1.
Russia
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Russia, also officially the Russian Federation, is a country in Eurasia. The European western part of the country is more populated and urbanised than the eastern. Russias capital Moscow is one of the largest cities in the world, other urban centers include Saint Petersburg, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod. Extending across the entirety of Northern Asia and much of Eastern Europe, Russia spans eleven time zones and incorporates a range of environments. It shares maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk, the East Slavs emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD. Founded and ruled by a Varangian warrior elite and their descendants, in 988 it adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire, beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium. Rus ultimately disintegrated into a number of states, most of the Rus lands were overrun by the Mongol invasion. The Soviet Union played a role in the Allied victory in World War II. The Soviet era saw some of the most significant technological achievements of the 20th century, including the worlds first human-made satellite and the launching of the first humans in space. By the end of 1990, the Soviet Union had the second largest economy, largest standing military in the world. It is governed as a federal semi-presidential republic, the Russian economy ranks as the twelfth largest by nominal GDP and sixth largest by purchasing power parity in 2015. Russias extensive mineral and energy resources are the largest such reserves in the world, making it one of the producers of oil. The country is one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possesses the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction, Russia is a great power as well as a regional power and has been characterised as a potential superpower. The name Russia is derived from Rus, a state populated mostly by the East Slavs. However, this name became more prominent in the later history, and the country typically was called by its inhabitants Русская Земля. In order to distinguish this state from other states derived from it, it is denoted as Kievan Rus by modern historiography, an old Latin version of the name Rus was Ruthenia, mostly applied to the western and southern regions of Rus that were adjacent to Catholic Europe. The current name of the country, Россия, comes from the Byzantine Greek designation of the Kievan Rus, the standard way to refer to citizens of Russia is Russians in English and rossiyane in Russian. There are two Russian words which are translated into English as Russians
2.
Bashkortostan
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The Republic of Bashkortostan, also known as Bashkiria is a federal subject of Russia. It is located between the Volga River and the Ural Mountains and its capital is the city of Ufa. With the population of 4,072,292 as of the 2010 Census, Bashkurdistan, the first ethnic autonomy in Russia, was established on November 281917. On March 20,1919, it was transformed into the Bashkir ASSR, in accordance with the Constitution of Bashkortostan and Russian Federation Constitution, Bashkortostan is a state, but has no sovereignty. On 11 October 1990 Bashkortostan adopted the Declaration of State Sovereignty,11 October is Republic Day in Bashkortostan. The name Bashkortostan derives from the name of the Bashkir ethnic group, while the root of the name is Turkic, the suffix -stan is Persian, common to many Eurasian country-names. They speak the Bashkir language, which belongs to the Kypchak branch of the Turkic languages, the first settlements in the territory of modern Bashkortostan date from the early Paleolithic period, but the Bronze Age spurred an upsurge in the population of this territory. When people of the Abashevo culture started settling here they possessed high skills in manufacturing bronze tools, weapons and they were the first to establish permanent settlements in the Southern Urals. Bashkortostan takes its name from its native people — the Bashkirs, the Russian name of the country — Bashkiriya — formed at the end of the 16th century. Originally it appeared in the forms Bashkir land, Bashkir’, Bashkirda, the ethnonym Bashkirs first became known in the 7th century. His contemporary Ibn-Ruste described the Bashkirs as an independent people, occupying territories on both sides of the Ural mountain ridge between Volga, Kama, Tobol and upstream of Yaik river. After the early-feudal Mongolian state had broken down in the 14th century, the tribes that lived there were headed by bi. After Kazan fell to Ivan the Terrible in 1554–1555, representatives of western and northwestern Bashkir tribes approached the Tsar with a request to voluntarily join Muscovy, starting from the second half of the 16th century, Bashkirias territory began taking shape as a part of the Russian state. Ufa Governorate, with a center in Ufa, was formed in 1865— another step towards territorial identification, after the Russian Revolution of 1917 are All-Bashkir Qoroltays on which a decision on the need to create a national federal republic within Russia. The congress was formed the government of Bashkurdistan, the Pre-parliament - Kese-Qoroltay and other bodies of power and administration, in March 1919, based on the agreements of the Russian Government with the Bashkir Government was formed Bashkir Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. During the Soviet period, Bashkiria was granted broad autonomous rights— the first among other Russian regions, the administrative structure of the Bashkir ASSR was based on principles similar to those of other autonomous republics of Russia. On October 11,1990 the Supreme Soviet of the Republic adopted the Declaration on state sovereignty of the Bashkir ASSR, on February 25,1992, the Bashkir ASSR was renamed the Republic of Bashkortostan. Bashkortostan contains part of the southern Urals and the adjacent plains, many rivers are part of the deepwater transportation system of European Russia, they provide access to ports of the Baltic and Black seas
3.
Bashkirs
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The Bashkirs are a Turkic people indigenous to Bashkortostan, extending on both sides of the Ural Mountains, in the area where Eastern Europe meets North Asia. Most Bashkirs speak the Bashkir language, which belongs to the Kypchak branch of the Turkic languages, in religion the Bashkirs are mainly Sunni Muslims of the Hanafi madhhab. On the most popular and early hypothesis widespread in the Bashkir legends and according to the theory of 18th-century ethnographers V. N. Tatishchev, richkov, and Johann Gottlieb Georgi, the word Bashqort means main wolf, wolf leader. Also there are theories regarding the etymology of the name Bashqort. In 1847, historian V. S. Yumatov suggested the meaning as beekeeper, beemaster, in 1885, another Russian historian and ethnologist, A. E. Alektorov, suggested that Bashqort means distinct nation. Ethnologist R. G. Kuzeev defines the ethnonym as bash — main, head and qort — clan, according to Douglas Morton Dunlop the ethnonym Bashqort comes from beshgur, bashgur which means five tribes. Since SH in the modern language complies with L in Bulgar, the anthropologist and the ethnologist R. M. Other option of etymology of an ethnonym bashqort according to R. M. Yusupov is connected also with the Iranian phrase Bachagurd, and is translated as the descendant, in this case the bacha is translated just as the child, the descendant, and gurd — the hero. After an era of Huns the ethnonym could change to a current state as follows, the Bashkirs are also mentioned in Ashkharatsuyts. Starting in the 9th century, the first written information about Bashkirs appears from Arab, the first message of Arab written sources on Bashkirs belongs to the traveler Sallam an at-Tardzhuman. About 840 he visited the country the Bashkir and specified its approximate borders, abu Zayd al-Balkhi described Bashkirs as a people divided into two groups, one inhabiting the Southern Urals, the second group living on the Danube plain near the boundaries of Byzantium. The first ethnographic description the Bashkir is provided at Ahmad ibn Fadlan — the ambassador of the Baghdad Caliph Al-Muqtadir to the governor of Volga Bulgaria and he visited among the Bashkirs in 922. The Bashkirs, according to Ibn Fadlan, were a warlike and powerful and they were engaged in cattle breeding. Apparently, Islam had begun spreading among the Bashkirs as one of the members of the embassy was a Bashkir of the Muslim religion. According to the testimony of Ibn Fadlan, the Bashkirs are Turks, live on the slopes of the Urals. Their neighbours in the southeast were Pechenegs, in the west Bulgars, the first European sources to mention the Bashkirs are the works of Joannes de Plano Carpini and William of Rubruquis. By 1236, lands of Bashkortostan were incorporated into the empire of Genghis Khan, during the 13th and 14th centuries, all of Bashkortostan was part of the Golden Horde. The brother of Batu-Khan, Sheibani, received the Bashkir lands to the east of the Ural Mountains, after the breakup of the Mongol Empire, the Bashkirs were divided among the Nogai Horde, the Khanate of Kazan and the Khanate of Sibir, founded in the 15th century
4.
Language family
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A language family is a group of languages related through descent from a common ancestral language or parental language, called the proto-language of that family. Linguists therefore describe the languages within a language family as being genetically related. Estimates of the number of living languages vary from 5,000 to 8,000, depending on the precision of ones definition of language, the 2013 edition of Ethnologue catalogs just over 7,000 living human languages. A living language is one that is used as the primary form of communication of a group of people. There are also dead and extinct languages, as well as some that are still insufficiently studied to be classified. Membership of languages in a family is established by comparative linguistics. Sister languages are said to have a genetic or genealogical relationship, speakers of a language family belong to a common speech community. The divergence of a proto-language into daughter languages typically occurs through geographical separation, individuals belonging to other speech communities may also adopt languages from a different language family through the language shift process. Genealogically related languages present shared retentions, that is, features of the proto-language that cannot be explained by chance or borrowing, for example, Germanic languages are Germanic in that they share vocabulary and grammatical features that are not believed to have been present in the Proto-Indo-European language. These features are believed to be innovations that took place in Proto-Germanic, language families can be divided into smaller phylogenetic units, conventionally referred to as branches of the family because the history of a language family is often represented as a tree diagram. A family is a unit, all its members derive from a common ancestor. Some taxonomists restrict the term family to a level. Those who affix such labels also subdivide branches into groups, a top-level family is often called a phylum or stock. The closer the branches are to other, the closer the languages will be related. For example, the Celtic, Germanic, Slavic, Romance, there is a remarkably similar pattern shown by the linguistic tree and the genetic tree of human ancestry that was verified statistically. Languages interpreted in terms of the phylogenetic tree of human languages are transmitted to a great extent vertically as opposed to horizontally. A speech variety may also be considered either a language or a dialect depending on social or political considerations, thus, different sources give sometimes wildly different accounts of the number of languages within a family. Classifications of the Japonic family, for example, range from one language to nearly twenty, most of the worlds languages are known to be related to others
5.
