory and invested in back-up generators. Several sauces are produced under the Tabasco brand name, including jalapeño-based green, chipotle-based smoked, habanero, garlic, sweet and spicy, the habanero, chipotle, and garlic sauces include the tabasco peppers blended with other peppers, whereas the jalapeño variety does not include tabasco peppers
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Traditional Balsamic Vinegar
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Traditional Balsamic Vinegar is a type of balsamic vinegar produced in the Emilia Romagna region of Italy. Although the names are similar, TBV and the inexpensive imitation BVM are very different, a comprehensive study about the original making procedure, the aging conditions, and the sensory profile is not available. This and the few and often-confusing documents make the reconstruction of the history of TBV a challenge. The term balsamico derives from the Latin word “balsamum” and from the Greek word “βάλσαμον”, the art of cooking the must of grapes dates back to the ancient Romans, it was used both as a medicine and in the kitchen as a sweetener and condiment. The adjective balsamic has been used to any kind of generically aromatic vinegar. As far as the method is concerned, it is very similar to the Solera system used in Spain after Napoleonic Wars. TBV is produced in two different geographical areas of the Emilia Romagna Region so that two different designations were granted by the European Council, i. e, Traditional Balsamic Vinegar of Modena and Traditional Balsamico Vinegar of Reggio Emilia. The sensory profile of TBV is evaluated by hedonic judgment expressed through a numeric score, the sensory score achieved is used to rank TBV in different commercial classes. The specific regulations allow adding Extra Vecchio to the designation when the product is aged for 25 years at least. TBV results as a blend of vinegars of different composition and age due to the traditional making procedure, actually, an easy-to-use mathematical method for evaluating the actual residence time of TBV within each cask of the barrel set has been recently published. This method is a tool helping aging certification. An easy-to-use spreadsheet of the model is available for download here. At present, however, independent agencies that officially state TBV authenticity of both the TBVM and TBVRE havent adopted it or any analogous procedure as an evaluation system, making process of the TBV starts from freshly squeezed grape juice and finishes with sensory evaluation of the aged vinegar. Cooking of the juice is carried out in open vessels directly heated by fire for 12 –24 hours reducing the grape juice by about 50%. The production regulations require starting from a grape must with 15°Bx at least to reach at the end of cooking 30°Bx for TBVRE, for TBVM and it is possible to find cooked musts with sugar concentration beyond 50°Bx. The operation allows profound chemical and physical modifications affecting the end quality of TBV, sugar fermentation and ethanol oxidation occur as a two-step biological transformation of the cooked must. The first requires anaerobic conditions and the aerobic conditions. The two biological conversions occur inside a vessel, called the badessa
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Oxygen
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Oxygen is a chemical element with symbol O and atomic number 8. It is a member of the group on the periodic table and is a highly reactive nonmetal. By mass, oxygen is the third-most abundant element in the universe, after hydrogen, at standard temperature and pressure, two atoms of the element bind to form dioxygen, a colorless and odorless diatomic gas with the formula O2. This is an important part of the atmosphere and diatomic oxygen gas constitutes 20. 8% of the Earths atmosphere, additionally, as oxides the element makes up almost half of the Earths crust. Most of the mass of living organisms is oxygen as a component of water, conversely, oxygen is continuously replenished by photosynthesis, which uses the energy of sunlight to produce oxygen from water and carbon dioxide. Oxygen is too reactive to remain a free element in air without being continuously replenished by the photosynthetic action of living organisms. Another form of oxygen, ozone, strongly absorbs ultraviolet UVB radiation, but ozone is a pollutant near the surface where it is a by-product of smog. At low earth orbit altitudes, sufficient atomic oxygen is present to cause corrosion of spacecraft, the name oxygen was coined in 1777 by Antoine Lavoisier, whose experiments with oxygen helped to discredit the then-popular phlogiston theory of combustion and corrosion. One of the first known experiments on the relationship between combustion and air was conducted by the 2nd century BCE Greek writer on mechanics, Philo of Byzantium. In his work Pneumatica, Philo observed that inverting a vessel over a burning candle, Philo incorrectly surmised that parts of the air in the vessel were converted into the classical element fire and thus were able to escape through pores in the glass. Many centuries later Leonardo da Vinci built on Philos work by observing that a portion of air is consumed during combustion and respiration, Oxygen was discovered by the Polish alchemist Sendivogius, who considered it the philosophers stone. In the late 17th century, Robert Boyle proved that air is necessary for combustion, English chemist John Mayow refined this work by showing that fire requires only a part of air that he called spiritus nitroaereus. From this he surmised that nitroaereus is consumed in both respiration and combustion, Mayow observed that antimony increased in weight when heated, and inferred that the nitroaereus must have combined with it. Accounts of these and other experiments and ideas were published in 1668 in his work Tractatus duo in the tract De respiratione. Robert Hooke, Ole Borch, Mikhail Lomonosov, and Pierre Bayen all produced oxygen in experiments in the 17th and the 18th century but none of them recognized it as a chemical element. This may have been in part due to the prevalence of the philosophy of combustion and corrosion called the phlogiston theory, which was then the favored explanation of those processes. Established in 1667 by the German alchemist J. J. Becher, one part, called phlogiston, was given off when the substance containing it was burned, while the dephlogisticated part was thought to be its true form, or calx. The fact that a substance like wood gains overall weight in burning was hidden by the buoyancy of the combustion products
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Water
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Water is a transparent and nearly colorless chemical substance that is the main constituent of Earths streams, lakes, and oceans, and the fluids of most living organisms. Its chemical formula is H2O, meaning that its molecule contains one oxygen, Water strictly refers to the liquid state of that substance, that prevails at standard ambient temperature and pressure, but it often refers also to its solid state or its gaseous state. It also occurs in nature as snow, glaciers, ice packs and icebergs, clouds, fog, dew, aquifers, Water covers 71% of the Earths surface. It is vital for all forms of life. Only 2. 5% of this water is freshwater, and 98. 8% of that water is in ice and groundwater. Less than 0. 3% of all freshwater is in rivers, lakes, and the atmosphere, a greater quantity of water is found in the earths interior. Water on Earth moves continually through the cycle of evaporation and transpiration, condensation, precipitation. Evaporation and transpiration contribute to the precipitation over land, large amounts of water are also chemically combined or adsorbed in hydrated minerals. Safe drinking water is essential to humans and other even though it provides no calories or organic nutrients. There is a correlation between access to safe water and gross domestic product per capita. However, some observers have estimated that by 2025 more than half of the population will be facing water-based vulnerability. A report, issued in November 2009, suggests that by 2030, in developing regions of the world. Water plays an important role in the world economy, approximately 70% of the freshwater used by humans goes to agriculture. Fishing in salt and fresh water bodies is a source of food for many parts of the world. Much of long-distance trade of commodities and manufactured products is transported by boats through seas, rivers, lakes, large quantities of water, ice, and steam are used for cooling and heating, in industry and homes. Water is an excellent solvent for a variety of chemical substances, as such it is widely used in industrial processes. Water is also central to many sports and other forms of entertainment, such as swimming, pleasure boating, boat racing, surfing, sport fishing, Water is a liquid at the temperatures and pressures that are most adequate for life. Specifically, at atmospheric pressure of 1 bar, water is a liquid between the temperatures of 273.15 K and 373.15 K
39.