Turkic languages
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The Turkic languages are a language family of at least thirty-five languages, spoken by Turkic peoples from Southeastern Europe and the Mediterranean to Siberia and Western China. Turkic languages are spoken as a language by some 170 million people. The Turkic language with the greatest number of speakers is Turkish, spoken mainly in Anatolia and the Balkans, characteristic features of Turkish, such as vowel harmony, agglutination, and lack of grammatical gender, are universal within the Turkic family. Apparent similarities with the Uralic languages family even caused these families to be regarded as one for a time under the hypothesis of Ural-Altaic languages. Turkic languages are languages, have vowel harmony, extensive agglutination by means of suffixes, and lack of grammatical articles, noun classes. Subject–object–verb word order is universal within the family, the geographical distribution of Turkic-speaking peoples across Eurasia ranges from the North-East of Siberia to Turkey in the West, since the Ottoman era. The two groups shared a religion, Tengrism, and there exists a multitude of evident loanwords between Turkic languages and Mongolic languages, although the loans were bidirectional, today Turkic loanwords constitute the largest foreign component in Mongolian vocabulary. The most famous of these loanwords include lion, gold, the Compendium of the Turkic Dialects, written during the 11th century AD by Kaşgarlı Mahmud of the Kara-Khanid Khanate, constitutes an early linguistic treatment of the family. The Compendium is the first comprehensive dictionary of the Turkic languages and it mainly pertains to the Southwestern branch of the family. The earliest records of the language spoken by Volga Bulgars, the parent to todays Chuvash language, are dated to the 13th–14th centuries AD. With the Turkic expansion during the Early Middle Ages, Turkic languages, in the course of just a few centuries, spread across Central Asia, various terminologies from the Turkic languages have passed into Persian, Hindustani, Russian, Chinese, and to a lesser extent, Arabic. This has obscured the historical developments within each language and/or language group, the modern genetic classification schemes for Turkic are still largely indebted to Samoilovich. It is not clear when two major types of Turkic can be assumed to have actually diverged. With less certainty, the Southwestern, Northwestern, Southeastern and Oghur groups may further be summarized as West Turkic, the following isoglosses are traditionally used in the classification of the Turkic languages, Rhoticisation, e. g. in the last consonant of the word for nine *toqqız. This separates the Oghur branch, which exhibits /r/, from the rest of Turkic, in this case, rhoticisation refers to the development of *-/r/, *-/z/, and *-/d/ to /r/, *-/k/, *-/kh/ in this branch. See Antonov and Jacques on the debate concerning rhotacism and lambdacism in Turkic and this separates Khalaj as a peripheral language. The following table is based upon the classification presented by Lars Johanson The following is a brief comparison of cognates among the basic vocabulary across the Turkic language family. Also, there may be shifts in the meaning from one language to another, in some cases the form given is found only in some dialects of the language, or a loanword is much more common
6.
Kipchak languages
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The Kipchak languages are a sub-branch of the Turkic language family spoken by more than 25 million people in an area spanning from Lithuania to China. The Kipchak languages share a number of features that have led linguists to classify them together, some of these features are shared with other Turkic languages, others are unique to the Kipchak family. Urum and Crimean Tatar appear to have a Kipchak–Cuman base, but have been influenced by Oghuz languages. The language of the Mamluks in Egypt appears to have been a Kipchak language, Kipchak language Kipchaks Kipchaks in Georgia Cuman people Cuman language Cumania Johanson, Lars, Csató, Éva Ágnes
7.
Writing system
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A writing system is any conventional method of visually representing verbal communication. While both writing and speech are useful in conveying messages, writing differs in also being a form of information storage. The processes of encoding and decoding writing systems involve shared understanding between writers and readers of the meaning behind the sets of characters that make up a script, the general attributes of writing systems can be placed into broad categories such as alphabets, syllabaries, or logographies. Any particular system can have attributes of more than one category, in the alphabetic category, there is a standard set of letters of consonants and vowels that encode based on the general principle that the letters represent speech sounds. In a syllabary, each symbol correlates to a syllable or mora, in a logography, each character represents a word, morpheme, or other semantic units. Other categories include abjads, which differ from alphabets in that vowels are not indicated, alphabets typically use a set of 20-to-35 symbols to fully express a language, whereas syllabaries can have 80-to-100, and logographies can have several hundreds of symbols. Systems will also enable the stringing together of these groupings in order to enable a full expression of the language. The reading step can be accomplished purely in the mind as an internal process, writing systems were preceded by proto-writing, which used pictograms, ideograms and other mnemonic symbols. Proto-writing lacked the ability to capture and express a range of thoughts. Soon after, writing provided a form of long distance communication. With the advent of publishing, it provided the medium for a form of mass communication. Writing systems are distinguished from other possible symbolic communication systems in that a system is always associated with at least one spoken language. In contrast, visual representations such as drawings, paintings, and non-verbal items on maps, such as contour lines, are not language-related. Some other symbols, such as numerals and the ampersand, are not directly linked to any specific language, every human community possesses language, which many regard as an innate and defining condition of humanity. However, the development of writing systems, and the process by which they have supplanted traditional oral systems of communication, have been sporadic, uneven, once established, writing systems generally change more slowly than their spoken counterparts. Thus they often preserve features and expressions which are no current in the spoken language. One of the benefits of writing systems is that they can preserve a permanent record of information expressed in a language. In the examination of individual scripts, the study of writing systems has developed along partially independent lines, thus, the terminology employed differs somewhat from field to field
8.
Cyrillic script
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The Cyrillic script /sᵻˈrɪlɪk/ is a writing system used for various alphabets across eastern Europe and north and central Asia. It is based on the Early Cyrillic, which was developed in the First Bulgarian Empire during the 9th century AD at the Preslav Literary School. As of 2011, around 252 million people in Eurasia use it as the alphabet for their national languages. With the accession of Bulgaria to the European Union on 1 January 2007, Cyrillic became the official script of the European Union, following the Latin script. Cyrillic is derived from the Greek uncial script, augmented by letters from the older Glagolitic alphabet and these additional letters were used for Old Church Slavonic sounds not found in Greek. The script is named in honor of the two Byzantine brothers, Saints Cyril and Methodius, who created the Glagolitic alphabet earlier on, modern scholars believe that Cyrillic was developed and formalized by early disciples of Cyril and Methodius. In the early 18th century the Cyrillic script used in Russia was heavily reformed by Peter the Great, the new form of letters became closer to the Latin alphabet, several archaic letters were removed and several letters were personally designed by Peter the Great. West European typography culture was also adopted, Cyrillic script spread throughout the East and South Slavic territories, being adopted for writing local languages, such as Old East Slavic. Its adaptation to local languages produced a number of Cyrillic alphabets, capital and lowercase letters were not distinguished in old manuscripts. Yeri was originally a ligature of Yer and I, iotation was indicated by ligatures formed with the letter І, Ꙗ, Ѥ, Ю, Ѩ, Ѭ. Sometimes different letters were used interchangeably, for example И = І = Ї, there were also commonly used ligatures like ѠТ = Ѿ. The letters also had values, based not on Cyrillic alphabetical order. The early Cyrillic alphabet is difficult to represent on computers, many of the letterforms differed from modern Cyrillic, varied a great deal in manuscripts, and changed over time. Few fonts include adequate glyphs to reproduce the alphabet, the Unicode 5.1 standard, released on 4 April 2008, greatly improves computer support for the early Cyrillic and the modern Church Slavonic language. In Microsoft Windows, Segoe UI is notable for having complete support for the archaic Cyrillic letters since Windows 8, the development of Cyrillic typography passed directly from the medieval stage to the late Baroque, without a Renaissance phase as in Western Europe. Late Medieval Cyrillic letters show a tendency to be very tall and narrow. Peter the Great, Czar of Russia, mandated the use of westernized letter forms in the early 18th century, over time, these were largely adopted in the other languages that use the script. The development of some Cyrillic computer typefaces from Latin ones has also contributed to the visual Latinization of Cyrillic type, Cyrillic uppercase and lowercase letter forms are not as differentiated as in Latin typography
9.
International Phonetic Alphabet
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The International Phonetic Alphabet is an alphabetic system of phonetic notation based primarily on the Latin alphabet. It was devised by the International Phonetic Association as a representation of the sounds of spoken language. The IPA is used by lexicographers, foreign students and teachers, linguists, speech-language pathologists, singers, actors, constructed language creators. The IPA is designed to represent only those qualities of speech that are part of language, phones, phonemes, intonation. IPA symbols are composed of one or more elements of two types, letters and diacritics. For example, the sound of the English letter ⟨t⟩ may be transcribed in IPA with a letter, or with a letter plus diacritics. Often, slashes are used to signal broad or phonemic transcription, thus, /t/ is less specific than, occasionally letters or diacritics are added, removed, or modified by the International Phonetic Association. As of the most recent change in 2005, there are 107 letters,52 diacritics and these are shown in the current IPA chart, posted below in this article and at the website of the IPA. In 1886, a group of French and British language teachers, led by the French linguist Paul Passy, for example, the sound was originally represented with the letter ⟨c⟩ in English, but with the digraph ⟨ch⟩ in French. However, in 1888, the alphabet was revised so as to be uniform across languages, the idea of making the IPA was first suggested by Otto Jespersen in a letter to Paul Passy. It was developed by Alexander John Ellis, Henry Sweet, Daniel Jones, since its creation, the IPA has undergone a number of revisions. After major revisions and expansions in 1900 and 1932, the IPA remained unchanged until the International Phonetic Association Kiel Convention in 1989, a minor revision took place in 1993 with the addition of four letters for mid central vowels and the removal of letters for voiceless implosives. The alphabet was last revised in May 2005 with the addition of a letter for a labiodental flap, apart from the addition and removal of symbols, changes to the IPA have consisted largely in renaming symbols and categories and in modifying typefaces. Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet for speech pathology were created in 1990, the general principle of the IPA is to provide one letter for each distinctive sound, although this practice is not followed if the sound itself is complex. There are no letters that have context-dependent sound values, as do hard, finally, the IPA does not usually have separate letters for two sounds if no known language makes a distinction between them, a property known as selectiveness. These are organized into a chart, the chart displayed here is the chart as posted at the website of the IPA. The letters chosen for the IPA are meant to harmonize with the Latin alphabet, for this reason, most letters are either Latin or Greek, or modifications thereof. Some letters are neither, for example, the letter denoting the glottal stop, ⟨ʔ⟩, has the form of a question mark
10.
Specials (Unicode block)
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Specials is a short Unicode block allocated at the very end of the Basic Multilingual Plane, at U+FFF0–FFFF. Of these 16 codepoints, five are assigned as of Unicode 9, U+FFFD � REPLACEMENT CHARACTER used to replace an unknown, unrecognized or unrepresentable character U+FFFE <noncharacter-FFFE> not a character. FFFE and FFFF are not unassigned in the sense. They can be used to guess a texts encoding scheme, since any text containing these is by not a correctly encoded Unicode text. The replacement character � is a found in the Unicode standard at codepoint U+FFFD in the Specials table. It is used to indicate problems when a system is unable to render a stream of data to a correct symbol and it is usually seen when the data is invalid and does not match any character, Consider a text file containing the German word für in the ISO-8859-1 encoding. This file is now opened with an editor that assumes the input is UTF-8. The first and last byte are valid UTF-8 encodings of ASCII, therefore, a text editor could replace this byte with the replacement character symbol to produce a valid string of Unicode code points. The whole string now displays like this, f�r, a poorly implemented text editor might save the replacement in UTF-8 form, the text file data will then look like this, 0x66 0xEF 0xBF 0xBD 0x72, which will be displayed in ISO-8859-1 as f�r. Since the replacement is the same for all errors this makes it impossible to recover the original character, a better design is to preserve the original bytes, including the error, and only convert to the replacement when displaying the text. This will allow the text editor to save the original byte sequence and it has become increasingly common for software to interpret invalid UTF-8 by guessing the bytes are in another byte-based encoding such as ISO-8859-1. This allows correct display of both valid and invalid UTF-8 pasted together, Unicode control characters UTF-8 Mojibake Unicodes Specials table Decodeunicodes entry for the replacement character
11.
Unicode
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Unicode is a computing industry standard for the consistent encoding, representation, and handling of text expressed in most of the worlds writing systems. As of June 2016, the most recent version is Unicode 9.0, the standard is maintained by the Unicode Consortium. Unicodes success at unifying character sets has led to its widespread, the standard has been implemented in many recent technologies, including modern operating systems, XML, Java, and the. NET Framework. Unicode can be implemented by different character encodings, the most commonly used encodings are UTF-8, UTF-16 and the now-obsolete UCS-2. UTF-8 uses one byte for any ASCII character, all of which have the same values in both UTF-8 and ASCII encoding, and up to four bytes for other characters. UCS-2 uses a 16-bit code unit for each character but cannot encode every character in the current Unicode standard, UTF-16 extends UCS-2, using one 16-bit unit for the characters that were representable in UCS-2 and two 16-bit units to handle each of the additional characters. Many traditional character encodings share a common problem in that they allow bilingual computer processing, Unicode, in intent, encodes the underlying characters—graphemes and grapheme-like units—rather than the variant glyphs for such characters. In the case of Chinese characters, this leads to controversies over distinguishing the underlying character from its variant glyphs. In text processing, Unicode takes the role of providing a unique code point—a number, in other words, Unicode represents a character in an abstract way and leaves the visual rendering to other software, such as a web browser or word processor. This simple aim becomes complicated, however, because of concessions made by Unicodes designers in the hope of encouraging a more rapid adoption of Unicode, the first 256 code points were made identical to the content of ISO-8859-1 so as to make it trivial to convert existing western text. For other examples, see duplicate characters in Unicode and he explained that he name Unicode is intended to suggest a unique, unified, universal encoding. In this document, entitled Unicode 88, Becker outlined a 16-bit character model, Unicode could be roughly described as wide-body ASCII that has been stretched to 16 bits to encompass the characters of all the worlds living languages. In a properly engineered design,16 bits per character are more than sufficient for this purpose, Unicode aims in the first instance at the characters published in modern text, whose number is undoubtedly far below 214 =16,384. By the end of 1990, most of the work on mapping existing character encoding standards had been completed, the Unicode Consortium was incorporated in California on January 3,1991, and in October 1991, the first volume of the Unicode standard was published. The second volume, covering Han ideographs, was published in June 1992, in 1996, a surrogate character mechanism was implemented in Unicode 2.0, so that Unicode was no longer restricted to 16 bits. The Microsoft TrueType specification version 1.0 from 1992 used the name Apple Unicode instead of Unicode for the Platform ID in the naming table, Unicode defines a codespace of 1,114,112 code points in the range 0hex to 10FFFFhex. Normally a Unicode code point is referred to by writing U+ followed by its hexadecimal number, for code points in the Basic Multilingual Plane, four digits are used, for code points outside the BMP, five or six digits are used, as required. Code points in Planes 1 through 16 are accessed as surrogate pairs in UTF-16, within each plane, characters are allocated within named blocks of related characters
12.
Turkic language
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The Turkic languages are a language family of at least thirty-five languages, spoken by Turkic peoples from Southeastern Europe and the Mediterranean to Siberia and Western China. Turkic languages are spoken as a language by some 170 million people. The Turkic language with the greatest number of speakers is Turkish, spoken mainly in Anatolia and the Balkans, characteristic features of Turkish, such as vowel harmony, agglutination, and lack of grammatical gender, are universal within the Turkic family. Apparent similarities with the Uralic languages family even caused these families to be regarded as one for a time under the hypothesis of Ural-Altaic languages. Turkic languages are languages, have vowel harmony, extensive agglutination by means of suffixes, and lack of grammatical articles, noun classes. Subject–object–verb word order is universal within the family, the geographical distribution of Turkic-speaking peoples across Eurasia ranges from the North-East of Siberia to Turkey in the West, since the Ottoman era. The two groups shared a religion, Tengrism, and there exists a multitude of evident loanwords between Turkic languages and Mongolic languages, although the loans were bidirectional, today Turkic loanwords constitute the largest foreign component in Mongolian vocabulary. The most famous of these loanwords include lion, gold, the Compendium of the Turkic Dialects, written during the 11th century AD by Kaşgarlı Mahmud of the Kara-Khanid Khanate, constitutes an early linguistic treatment of the family. The Compendium is the first comprehensive dictionary of the Turkic languages and it mainly pertains to the Southwestern branch of the family. The earliest records of the language spoken by Volga Bulgars, the parent to todays Chuvash language, are dated to the 13th–14th centuries AD. With the Turkic expansion during the Early Middle Ages, Turkic languages, in the course of just a few centuries, spread across Central Asia, various terminologies from the Turkic languages have passed into Persian, Hindustani, Russian, Chinese, and to a lesser extent, Arabic. This has obscured the historical developments within each language and/or language group, the modern genetic classification schemes for Turkic are still largely indebted to Samoilovich. It is not clear when two major types of Turkic can be assumed to have actually diverged. With less certainty, the Southwestern, Northwestern, Southeastern and Oghur groups may further be summarized as West Turkic, the following isoglosses are traditionally used in the classification of the Turkic languages, Rhoticisation, e. g. in the last consonant of the word for nine *toqqız. This separates the Oghur branch, which exhibits /r/, from the rest of Turkic, in this case, rhoticisation refers to the development of *-/r/, *-/z/, and *-/d/ to /r/, *-/k/, *-/kh/ in this branch. See Antonov and Jacques on the debate concerning rhotacism and lambdacism in Turkic and this separates Khalaj as a peripheral language. The following table is based upon the classification presented by Lars Johanson The following is a brief comparison of cognates among the basic vocabulary across the Turkic language family. Also, there may be shifts in the meaning from one language to another, in some cases the form given is found only in some dialects of the language, or a loanword is much more common
13.
Kypchak languages
–
The Kipchak languages are a sub-branch of the Turkic language family spoken by more than 25 million people in an area spanning from Lithuania to China. The Kipchak languages share a number of features that have led linguists to classify them together, some of these features are shared with other Turkic languages, others are unique to the Kipchak family. Urum and Crimean Tatar appear to have a Kipchak–Cuman base, but have been influenced by Oghuz languages. The language of the Mamluks in Egypt appears to have been a Kipchak language, Kipchak language Kipchaks Kipchaks in Georgia Cuman people Cuman language Cumania Johanson, Lars, Csató, Éva Ágnes
14.
Russian language
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Russian is an East Slavic language and an official language in Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and many minor or unrecognised territories. Russian belongs to the family of Indo-European languages and is one of the four living members of the East Slavic languages, written examples of Old East Slavonic are attested from the 10th century and beyond. It is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia and the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages and it is also the largest native language in Europe, with 144 million native speakers in Russia, Ukraine and Belarus. Russian is the eighth most spoken language in the world by number of native speakers, the language is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Russian is also the second most widespread language on the Internet after English, Russian distinguishes between consonant phonemes with palatal secondary articulation and those without, the so-called soft and hard sounds. This distinction is found between pairs of almost all consonants and is one of the most distinguishing features of the language, another important aspect is the reduction of unstressed vowels. Russian is a Slavic language of the Indo-European family and it is a lineal descendant of the language used in Kievan Rus. From the point of view of the language, its closest relatives are Ukrainian, Belarusian, and Rusyn. An East Slavic Old Novgorod dialect, although vanished during the 15th or 16th century, is considered to have played a significant role in the formation of modern Russian. In the 19th century, the language was often called Great Russian to distinguish it from Belarusian, then called White Russian and Ukrainian, however, the East Slavic forms have tended to be used exclusively in the various dialects that are experiencing a rapid decline. In some cases, both the East Slavic and the Church Slavonic forms are in use, with different meanings. For details, see Russian phonology and History of the Russian language and it is also regarded by the United States Intelligence Community as a hard target language, due to both its difficulty to master for English speakers and its critical role in American world policy. The standard form of Russian is generally regarded as the modern Russian literary language, mikhail Lomonosov first compiled a normalizing grammar book in 1755, in 1783 the Russian Academys first explanatory Russian dictionary appeared. By the mid-20th century, such dialects were forced out with the introduction of the education system that was established by the Soviet government. Despite the formalization of Standard Russian, some nonstandard dialectal features are observed in colloquial speech. Thus, the Russian language is the 6th largest in the world by number of speakers, after English, Mandarin, Hindi/Urdu, Spanish, Russian is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Education in Russian is still a choice for both Russian as a second language and native speakers in Russia as well as many of the former Soviet republics. Russian is still seen as an important language for children to learn in most of the former Soviet republics, samuel P. Huntington wrote in the Clash of Civilizations, During the heyday of the Soviet Union, Russian was the lingua franca from Prague to Hanoi
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European Russia
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Russia is not proportionately populated between the smaller western portion of the country that is considered part of Europe, and the larger eastern portion that is part of Asia. European Russia contains about 77% of the population in an area comprising almost 4 million km2. This territory makes up 38% of Europe and its eastern border is defined by the Ural Mountains and in the south, it is defined by the border with Kazakhstan. This area includes Moscow and Saint Petersburg, the two largest cities in Russia, the eastern portion of Russia, mostly Siberia, is part of Asia and makes up more than 75% of the territory with 22% of the countrys population at 2.5 persons per km2. The term “European Russia” was used in the Russian Empire to refer to traditional East Slavic territories under Russian control, including what is now Belarus, administrative districts do not exactly line up with European Russia, but they are decent approximations, depending on exactly how Europe is defined. There are two trends, one to use administrative divisions north of the terminus of the Ural River. Similarly, the imaginary line if straight, could include parts of very sparsely populated Northwestern Federal District
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Dialect
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That happens, for example, across large parts of India or the Maghreb. Historically, it happened in various parts of Europe such as between Portugal, southern Belgium and southern Italy, and between Flanders and Austria. Leonard Bloomfield used the dialect area. It is analogous to a species in evolutionary biology. Dialect continua typically occur in long-settled agrarian populations, as innovations spread from their various points of origin as waves, in this situation, hierarchical classifications of varieties are impractical. Instead, dialectologists map variation of language features across a dialect continuum. The influential Atlas linguistique de la France pioneered the use of a trained fieldworker and these atlases typically consist of display maps, each showing local forms of a particular item at the survey locations. Secondary studies may include maps, showing the areal distribution of various variants. A common tool in these maps is an isogloss, a line separating areas where different variants of a particular feature predominate, in a dialect continuum, isoglosses for different features are typically spread out, reflecting the gradual transition between varieties. A bundle of coinciding isoglosses indicate a stronger dialect boundary, as might occur at geographical obstacles or long-standing political boundaries, in other cases, intersecting isoglosses and more complex patterns are found. Standard varieties may be developed and codified from one or more locations in a continuum, in such cases the local variety is said to be dependent on, or heteronomous with respect to, the standard variety. The Scandinavian languages, Danish, Norwegian and Swedish, are cited as examples. Conversely, a defined in this way may include local varieties that are mutually unintelligible. The choice of standard is determined by a political boundary. As a results, speakers on either side of the boundary may use almost identical varieties, but treat them as dependent on different standards, the choice may be a matter of national, regional or religious identity, and may be controversial. In the Yugoslav republic of Macedonia, a standard was developed from local varieties within a continuum with Serbia to the north, the standard was deliberately based on varieties from the west of the republic that were most different from standard Bulgarian. Now known as Macedonian, it is the standard of the independent Republic of Macedonia. Europe provides several examples of dialect continua, the largest of which involve the Germanic, Romance and Slavic branches of the Indo-European language family
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Tatarstan
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Tatarstan, officially the Republic of Tatarstan is a federal subject of the Russian Federation, located in the Volga Federal District. Its capital is the city of Kazan, the republic borders Kirov, Ulyanovsk, Samara, and Orenburg Oblasts, the Mari El, Udmurt, and Chuvash Republics, and the Republic of Bashkortostan. The area of the republic is 68,000 square kilometres, the unofficial Tatarstan motto is, Bez Buldırabız. As of the 2010 Census the population of Tatarstan was 3,786,488, the state has strong ties with its eastern neighbor the Republic of Bashkortostan. Tatarstan derives from the name of the ethnic group—the Tatars—and the Persian suffix -stan, another version of the Russian name is Тата́рия, which was official along with Tatar ASSR during the Soviet rule. The republic is located in the center of the East European Plain and it lies between the Volga River and the Kama River, and extends east to the Ural mountains. Borders, internal, Kirov Oblast, Udmurt Republic, Republic of Bashkortostan, Orenburg Oblast, Samara Oblast, Ulyanovsk Oblast, Chuvash Republic, bugulma-Belebey Upland Volga Upland Vyatskie Uvaly Major natural resources of Tatarstan include oil, natural gas, gypsum, and more. It is estimated that the Republic has over one billion tons of oil deposits, Islam was introduced by missionaries from Baghdad around the time of ibn Fadlans journey in 922. Volga Bulgaria finally fell to the armies of the Mongol prince Batu Khan in the late 1230s The inhabitants, mixing with the Golden Hordes Kipchak-speaking people, another theory postulates that there were no ethnic changes in that period, and Bulgars simply switched to the Kipchak-based Tatar language. In the 1430s, the region became independent as the base of the Khanate of Kazan. The Khanate of Kazan was conquered by the troops of Tsar Ivan the Terrible in the 1550s, a large number of Tatars were killed and forcibly converted to Christianity and were culturally Russified. Cathedrals were built in Kazan, by 1593 all mosques in the area were destroyed, the Russian government forbade the construction of mosques, a prohibition that was not lifted until the 18th century by Catherine the Great. The first mosque to be rebuilt under Catherines auspices was constructed in 1766-1770, in the 19th century Tatarstan became a center of Jadidism, an Islamic movement that preached tolerance of other religions. Under the influence of local Jadidist theologians, the Tatars were renowned for their relations with other peoples of the Russian Empire. However, after the October Revolution religion was largely outlawed and all theologians were repressed, during the Civil War of 1918–1920 Tatar nationalists attempted to establish an independent republic. They were, however, put down by the Bolsheviks and the Tatar Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic was established on May 27,1920, the boundaries of the republic did not include a majority of the Volga Tatars. The Tatar Union of the Godless were persecuted in Stalins 1928 purges, there was a famine in the Tatar Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic in 1921 to 1922 as a result of war communist policy. The famine deaths of 2 million Tatars in Tatar ASSR and in Volga-Ural region in 1921-1922 was catastrophic as half of Volga Tatar population in USSR died and this famine is also known as terror-famine and famine-genocide in Tatarstan
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Chelyabinsk Oblast
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Chelyabinsk Oblast is a federal subject of Russia in the Ural Mountains region, on the border of Europe and Asia. Its administrative center is the city of Chelyabinsk, during the Middle Ages, the Southern Urals were populated by Bashkir tribes that were part of the Golden Horde, Nogai Horde, and smaller Bashkir unions. The area was incorporated into the Tsardom of Russia in the late 16th century, many cities of Chelyabinsk Oblast, including the city of Chelyabinsk itself, trace their history back to those forts. In 1743, the Chelyabinsk fortress became a center of the Iset Province, the 1750s-1770s saw the emergence of industrial enterprises in South Ural, when the first factory-centered towns like Miass, Kyshtym, and Zlatoust were founded. After South Ural recovered from the Pugachevs Rebellion, the territory of modern-day Chelyabinsk Oblast started to more people from the European part of Russia. In 1919, Chelyabinski became the capital of the newly formed Chelyabinsk Governorate. At this time, the population of the new region already exceeded one million people, in 1923, together with the Perm, Yekaterinburg and Tyumen governorates, it was merged into a single Ural Oblast that lasted less than ten years, until 1934. On January 17,1934, Chelyabinsk Oblast was finally established and its current boundaries were formed when Kurgan Oblast was detached from it in 1943. During the 1930s, the economy and industrial output grew as Chelyabinsk Oblast became a key focus of the first Five-Year Plans. The economy continued to grow with the outbreak of the Great Patriotic War, as industries were evacuated from the parts of the Soviet Union to Ural. During the war, Magnitogorsk alone produced one third of all Soviet steel, while the city of Chelyabinsk became the center of Soviet tank production. Chelyabinsk Oblast has been associated with nuclear research since the 1940s. While there are no power stations in Chelyabinsk, a number of production reactors were located there starting with the early Cold War. The province was closed to all foreigners until 1992, with the exception of allowing a British medical team following a two-train rail explosion in the mid-1980s. The documentary Chelyabinsk, The Most Contaminated Spot on the Planet was made by Slawomir Grunberg about the dumping of radioactive waste in the Techa River. Chelyabinsk Oblast is on the slope of the Southern Urals. Only a small part of the territory to the west is on the slopes of the Southern Urals. Chelyabinsk Oblast is situated in the Southern Urals, near Kurgan, Most of the Oblast is located to the east of the Ural Mountains, which form the continental boundary between Europe and Asia
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Orenburg Oblast
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Orenburg Oblast is a federal subject of Russia. Its administrative center is the city of Orenburg, from 1938 to 1957, it bore the name Chkalov Oblast in honor of Valery Chkalov. The most important river of the oblast is the Ural, Orenburg is traversed by the northeasterly line of equal latitude and longitude. It is estimated that the proportion of ethnicities in this group is the same as that of the declared group, as of a 2012 official survey 40. Muslims constitute 13% of the population, 3% of the population are followers of the Slavic native faith,6. 8% are followers of other religions or did not give an answer to the survey. In addition, 20% of the population declares to be spiritual but not religious, Orenburg Oblast is one of the major agricultural areas of Russia. List of Chairmen of the Legislative Assembly of Orenburg Oblast Black Dolphin Prison
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Tyumen Oblast
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Tyumen Oblast is a federal subject of Russia. Its administrative center is the city of Tyumen, the oblast has administrative jurisdiction over two autonomous okrugs—Khanty–Mansi Autonomous Okrug and Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug. Tyumen is the largest city, with half a million inhabitants. As of 2006, it is by far the richest federal subject of Russia and it was established from several districts of Omsk and Kurgan Oblasts on August 14,1944. The total territory is 160,100 km2, the Tyumen Region was founded in August 14,1944. Tyumen Region includes two autonomous okrugs of the, Khanty-Mansiysk autonomous okrug–the Yugra and Yamalo-Nenetsk autonomous okrug – which are fully legitimate constituents of the, the territory is located in the basin of the river. The biggest rivers are the Tura, the Tobol, the, the Pyshma, the Iset, the hydro-geographical system is characterized with the prevalence of small rivers as well as the significant bogginess of their catchment areas and numerous lakes. The climate is arctic, sub-arctic and temperate in the north - in the center, the average January temperature ranges from -17 ° C in the region of Tyumen to -27 ° C in the north. The duration of the frost period is 130 Tyumen to 210 days a year or more in the tundra region, the region takes place more than 70 thousand watercourses length of more than 10 km of the total length of 584,400 km. The largest area of the river - Ob and Irtysh - are navigable value, in the region there are about 70 thousand lakes. In the north and in the part of the widespread thermokarst lakes. The Red Book of the Tyumen region listed 711 rare and endangered species, in the list of specially protected areas of the south region there are 99 sites, including one international and three federal. Tyumen area is in the Ekaterinburg timezone, concerning Moscow time the time zone has constant displacement +2 hours and is designated in Russia correspondingly as MSK +2. Ekaterinburg time for most of the Tyumen region is different from the lap time by one hour, to a part, including the city of Tyumen. There are variety of fauna and flora in this region, in the northern part can be found ptarmigan, walrus and Arctic fox. Polar bears also occur in the north, the genetic make-up of this Polar bear sub-population is genetically distinct from other circumpolar regions. Since 1991, CPSU lost all the power, and the head of the Oblast administration, the politics in the oblast is governed by the Charter of Tyumen Oblast. The laws within the authority of the oblast are passed by the Legislative Assembly of Tymen Oblast which is the legislative body, the highest executive body is the Tyumen Oblast Administration
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Sverdlovsk Oblast
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Sverdlovsk Oblast is a federal subject of Russia located in the Urals Federal District. Its administrative center is the city of Yekaterinburg, formerly known as Sverdlovsk, most of the oblast is spread over the eastern slopes of the Middle and North Urals and the Western Siberian Plain. Only in the southwest does the oblast stretch onto the slopes of the Ural Mountains. The highest mountains all rise in the North Urals, Konzhakovsky Kamen at 1,569 metres, the Middle Urals is mostly hilly country with no discernible peaks, the mean elevation is closer to 300 to 500 metres above sea level. Principal rivers include the Tavda, the Tura, the Chusovaya, and the Ufa, the area is traversed by the northeasterly line of equal latitude and longitude. Rich in natural resources, the oblast is especially famous for metals, minerals, marble and it is mostly here that the bulk of Russian industry was concentrated in the 18th and 19th centuries. The area has continental climate patterns, with cold winters. Only in the southeast of the oblast do temperatures reach +30 °C in July, before the first Russian colonists arrived to the region, it was populated by various Turkic and Ugric tribes. By the 16th century, when the Middle Urals were under influence of various Tatar khanates, the Russian conquest of the Khanate of Kazan in the 1550s paved the way further east, which was now free from Tatar depredations. The first surviving Russian settlements in the date back to the late 16th – early 17th centuries. At that time, those small trading posts were governed under Siberian administration in Tobolsk, after the 1708 administrative reform, Verkhoturye, Pelym and Turinsk became a part of the new Siberian Governorate, in 1737 their territories were assigned to the Kazan Governorate. During the 18th century, rich resources of iron and coal made Ural an industrial heartland of Russia, after getting control over Ural mines, the Demidov family put the region in the forefront of Russian industrialization. Yekaterinburg, Nevyansk and Tagil ironworks, founded in the 1700s to 1720s, throughout the 18th and 19th century those newly founded factory towns enjoyed a status of special mining-metallurgical districts allowed to have a certain rate of financial and proprietary autonomy. During the 1781 reform middle Ural finally got its own administration in the form of the Perm Governorate. When in 1812 the Russian government legalized gold digging for its citizens, entrepreneurs of the Perm Governorate also started the gold rush in West Siberia, soon Yekaterinburgers began to dominate the Russian market of precious metals and gemstones. After the emancipation reform of 1861, major Middle Uralian industries that were dependent on serf labor entered decline. In 1878, Perm and Yekaterinburg were connected with a railroad, in 1888, railroads reached Tyumen, emergence of railroad transportation helped to revitalize economy of Ural. The Bolsheviks established their power in Yekaterinburg and Perm during the first days of the October Revolution of 1917, in early 1918 dethroned Nicholas II and his family were transferred under custody to Yekaterinburg
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Kurgan Oblast
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Kurgan Oblast is a federal subject of Russia. Its administrative center is the city of Kurgan, in June 2014, the population was estimated to be 874,100, down from 910,807 recorded in the 2010 Census. The oblast was formed on February 6,1943, recipient of the Order of Lenin. Kurgan Oblast is located in Southern Russia and is part of the Urals Federal District and it shares borders with Chelyabinsk Oblast to the west, Sverdlovsk Oblast to the north-west, Tyumen Oblast to the north-east, and Kazakhstan to the south. The oblast has a continental climate with long cold winters. The average January temperature is −18 °C, and the temperature in the warmest month is +19 °C. Annual precipitation is about 400 millimeters, since 1991, CPSU lost all the power, and the head of the Oblast administration, and eventually the governor was appointed/elected alongside elected regional parliament. The Charter of Kurgan Oblast is the law of the region. The Kurgan Oblast Duma is the provinces standing legislative body, the United Russia Party currently holds the majority of seats in the Oblast Duma. Kurgan Oblast borders on the oil- and gas-bearing districts of Tyumen Oblast and is close to similar districts in Tomsk Oblast. Large oil and gas pipelines pass through its territory, and Ural, the main industrial centers are Kurgan, and Shadrinsk. The food industry is well developed here, with meat-packing plants, mills, creameries, modern large-scale industry began developing during World War II, when sixteen enterprises from western regions of the country were evacuated here in 1941-1942. Russians are the largest ethnic group in the Kurgan Oblast, making up 92. 5% of the population, other prominent ethnic groups in the oblast include Tatars at 1. 9%, Bashkirs at 1. 4%, Kazakhs 1. 3%, and Ukrainians at 0. 8%. Additionally,20,017 people were registered from administrative databases and it is estimated that the proportion of ethnicities in this group is the same as that of the declared group. In addition, 36% of the population declares to be spiritual but not religious, 14% is atheist, yevstigneyev, Major General of aviation Курганская областная Дума. Закон №1 от16 декабря1994 г, Закона №108 от30 ноября2015 г. «О внесении изменений в Устав Курганской области», Вступил в силу после официального опубликования. Опубликован, Новый мир, №242,21 декабря1994 г, media related to Kurgan Oblast at Wikimedia Commons Official website of the Oblast Duma News portal
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Kazakhstan
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Kazakhstan, officially the Republic of Kazakhstan, is a transcontinental country in northern Central Asia and Eastern Europe. Kazakhstan is the worlds largest landlocked country, and the ninth largest in the world, Kazakhstan is the dominant nation of Central Asia economically, generating 60% of the regions GDP, primarily through its oil/gas industry. It also has vast mineral resources, Kazakhstan is officially a democratic, secular, unitary, constitutional republic with a diverse cultural heritage. Kazakhstan shares borders with Russia, China, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan, the terrain of Kazakhstan includes flatlands, steppe, taiga, rock canyons, hills, deltas, snow-capped mountains, and deserts. Kazakhstan has an estimated 18 million people as of 2014, Given its large area, its population density is among the lowest. The capital is Astana, where it was moved in 1997 from Almaty, the territory of Kazakhstan has historically been inhabited by nomadic tribes. This changed in the 13th century, when Genghis Khan occupied the country as part of the Mongolian Empire, following internal struggles among the conquerors, power eventually reverted to the nomads. By the 16th century, the Kazakh emerged as a distinct group, the Russians began advancing into the Kazakh steppe in the 18th century, and by the mid-19th century, they nominally ruled all of Kazakhstan as part of the Russian Empire. Following the 1917 Russian Revolution, and subsequent civil war, the territory of Kazakhstan was reorganised several times, in 1936, it was made the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic, part of the Soviet Union. Kazakhstan was the last of the Soviet republics to declare independence during the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, Kazakhstan has worked to develop its economy, especially its dominant hydrocarbon industry. Kazakhstans 131 ethnicities include Kazakhs, Russians, Uzbeks, Ukrainians, Germans, Tatars, the Kazakh language is the state language, and Russian has equal official status for all levels of administrative and institutional purposes. The name Kazakh comes from the ancient Turkic word qaz, to wander, the name Cossack is of the same origin. The Persian suffix -stan means land or place of, so Kazakhstan can be translated as land of the wanderers. Kazakhstan has been inhabited since the Neolithic Age, the regions climate, archaeologists believe that humans first domesticated the horse in the regions vast steppes. Central Asia was originally inhabited by the Scythians, the Cuman entered the steppes of modern-day Kazakhstan around the early 11th century, where they later joined with the Kipchak and established the vast Cuman-Kipchak confederation. Under the Mongol Empire, the largest in history, administrative districts were established. These eventually came under the rule of the emergent Kazakh Khanate, throughout this period, traditional nomadic life and a livestock-based economy continued to dominate the steppe. Nevertheless, the region was the focus of ever-increasing disputes between the native Kazakh emirs and the neighbouring Persian-speaking peoples to the south, at its height the Khanate would rule parts of Central Asia and control Cumania
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Tatar language
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The Tatar language is a Turkic language spoken by Volga Tatars mainly located in modern Tatarstan, Bashkortostan and Nizhny Novgorod Oblast. It should not be confused with the Crimean Tatar language, to which it is remotely related, there are more than 7 million speakers of Tatar in the world. Tatar is also native for several thousand Maris, mordvas Qaratay group also speak a variant of Kazan Tatar. In the 2010 census, 69% of Russian Tatars who responded to the question about language ability claimed a knowledge of the Tatar language, in Tatarstan, 93% of Tatars and 3, 6% of Russians did so. In neighbouring Bashkortostan, 67% of Tatars, 27% of Bashkirs, Tatar, along with Russian, is the official language of the Republic of Tatarstan. The official script of Tatar language is based on the Cyrillic script with some additional letters, the Republic of Tatarstan passed a law in 1999, which came into force in 2001, establishing an official Tatar Latin alphabet. A Russian federal law overrode it in 2002, making Cyrillic the sole official script in Tatarstan since, unofficially, other scripts are used as well, mostly Latin and Arabic. All official sources in Tatarstan must use Cyrillic on their websites, in other cases, where Tatar has no official status, the use of a specific alphabet depends on the preference of the author. The Tatar language was made a de facto official language in Russia in 1917, Tatar is also considered to have been the official language in the short-lived Idel-Ural State, briefly formed during the Russian Civil War. One should note, however, that Bolshevist Russia did not recognize official languages as such, however, in the Soviet era, Tatar was such a language in Bashkortostan, Mari El and other regions of the Russian SFSR. The usage of Tatar declined from the 1930s onwards, in the 1980s, the study and teaching of Tatar in the public education system was limited to rural schools. However, Tatar-speaking pupils had little chance of entering university because higher education was available in Russian almost exclusively, as of 2001 Tatar was considered a potentially endangered language while Siberian and Crimean Tatar languages received endangered and seriously endangered statuses, respectively. Higher education in Tatar can only be found in Tatarstan, and is restricted to the humanities, in other regions Tatar is primarily a spoken language and the number of speakers as well as their proficiency tends to decrease. Tatar is popular as a language only in Tatar-speaking areas where schools with Tatar language lessons are situated. On the other hand, Tatar is the language in use in rural districts of Tatarstan. There are three dialects of Tatar, Western, Middle, and Eastern. All of these also have subdivisions. In the Western dialect Ç is pronounced and as, there are no differences between v and w, q and k, g and ğ in the Mişär dialect
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Oghuz Turkic
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The Oghuz languages are a sub-branch of the Turkic language family, spoken by close to 150 million people in an area spanning from the Balkans to the Great Wall of China. In the 8th century, the Oghuz tribes migrated to Central Asia from the Altai Mountains, with time, the name Oghuz was replaced by the names Turkmen, Seljuk, Azerbaijani, and later Ottoman Turk. An outlying language, Salar, is spoken by about 70,000 people in China, two further languages, Crimean Tatar and Urum, are historically Kypchak languages, but have been heavily influenced by the Oghuz languages. The extinct Pecheneg language is probably Oghuz, but as it is poorly documented, the Oghuz languages share a number of features that have led linguists to classify them together. Some of these features are shared with other Turkic languages, others are unique to the Oghuz family
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Voiceless dental fricative
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The voiceless dental non-sibilant fricative is a type of consonantal sound used in some oral languages. It is familiar to English speakers as the th in thing, though rather rare as a phoneme in the worlds inventory of languages, it is encountered in some of the most widespread and influential. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨θ⟩, the IPA symbol is the Greek letter theta, which is used for this sound in post-classical Greek, and the sound is thus often referred to as theta. Among the more than 60 languages with over 10 million speakers, only English, Modern Standard Arabic, Standard European Spanish, Burmese, among Turkic languages, Bashkir and Turkmen have voiceless dental non-sibilant fricative. It has likewise disappeared from many Semitic languages, such as Hebrew and it does not have the grooved tongue and directed airflow, or the high frequencies, of a sibilant. Its place of articulation is dental, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue at the upper teeth, note that most stops and liquids described as dental are actually denti-alveolar. Its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords, in some languages the vocal cords are actively separated, so it is always voiceless, in others the cords are lax, so that it may take on the voicing of adjacent sounds. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue. The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, the voiceless denti-alveolar sibilant is the only sibilant fricative in some dialects of Andalusian Spanish. It has no symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet, though its features would be transcribed ⟨s̻̪⟩ or ⟨s̪̻⟩. It is usually represented by a symbol such as ⟨s̄⟩, ⟨θˢ̣⟩. Dalbor describes this sound as follows, is a voiceless, corono-dentoalveolar groove fricative and its place of articulation is denti-alveolar, which means it is articulated with a flat tongue against the alveolar ridge and upper teeth. It is normally laminal, which means it is pronounced with the blade of the tongue and its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords. In some languages the vocal cords are separated, so it is always voiceless, in others the cords are lax. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. Its manner of articulation is fricative, which means it is produced by constricting air flow through a channel at the place of articulation. The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, as in most sounds
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Voiced dental fricative
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The voiced dental fricative is a consonant sound used in some spoken languages. It is familiar to English-speakers, as the th sound in father, very rarely-used variant transcriptions of the dental approximant include ⟨ʋ̠⟩, ⟨ɹ̟⟩ and ⟨ɹ̪⟩. This sound and its unvoiced counterpart are rare phonemes, almost all languages of Europe and Asia, such as German, French, Persian, Japanese, and Mandarin, lack the sound. As for Europe, there seems to be an arc where the sound is present. Most of Mainland Europe lacks the sound, within Turkic languages, Bashkir and Turkmen have both voiced and voiceless dental non-sibilant fricatives among their consonants. Among Semitic languages, they are used in Modern Standard Arabic, albeit only by some speakers, as well as in some dialects of Hebrew and it does not have the grooved tongue and directed airflow, or the high frequencies, of a sibilant. Its place of articulation is dental, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue at the upper teeth, note that most stops and liquids described as dental are actually denti-alveolar. Its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation and it is an oral consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue. The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, in the following transcriptions, the undertack diacritic may be used to indicate an approximant. Danish is actually a weak, velarized alveolar approximant, voiced alveolar non-sibilant fricative Sibilant consonant#Possible combinations Index of phonetics articles
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Voiceless alveolar fricative
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A voiceless alveolar fricative is a type of fricative consonant pronounced with the tip or blade of the tongue against the alveolar ridge just behind the teeth. This refers to a class of sounds, not a single sound, there are at least six types with significant perceptual differences, The voiceless alveolar sibilant has a strong hissing sound, as the s in English sin. It is one of the most common sounds in the world, the voiceless denti-alveolar sibilant, also called apico-dental, has a weaker lisping sound like English th in thin. It occurs in Spanish dialects in southern Spain, the voiceless alveolar retracted sibilant, also called apico-alveolar or grave, has a weak hushing sound reminiscent of retroflex fricatives. It is used in the languages of northern Iberia, like Astur-Leonese, Basque, Castilian Spanish, Catalan, Galician, a similar retracted sibilant form is also used in Dutch, Icelandic, some Southern dialects of Swedish, Finnish and Greek. The voiceless alveolar non-sibilant fricative or, using the alveolar diacritic from the Extended IPA, is similar to the th in English thin, the voiceless alveolar lateral fricative sounds like a voiceless, strongly articulated version of English l and is written as ll in Welsh. The first three types are sibilants, meaning that they are made with the closed and have a piercing. The voiceless alveolar sibilant is a consonant sound in vocal languages. It is the sound in English words such as sea and pass and it has a characteristic high-pitched, highly perceptible hissing sound. For this reason, it is used to get someones attention. The voiceless alveolar sibilant is one of the most common sounds cross-linguistically, if a language has fricatives, it will most likely have. However, some languages have a related sibilant sound, such as, the voiceless alveolar retracted sibilant is a fricative that is articulated with the tongue in a hollow shape, usually with the tip of the tongue against the alveolar ridge. It is a sibilant sound and is found most notably in a number of languages in an area covering northern. It is most well known from its occurrence in the Spanish of this area, in the Middle Ages, it occurred in a wider area, covering Romance languages spoken throughout France, Portugal, and Spain, as well as Old High German and Middle High German. There is no single IPA symbol used for this sound, the symbol ⟨s̺⟩ is often used, with a diacritic indicating an apical pronunciation. However, that is problematic in that not all alveolar retracted sibilants are apical. The ad hoc non-IPA symbols ⟨ṣ⟩ and ⟨S⟩ are often used in the linguistic literature even when IPA symbols are used for other sounds, but ⟨ṣ⟩ is a common transcription of the retroflex sibilant. Often, to speakers of languages or dialects that do not have the sound, it is said to have a whistling quality, for this reason, when borrowed into such languages or represented with non-Latin characters, it is often replaced with
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Voiced alveolar fricative
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The voiced alveolar fricatives are consonantal sounds. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents these sounds depends on whether a sibilant or non-sibilant fricative is being described, the symbol for the alveolar sibilant is ⟨z⟩, and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is z. The IPA letter ⟨z⟩ is not normally used for dental or postalveolar sibilants in narrow transcription unless modified by a diacritic, the IPA symbol for the alveolar non-sibilant fricative is derived by means of diacritics, it can be ⟨ð̠⟩ or ⟨ɹ̝⟩. The voiced alveolar sibilant is common across European languages, but is relatively uncommon cross-linguistically compared to the voiceless variant, only about 28% of the worlds languages contain a voiced dental or alveolar sibilant. Moreover, 85% of the languages with some form of are languages of Europe, Africa, in the eastern half of Asia, the Pacific and the Americas, is very rare as a phoneme. Every language that has also has, the hissing effect in this variety of is very strong. Non-retracted alveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue at the alveolar ridge, according to Ladefoged & Maddieson about half of English speakers use a non-retracted apical articulation. Retracted alveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue slightly behind the alveolar ridge, acoustically, it is close to or laminal. Its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation and it is an oral consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue. The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, the voiced alveolar non-sibilant fricative is a consonantal sound. As the International Phonetic Alphabet does not have symbols for the alveolar consonants, it can represent this sound as in a number of ways including ⟨ð̠⟩ or ⟨ð͇⟩. Its manner of articulation is fricative, which means it is produced by constricting air flow through a channel at the place of articulation. However, it not have the grooved tongue and directed airflow, or the high frequencies. Its place of articulation is alveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue at the alveolar ridge and its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue. The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, tongue shape Apical consonant Laminal consonant Index of phonetics articles
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Turkmen language
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Turkmen has vowel harmony, is agglutinative, and has no grammatical gender. Written Turkmen today is based on the Teke dialect, the other dialects are Nohurly, Ýomud, Änewli, Hasarly, Nerezim, Gökleň, Salyr, Saryk, Ärsary and Çowdur. The Teke dialect is referred to as Chagatai, but like all Turkmen dialects it reflects only a limited influence from classical Chagatai. Officially, Turkmen is rendered in the “Täze Elipbiý”, or “New Alphabet”, however, the old Soviet Cyrillic alphabet is still in wide use. Before 1929, Turkmen was written in an Arabic alphabet, in 1929–1938 a Latin alphabet replaced it, and then the Cyrillic alphabet was used from 1938 to 1991. In 1991, the current Latin alphabet was introduced, although the transition to it has been rather slow and it used to use some unusual letters, such as the pound, dollar, yen, and cent signs, but these were replaced by more conventional letter symbols. The following phonemes are present in the Turkmen language, Turkmen contains both short and long vowels, doubling the duration of sound for a short vowel is generally how its long vowel counterpart is pronounced. Turkmen employs vowel harmony, a principle that is common in fellow Turkic languages, vowels and their sounds are as follows, For purposes of vowel harmony the central vowel is considered back. Turkmen consonant phonemes, Note that с and з are actually used for and, not, like other Turkic languages, Turkmen is characterized by vowel harmony. In general, words of native origin consist either entirely of front vowels or entirely of back vowels, prefixes and suffixes reflect this harmony, taking different forms depending on the word to which they are attached. The infinitive form of a verb determines whether it will follow a front vowel harmony or back vowel harmony, words of foreign origin, mainly Russian, Persian, or Arabic, do not follow vowel harmony. Verbs are conjugated for singular and plural number and first, second, There are 11 verb tenses, present comprehensive, present perfect, future certain, future indefinite, conditional, past definite, obligatory, imperative, and intentional. There are two types of verbs in Turkmen, distinguished by their forms, those ending in the suffix -mak. -Mak verbs follow back vowel harmony, whereas -mek verbs follow front vowel harmony, evidentiality is determined by four markers, roughly, -dY -Yp-dYr -dYr-mY-näm -mYş Some independent particles may be said to convey evidentiality, one such word is the particle eken. Aman become sick-EV-COP Aman is sick, compare 1 with 2. a and 2. b,2. a. Maral Ashgabat-ABL come-EV-COP Maral came from Ashgabat, Ben you-GEN cookie-pl-2sPOSS-ACC eat-3spast Ben ate your cookies. The speaker saw Ben eat the cookies, Ben told the speaker that he ate the cookies. Ben you-GEN cookie-pl-2sPOSS-ACC eat-EV-COP Ben ate your cookies, the speaker heard from someone else that Ben ate the cookies
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Voiceless glottal fricative
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The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨h⟩, and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is h. Accordingly, in cases it is more appropriate to regard h and ɦ as segments that have only a laryngeal specification. There are other languages show a more definite displacement of the formant frequencies for h. Lamé contrasts voiceless and voiced glottal fricatives, features of the voiceless glottal fricative, In some languages, it has the constricted manner of articulation of a fricative. However, in many if not most it is a state of the glottis. Because there is no other constriction to produce friction in the tract in the languages they are familiar with. However, the fricative is generally retained for historical reasons. It may have a place of articulation. However, it may have no fricative articulation, in case the term glottal only refers to the nature of its phonation. All consonants except for the glottals, and all vowels, have a place of articulation in addition to the state of the glottis. As with all consonants, surrounding vowels influence the pronunciation. Its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords, in some languages the vocal cords are actively separated, so it is always voiceless, in others the cords are lax, so that it may take on the voicing of adjacent sounds. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. Because the sound is not produced with airflow over the tongue, the airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, as in most sounds. Voiced glottal fricative Voiceless nasal glottal fricative Index of phonetics articles
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Voiceless palato-alveolar affricate
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The voiceless palato-alveolar sibilant affricate or voiceless domed postalveolar sibilant affricate is a type of consonantal sound used in some spoken languages. The sound is transcribed in the International Phonetic Alphabet with ⟨t͡ʃ⟩, ⟨t͜ʃ⟩ or ⟨tʃ⟩ and it is familiar to English speakers as the ch sound in chip. Historically, this sound often derives from a former voiceless velar stop /k/, or a dental stop by way of palatalization. Some scholars use the symbol /t͡ʃ/ to transcribe the laminal variant of the voiceless retroflex affricate, in such cases, the voiceless palato-alveolar affricate is transcribed /t͡ʃʲ/. Its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords, in some languages the vocal cords are actively separated, so it is always voiceless, in others the cords are lax, so that it may take on the voicing of adjacent sounds. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue. The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, as in most sounds. Mandarin Chinese, Russian, Japanese, Korean, Polish, Catalan, and Thai have a voiceless alveolo-palatal affricate /t͡ɕ/ and its place of articulation is postalveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue behind the alveolar ridge. Its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords, in some languages the vocal cords are actively separated, so it is always voiceless, in others the cords are lax, so that it may take on the voicing of adjacent sounds. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue. The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, as in most sounds
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Voiceless alveolo-palatal sibilant
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The voiceless alveolo-palatal sibilant fricative is a type of consonantal sound, used in some oral languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ɕ⟩ and it is the sibilant equivalent of the voiceless palatal fricative. The voiceless alveolo-palatal sibilant fricative does not occur in any dialect of English. However, it is the realization of /ʃ/ in the Ghanaian variety. Its place of articulation is alveolo-palatal and this means that, Its place of articulation is postalveolar, meaning that the tongue contacts the roof of the mouth in the area behind the alveolar ridge. Its tongue shape is laminal, meaning that it is the blade that contacts the roof of the mouth. It is heavily palatalized, meaning that the middle of the tongue is bowed and raised towards the hard palate and its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords. In some languages the vocal cords are separated, so it is always voiceless, in others the cords are lax. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue. The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, index of phonetics articles Voiceless palato-alveolar sibilant
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Voiced alveolo-palatal sibilant
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The voiced alveolo-palatal sibilant fricative is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ʑ⟩, and it is the sibilant equivalent of the voiced palatal fricative. The voiced alveolo-palatal sibilant fricative does not occur in any dialect of English. However, it is the realization of /ʒ/ in the Ghanaian variety. Its place of articulation is alveolo-palatal and this means that, Its place of articulation is postalveolar, meaning that the tongue contacts the roof of the mouth in the area behind the alveolar ridge. Its tongue shape is laminal, meaning that it is the blade that contacts the roof of the mouth. It is heavily palatalized, meaning that the middle of the tongue is bowed and raised towards the hard palate and its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue. The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, as in most sounds
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Palatal approximant
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The voiced palatal approximant is a type of consonant used in many spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨j⟩, the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is j, and in the Americanist phonetic notation it is ⟨y⟩. Because the English name of the letter J, jay, does not start with but with, the palatal approximant can in many cases be considered the semivocalic equivalent of the close front unrounded vowel. The two are almost identical featurally, some languages, though, have a palatal approximant that is unspecified for rounding, and therefore cannot be considered the semivocalic equivalent of either or its rounded counterpart. An example of language is Spanish, which distinguishes two palatal approximants, an approximant semivowel, which is always unrounded, and an unspecified for rounding approximant consonant. Eugenio Martínez Celdrán describes the difference between them as follows, is shorter and is usually a merely transitory sound and it can only exist together with a full vowel and does not appear in syllable onset. has a lower amplitude, mainly in F2. It can only appear in syllable onset and it is not noisy either articulatorily or perceptually. Can vary towards in emphatic pronunciations, having noise, thus, in words like viuda widow, Dios God, vio s/he saw, etc. the semi-vowel is unrounded, if it were rounded a sound that does not exist in Spanish, would appear. He also says that in his opinion, the IPA shows a lack of precision in the treatment it gives to approximants, and are two different segments, but they have to be labelled as voiced palatal approximant consonants. I think that the former is a consonant, whereas the latter is a semi-consonant, as it has traditionally been called in Spanish, or a semi-vowel. The IPA, though, classifies it as a consonant, there is a parallel problem with transcribing the voiced velar approximant. The symbol ⟨ʝ̞⟩ may also be used when the palatal approximant is merely an allophone of the palatal fricative /ʝ/ as, compared with ⟨j⟩. The X-SAMPA equivalent of ⟨ʝ̞⟩ is j\_o, note that the symbol ⟨ʝ̞⟩ may not display properly in all browsers. If that is the case, ⟨ʝ˕⟩ should be substituted, in the writing systems used for most of the languages of Central, Northern, and Eastern Europe, the letter j denotes the palatal approximant, as in German Jahr year. That is followed by IPA although it may be counterintuitive for English speakers, in grammars of Ancient Greek, the palatal approximant, which was lost early in the history of Greek, is sometimes written as ⟨ι̯⟩. It can be considered the equivalent of the close central unrounded vowel. The International Phonetic Alphabet does not have a symbol for that sound, though it can be transcribed as ⟨j̠⟩, ⟨j˗⟩. The equivalent X-SAMPA symbols are j_- and M\_+, respectively, other possible transcriptions include a centralized ⟨j⟩, a centralized ⟨ɰ⟩ and a non-syllabic ⟨ɨ⟩
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Voiced palato-alveolar sibilant
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The voiced palato-alveolar sibilant fricative or voiced domed postalveolar sibilant fricative is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is the case form of the letter Ezh ⟨Ʒ ʒ⟩. An alternative symbol used in older and American linguistic literature is ⟨ž⟩. The sound occurs in languages and, as in English and French, may have simultaneous lip rounding. Although present in English, the sound is not represented by a letter or digraph. It also appears in loanwords, mainly from French. In some transcriptions of such as Cyrillic, as well as the Wikipedia pronunciation respelling for English. Some scholars use the symbol /ʒ/ to transcribe the laminal variant of the retroflex sibilant. In such cases, the voiced palato-alveolar sibilant is transcribed /ʒʲ/ and its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue. The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, the sound in Russian denoted by ⟨ж⟩ is commonly transcribed as a palato-alveolar fricative but is actually a laminal retroflex fricative. The voiced postalveolar non-sibilant fricative is a consonantal sound, as the International Phonetic Alphabet does not have separate symbols for the post-alveolar consonants, this sound is usually transcribed ⟨ɹ̠˔⟩. The equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is r\_-_r and its manner of articulation is fricative, which means it is produced by constricting air flow through a narrow channel at the place of articulation, causing turbulence. However, it not have the grooved tongue and directed airflow, or the high frequencies. Its place of articulation is postalveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue behind the alveolar ridge and its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue
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Voiceless uvular stop
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The voiceless uvular stop or voiceless uvular plosive is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. It is pronounced like a velar stop, except that the tongue makes contact not on the soft palate. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨q⟩, the International Phonetic Alphabet does not have a separate symbol for that sound, though it can be transcribed as ⟨q̟⟩ or ⟨q˖⟩ or ⟨k̠⟩. The equivalent X-SAMPA symbols are q_+ and k_-, respectively, features of the voiceless uvular stop, Its manner of articulation is occlusive, which means it is produced by obstructing airflow in the vocal tract. Since the consonant is also oral, with no outlet, the airflow is blocked entirely. Its place of articulation is uvular, which means it is articulated with the back of the tongue at the uvula and its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords. In some languages the vocal cords are separated, so it is always voiceless, in others the cords are lax. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue. The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, guttural Index of phonetics articles Qoph Voiced uvular stop
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Voiced uvular fricative
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The voiced uvular fricative or approximant is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ʁ⟩ and this consonant is one of several collectively called guttural R when found in European languages. Because the IPA symbol stands for both the uvular fricative and the approximant, the fricative nature of this sound may be specified by adding the uptack to the letter. The approximant can be specified by adding the downtack, ⟨ʁ̞⟩, though some use a superscript ⟨ʶ⟩. For a voiced fricative, see voiced velar fricative. In many languages it is closer to an approximant, however and its place of articulation is uvular, which means it is articulated with the back of the tongue at the uvula. Its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation and it is an oral consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue. The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, however, not all of these remain a uvular trill today. Because such uvular rhotics often do not contrast with alveolar ones, for more information, see guttural R. Ladefoged & Maddieson note that There is a complication in the case of uvular fricatives in that the shape of the vocal tract may be such that the uvula vibrates. See voiced uvular raised non-sonorant trill for more information
39.
Voiceless velar stop
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The voiceless velar stop or voiceless velar plosive is a type of consonantal sound used in many spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨k⟩, the sound is a very common sound cross-linguistically. Most languages have at least a plain, and some more than one variety. Most Indo-Aryan languages, such as Hindi and Bengali, have a two-way contrast between aspirated and plain, only a few languages lack a voiceless velar stop, e. g. Tahitian. Features of the velar stop, Its manner of articulation is occlusive. Since the consonant is also oral, with no outlet, the airflow is blocked entirely. Its place of articulation is velar, which means it is articulated with the back of the tongue at the soft palate and its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords. In some languages the vocal cords are separated, so it is always voiceless, in others the cords are lax. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue. The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, hard and soft C Index of phonetics articles
40.
Voiced velar stop
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The voiced velar stop is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨ɡ⟩, strictly, the IPA symbol is the so-called single-story G, but the double-story G is considered an acceptable alternative. Features of the velar stop, Its manner of articulation is occlusive. Since the consonant is also oral, with no outlet, the airflow is blocked entirely. Its place of articulation is velar, which means it is articulated with the back of the tongue at the soft palate and its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue. The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, absent stop is an areal feature. Missing, on the hand, is widely scattered around the world. It seems that is more difficult to articulate than the other basic stops. This could have two effects, and might become confused, and the distinction is lost, or perhaps a never develops when a language first starts making voicing distinctions. With uvulars, where there is less space between the glottis and tongue for airflow, the imbalance is more extreme, Voiced is much rarer than voiceless. Many Indo-Aryan languages, such as Hindustani, have a two-way contrast between aspirated and plain
41.
Vowel harmony
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Vowel harmony is a type of long-distance assimilatory phonological process involving vowels that occurs in some languages. A vowel or vowels in a word must be members of the same subclass, in languages with vowel harmony, there are constraints on which vowels may be found near each other. Suffixes and prefixes will usually follow vowel harmony rules, many agglutinative languages have vowel harmony. The term vowel harmony is used in two different senses, in the first sense, it refers to any type of long distance assimilatory process of vowels, either progressive or regressive. When used in this sense, the vowel harmony is synonymous with the term metaphony. In the second sense, vowel harmony refers only to progressive vowel harmony, for regressive harmony, the term umlaut is used. In this sense, metaphony is the term while vowel harmony. The term umlaut is used in a different sense to refer to a type of vowel gradation. This article will use vowel harmony for both progressive and regressive harmony, harmony processes are long-distance in the sense that the assimilation involves sounds that are separated by intervening segments. In other words, harmony refers to the assimilation of sounds that are not adjacent to each other, for example, a vowel at the beginning of a word can trigger assimilation in a vowel at the end of a word. The assimilation occurs across the word in many languages. This is represented schematically in the diagram, In the diagram above. The vowel that causes the vowel assimilation is frequently termed the trigger while the vowels that assimilate are termed targets, when the vowel triggers lie within the root or stem of a word and the affixes contain the targets, this is called stem-controlled vowel harmony. This is fairly common among languages with vowel harmony and may be seen in the Hungarian dative suffix, the -nak form appears after the root with back vowels. The -nek form appears after the root with front vowels, some languages have more than one system of harmony. For instance, Altaic languages are proposed to have a rounding harmony superimposed over a backness harmony, even among languages with vowel harmony, not all vowels need participate in the vowel conversions, these vowels are termed neutral. Neutral vowels may be opaque and block harmonic processes or they may be transparent, intervening consonants are also often transparent. Finally, languages that do have vowel harmony often allow for lexical disharmony, for example, Turkish vakit, *vakıt would have been expected
42.
Ufa International Airport
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Ufa International Airport is the primary airport serving Ufa, the capital of Bashkortostan, Russia. In 2013, the airport handled 2,218,000 passengers, becoming the ninth largest airport in Russia and it is also the largest airport in the federal subject of the Republic of Bashkortostan. When Bashkirian Airlines operated, its office was on the airport property. On 11 May 1924 the building of the first aircraft hangar near Glumilino village has been completed, in 1933 the first ever route opens encompassing over 730 km via Ufa–Sterlitamak–Meleuz–Mrakovo–Baymak–Magnitogorsk–Beloretsk–Ufa. In 1956 Ufa Airport had begun performing technical maintenance of the Yakovlev Yak-12 airplanes and Mil Mi-1 helicopters, between 1959 and 1962 the airport was under reconstruction and 3 hotel buildings, cargo and fuel storage facilities, a 100-seated dining hall and a garage were built. Also, a new runway was built, as well as radio equipment for landing under heavy weather conditions. The new runway was capable of receiving Tupolev Tu-124, Antonov An-10. In 1964 a new terminal for 400 passengers per hour was built, in 2007 the reconstructed terminal of the airport entered into operation. The area of the air terminal has increased more than twice, at the moment many departments are located there. The terminal is equipped with facilities and up-to-date outfit. There have been mounted 4 telescopic ramps,4 elevators and 3 escalators and it is gives the opportunity to serve 600 passengers per hour. The city bus lines No.101 and 110 connect the airport with the city of Ufa
43.
Islam
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Islam is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion which professes that there is only one and incomparable God and that Muhammad is the last messenger of God. It is the worlds second-largest religion and the major religion in the world, with over 1.7 billion followers or 23% of the global population. Islam teaches that God is merciful, all-powerful, and unique, and He has guided mankind through revealed scriptures, natural signs, and a line of prophets sealed by Muhammad. The primary scriptures of Islam are the Quran, viewed by Muslims as the word of God. Muslims believe that Islam is the original, complete and universal version of a faith that was revealed many times before through prophets including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses. As for the Quran, Muslims consider it to be the unaltered, certain religious rites and customs are observed by the Muslims in their family and social life, while social responsibilities to parents, relatives, and neighbors have also been defined. Besides, the Quran and the sunnah of Muhammad prescribe a comprehensive body of moral guidelines for Muslims to be followed in their personal, social, political, Islam began in the early 7th century. Originating in Mecca, it spread in the Arabian Peninsula. The expansion of the Muslim world involved various caliphates and empires, traders, most Muslims are of one of two denominations, Sunni or Shia. Islam is the dominant religion in the Middle East, North Africa, sizable Muslim communities are also found in Horn of Africa, Europe, China, Russia, Mainland Southeast Asia, Philippines, Northern Borneo, Caucasus and the Americas. Converts and immigrant communities are found in almost every part of the world, Islam is a verbal noun originating from the triliteral root s-l-m which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of wholeness, submission, safeness and peace. In a religious context it means voluntary submission to God, Islām is the verbal noun of Form IV of the root, and means submission or surrender. Muslim, the word for an adherent of Islam, is the active participle of the verb form. The word sometimes has connotations in its various occurrences in the Quran. In some verses, there is stress on the quality of Islam as a state, Whomsoever God desires to guide. Other verses connect Islām and dīn, Today, I have perfected your religion for you, I have completed My blessing upon you, still others describe Islam as an action of returning to God—more than just a verbal affirmation of faith. In the Hadith of Gabriel, islām is presented as one part of a triad that also includes imān, Islam was historically called Muhammadanism in Anglophone societies. This term has fallen out of use and is said to be offensive because it suggests that a human being rather than God is central to Muslims religion
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listen)) is a Turkic language belonging to the Kipchak branch. It is co-official with Russian in the Republic of Bashkortostan, European Russia and has approximately 1.2 million speakers in Russia. Bashkir has three dialects: Southern, Eastern and Northwestern.