Ethanol
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Ethanol, also called alcohol, ethyl alcohol, and drinking alcohol, is the principal type of alcohol found in alcoholic beverages. It is a volatile, flammable, colorless liquid with a characteristic odor. Its chemical formula is C 2H 6O, which can be written also as CH 3-CH 2-OH or C 2H 5-OH, ethanol is mostly produced by the fermentation of sugars by yeasts, or by petrochemical processes. It is a psychoactive drug, causing a characteristic intoxication. It is widely used as a solvent, as fuel, and as a feedstock for synthesis of other chemicals, the eth- prefix and the qualifier ethyl in ethyl alcohol originally come from the name ethyl assigned in 1834 to the group C 2H 5- by Justus Liebig. He coined the word from the German name Aether of the compound C 2H 5-O-C 2H5, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, Ethyl is a contraction of the Ancient Greek αἰθήρ and the Greek word ύλη. The name ethanol was coined as a result of a resolution that was adopted at the International Conference on Chemical Nomenclature that was held in April 1892 in Geneva, Switzerland. The term alcohol now refers to a class of substances in chemistry nomenclature. The Oxford English Dictionary claims that it is a loan from Arabic al-kuḥl, a powdered ore of antimony used since aniquity as a cosmetic. The use of alcohol for ethanol is modern, first recorded 1753, the systematic use in chemistry dates to 1850. Ethanol is used in medical wipes and most common antibacterial hand sanitizer gels as an antiseptic, ethanol kills organisms by denaturing their proteins and dissolving their lipids and is effective against most bacteria and fungi, and many viruses. However, ethanol is ineffective against bacterial spores, ethanol may be administered as an antidote to methanol and ethylene glycol poisoning. Ethanol, often in high concentrations, is used to dissolve many water-insoluble medications, as a central nervous system depressant, ethanol is one of the most commonly consumed psychoactive drugs. The amount of ethanol in the body is typically quantified by blood alcohol content, small doses of ethanol, in general, produce euphoria and relaxation, people experiencing these symptoms tend to become talkative and less inhibited, and may exhibit poor judgment. Ethanol is commonly consumed as a drug, especially while socializing. The largest single use of ethanol is as a fuel and fuel additive. Brazil in particular relies heavily upon the use of ethanol as an engine fuel, gasoline sold in Brazil contains at least 25% anhydrous ethanol. Hydrous ethanol can be used as fuel in more than 90% of new gasoline fueled cars sold in the country, Brazilian ethanol is produced from sugar cane and noted for high carbon sequestration
40.
Evaporation
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Evaporation is a type of vaporization of a liquid that occurs from the surface of a liquid into a gaseous phase that is not saturated with the evaporating substance. The other type of vaporization is boiling, which is characterized by bubbles of saturated vapor forming in the liquid phase, steam produced in a boiler is another example of evaporation occurring in a saturated vapor phase. Evaporation that occurs directly from the solid phase below the melting point, on average, a fraction of the molecules in a glass of water have enough heat energy to escape from the liquid. The water in the glass will be cooled by the evaporation until an equilibrium is reached where the air supplies the amount of heat removed by the evaporating water, in an enclosed environment the water would evaporate until the air is saturated. With sufficient temperature, the liquid would turn into vapor quickly, when the molecules collide, they transfer energy to each other in varying degrees, based on how they collide. Sometimes the transfer is so one-sided for a molecule near the surface that it ends up with energy to escape. Evaporation is an part of the water cycle. The sun drives evaporation of water from oceans, lakes, moisture in the soil, in hydrology, evaporation and transpiration are collectively termed evapotranspiration. Evaporation of water occurs when the surface of the liquid is exposed, allowing molecules to escape and form water vapor, when only a small proportion of the molecules meet these criteria, the rate of evaporation is low. Since the kinetic energy of a molecule is proportional to its temperature, as the faster-moving molecules escape, the remaining molecules have lower average kinetic energy, and the temperature of the liquid decreases. This phenomenon is also called evaporative cooling and this is why evaporating sweat cools the human body. Evaporation also tends to proceed quickly with higher flow rates between the gaseous and liquid phase and in liquids with higher vapor pressure. For example, laundry on a line will dry more rapidly on a windy day than on a still day. Three key parts to evaporation are heat, atmospheric pressure, on a molecular level, there is no strict boundary between the liquid state and the vapor state. Instead, there is a Knudsen layer, where the phase is undetermined, because this layer is only a few molecules thick, at a macroscopic scale a clear phase transition interface cannot be seen. It is just that the process is slower and thus significantly less visible. If evaporation takes place in an area, the escaping molecules accumulate as a vapor above the liquid. Many of the return to the liquid, with returning molecules becoming more frequent as the density
41.
Humidity
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Humidity is the amount of water vapor present in the air. Water vapor is the state of water and is invisible. Humidity indicates the likelihood of precipitation, dew, or fog, higher humidity reduces the effectiveness of sweating in cooling the body by reducing the rate of evaporation of moisture from the skin. This effect is calculated in an index table or humidex. The amount of vapor that is needed to achieve saturation increases as the temperature increases. As the temperature of a parcel of water becomes lower it will not reach the point of saturation without adding or losing water mass. The differences in the amount of vapor in a parcel of air can be quite large. For example, a parcel of air that is near saturation may contain 28 grams of water per cubic meter of air at 30 °C, there are three main measurements of humidity, absolute, relative and specific. Absolute humidity is the content of air expressed in gram per cubic meter. Relative humidity, expressed as a percent, measures the current absolute humidity relative to the maximum for that temperature, specific humidity is the ratio of the mass of water vapor to the total mass of the moist air parcel. Absolute humidity is the mass of water vapor present in a given volume of air. It does not take temperature into consideration, absolute humidity in the atmosphere ranges from near zero to roughly 30 grams per cubic meter when the air is saturated at 30 °C. Absolute humidity is the mass of the vapor, divided by the volume of the air and water vapor mixture. The absolute humidity changes as air temperature or pressure changes and this makes it unsuitable for chemical engineering calculations, e. g. for clothes dryers, where temperature can vary considerably. Mass of water per unit volume as in the equation above is defined as volumetric humidity. Because of the confusion, British Standard BS1339 suggests avoiding the term absolute humidity. Units should always be carefully checked, many humidity charts are given in g/kg or kg/kg, but any mass units may be used. The field concerned with the study of physical and thermodynamic properties of mixtures is named psychrometrics
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Vin jaune
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Vin jaune is a special and characteristic type of white wine made in the Jura region in eastern France. It is similar to dry fino Sherry and gets its character from being matured in a barrel under a film of yeast, known as the voile, Vin jaune shares many similarities with Sherry, including some aromas, but unlike Sherry, it is not a fortified wine. The wine is made from the Savagnin grape, with some of the most premium examples coming from the marl based vineyards in the Château-Chalon AOC. Vin jaune is made from late harvest Savagnin grapes, a variety in the Traminer family which is less aromatic than the better-known Gewürztraminer. The grapes are harvested in late October when the sugars have developed enough to have a potential alcohol level of 13–15% for the finished wine. The grapes are fermented slowly and then kept in small old oak casks that hold 228 liters, the casks are not topped up, as they are with most wines, so an air gap appears above the wine due to evaporation. A film of yeast grows over the wine, protecting it partially from oxidation, in Jura, this film is called the voile, but it is similar to the more familiar flor in Sherry production. The voile yeast has many properties to flor but thrives better in a lower alcohol environment. The voile typically takes two to three years to develop fully, during this time the wine is exposed to slight levels of oxidation that provoke chemical changes that produce ethanal and the aroma compound of sotolon. These compounds contribute to the flavors and aromas associated with vin jaune. Winemakers must carefully observe the wine throughout the process as there is a risk of it developing the wine fault of volatile acidity. After the allotted time, only about 62% of the original wine remains, the vin jaune is then bottled in special squat bottles that hold 62 cl, called clavelins. Historically the bottle size alludes to the amount of left over after six years of aging. The Appellation dorigine contrôlée regions permitted to produce vin jaune include Château-Chalon AOC, Arbois Vin Jaune AOC, Cotes du Jura vin Jaune AOC, there are also a few other vin jaune-style wines made in France outside the Jura region, such as Gaillac. The term vin de voile referring to the yeast film, thus indicates this style of wine, Vin jaune is often served at cellar temperature 13–15 °C and the wine is sometimes decanted, exposing it to more oxygen prior to serving in order to stimulate the wines unique aromas. The wine can be paired with savory food dishes with local Jura cuisine often including chicken recipes where the wine is cooked with the chicken itself, another common pairing is the local Comté cheese that is produced in the Franche-Comté region. Recent events, including tasting sessions, have attracted over 30,000 visitors and this event takes place in a different village in the region every year. La Percée du Vin Jaune mainly in French
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Barrel". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "