1.
Pierre Dupuis
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Pierre Dupuis or Pierre Dupuys was a French painter. He lived in Italy, where he met Pierre Mignard in 1637 and he was a specialist of still lifes and his style was influenced by Northern Europe painting and Protestant religion. In his paintings of bouquets, an influence of Jacques Linard and these paintings were very appreciated in his times. A still-life painter, PIERRE DUPUIS, The stamp,335, pp. 48–55, ISSN 0998-8041, Editions Faton, Dijon, France, at INIST-CNRS, Cote INIST,25659,35400008348741.0030
2.
Baleen
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Baleen is a filter-feeder system inside the mouths of baleen whales. The baleen system works by opening its mouth underwater and taking in water. The whale then pushes the water out, and animals such as krill are filtered by the baleen, Baleen is similar to bristles and is made of keratin, the same substance found in human fingernails and hair. Some whales, such as the whale, have longer baleen than others. Other whales, such as the whale, only use one side of their baleen. These baleen bristles are arranged in plates across the jaw of the whale. Baleen is often called whalebone, but that also can refer to the normal bones of whales. Depending on the species, a plate can be 0.5 to 3.5 metres long. Its hairy fringes are called baleen hair or whalebone-hair and they are also called baleen bristles, which in sei whales are highly calcified, calcification functioning to increase their stiffness. Baleen plates are broader at the gumline, the plates have been compared to sieves or Venetian blinds. The word baleen derives from the Latin bālaena, related to the Greek phalaina – both of which mean whale, the oldest true fossils of baleen are only 15 million years old, but baleen rarely fossilizes, and scientists believe it originated considerably earlier than that. Baleen is believed to have evolved around thirty years ago, possibly from a hard, gummy upper jaw, like the one a Dalls porpoise has. The transition from teeth to baleen is proposed to have occurred stepwise and it is known that modern mysticetes have teeth initially and then develop baleen plate germs in utero, but lose their dentition and have only baleen during their juvenile years and adulthood. However, developing mysticetes do not produce tooth enamel because at some point this trait evolved to become a pseudogene and this is likely to have occurred about 28 million years ago and proves that dentition is an ancestral state of mysticetes. Further research suggests that the baleen of Aetiocetus was arranged in bundles between widely spaced teeth, if true, this combination of baleen and dentition in Aetiocetus would act as a transition state between odontocetes and mysticetes. It would be unlikely for all of these changes to occur at once. Therefore, it is proposed that Oligocene aetiocetids possess both ancestral and descendent character states regarding feeding strategies and this makes them mosaic taxa, showing that either baleen evolved before dentition was lost or that the traits for filter feeding originally evolved for other functions. It also shows that the evolution could have occurred gradually because the state was originally maintained
3.
Haikou
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Hǎikǒu, is the capital and most populous city of Hainan province, China. It is situated on the northern coast of Hainan, by the mouth of the Nandu River, the northern part of the city is the district of Haidian Island, which is separated from the main part of Haikou by the Haidian River, a branch of the Nandu. Administratively, Haikou is a city, comprising four districts. There are 2,046,189 inhabitants in the built up area all living within the 4 urban districts of the city, Haikou was originally a port city. Today, more than half of the total trade still goes through its ports. The city is home to Hainan University, which has its campus on Haidian Island. The hanzi characters comprising the name, 海口, mean ocean/sea and mouth/port. Thus, the name Haikou is also a word for seaport - similar to Portsmouth in England, Haikou originally served as the port for Qiongshan, the ancient administrative capital of Hainan island, located some 5 kilometres inland to the south east. During its early history Haikou was a part of Guangdong province, in the 13th century it was fortified and became a military post under the Ming dynasty. The port is located west of the mouth of the Nandu River, when Qiongshan was opened to foreign trade under the Treaty of Tianjin in 1858, Haikou started to rival the old administrative city. It was known internationally as Hoihow, based on the local dialect, in 1926, Haikou overtook Qiongshan in population and it was declared a separate administrative city. Haikou was developed as a port during the Sino-Japanese War when the Japanese invaded and occupied Hainan Island from early 1939 to 1945, since 1949, Haikou has maintained its position as Hainans main port, handling more than half of the islands total trade. It has replaced Qiongshan as the administrative capital. In 1988, Haikou was made a city as well as the capital of the newly created Hainan Province. Haikou old town contains the oldest buildings in the city and was built by wealthy Chinese from the mainland. The houses are a mixture of styles including Portuguese, French, various projects are currently under discussion to decide the best way to restore and preserve these historical buildings. Most of the city is almost completely flat and only a few metres above sea level and it has an area of 2,304.84 square kilometres. The northern part of Haikou City, the district of Haidian Island, is separated from the part of Haikou by the Haidian River
4.
Hainan
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Hainan is the smallest and southernmost province of the Peoples Republic of China, consisting of various islands in the South China Sea. Hainan Island, separated from Guangdongs Leizhou Peninsula by the Qiongzhou Strait, is the largest island under PRC control and makes up the majority of the province. The province has an area of 33,920 square kilometers, with Hainan Island making up 32,900 square kilometers, there are a total of ten major cities and ten counties in Hainan Province. Haikou on the northern coast of Hainan Island is the capital while Sanya is a well-known tourist destination on the southern coast, the other major cities are Wenchang, Qionghai, Wanning, Wuzhishan, Dongfang, and Danzhou. Chinas controversial claims in the South China Sea, including the Nansha and Xisha Islands, are administered as part of the province. The provincial name derives from its island, Hainan, which is named for its position south of the Qiongzhou Strait. Former names for Hainan Island include Zhuya, Qiongya, and Qiongzhou, the later two gave rise to the provincial abbreviation 瓊 or 琼. Hainan Island first entered history in 110 BC, when the Han dynasty of China established a military garrison there following the arrival of General Lu Bode. In 46 BC the Han court decided that the conquest was too expensive, around that time, Han Chinese people together with military personnel and officials began to migrate to Hainan Island from the mainland. Among them were the offspring of those who were banished to Hainan for political reasons, most of them arrived in Hainan Island from the southern Chinese provinces of Guangdong, Fujian and Guangxi. Li people are the inhabitants of Hainan. They are believed to be the descendants of the ancient tribes from the mainland, some others live elsewhere on Hainan with other ethnic groups in Danzhou, Wanning, Qionghai, Lingshui and Tunchang. The area inhabited by the Li ethnic group totals 18,700 square kilometers, during the Three Kingdoms Period, Hainan was the Zhuya Commandery under the control of Eastern Wu. At the time of the Song dynasty, Hainan became part of Guangxi, under the Mongol Empire the island became an independent province then in 1370 was placed under the administration of Guangdong by the ruling Ming dynasty. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, large numbers of Han people from Fujian and Guangdong began migrating to Hainan, in the eighteenth century, the Li rebelled against the Qing Empire, which responded by bringing in mercenaries from the Miao regions of Guizhou. Many of the Miao settled on the island and their descendants live in the highlands to this day. During the 17th and 18th centuries, explorers referred to the island as Aynam, in 1906, the revolutionary leader Sun Yat-sen proposed that Hainan should become a separate province although this did not happen until 1988. Hainan was historically part of Guangdong and Guangxi Provinces and as such was the Qiongya Circuit under the 1912 establishment of the Republic of China
5.
China
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China, officially the Peoples Republic of China, is a unitary sovereign state in East Asia and the worlds most populous country, with a population of over 1.381 billion. The state is governed by the Communist Party of China and its capital is Beijing, the countrys major urban areas include Shanghai, Guangzhou, Beijing, Chongqing, Shenzhen, Tianjin and Hong Kong. China is a power and a major regional power within Asia. Chinas landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from forest steppes, the Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from much of South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third and sixth longest in the world, respectively, Chinas coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilometers long and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East China and South China seas. China emerged as one of the worlds earliest civilizations in the basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain. For millennia, Chinas political system was based on hereditary monarchies known as dynasties, in 1912, the Republic of China replaced the last dynasty and ruled the Chinese mainland until 1949, when it was defeated by the communist Peoples Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War. The Communist Party established the Peoples Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949, both the ROC and PRC continue to claim to be the legitimate government of all China, though the latter has more recognition in the world and controls more territory. China had the largest economy in the world for much of the last two years, during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline. Since the introduction of reforms in 1978, China has become one of the worlds fastest-growing major economies. As of 2016, it is the worlds second-largest economy by nominal GDP, China is also the worlds largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods. China is a nuclear weapons state and has the worlds largest standing army. The PRC is a member of the United Nations, as it replaced the ROC as a permanent member of the U. N. Security Council in 1971. China is also a member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations, including the WTO, APEC, BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, the BCIM, the English name China is first attested in Richard Edens 1555 translation of the 1516 journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa. The demonym, that is, the name for the people, Portuguese China is thought to derive from Persian Chīn, and perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit Cīna. Cīna was first used in early Hindu scripture, including the Mahābhārata, there are, however, other suggestions for the derivation of China. The official name of the state is the Peoples Republic of China. The shorter form is China Zhōngguó, from zhōng and guó and it was then applied to the area around Luoyi during the Eastern Zhou and then to Chinas Central Plain before being used as an occasional synonym for the state under the Qing
6.
Sieve
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The word sift derives from sieve. In cooking, a sifter is used to separate and break up clumps in dry ingredients such as flour, as well as to aerate, a strainer is a form of sieve used to separate solids from liquid. Some industrial strainers available are simplex basket strainers, duplex basket strainers, simple basket strainers are used to protect valuable or sensitive equipment in systems that are meant to be shut down temporarily. Some commonly used strainers are bell mouth strainers, foot valve strainers, most processing industries will opt for a self-cleaning strainer instead of a basket strainer or a simplex strainer due to limitations of simple filtration systems. The self-cleaning strainers or filters are more efficient and provide an automatic filtration solution, sieving is a simple technique for separating particles of different sizes. A sieve such as used for sifting flour has very small holes, coarse particles are separated or broken up by grinding against one-another and screen openings. Depending upon the types of particles to be separated, sieves with different types of holes are used, sieves are also used to separate stones from sand. Triage sieving refers to grouping people according to their severity of injury, the mesh in a wooden sieve might be made from wood or wicker. Use of wood to avoid contamination is important when the sieve is used for sampling, henry Stephens, in his Book of the Farm, advised that the withes of a wooden riddle or sieve be made from fir or willow with American elm being best. The rims would be made of fir, oak or, especially, a sieve analysis is a practice or procedure used to assess the particle size distribution of a granular material. Sieve sizes used in combinations of four to eight sieves
7.
Fish trap
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A fish trap is a trap used for fishing. Fish traps can have the form of a weir or a lobster trap. Some fishing nets are called fish traps, for example fyke nets. A typical trap consists of a frame of steel wire in the shape of a heart. The mesh wraps around the frame and then tapers into the inside of the trap, when a fish swims inside through this opening, it cannot get out, as the chicken wire opening bends back into its original narrowness. In earlier times, traps were constructed of wood and fibre, Traps are culturally almost universal and seem to have been independently invented many times. The Mediterranean Sea, with an area of about of 2.5 million km2, is shaped according to the principle of a bottle trap. It is easy for fish from the Atlantic Ocean to swim into the Mediterranean through the neck at Gibraltar. It has been described as the largest fish trap in the world, the prehistoric Yaghan people who inhabited the Tierra Del Fuego area constructed stonework in shallow inlets that would effectively confine fish at low tide levels. Some of this extant stonework survives at Bahia Wulaia at the Bahia Wulaia Dome Middens archaeological site, in southern Italy, during the 17th century, a new fishing technique began to be used. The trabucco is an old fishing machine typical of the coast of Gargano protected as monuments by the homonym National Park. Indigenous Australians were, prior to European colonisation, most populous in Australias better-watered areas such as the Murray-Darling river system of the south-east, here, where water levels fluctuate seasonally, indigenous people constructed ingenious stone fish traps. Most have been completely or partially destroyed, the largest and best-known are those on the Barwon River at Brewarrina, New South Wales, which are at least partly preserved. The Brewarrina fish traps caught huge numbers of native fish as the Barwon River rose in flood. In southern Victoria, indigenous people created a system of canals. The purpose of these canals was to attract and catch eels, the eels were caught by a variety of traps including stone walls constructed across canals with a net placed across an opening in the wall. Traps at different levels in the marsh came into operation as the level rose. Somewhat similar stone-wall traps were constructed by Native American Pit River people in north-eastern California, a technique called dam fishing is used by the Baka pygmies
8.
Laundry
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Laundry is the washing of clothing and linens. Laundry processes are often done in a reserved for that purpose. An apartment building or student hall of residence may have a laundry facility such as a tvättstuga. A stand-alone business is referred to as a laundrette, the material that is being washed, or has been laundered, is also generally referred to as laundry. Laundry was first done in watercourses, letting the water carry away the materials which could cause stains, laundry is still done this way in some less industrialized areas and rural regions. Agitation helps remove the dirt, so the laundry is often rubbed, twisted, wooden bats or clubs could be used to help with beating the dirt out. These were often called washing beetles or bats and could be used by the waterside on a rock, on a block and they were once common across Europe and were also used by settlers in North America. Similar techniques have also identified in Japan. When no watercourses were available, laundry was done in vats or vessels. Sometimes large metal cauldrons were filled with water and heated over a fire. Wooden or stone scrubbing surfaces set up near a water supply or portable washboards, including corrugated metal ones. A posser could be used to agitate clothes in a tub, once clean, the clothes were wrung out — twisted to remove most of the water. Then they were hung up on poles or clotheslines to air dry, before the advent of the washing machine, laundry was often done in a communal setting. In poor parts of the world today, laundry is still done beside a river or lake, villages across Europe that could afford it built a wash-house. Water was channelled from a stream or spring and fed into a building, such facilities were much more comfortable than washing in a watercourse because the launderers could work standing up instead of on their knees, and were protected from inclement weather. Also, they didnt have to go far, as the facilities were usually at hand in the village or at the edge of a town and these facilities were public and available to all families, and usually used by the entire village. Many of these village wash-houses are still standing, historic structures with no modern purpose. This job was reserved for women, who washed all their familys laundry, washerwomen took in the laundry of others, charging by the piece
9.
Middle East
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The Middle East is a transcontinental region centered on Western Asia and Egypt. The corresponding adjective is Middle-Eastern and the noun is Middle-Easterner. The term has come into usage as a replacement of the term Near East beginning in the early 20th century. Arabs, Turks, Persians, Kurds, and Azeris constitute the largest ethnic groups in the region by population. Indigenous minorities of the Middle East include Jews, Assyrians and other Arameans, Baloch, Berbers, Copts, Druze, Lurs, Mandaeans, Samaritans, Shabaks, Tats, in the Middle East, there is also a Romani community. European ethnic groups form a diaspora in the region include Albanians, Bosniaks, Circassians, Crimean Tatars, Franco-Levantines. Among other migrant populations are Bengalis as well as other Indians, Chinese, Filipinos, Indonesians, Pakistanis, the history of the Middle East dates back to ancient times, with the importance of the region being recognized for millennia. Most of the countries border the Persian Gulf have vast reserves of crude oil. The term Middle East may have originated in the 1850s in the British India Office, however, it became more widely known when American naval strategist Alfred Thayer Mahan used the term in 1902 to designate the area between Arabia and India. During this time the British and Russian Empires were vying for influence in Central Asia, Mahan realized not only the strategic importance of the region, but also of its center, the Persian Gulf. Mahan first used the term in his article The Persian Gulf and International Relations, published in September 1902 in the National Review, a British journal. The Middle East, if I may adopt a term which I have not seen, will some day need its Malta, as well as its Gibraltar, it does not follow that either will be in the Persian Gulf. The British Navy should have the facility to concentrate in force if occasion arise, about Aden, India, mahans article was reprinted in The Times and followed in October by a 20-article series entitled The Middle Eastern Question, written by Sir Ignatius Valentine Chirol. During this series, Sir Ignatius expanded the definition of Middle East to include regions of Asia which extend to the borders of India or command the approaches to India. After the series ended in 1903, The Times removed quotation marks from subsequent uses of the term, in the late 1930s, the British established the Middle East Command, which was based in Cairo, for its military forces in the region. After that time, the term Middle East gained broader usage in Europe, the description Middle has also led to some confusion over changing definitions. Before the First World War, Near East was used in English to refer to the Balkans and the Ottoman Empire, while Middle East referred to Iran, the Caucasus, Afghanistan, Central Asia, and Turkestan. The first official use of the term Middle East by the United States government was in the 1957 Eisenhower Doctrine, the Associated Press Stylebook says that Near East formerly referred to the farther west countries while Middle East referred to the eastern ones, but that now they are synonymous
10.
9th millennium BC
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The 9th millennium BC marks the beginning of the Neolithic period. Agriculture spread throughout the Fertile Crescent and use of pottery became more widespread, larger settlements like Jericho arose along salt and flint trade routes. Northern Eurasia was resettled as the glaciers of the last glacial maximum retreated, world population was at a few million people, likely below 5 million
11.
Oasisamerica
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Oasisamerica is a term used by some scholars, primarily Mexican anthropologists, for the broad cultural area defining pre-Columbian southwestern North America. It extends from modern-day Utah down to southern Chihuahua, and from the coast on the Gulf of California eastward to the Río Bravo river valley and its name comes from its position in relationship with the similar regions of Mesoamerica and mostly nomadic Aridoamerica. The term Greater Southwest is often used to describe this region by American anthropologists, as opposed to their nomadic Aridoamerican neighbors, the Oasisamericans primarily had agricultural societies. The term Oasisamerica is derived from a combination of the terms oasis and it refers to a wild land dominated by the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Madre Occidental. To the east and west of these mountain ranges stretch the grand arid plains of the Sonora, Chihuahua. Despite being a dry land, Oasisamerica contains several bodies of water like rivers, Yaqui, Rio Grande, Colorado, Conchos. The presence of these rivers, combined with a climate that was much milder that eastern Aridoamerica, the story of the origins of the cultural superarea of Mesoamerica takes place some 2000 years after the separation of Mesoamerica and Aridoamerica. Some of the Aridoamerican communities farmed as a complement to their hunter-gatherer economy and those communities, among whom one finds adherents to the Desert Tradition, later would become more truly agricultural and form Oasisamerica. Based on maize remnants found in Bat Cave, Arizona, it appears that agriculture practices date back to at least 3500 BCE. Given that the oldest traces of maize in North America date back to the year 5000 BCE and it is less certain who brought the agricultural technology and what role they played in the development of the high cultures of Oasisamerica. At least three hypotheses have proposed to explain the birth of the cultures of Oasisamerica. One, a model, posits an independent cultural development whose roots lie deep in antiquity. From this point of view, thanks to a superior climate, a second hypothesis presupposes that the nomads of the Mesoamerican culture slowly moved northward over time. Thus, the Oasisamericans would be an offshoot of their neighbors to the south, there are many indications of a close relationship between the two great cultural regions of North America. For one, the turquoise that the Mesoamericans prized so dearly came almost exclusively from southern New Mexico, demand for this mineral alone may have played a large part in establishing trade relationships between the two cultural areas. The area encompassed by Oasisamerica fostered the growth of major cultural groups, the Ancestral Pueblo people, Hohokam, Mogollon, Pataya. Smaller cultures within this region include the Sinagua, Ancestral Pueblo cultures flourished in the region currently known as the Four Corners. The Ancestral Pueblo society is one of the most complex to be found in Oasisamerica, the Ancestral Pueblo is considered to be the most intensely studied Pre-Columbian culture in the United States
12.
4th millennium BC
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The 4th millennium BC spans the years 4000 through 3000 BC. Some of the changes in human culture during this time included the beginning of the Bronze Age and the invention of writing. The city states of Sumer and the kingdom of Egypt were established, world population in the course of the millennium doubled, approximately from 7 to 14 million people. C.4000 BC—First neolithic settlers in the island of Thera, Greece, C.4000 BC—Beaker from Susa is made. It is now at Musée du Louvre, Paris, 4000–2000 BC—People and animals, a detail of rock-shelter painting in Cogul, Lleida, Spain, are painted. It is now at Museo Arqueológico, Barcelona, C.3900 BC—5.9 kiloyear event, one of the most intense aridification events during the Holocene. It ended the Neolithic Subpluvial and likely initiated the most recent desiccation of the Sahara desert, triggering migration to river valleys, babylonian influence predominant in Mediterranean regions of Asia. In Colombia, circa 3600 BC, first rupestrian art Chiribiquete,3600 BC—Construction of the Ġgantija megalithic temple complex on the Island of Gozo, Malta, the worlds oldest extant unburied free-standing structures, and the worlds oldest religious structures. 3600–3000 BC—Construction of the Ta Ħaġrat and Kordin III temples on Malta,3500 Metalcasting began in the Mohenjodaro area. C.3500 BC—Figures of a man and a woman, from Cernavodă and they are now at National Historical Museum, Bucharest. 3500–3400 BC—Jar with boat designs, from Hierakonpolis is created, 3500–2340 BC—First cities developed in Southern Mesopotamia. The cuneiform script proper emerges from pictographic proto-writing in the later 4th millennium, mesopotamias proto-literate period spans the 35th to 32nd centuries. The first documents written in the Sumerian language date to the 31st century. 3300–2900 BC—Construction of the Newgrange solar observatory/passage tomb in Ireland, 3300—Bronze Age starts in Indus Valley. C.3300 BC—Ötzi the Iceman dies near the border between Austria and Italy, only to be discovered in 1991 buried in a glacier of the Ötztal Alps. His cause of death is believed to be homicide, 3250–3000 BC—Construction of three megalithic temples at Tarxien, Malta. 3200–2500 BC—Construction of the Ħaġar Qim megalithic temple complex on Malta, C.3150 BC—Predynastic period ended in Ancient Egypt. The period includes 1st and 2nd Dynasties, C.3150 BC a lesser Tollmanns hypothetical bolide event may have occurred
13.
Rattan
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Rattan is the name for roughly 600 species of old world climbing palms belonging to subfamily Calamoideae. Rattan is also known as manila, or malacca, named after the ports of shipment Manila and Malacca City, the climbing habit is associated with the characteristics of its flexible woody stem, derived typically from a secondary growth, makes rattan a liana rather than a true wood. Calamoideae also includes tree palms such as Raphia and Metroxylon and shrub palms such as Salacca and they dont have spinose stems and climb by means of their reflexed terminal leaflets. Of these only Desmoncus spp. furnish stems of sufficiently good quality to be used as rattan cane substitutes, there are 13 different genera of rattans that include around 600 species. The largest rattan genus is Calamus, distributed in Asia except for one species represented in Africa, the rattan genera and their distribution, In Uhl & Dransfield, and also Dransfield & Manokaran, a great deal of basic introductory information is available. Available rattan floras and monographs by region, Uses by taxon, rattans are also superficially similar to bamboo. Unlike bamboo, rattan stems are solid, and most species need structural support, many rattans have spines which act as hooks to aid climbing over other plants, and to deter herbivores. Rattans have been known to grow up to hundreds of metres long, most of the worlds rattan population exist in Indonesia, distributed among the islands Borneo, Sulawesi, and Sumbawa. The rest of the supply comes from the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Malaysia. In forests where rattan grows, its value can help protect forest land, by providing an alternative to loggers who forgo timber logging. Rattan is much easier to harvest, requires simpler tools and is easier to transport. It also grows faster than most tropical wood. This makes it a tool in forest maintenance, since it provides a profitable crop that depends on rather than replaces trees. It remains to be seen whether rattan can be as profitable or useful as the alternatives, rattans are threatened with overexploitation, as harvesters are cutting stems too young and reducing their ability to resprout. Unsustainable harvesting of rattan can lead to forest degradation, affecting overall forest ecosystem services, the use of toxic chemicals and petrol in the processing of rattan affects soil, air and water resources, and also ultimately peoples health. Meanwhile, the method of rattan production is threatening the plants long-term supply. Generally, raw rattan is processed into products to be used as materials in furniture making. The various species of rattan range from millimetres up to 5–7 cm in diameter
14.
Arecaceae
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The Arecaceae are a botanical family of perennial climbers, shrubs, acaules and trees commonly known as palm trees. They are flowering plants, a family in the monocot order Arecales, currently 181 genera with around 2600 species are known, most of them restricted to tropical, subtropical, and warm temperate climates. Most palms are distinguished by their large, compound, evergreen leaves, known as fronds, however, palms exhibit an enormous diversity in physical characteristics and inhabit nearly every type of habitat within their range, from rainforests to deserts. Palms are among the best known and most extensively cultivated plant families and they have been important to humans throughout much of history. Many common products and foods are derived from palms, and palms are widely used in landscaping, making them one of the most economically important plants. In many historical cultures, palms were symbols for such ideas as victory, peace, for inhabitants of cooler climates today, palms symbolize the tropics and vacations. Whether as shrubs, trees, or vines, palms have two methods of growth, solitary or clustered, the common representation is that of a solitary shoot ending in a crown of leaves. This monopodial character may be exhibited by prostrate, trunkless, some common palms restricted to solitary growth include Washingtonia and Roystonea. Palms may instead grow in sparse though dense clusters, the trunk develops an axillary bud at a leaf node, usually near the base, from which a new shoot emerges. The new shoot, in turn, produces an axillary bud, exclusively sympodial genera include many of the rattans, Guihaia, and Rhapis. Several palm genera have both solitary and clustering members, Palms which are usually solitary may grow in clusters, and vice versa. These aberrations suggest the habit operates on a single gene, Palms have large, evergreen leaves that are either palmately or pinnately compound and spirally arranged at the top of the stem. The leaves have a sheath at the base that usually splits open on one side at maturity. The inflorescence is a spadix or spike surrounded by one or more bracts or spathes that become woody at maturity, the flowers are generally small and white, radially symmetric, and can be either uni- or bisexual. The sepals and petals usually number three each, and may be distinct or joined at the base, the stamens generally number six, with filaments that may be separate, attached to each other, or attached to the pistil at the base. The fruit is usually a single-seeded drupe but some genera may contain two or more seeds in each fruit, like all monocots, palms do not have the ability to increase the width of a stem via the same kind of vascular cambium found in non-monocot woody plants. This explains the shape of the trunk that is often seen in palms. The Arecaceae are notable among monocots for their height and for the size of their seeds, leaves, Ceroxylon quindiuense, Colombias national tree, is the tallest monocot in the world, reaching up to 60 m tall
15.
Bromeliaceae
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They are among the basal families within the Poales and are unique because they are the only family within the order that has septal nectaries and inferior ovaries. These inferior ovaries characterize the Bromelioideae, a subfamily of the Bromeliaceae, the family includes both epiphytes, such as Spanish moss, and terrestrial species, such as the pineapple. Many bromeliads are able to water in a structure formed by their tightly-overlapping leaf bases. The largest bromeliad is Puya raimondii, which reaches 3–4 m tall in vegetative growth with a flower spike 9–10 m tall, Bromeliads are plants that are adapted to various climates. Foliage takes different shapes, from needle-thin to broad and flat, symmetrical to irregular, the foliage, which usually grows in a rosette, is widely patterned and colored. Leaf colors range from maroon, through shades of green, to gold, varieties may have leaves with red, yellow, white and cream variations. Others may be spotted with purple, red, or cream, while others have different colors on the tops, the inflorescences produced by bromeliads are also regarded as considerably more diverse than any other plant family. Some flower spikes may reach 10 meters tall, while others only measure 2–3 mm across, upright stalks may be branched or simple with spikes retaining their color from two weeks up to 12 months, depending on species. In some species, the flower remains unseen, growing deep in the base of the plants, root systems vary according to plant type. Terrestrial bromeliad species have complex systems that gather water and nutrients, while epiphytic bromeliads only grow hard, wiry roots to attach themselves to trees. Some bromeliads are faintly scented, while others are heavily perfumed, blooms from the species Tillandsia cyanea have a fragrance resembling that of clove spice. One study found 175,000 bromeliads per hectare in one forest, a wide variety of organisms takes advantage of the pools of water trapped by bromeliads. A study of 209 plants from the Ecuadorian lowlands identified 11,219 animals, representing more than 300 distinct species, examples include some species of ostracods, small salamanders about 2.5 cm in length, and tree frogs. Some bromeliads even form homes for other species of bromeliads, plants in the Bromeliaceae are widely represented in their natural climates across the Americas. One species can be found in Africa and they can be found at altitudes from sea level to 4200 meters, from rainforests to deserts. 1814 species are epiphytes, some are lithophytes, and some are terrestrial, Bromeliads often serve as phytotelmata, accumulating water between their leaves. The aquatic habitat created as a result is host to an array of invertebrates. These bromeliad invertebrates benefit their hosts by increasing nitrogen uptake into the plant, Bromeliads are among the more recent plant groups to have emerged
16.
Art
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In their most general form these activities include the production of works of art, the criticism of art, the study of the history of art, and the aesthetic dissemination of art. The oldest documented forms of art are visual arts, which include creation of images or objects in fields including painting, sculpture, printmaking, photography, and other visual media. Music, theatre, film, dance, and other performing arts, as well as literature, until the 17th century, art referred to any skill or mastery and was not differentiated from crafts or sciences. Art may be characterized in terms of mimesis, expression, communication of emotion, during the Romantic period, art came to be seen as a special faculty of the human mind to be classified with religion and science. Though the definition of what art is disputed and has changed over time, general descriptions mention an idea of imaginative or technical skill stemming from human agency. The nature of art, and related such as creativity. One early sense of the definition of art is related to the older Latin meaning. English words derived from this meaning include artifact, artificial, artifice, medical arts, however, there are many other colloquial uses of the word, all with some relation to its etymology. Several dialogues in Plato tackle questions about art, Socrates says that poetry is inspired by the muses, and is not rational. He speaks approvingly of this, and other forms of divine madness in the Phaedrus, and yet in the Republic wants to outlaw Homers great poetic art, in Ion, Socrates gives no hint of the disapproval of Homer that he expresses in the Republic. For example, music imitates with the media of rhythm and harmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone, the forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is an imitation of men worse than average. Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation—through narrative or character, through change or no change, Aristotle believed that imitation is natural to mankind and constitutes one of mankinds advantages over animals. The second, and more recent, sense of the art as an abbreviation for creative art or fine art emerged in the early 17th century. The creative arts are a collection of disciplines which produce artworks that are compelled by a drive and convey a message, mood. Art is something that stimulates an individuals thoughts, emotions, beliefs, works of art can be explicitly made for this purpose or interpreted on the basis of images or objects. Often, if the skill is being used in a common or practical way, likewise, if the skill is being used in a commercial or industrial way, it may be considered commercial art instead of fine art. On the other hand, crafts and design are considered applied art
17.
Ancient Greek art
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The rate of stylistic development between about 750 and 300 BC was remarkable by ancient standards, and in surviving works is best seen in sculpture. There were important innovations in painting, which have to be reconstructed due to the lack of original survivals of quality. The art of ancient Greece is usually divided stylistically into four periods, the Geometric, Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic. The Geometric age is dated from about 1000 BC, although in reality little is known about art in Greece during the preceding 200 years. The 7th century BC witnessed the development of the Archaic style as exemplified by the black-figure style of vase painting. From some point in the 1st century BC onwards Greco-Roman is used, in reality, there was no sharp transition from one period to another. Forms of art developed at different speeds in different parts of the Greek world, strong local traditions, and the requirements of local cults, enable historians to locate the origins even of works of art found far from their place of origin. Greek art of various kinds was widely exported, the whole period saw a generally steady increase in prosperity and trading links within the Greek world and with neighbouring cultures. The survival rate of Greek art differs starkly between media and we have huge quantities of pottery and coins, much stone sculpture, though even more Roman copies, and a few large bronze sculptures. Almost entirely missing are painting, fine metal vessels, and anything in perishable materials including wood, the stone shell of a number of temples and theatres has survived, but little of their extensive decoration. By convention, finely painted vessels of all sorts are called vases, sculptural or architectural pottery, also very often painted, are referred to as terracottas, and also survive in large quantities. In much of the literature, pottery means only painted vessels, pottery was the main form of grave goods deposited in tombs, often as funerary urns containing the cremated ashes, and was widely exported. Other colours were limited, normally to small areas of white. Within the restrictions of these techniques and other conventions, vase-painters achieved remarkable results, combining refinement. White ground technique allowed more freedom in depiction, but did not wear well and was made for burial. Conventionally, the ancient Greeks are said to have made most pottery vessels for everyday use, not for display. Most surviving pottery consists of vessels for storing, serving or drinking liquids such as amphorae, kraters, hydria, libation bowls, oil and perfume bottles for the toilet, jugs, painted vessels for serving and eating food are much less common. Painted pottery was affordable even by people, and a piece decently decorated with about five or six figures cost about two or three days wages
18.
Kanephoros
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The role was given to a virgin selected from amongst the aristocratic or Eupatrid families of Athens whose purity and youth was thought essential to ensure a successful sacrifice. The passage continues, “inally, when I had grown to be a girl, I was a kanephoros. The cult practice of bearing the basket in a sacrificial procession may date back to the Minoan period, however, the role is also referred to in myth with the abduction of Oreithyia by Boreas. A girl who acted as kanephoros would have advertised the place of her family in Athenian society. The depiction of the kanephoros in art presents an interesting problem, unlike the ephebos there are few representations of such girls, possibly because of the restriction on mentioning the name of honourable women in ancient Greek society. Excluding the Parthenon there are only some 44 images of girls, otherwise she must be identified by her dress since while serving her office the kanephoros wore a distinctive full-length mantle, for example in the kylix by Makron, Toledo, Ohio 1972.55. This would solve the problem of the absence of the basket bearers from the processional frieze. Arsinoe II is mentioned as kanephoros on the Rosetta stone, edinburgh University Press,2003, ISBN 0-7486-1643-8,2003. Girls and Women in Classical Greek Religion, goff, Barbara E. Citizen Bacchae, Women’s Ritual Practice in Ancient Greece. University of California Press,2004, ISBN 0-520-23998-9, the Kanephoros and her Festival Mantle in Greek Art, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol.99, No
19.
To hell in a handbasket
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The phrase also appeared in the title of several published works and other media, To Hell in a Handbasket is the name of humorist H. Allen Smiths 1962 autobiography. Hell in a Handbasket was the title of a 1988 Star Trek comic book, Hell in a Handbasket is the title of a 2006 book by American cartoonist Tom Tomorrow, who authors the cartoon strip This Modern World. Hell in a handbasket was the name of an undescribed con requiring a trained cat referenced in the 2004 film, Hell in a Handbasket is a song from Voltaires Ooky Spooky album. It is the name for Chandlers crossdressing dad. Helena Handbasket is also a fictional nymph in the 2011 video game Rayman Origins, helena Handbasket is also the pseudonym of the author of Twilights Last Gleaming, The Decline and Fall of the United States. 2015 video game Fallout 4 in the prequel it includes a Vault Tec Representative and refers to the phrase Heck in a handbasket
20.
Wicker
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Wicker is a kind of furniture woven from any one of a variety of cane-like materials, including rattan, willow, reed and bamboo. As such, it is not a material, but a technique. The word wicker is believed to be of Scandinavian origin, wika which means to bend in Swedish, Wicker is traditionally made of material of plant origin, but plastic fibers are now also used. Wicker is light yet sturdy, making it suitable for furniture that will be moved often like porch, a variety of plants are used such as reeds, grasses, creepers, and thin tree branches. Rushwork and wickerwork are terms used in England, Wicker has been documented as far back as ancient Egypt, made from indigenous reed and swamp grasses. Middle-class families could afford a few pieces, such as small tables. However, archaeologists working on the tombs of the wealthy pharaohs have uncovered a variety of wicker items, including chests, baskets, wig boxes. Wicker even found use in the Achaemenid Empire on the battlefield, the popularity of wicker passed from ancient Egypt and Persia to ancient Rome. Wicker baskets were used to carry items in Pompeii, furniture was manufactured out of wicker in the Roman style. It has been proposed that the use of wicker in the Iron Age may have influenced the development of the woven patterns used in Celtic art. By the 16th and 17th centuries, wicker was quite common in European countries like Portugal, Spain, Wicker received a boost during the Age of Exploration, when international sea traders returned from southeast Asia with a species of palm called rattan. Rattan is stronger than traditional European wicker materials, although the stem can be separated so the softer inner core can be used for wicker. The 19th century brought immense popularity for wicker in Europe, England and it was used outdoors as well as indoors. People in the Victorian Era believed it to be more sanitary than upholstered furniture and it was inexpensive, resisted harsh weather and was adaptable to many styles. In the United States, Cyrus Wakefield began constructing rattan furniture in the 1850s and he first used rattan that had been offloaded from ships, where it was used as ballast, but as his designs became well-known, he began importing the material himself. In recent times, its aesthetic was influenced heavily by the Arts and Crafts movement at the turn of the 20th century, Wicker is still a popular material. Antique wicker products are sought after by collectors. Reproductions of furniture and accent pieces are sold for indoor and outdoor use
21.
Straw
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Straw is an agricultural by-product, the dry stalks of cereal plants, after the grain and chaff have been removed. Straw makes up half of the yield of cereal crops such as barley, oats, rice, rye. It has many uses, including fuel, livestock bedding and fodder and it is usually gathered and stored in a straw bale, which is a bundle of straw tightly bound with twine or wire. Bales may be square, rectangular, or round, depending on the type of baler used. Current and historic uses of straw include, Animal feed Straw may be fed as part of the component of the diet to cattle or horses that are on a near maintenance level of energy requirement. It has a low energy and nutrient content. The heat generated when microorganisms in a herbivores gut digest straw can be useful in maintaining body temperature in cold climates, due to the risk of impaction and its poor nutrient profile, it should always be restricted to part of the diet. It may be fed as it is, or chopped into short lengths, basketry Bee skeps and linen baskets are made from coiled and bound together continuous lengths of straw. The technique is known as lip work, bedding, humans or livestock The straw-filled mattress, also known as a palliasse, is still used in many parts of the world. It is commonly used as bedding for ruminants and horses and it may be used as bedding and food for small animals, but this often leads to injuries to mouth, nose and eyes as straw is quite sharp. Biofuels The use of straw as an energy source is increasing rapidly, especially for biobutanol. Straw or hay briquettes are a substitute to coal. Biogas Straw, processed first as briquettes, has been fed into a plant in Aarhus University, Denmark. Biomass The use of straw in large-scale biomass power plants is becoming mainstream in the EU, the straw is either used directly in the form of bales, or densified into pellets which allows for the feedstock to be transported over longer distances. Finally, torrefaction of straw with pelletisation is gaining attention, because it increases the density of the resource. This processing step also makes storage easier, because torrefied straw pellets are hydrophobic. Torrefied straw in the form of pellets can be directly co-fired with coal or natural gas at high rates and make use of the processing infrastructures at existing coal. Because the torrefied straw pellets have superior structural, chemical and combustion properties to coal, they can replace all coal, first generation pellets are limited to a co-firing rate of 15% in modern IGCC plants
22.
Plastic
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Plastic is a material consisting of any of a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic organic compounds that are malleable and can be molded into solid objects. Plastics are typically organic polymers of high mass, but they often contain other substances. They are usually synthetic, most commonly derived from petrochemicals, due to their relatively low cost, ease of manufacture, versatility, and imperviousness to water, plastics are used in an enormous and expanding range of products, from paper clips to spaceships. They have already displaced many traditional materials, such as wood, stone, horn and bone, leather, paper, metal, glass, and ceramic, in most of their former uses. In developed countries, about a third of plastic is used in packaging, other uses include automobiles, furniture, and toys. In the developing world, the ratios may be different - for example, the worlds first fully synthetic plastic was bakelite, invented in New York in 1907 by Leo Baekeland who coined the term plastics. Toward the end of the century, one approach to this problem was met with wide efforts toward recycling, the word plastic is derived from the Greek πλαστικός meaning capable of being shaped or molded, from πλαστός meaning molded. The common word plastic should not be confused with the technical adjective plastic, used for insulating parts in electrical fixtures, paper laminated products, thermally insulation foams. Problems include the probability of moldings naturally being dark colors, One of the most expensive commercial polymers. It forms the basis of artistic and commercial acrylic paints when suspended in water with the use of other agents, polytetrafluoroethylene – Heat-resistant, low-friction coatings, used in things like non-stick surfaces for frying pans, plumbers tape and water slides. It is more known as Teflon. Urea-formaldehyde – One of the aminoplasts and used as an alternative to phenolics. Used as an adhesive and electrical switch housings. Early plastics were bio-derived materials such as egg and blood proteins, in 1600 BC, Mesoamericans used natural rubber for balls, bands, and figurines. Treated cattle horns were used as windows for lanterns in the Middle Ages, materials that mimicked the properties of horns were developed by treating milk-proteins with lye. In the 1800s, as industrial chemistry developed during the Industrial Revolution, the development of plastics also accelerated with Charles Goodyears discovery of vulcanization to thermoset materials derived from natural rubber. Parkesine is considered the first man-made plastic, the plastic material was patented by Alexander Parkes, In Birmingham, UK in 1856. It was unveiled at the 1862 Great International Exhibition in London, parkesine won a bronze medal at the 1862 Worlds fair in London
23.
Metal
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A metal is a material that is typically hard, opaque, shiny, and has good electrical and thermal conductivity. Metals are generally malleable—that is, they can be hammered or pressed permanently out of shape without breaking or cracking—as well as fusible and ductile, about 91 of the 118 elements in the periodic table are metals, the others are nonmetals or metalloids. Some elements appear in both metallic and non-metallic forms, astrophysicists use the term metal to collectively describe all elements other than hydrogen and helium, the simplest two, in a star. The star fuses smaller atoms, mostly hydrogen and helium, to larger ones over its lifetime. In that sense, the metallicity of an object is the proportion of its matter made up of all chemical elements. Many elements and compounds that are not normally classified as metals become metallic under high pressures, the atoms of metallic substances are typically arranged in one of three common crystal structures, namely body-centered cubic, face-centered cubic, and hexagonal close-packed. In bcc, each atom is positioned at the center of a cube of eight others, in fcc and hcp, each atom is surrounded by twelve others, but the stacking of the layers differs. Some metals adopt different structures depending on the temperature, atoms of metals readily lose their outer shell electrons, resulting in a free flowing cloud of electrons within their otherwise solid arrangement. This provides the ability of metallic substances to easily transmit heat, while this flow of electrons occurs, the solid characteristic of the metal is produced by electrostatic interactions between each atom and the electron cloud. This type of bond is called a metallic bond, Metals are usually inclined to form cations through electron loss, reacting with oxygen in the air to form oxides over various timescales. Examples,4 Na + O2 →2 Na2O2 Ca + O2 →2 CaO4 Al +3 O2 →2 Al2O3, the transition metals are slower to oxidize because they form a passivating layer of oxide that protects the interior. Others, like palladium, platinum and gold, do not react with the atmosphere at all, some metals form a barrier layer of oxide on their surface which cannot be penetrated by further oxygen molecules and thus retain their shiny appearance and good conductivity for many decades. The oxides of metals are generally basic, as opposed to those of nonmetals, exceptions are largely oxides with very high oxidation states such as CrO3, Mn2O7, and OsO4, which have strictly acidic reactions. Painting, anodizing or plating metals are good ways to prevent their corrosion, however, a more reactive metal in the electrochemical series must be chosen for coating, especially when chipping of the coating is expected. Water and the two form an electrochemical cell, and if the coating is less reactive than the coatee. Metals in general have high conductivity, high thermal conductivity. Typically they are malleable and ductile, deforming under stress without cleaving, in terms of optical properties, metals are shiny and lustrous. Sheets of metal beyond a few micrometres in thickness appear opaque, although most metals have higher densities than most nonmetals, there is wide variation in their densities, lithium being the least dense solid element and osmium the densest
24.
Bamboo
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The bamboos /bæmˈbuː/ are evergreen perennial flowering plants in the subfamily Bambusoideae of the grass family Poaceae. The dicotyledonous woody xylem is also absent, the absence of secondary growth wood causes the stems of monocots, including the palms and large bamboos, to be columnar rather than tapering. Bamboos include some of the plants in the world, due to a unique rhizome-dependent system. Certain species of bamboo can grow 91 cm within a 24-hour period, giant bamboos are the largest members of the grass family. Bamboos are of economic and cultural significance in South Asia, Southeast Asia and East Asia, being used for building materials, as a food source. Bamboo has a higher compressive strength than wood, brick, or concrete. The word bamboo comes from the Kannada term bambu, which was introduced to English through Indonesian, the subfamily in its current sense belongs to the BOP clade of grasses, where it is sister to the Pooideae. The woody bamboos do not form a group, instead. Altogether, more than 1,400 species are placed in 115 genera, most bamboo are native to warm and moist tropical and warm temperate climates. However, many species are found in climates, from hot tropical regions to cool mountainous regions. In the Asia-Pacific region they occur across East Asia, from 50°N latitude in Sakhalin south to Northern Australia, and west to India, China, Japan, Korea, India, and Australia, all have several endemic populations. They also occur in numbers in sub-Saharan Africa, confined to tropical areas, from southern Senegal in the north to southern Mozambique. Bamboo is also native through Central America and Mexico, northward into the Southeastern United States, canada and continental Europe is not known to have any native species of bamboo. Recently, some attempts have been made to grow bamboo on a basis in the Great Lakes region of east-central Africa. In the United States, several companies are growing, harvesting, bamboos include some of the fastest-growing plants on Earth, with reported growth rates up to 91 cm in 24 hours. Primarily growing in regions of warmer climates during the late Cretaceous period, some of the largest timber bamboo can grow over 30 m tall, and be as large as 25–30 cm in diameter. However, the range for mature bamboo is species-dependent, with the smallest bamboos reaching only several inches high at maturity. A typical height range that would cover many of the common bamboos grown in the United States is 4. 6–12 m, depending on species
25.
Carbon fiber reinforced polymer
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Carbon fiber reinforced polymer, carbon fiber reinforced plastic or carbon fiber reinforced thermoplastic, is an extremely strong and light fiber-reinforced plastic which contains carbon fibers. The spelling fibre is common in British Commonwealth countries, the binding polymer is often a thermoset resin such as epoxy, but other thermoset or thermoplastic polymers, such as polyester, vinyl ester or nylon, are sometimes used. The composite may contain other fibers, such as an aramid, aluminium, ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene or glass fibers, the properties of the final CFRP product can also be affected by the type of additives introduced to the binding matrix. The most frequent additive is silica, but other such as rubber. The material is referred to as graphite-reinforced polymer or graphite fiber-reinforced polymer. In product advertisements, it is referred to simply as graphite fiber for short. In this case the composite consists of two parts, a matrix and a reinforcement, in CFRP the reinforcement is carbon fiber, which provides the strength. The matrix is usually a resin, such as epoxy. Because CFRP consists of two elements, the material properties depend on these two elements. The reinforcement will give the CFRP its strength and rigidity, measured by stress, unlike isotropic materials like steel and aluminum, CFRP has directional strength properties. The properties of CFRP depend on the layouts of the carbon fiber, the following equation, E c = V m E m + V f E f is valid for composite materials with the fibers oriented in the direction of the applied load. Typical epoxy-based CFRPs exhibit virtually no plasticity, with less than 0. 5% strain to failure, although CFRPs with epoxy have high strength and elastic modulus, the brittle fracture mechanics present unique challenges to engineers in failure detection since failure occurs catastrophically. As such, recent efforts to toughen CFRPs include modifying the existing epoxy material, One such material with high promise is PEEK, which exhibits an order of magnitude greater toughness with similar elastic modulus and tensile strength. However, PEEK is much more difficult to process and more expensive, despite its high initial strength-to-weight ratio, a design limitation of CFRP is its lack of a definable fatigue endurance limit. This means, theoretically, that stress cycle failure cannot be ruled out, environmental effects such as temperature and humidity can have profound effects on the polymer-based composites, including most CFRPs. While the carbon fibers themselves are not affected by the moisture diffusing into the material, the carbon fibers can cause galvanic corrosion when CRP parts are attached to aluminum. The primary element of CFRP is a filament, this is produced from a precursor polymer such as polyacrylonitrile, rayon. Precursor compositions and mechanical processes used during spinning filament yarns may vary among manufacturers, after drawing or spinning, the polymer filament yarns are then heated to drive off non-carbon atoms, producing the final carbon fiber
26.
Danforth Art
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Through 2017, Danforth Art Museum exhibitions will take place offsite at museums, schools, and community partners. The school offers classes and workshops to adults and children, subjects taught include drawing, painting, sculpture, and mixed media
27.
Framingham, Massachusetts
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Framingham is a town in Middlesex County, Massachusetts, United States. The population was 68,318 as of the United States 2010 Census, founded in 1700, Framingham was placed at #36 on Best Places to Live in US by CNN Money magazine in 2012. Framingham, sited on the ancient trail known as the Old Connecticut Path, was first settled when John Stone settled on the west bank of the Sudbury River in 1647. In 1660, Thomas Danforth, an official of the Bay Colony, formerly of Framlingham, Suffolk, received a grant of land at Danforths Farms and he strenuously resisted petitions for incorporation of the town, which was officially incorporated in 1700, following his death the previous year. Why the L was dropped from the new name is not known. The first church was organized in 1701, the first teacher was hired in 1706, on February 22,1775, the British general Thomas Gage sent two officers and an enlisted man out of Boston to survey the route to Worcester, Massachusetts. In Framingham, those spies stopped at Buckminsters Tavern and they watched the town militia muster outside the building, impressed with the mens numbers but not their discipline. Though the whole company came into the tavern after their drill, Gage did not order a march along that route, instead ordering troops to Concord, Massachusetts, on April 18–19. Framingham sent two companies totaling about 130 men into the Battles of Lexington and Concord that followed. In the years prior to the American Civil War, Framingham was an annual gathering-spot for members of the abolitionist movement, each Independence Day from 1854 to 1865, the Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Society held a rally in a picnic area called Harmony Grove near what is now downtown Framingham. At the 1854 rally, William Lloyd Garrison burned copies of the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850, judicial decisions enforcing it, other prominent abolitionists present that day included William Cooper Nell, Sojourner Truth, Wendell Phillips, Lucy Stone, and Henry David Thoreau. During the post–World War II baby boom, Framingham, like many suburban areas, experienced a large increase in population. Much of the housing constructed during that time consisted of split-level, in 2000, Framingham celebrated its Tercentennial. Framingham is located at 42°17′59″N 71°25′35″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 26.4 square miles. 25.1 square miles of it is land and 1.3 square miles of it is water, Framingham is located in eastern Massachusetts,20 miles west of Boston, midway between Boston and Worcester. It is bordered by Southborough and Marlborough on the west, Sherborn and Ashland on the south, Natick on the east, Wayland on the northeast, the town of Framingham is divided by Route 9, which passes east-to-west through the middle of the town. South Framingham includes Downtown Framingham, and the villages of Coburnville, Lokerville, North Framingham includes the villages of Nobscot, Pinefield, Ridgefield, and Saxonville plus Framingham Center. As of the census of 2010, there were 68,318 people,27,529 households, the population density was 2,663.6 people per square mile
28.
Nuu-chah-nulth
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The Nuu-chah-nulth, also formerly referred to as the Nootka, Nutka, Aht, Nuuchahnulth or Tahkaht, are one of the Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast in Canada. The term Nuu-chah-nulth is used to describe fifteen related tribes whose traditional home is on the west coast of Vancouver Island, the Nuu-chah-nulth are related to the Kwakwakawakw, the Haisla, and the Nitinaht. The Nuu-chah-nulth language is part of the Wakashan language group, the Makah people in northwest Washington were historically also Wakashan speakers. When James Cook first encountered the villagers at Yuquot in 1778, Cook interpreted this as the natives name for the inlet—now called Nootka Sound. The term was applied to the indigenous inhabitants of the area. In 1978 the tribes of western Vancouver Island chose the term Nuu-chah-nulth and this was the culmination of the 1967 alliance forged among these tribes in order to present a unified political voice to the levels of government and European-Canadian society. The Makah of northwest Washington, located on the Olympic Peninsula in their own reservation, are related to the Nuu-chah-nulth. The Nuu-chah-nulth were among the first Pacific peoples north of California to encounter Europeans, competition between Spain and the United Kingdom over control of Nootka Sound led to a bitter international dispute around 1790, called the Nootka Crisis. It was settled under the Nootka Conventions of the 1790s, when Spain agreed to abandon its claims to the North Pacific coast. Negotiations to settle the dispute were handled under the aegis and hospitality of Maquinna, a few years later, Maquinna and his warriors captured the American trading ship Boston in March 1803. He and his men killed the captain and all the crew, after gaining release, John R. Jewitt wrote a classic captivity narrative about his nearly 3 years with the Nuu-chah-nulth and his reluctant assimilation to their society. This 1815 book is entitled Narrative of the Adventures and Sufferings of John R, in 1811 the trading ship Tonquin was blown up in Clayoquot Sound. Tla-o-qui-aht and his warriors had attacked the ship in revenge for an insult by the ships captain, the captain and almost all the crew were killed and the ship abandoned. The next day warriors reboarded the empty ship to salvage it, however, a hiding crew member set fire to the ships magazine and the resulting explosion killed many natives. Only one crew member, a pilot / interpreter hired from the nearby Quinault nation, from earliest contact with European explorers up until 1830, more than 90% of the Nuu-chah-nulth died as a result of infectious disease epidemics, particularly malaria and smallpox. Europeans carried these endemic diseases but the First Nations had no immunity to them, the high rate of deaths added to the social disruption and cultural turmoil resulting from contact with Westerners. In the early 20th century, the population was estimated at 3,500, total population for the 13 tribes in the Nuuchahnulth nation is 8,147, according to the Nuuchahnulth Tribal Council Indian Registry of February 2006. The Ditidaht First Nation, while politically and culturally affiliated with the Nuu-chah-nulth, are referred to
29.
Zambia
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The capital city is Lusaka, in the south-central part of Zambia. The population is concentrated mainly around Lusaka in the south and the Copperbelt Province to the northwest, originally inhabited by Khoisan peoples, the region was affected by the Bantu expansion of the thirteenth century. After visits by European explorers in the century, Zambia became the British protectorate of Northern Rhodesia towards the end of the nineteenth century. For most of the period, Zambia was governed by an administration appointed from London with the advice of the British South Africa Company. On 24 October 1964, Zambia became independent of the United Kingdom, Kaundas socialist United National Independence Party maintained power from 1964 until 1991. Kaunda played a key role in diplomacy, cooperating closely with the United States in search of solutions to conflicts in Rhodesia, Angola. From 1972 to 1991 Zambia was a one-party state with the UNIP as the legal political party under the motto One Zambia. Kaunda was succeeded by Frederick Chiluba of the social-democratic Movement for Multi-Party Democracy in 1991, beginning a period of social-economic growth, after Mwanawasas death, Rupiah Banda presided as Acting President before being elected President in 2008. Holding office for three years, Banda stepped down after his defeat in the 2011 elections by Patriotic Front party leader Michael Sata. Sata died on 28 October 2014, the second Zambian president to die in office, Guy Scott served briefly as interim president until new elections were held on 20 January 2015, in which Edgar Lungu was elected as the sixth President. In 2010, the World Bank named Zambia one of the worlds fastest economically reformed countries, the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa is headquartered in Lusaka. The territory of what is now Zambia was known as Northern Rhodesia from 1911 and it was renamed Zambia at independence in 1964. The new name of Zambia was derived from the Zambezi river, the area of modern Zambia is known to have been inhabited by the Khoisan until around AD300, when migrating Bantu began to settle around these areas. These early hunter-gatherer groups were either annihilated or absorbed by subsequent more organised Bantu groups. Archaeological excavation work on the Zambezi Valley and Kalambo Falls show a succession of human cultures, in particular, ancient camping site tools near the Kalambo Falls have been radiocarbon dated to more than 36,000 year ago. The fossil skull remains of Broken Hill Man, dated between 300,000 and 125,000 years BC, further shows that the area was inhabited by pre-historic man. The early history of tribes of modern-day Zambia can only be gleaned from knowledge passed down by successive generations through word of mouth, in the 12th century, major waves of Bantu-speaking immigrants arrived during the Bantu expansion. Among them, the Tonga people were the first to settle in Zambia and are believed to have come from the east near the big sea, by the late 12th century, more advanced kingdoms and empires had been established in most regions of modern-day Zambia
30.
Pomo
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The Pomo are an indigenous people of California. The historic Pomo territory in northern California was large, bordered by the Pacific Coast to the west, extending inland to Clear Lake, and mainly between Cleone and Duncans Point. One small group, the Northeastern Pomo of the Stonyford vicinity of Colusa County, was separated from the core Pomo area by lands inhabited by Yuki, the name Pomo derives from a conflation of the Pomo words and. It originally meant those who live at red earth hole and was once the name of a village in southern Potter Valley near the community of Pomo. It may have referred to local deposits of the red mineral magnesite, used for red beads, or to the earth and clay, such as hematite. In the Northern Pomo dialect, -pomo or -poma was used as a suffix after the names of places, by the year 1877, the use of Pomo had been extended in English to mean the entire people known today as the Pomo. The Pomo had 20 chiefs at the same time, the people called Pomo were originally linked by location, language, and cultural expression. They were not socially or politically linked as one large unified group, instead, they lived in small groups or bands, linked by geography, lineage and marriage. Traditionally they relied upon fishing, hunting and gathering for their food, the Pomo Indian tribe is a linguistic branch of Native American of Northern California. Their historic territory in the past was on the Pacific Coast between Cleone and Duncans Point, the Pomo Indians preferred to live in small groups which they called bands. Their bands were linked by geography, lineage, and marriage, the Pomo was composed of about hundreds of independent communities. Like many other Native groups, the Pomo Indian of Northern California relied upon fishing, hunting and they ate salmon, wild greens, gnats, mushrooms, berries, grasshoppers, rabbits, rats, and squirrels. Acorns were the most important part of their diet, the Pomo Indian women were gatherers while men were hunters and fishers. They were somewhat nomadic people and liked to migrate around the California Great Plains, wherever they found peaceful and well adapted, they began building homes. The Pomo people lived a simple life. They did not use a lot of clothing, men were naked and women mostly wore short. In the cold winter, more clothing made of animals skin might be worn, the Pomo Indians are known as masters of basket weaving and jewelry making. Some of their most culturally important dances are Ghost Dance and Far South, during a Ghost Dance ceremony, they believed that the dead were recognized
31.
Makah
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The Makah are an indigenous people living in Washington, in the Pacific Northwest of the continental United States. They are enrolled in the federally recognized Makah Indian Tribe of the Makah Indian Reservation, the Makah Indian Tribe own the Makah Indian Reservation on the northwest tip of the Olympic Peninsula, it includes Tatoosh Island. They live in and around the town of Neah Bay, Washington, the Makah people refer to themselves as Kwih-dich-chuh-ahtx which translates to somewhere near to the people who live by the rocks and seagulls. Other thought translations include the people who live on the cape by the seagulls, archaeological research suggests that the Makah people have inhabited the area now known as Neah Bay for more than 3,800 years. The ancient Makah lived in villages, inhabiting large longhouses made from red cedar. The planks could be tilted or removed to provide ventilation or light, the cedar tree was of great value to the Makah, who also used its bark to make water-resistant clothing and hats. Cedar roots were used in basket making, whole trees were carved out to make canoes to hunt seals, gray whales and humpback whales. The Makah acquired much of their food from the ocean and their diet consisted of whale, seal, fish, and a wide variety of shellfish. They would also hunt deer, elk, and bear from the surrounding forests, women also gathered a wide variety of nuts, berries and edible plants and roots for their foods. Much of what is known about the way of life of the ancient Makah is derived from their oral tradition, abundant archeological evidence excavated at the Ozette village site has provided great insight into the lives of the Makah. In the early 17th century, a mudslide engulfed part of a Makah village near Lake Ozette, the mudslide preserved several houses and their contents in a collapsed state until the 1970s, when they were excavated by Makahs and archaeologists from Washington State University. Over 55,000 artifacts were recovered, representing many activities of the Makah, from whale and seal hunting to salmon, artifacts included toys, games, and bows and arrows. The oral history of the Makah mentions a great slide which engulfed a portion of Ozette long ago, archaeological test pits were excavated at the Ozette site in 1966 and 1967 by Richard Daugherty. However, it was not until 1970 that it became apparent what was buried there, after a storm in February 1970, tidal erosion exposed hundreds of well-preserved wooden artifacts. The excavation of the Ozette site began shortly after, University students worked with the Makah under the direction of archaeologists using pressurized water to remove mud from six buried long houses. The excavation went on for 11 years and it produced more than 55,000 artifacts, many of which are on display in the Makah Cultural and Research Center. Opened in 1979, the museum displays replicas of cedar long houses as well as whaling, fishing, in 1834, a dismasted, rudderless ship from Japan ran aground near Cape Flattery. The Makah took the three survivors of the ship and cared for them, holding them as slaves for several months before taking them to Fort Vancouver
32.
Ethiopia
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Ethiopia, officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a country located in the Horn of Africa. It shares borders with Eritrea to the north and northeast, Djibouti and Somalia to the east, Sudan and South Sudan to the west, and Kenya to the south. With nearly 100 million inhabitants, Ethiopia is the most populous landlocked country in the world and it occupies a total area of 1,100,000 square kilometres, and its capital and largest city is Addis Ababa. Some of the oldest evidence for modern humans has been found in Ethiopia. It is widely considered as the region from modern humans first set out for the Middle East. According to linguists, the first Afroasiatic-speaking populations settled in the Horn region during the ensuing Neolithic era, tracing its roots to the 2nd millennium BC, Ethiopia was a monarchy for most of its history. During the first centuries AD, the Kingdom of Aksum maintained a unified civilization in the region, subsequently, many African nations adopted the colors of Ethiopias flag following their independence. It was the first independent African member of the 20th-century League of Nations, Ethiopias ancient Geez script, also known as Ethiopic, is one of the oldest alphabets still in use in the world. The Ethiopian calendar, which is seven years and three months behind the Gregorian calendar, co-exists alongside the Borana calendar. A slight majority of the population adheres to Christianity, while around a third follows Islam, the country is the site of the Migration to Abyssinia and the oldest Muslim settlement in Africa at Negash. A substantial population of Ethiopian Jews, known as Bete Israel, resided in Ethiopia until the 1980s, Ethiopia is a multilingual nation with around 80 ethnolinguistic groups, the four largest of which are the Oromiffa, Amhara, Somali, and Tigrayans. Most people in the country speak Afroasiatic languages of the Cushitic or Semitic branches, additionally, Omotic languages are spoken by ethnic minority groups inhabiting the southern regions. Nilo-Saharan languages are spoken by the nations Nilotic ethnic minorities. Ethiopia is the place of origin for the coffee bean which originated from the place called Kefa and it is a land of natural contrasts, with its vast fertile West, jungles, and numerous rivers, and the worlds hottest settlement of Dallol in its north. The Ethiopian Highlands are Africas largest continuous mountain ranges, and Sof Omar Caves contain Africas largest cave, Ethiopia has the most UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Africa. Ethiopia is one of the members of the UN, the Group of 24, the Non-Aligned Movement, G-77. In the 1970s and 1980s, Ethiopia suffered from civil wars, the country has begun to recover recently however, and now has the largest economy in East Africa and Central Africa. According to Global Fire Power, Ethiopia has the 42nd most powerful military in the world, the origin of the word Ethiopia is uncertain
33.
Seri people
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The Seris are an indigenous group of the Mexican state of Sonora. The majority reside on the Seri communal property, in the towns of Punta Chueca, Tiburón Island and San Esteban Island were part of their traditional territory, but some Seris also lived in various places on the mainland. They were historically seminomadic hunter-gatherers who maintained a relationship with both the sea and the land. It is one of the groups of Mexico that has most strongly maintained its language and culture during the years after contact with Spanish. The Seri people are not related culturally or linguistically to other groups that have lived in the area, such as the Opata, Yaqui, Oodham, the Seri language is distinct from all others in the region and is considered a language isolate. Beside the Apache and Yaqui, the Seri are best known as fierce warriors for their resistance against subjugation by the Spanish. The name Seri is an exonym of uncertain origin and their name for themselves is Comcaac, singular, Cmiique, phonetically ). The Seri were formerly divided into six bands, Tahejöc comcaac or Tahéjöc comcáac, also known as the Seris or Tiburones, who inhabited the coasts of Tiburón Island, and the coast of Mexico opposite it, north of the Xiica xnaai iicp coii. Xnaamotat or Xnaa motat, also known as Upanguaymas or Guaymas, Xiica hast ano coii or Xica hast ano coii, hast ano ctam, hast ano cmaam ), who inhabited San Esteban Island and the southern coast of Tiburón Island. Three of the bands were further subdivided, relations between bands were not always friendly, and internal fights sometimes occurred. Some Bands were also living on Baja California peninsula, they were called Hant Ihiini comcaac and it has been said that these groups spoke three distinct but mutually intelligible dialects. The second dialect was spoken by the Xnaamotat Band, but it is currently extinct, the third dialect is also extinct and was spoken by the Xiica hast ano coii Band, it was described as sounding musical, as if speakers were singing instead of speaking. Speakers sometimes make remarks regarding certain expressions being characteristic of particular Bands and these communication differences were thought to have kept the groups from having much social interaction with each other. The autoethnonym of the Seri people, Comcaac, was first recorded by United States Boundary Commissioner John Russell Bartlett, the word was included in the list of approximately 180 words that Bartlett archived in the Bureau of American Ethnology. He recorded the word as komkak, which reflected the pronunciation of the word at that time, other word lists, obtained by other people during the last half of the nineteenth century, confirm that pronunciation. The singular form, Cmiique, was first recorded by French explorer and he recorded the word as kmike, which must have reflected the pronunciation of the word at that time. The phonetic rule by which the consonant /m/ is pronounced as a velar approximant in this context may not have come about until sometime in the mid twentieth century. A1940 documentary film, part of John Nesbitts Passing Parade series, recorded scenes from the life of the Seri on Tiburón Island and it uses film from the Harold Austin expedition, claiming that this was the first motion picture footage of the tribe
34.
Pohnpei
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Pohnpei upon a stone altar is an island of the Senyavin Islands which are part of the larger Caroline Islands group. It belongs to Pohnpei State, one of the four states in the Federated States of Micronesia, major population centers on Pohnpei include Palikir, the FSMs capital, and Kolonia, the capital of Pohnpei State. Pohnpei Island is the largest, highest, most populous, the islanders of Pohnpei have a reputation as being the most welcoming of outsiders among residents of the island group. Pohnpei also contains a wealth of biodiversity and it is also one of the wettest places on Earth with annual recorded rainfall exceeding 7,600 millimetres each year in certain mountainous locations. It is home to the ka tree found only in Pohnpei, the highest point of the island is Mount Nanlaud at 772 or 782 metres. Pohnpei is home to several bird species including four endemic species, the Pohnpei lorikeet, the Pohnpei fantail, the Pohnpei flycatcher. A fifth endemic, the Pohnpei starling, is thought to have gone extinct. The only land reptiles are a few species of lizard, originally, only three mammals existed, rats, bats and dogs. Pigs were introduced, some are now feral, as are the deer brought during German times, the lagoons are rich in fish, mollusks, turtles and other marine fauna. Pohnpei belongs to the Tropical rainforest climate zone and it is also one of the wettest places on earth with annual recorded rainfall exceeding 7,600 millimetres each year in certain mountainous locations. Pohnpeian legend recounts that the Saudeleur rulers, the first to bring government to Pohnpei, were of foreign origin, the Saudeleur centralized form of absolute rule is characterized in Pohnpeian legend as becoming increasingly oppressive over several generations. Arbitrary and onerous demands, as well as a reputation for offending Pohnpeian deities, the Saudeleur Dynasty ended with the invasion of Isokelekel, another semi-mythical foreigner, who replaced the Saudeleur rule with the more decentralized nahnmwarki system in existence today. Pohnpeian historic society was structured into five tribes, various clans and sub-clans. The tribes were organized on a feudal basis, in theory, all land belonged to the chiefs, who received regular tribute and whose rule was absolute. Punishments administered by chiefs included death and banishment, tribal wars included looting, destruction of houses and canoes and killing of prisoners. Pre-Spanish population estimates are deemed unreliable, pohnpeis first European visitor was Álvaro de Saavedra on 14 September 1529 shortly before his death, when trying to find the way back to New Spain. He charted it as San Bartolomé and called this one and the islands as Los Pintados because the natives were frequently tattooed. It was later visited by the Portuguese navigator Pedro Fernandes de Queirós, on 23 December 1595, his description is brief, he made no attempt to land
35.
Barrow, Alaska
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It is the 11th northernmost public community in the world and is the northernmost city in the United States. Nearby Point Barrow is the USs northernmost point, utqiaġviks population was 4,683 at the 2000 census and 4,212 at the 2010 census. The location has been home to the Iñupiat, an indigenous Inuit ethnic group, the citys official name, Utqiaġvik, refers to a place for gathering wild roots. It is derived from the Iñupiat word utqiq, also used for potato, the former name, Barrow, comes from Point Barrow, which was named after Sir John Barrow of the British Admiralty by explorer Frederick William Beechey in 1825. In an October 2016 referendum, city voters approved to change its name from Barrow to its traditional Iñupiaq name. The governor had 45 days to rule on the name change, City Council member Qaiyaan Harcharek described the name change as supporting use of the Iñupiaq language and being part of a process of decolonization. Another recorded Iñupiaq name is Ukpiaġvik, which comes from ukpik snowy owl, a spelling variant of this name was adopted by the Ukpeagvik Iñupiat Corporation when it was established in 1973. Archaeological sites in the area indicate the Iñupiat lived around Barrow as far back as AD500, remains of 16 sod dwelling mounds, from the Birnirk culture of about AD800, can be seen in the early 21st century on the shore of the Arctic Ocean. Located on a rise above the high-water mark, they are at risk of being lost to erosion. Barrow is among the oldest permanent settlements in the United States, yankee whalers sailed here, learning about the bowhead whale from Iñupiat hunters. Later, the military came, setting up a radar station, British Royal Navy officers came to the area to explore and map the Arctic coastline of North America. The US acquired Alaska in 1867, the United States Army established a meteorological and magnetic research station at Barrow in 1881. In 1888, a Presbyterian church was built by United States missionaries at Barrow, in 1889 a whaling supply and rescue station was built. It is the oldest wood-frame building in Barrow and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places, the rescue station was converted for use in 1896 as the retail Cape Smythe Whaling and Trading Station. In the late 20th century, the building was used as Browers Cafe, in 1901, a United States Post Office was opened. In 1935, the famous humorist Will Rogers and pilot Wiley Post made a stop at Walakpa Bay 15 mi south of Barrow while en route to the city. As they took off again, their plane stalled and plunged into a river, two memorials have been erected at the location, now called the Rogers-Post Site. Another memorial is located in Barrow, where the airport was renamed as the Wiley Post–Will Rogers Memorial Airport in their honor and they wrote a constitution and by-laws, under the provisions of the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934
36.
Fraxinus nigra
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Formerly abundant, as of 2014 the species is threatened with near total extirpation throughout its range, as a result of infestation by a parasitic insect known as the emerald ash borer. Black ash is a deciduous tree reaching 15–20 m tall with a trunk up to 60 cm diameter. The bark is grey, thick and corky even on trees, becoming scaly. The winter buds are brown to blackish, with a velvety texture. The leaves are opposite, pinnately compound, with 7–13 leaflets, each leaf is 20–45 cm long, the leaflets are sessile, directly attached to the rachis without a petiolule. The flowers are produced in spring shortly before the new leaves, in panicles, they are inconspicuous with no petals. The fruit is a samara 2. 5–4.5 cm long comprising a single seed 2 cm long with an apical wing 1. 5–2 cm long. Black ash commonly occurs in swamps, often with the related green ash. Black ash is one of the first trees to lose its leaves in the fall and it is very closely related to Manchurian ash, and will easily hybridize with it. Some consider the two to be geographic isolates of each other, Black ash is a food plant for the larvae of several species of Lepidoptera, see List of Lepidoptera that feed on ashes. The species was considered abundant and its survival of little concern prior to the invasion of the ash borer. However, since that time this invasive insect has spread throughout most of the range, and within a few years black ash is expected to be all but extirpated. In 2014, a U. S. Forest Service agent estimated that ninety-nine percent of the ashes in North America are probably going to die, blue ash and white ash are only slightly less affected. This wood is used by Native Americans of the North East for making baskets, the Shakers also made extensive use of the Black Ash for creating baskets. Also called Basket Ash, Brown Ash, Swamp Ash, hoop ash and it is also a popular wood for making electric guitars and basses, due to its good resonant qualities. Black ash is unique among all trees in North America in that it not have fibers connecting the growth rings to each other. This is a property for basket makers. By pounding on the wood with a mallet, the spring wood layer is crushed
37.
Odawa
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They are one of the Anishinaabeg, related to but distinct from the Ojibwe and Potawatomi peoples. They considered this their original homeland, after the 17th century, they also settled along the Ottawa River, and in the state of Michigan, United States, as well as through the Midwest south of the Great Lakes in the latter country. In the 21st century, there are approximately 15,000 Odawa living in Ontario, the Odawa language is part of the Algonquian language family. This large family has numerous smaller groups or “bands, ” commonly called “Tribe” in the United States. Their language is considered a divergent dialect of Ojibwe, characterized by frequent syncope, odaawaa, this term is common to the Cree, Algonquin, Nipissing, Montagnais, Odawa, and Ojibwe. The Potawatomi spelling of Odawa and the English derivative Ottawa are also common, the Anishinaabe word for Those men who trade, or buy and sell is Wadaawewinini. But, this meaning is more appropriately associated with the Matàwackariniwak. Their neighbors applied the Trader name to the Ottawa because in traditional times. From The Odawa dealt chiefly in cornmeal, sunflower oil, furs and skins, rugs and mats, tobacco, like the Ojibwe, the Odawa usually identify as Nishnaabe, meaning original people. The Odawa name in its English transcription is the source of the names of Ottawa, Ontario. The Odawas home territory at the time of early European contact, the tribe is source of the name for Tawas City, Michigan, and Tawas Point, which reflect the syncope-form of their name. Ottawa, Ohio is the county seat of Putnam County located at the site of the last Ottawa reservation in Ohio, the Odawa dialect is considered one of several divergent dialects of the Ojibwe language group, noted for its frequent syncope. In the Odawa language, the language group is known as Nishnabemwin. Of the estimated 5,000 ethnic Odawa and additional 10,000 people with some Odawa ancestry, in the early 21st century an estimated 500 people in Ontario, the Ottawa Tribe of Oklahoma has three fluent speakers. According to Anishinaabeg tradition, and from recordings in Wiigwaasabak, the Odawa people came from the areas of North America, or Turtle Island. Directed by the beings, the Anishinaabe peoples moved inland along the Saint Lawrence River. At the Third Stopping Place near what is now Detroit, Michigan, the Hopewell tradition was a widely extended trading network operating from about 200BCE to 500 CE. Some of these peoples constructed earthwork mounds for burials, a practice that ended about 250 CE, the Saugeen mounds have not been excavated
38.
Ojibwe
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The Ojibwe, Ojibwa, or Chippewa are an Anishinaabeg group of indigenous peoples in North America. They live in Canada and the United States and are one of the largest Indigenous ethnic groups north of the Rio Grande, in Canada, they are the second-largest First Nations population, surpassed only by the Cree. In the United States, they have the fourth-largest population among Native American tribes, surpassed only by the Navajo, Cherokee, the Ojibwe people traditionally have spoken the Ojibwe language, a branch of the Algonquian language family. They are part of the Council of Three Fires and the Anishinaabeg, which include the Algonquin, Nipissing, Oji-Cree, Odawa, the majority of the Ojibwe people live in Canada. There are 77,940 mainline Ojibwe,76,760 Saulteaux and 8,770 Mississaugas, organized in 125 bands, as of 2010, Ojibwe in the US census population is 170,742. Ojibwe are known for their bark canoes, birch bark scrolls, mining and trade in copper. Their Midewiwin Society is well respected as the keeper of detailed and complex scrolls of events, oral history, songs, maps, memories, stories, geometry, and mathematics. The Ojibwe people set the agenda with European-Canadian leaders by signing detailed treaties before they allowed many European settlers into their western areas, in 1745, they adopted guns from the British to defeat the Dakota people in the Lake Superior area, pushing them to the south and west. The exonym for this Anishinaabeg group is Ojibwe and this name is commonly anglicized as Ojibwa or Ojibway. The name Chippewa is an alternative anglicization, although many variations exist in literature, Chippewa is more common in the United States, and Ojibway predominates in Canada, but both terms are used in each country. In many Ojibwe communities throughout Canada and the U. S. since the late 20th century, some 19th-century sources say this name described a method of ritual torture that the Ojibwe applied to enemies. Because many Ojibwe were formerly located around the outlet of Lake Superior, marie for its rapids, the early Canadian settlers referred to the Ojibwe as Saulteurs. Ojibwe who subsequently moved to the provinces of Canada have retained the name Saulteaux. This is disputed since some scholars believe that only the name migrated west, Ojibwe who were originally located along the Mississagi River and made their way to southern Ontario are known as the Mississaugas. The Ojibwe language is known as Anishinaabemowin or Ojibwemowin, and is widely spoken. Today, most of the languages fluent speakers are elders, since the early 21st century, there is a growing movement to revitalize the language, and restore its strength as a central part of Ojibwe culture. The language belongs to the Algonquian linguistic group, and is descended from Proto-Algonquian and its sister languages include Blackfoot, Cheyenne, Cree, Fox, Menominee, Potawatomi, and Shawnee among the northern Plains tribes. Anishinaabemowin is frequently referred to as a Central Algonquian language, however, Ojibwemowin is the fourth-most spoken Native language in North America after Navajo, Cree, and Inuktitut
39.
Kelly Church
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Kelly Jean Church is an award-winning black ash basket weaver, Woodlands style painter, birch bark biter, and educator. Kelly Church, a basket weaver, was born in 1967. She grew up in southwestern Michigan and her mother is English and Irish, and her father is Odawa and Ojibwe. Kelly studied the Odawa language from her grandmother and learned black ash basketry from her father, Bill Church. She in turn has taught her daughter, Cherish Parrish, Kelly harvests her own trees with her family in swampy areas of rural Michigan. Preparing the materials takes far longer than the weaving and she removes the bark from the felled log, and then splits apart the growth rings into finer and finer splints for basketry. The splints are dyed and soaked before weaving and her baskets range from the utilitarian fishing creels, market baskets, and bark baskets to traditional, rectangular wedding baskets and whimsical strawberry baskets. She also creates experimental baskets, with such as copper, photographs. Kelly is one of fewer than a dozen birch bark biters and this traditional Great Lakes art form involves biting designs with ones eyeteeth into folded sheet of young paper birch bark. The bit areas turn a brown that contrasts with the pale surface of the bark. Her designs are both abstract and representational, featuring turtles, dragonflies, and other designs and she typically works in acrylic on canvas and uses contrasting colors for maximum optical brilliance. Kelly has won awards for her basketry, including the Michigan Traditional Arts Apprenticeship Award. In 2006 and 2008, she organized a symposium about tactics to save the black ash tree from the ash borer, with funding. List of indigenous artists of the Americas Visual arts by indigenous peoples of the Americas The Art of Kelly Church, morning Edition on WKAR, Story #954
40.
Michigan
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Michigan /ˈmɪʃᵻɡən/ is a state in the Great Lakes and Midwestern regions of the United States. The name Michigan is the French form of the Ojibwa word mishigamaa, Michigan is the tenth most populous of the 50 United States, with the 11th most extensive total area. Its capital is Lansing, and its largest city is Detroit, Michigan is the only state to consist of two peninsulas. The Lower Peninsula, to which the name Michigan was originally applied, is noted to be shaped like a mitten. The Upper Peninsula is separated from the Lower Peninsula by the Straits of Mackinac, the two peninsulas are connected by the Mackinac Bridge. The state has the longest freshwater coastline of any political subdivision in the world, being bounded by four of the five Great Lakes, as a result, it is one of the leading U. S. states for recreational boating. Michigan also has 64,980 inland lakes and ponds, a person in the state is never more than six miles from a natural water source or more than 85 miles from a Great Lakes shoreline. What is now the state of Michigan was first settled by Native American tribes before being colonized by French explorers in the 17th century, the area was organized as part of the larger Northwest Territory until 1800, when western Michigan became part of the Indiana Territory. Eventually, in 1805, the Michigan Territory was formed, which lasted until it was admitted into the Union on January 26,1837, the state of Michigan soon became an important center of industry and trade in the Great Lakes region and a popular immigrant destination. Though Michigan has come to develop an economy, it is widely known as the center of the U. S. automotive industry. When the first European explorers arrived, the most populous tribes were Algonquian peoples, which include the Anishinaabe groups of Ojibwe, Odaawaa/Odawa, the three nations co-existed peacefully as part of a loose confederation called the Council of Three Fires. The Ojibwe, whose numbers are estimated to have been between 25,000 and 35,000, were the largest, French voyageurs and coureurs des bois explored and settled in Michigan in the 17th century. The first Europeans to reach what became Michigan were those of Étienne Brûlés expedition in 1622, the first permanent European settlement was founded in 1668 on the site where Père Jacques Marquette established Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan as a base for Catholic missions, missionaries in 1671–75 founded outlying stations at Saint Ignace and Marquette. Jesuit missionaries were received by the areas Indian populations, with relatively few difficulties or hostilities. In 1679, Robert Cavelier, Sieur de la Salle built Fort Miami at present-day St. Joseph, in 1691, the French established a trading post and Fort St. Joseph along the St. Joseph River at the present day city of Niles. The hundred soldiers and workers who accompanied Cadillac built a fort enclosing one arpent, cadillacs wife, Marie Thérèse Guyon, soon moved to Detroit, becoming one of the first European women to settle in the Michigan wilderness. The town quickly became a major fur-trading and shipping post, the Église de Saint-Anne was founded the same year
41.
Yurok
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The Yurok, whose name means downriver people in the neighboring Karuk language, are Native Americans who live in northwestern California near the Klamath River and Pacific coast. Their autonym is Olekwol meaning Persons, today they live on the Yurok Indian Reservation, on several rancherias, including the Trinidad Rancheria, throughout Humboldt County. They are enrolled in seven different federally recognized tribes today and they ate lots of berries and meats, but whale meat was prized above others. Yuroks did not hunt whales, instead, they waited until a dead whale washed up onto the beach or place near the water, traditionally, Yurok people lived in permanent villages along the Klamath River. Some of the date back to the 14th century. They fished for salmon along rivers, gathered ocean fish and shellfish, hunted game, the major currency of the Yurok nations was the Dentalium shell. Their first contact with non-Natives was when Spanish explorers entered their territory in 1775, fur traders and trappers from the Hudsons Bay Company came in 1827. Following encounters with settlers moving into their aboriginal lands during a gold rush in 1850. In 1855, following the Klamath and Salmon River Indian War the Lower Klamath River Indian Reservation was created by executive order, the Reservation boundaries included a portion of the Yuroks aboriginal territory and most of the Yurok villages. As a result, the Yurok people were not forcibly removed from their traditional homelands and they continue to live in these same villages today. On November 24,1993, the Yurok Tribe adopted a constitution that details the jurisdiction, under the Hoopa-Yurok Settlement Act of 1988, Pub. L. 100-580, qualified applicants had the option of enrolling in the Yurok Tribe. Of the 3,685 qualified applicants for the Settlement Roll,2,955 people chose Yurok membership,227 of those members had a mailing address on the Yurok reservation, but a majority lived within 50 miles of the reservation. The Yurok Tribe is currently the largest group of Native Americans in the state of California, the Yurok reservation of 63,035 acres has an 80% poverty rate and 70% of the inhabitants do not have telephone service or electricity, according to the tribes Web page. Fishing, hunting, and gathering remain important to tribal members, basket weaving and woodcarving are important arts. A traditional hamlet of wooden buildings, called Sumeg, was built in 1990. The Jump Dance and Brush Dance are part of tribal ceremonies, Yurok is one of two Algic languages spoken in California, the other being Wiyot. Between twenty and one hundred people speak the Yurok language today, the language is passed on through master-apprentice teams and through singing. Language classes have been offered through Humboldt State University and through annual language immersion camps, an unusual feature of the language is that certain nouns change depending upon whether there is one, two, or three of the object
42.
Redwood National and State Parks
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The Redwood National and State Parks are old-growth temperate rainforests located in the United States, along the coast of northern California. Comprising Redwood National Park and Californias Del Norte Coast, Jedediah Smith, and Prairie Creek Redwoods State Parks, the combined RNSP contain 139,000 acres. Located entirely within Del Norte and Humboldt Counties, the four parks, together, protect 45% of all remaining coast redwood old-growth forests and these trees are the tallest and one of the most massive tree species on Earth. In addition to the forests, the parks preserve other indigenous flora, fauna, grassland prairie, cultural resources, portions of rivers and other streams. In 1850, old-growth redwood forest covered more than 2,000,000 acres of the California coast, the northern portion of that area, originally inhabited by Native Americans, attracted many lumbermen and others turned gold miners when a minor gold rush brought them to the region. Failing in efforts to strike it rich in gold, these men turned toward harvesting the giant trees for booming development in San Francisco, after many decades of unrestricted clear-cut logging, serious efforts toward conservation began. Redwood National Park was created in 1968, by which time nearly 90% of the redwood trees had been logged. The ecosystem of the RNSP preserves a number of threatened species such as the tidewater goby, Chinook salmon, northern spotted owl. Modern day native groups such as the Yurok, Tolowa, Karok, Chilula, and Wiyot all have ties to the region. Archaeological study shows they arrived in the area as far back as 3,000 years ago, an 1852 census determined that the Yurok were the most numerous, with 55 villages and an estimated population of 2,500. They used the abundant redwood, which with its grain was easily split into planks, as a building material for boats, houses. For buildings, the planks would be erected side by side in a trench, with the upper portions bound with leather strapping. Redwood boards were used to form a sloping roof. Previous to Jedediah Smith in 1828, no other explorer of European descent is known to have investigated the inland region away from the immediate coast. The discovery of gold along the Trinity River in 1850 led to a secondary rush in California. This brought miners into the area and many stayed on at the coast after failing to strike it rich and this quickly led to conflicts wherein native peoples were placed under great strain, if not forcibly removed or massacred. By 1895, only one third of the Yurok in one group of villages remained, by 1919, the miners logged redwoods for building, when this minor gold rush ended, some of them turned again to logging, cutting down the giant redwood trees. Representative John E. Raker, of California, became the first politician to introduce legislation for the creation of a national park
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California
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California is the most populous state in the United States and the third most extensive by area. Located on the western coast of the U. S, California is bordered by the other U. S. states of Oregon, Nevada, and Arizona and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California. Los Angeles is Californias most populous city, and the second largest after New York City. The Los Angeles Area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nations second- and fifth-most populous urban regions, California also has the nations most populous county, Los Angeles County, and its largest county by area, San Bernardino County. The Central Valley, an agricultural area, dominates the states center. What is now California was first settled by various Native American tribes before being explored by a number of European expeditions during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Spanish Empire then claimed it as part of Alta California in their New Spain colony. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821 following its war for independence. The western portion of Alta California then was organized as the State of California, the California Gold Rush starting in 1848 led to dramatic social and demographic changes, with large-scale emigration from the east and abroad with an accompanying economic boom. If it were a country, California would be the 6th largest economy in the world, fifty-eight percent of the states economy is centered on finance, government, real estate services, technology, and professional, scientific and technical business services. Although it accounts for only 1.5 percent of the states economy, the story of Calafia is recorded in a 1510 work The Adventures of Esplandián, written as a sequel to Amadis de Gaula by Spanish adventure writer Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo. The kingdom of Queen Calafia, according to Montalvo, was said to be a land inhabited by griffins and other strange beasts. This conventional wisdom that California was an island, with maps drawn to reflect this belief, shortened forms of the states name include CA, Cal. Calif. and US-CA. Settled by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years, various estimates of the native population range from 100,000 to 300,000. The Indigenous peoples of California included more than 70 distinct groups of Native Americans, ranging from large, settled populations living on the coast to groups in the interior. California groups also were diverse in their organization with bands, tribes, villages. Trade, intermarriage and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups, the first European effort to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was a Spanish sailing expedition, led by Portuguese captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, in 1542. Some 37 years later English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed a portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila galleons on their trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565
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Hubei
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Hubei is a province of the Peoples Republic of China, located in the Central China region. The name of the province north of the lake, referring to its position north of Dongting Lake. The provincial capital is Wuhan, a major thoroughfare and the political, cultural. It borders Henan to the north, Anhui to the east, Jiangxi to the southeast, Hunan to the south, Chongqing to the west, the high-profile Three Gorges Dam is located at Yichang, in the west of the province. The Hubei region was home to sophisticated Neolithic cultures, by the Spring and Autumn period, the territory of todays Hubei was part of the powerful State of Chu. During the Warring States period Chu became the major adversary of the upstart State of Qin to the northwest, which began to assert itself by outward expansionism. As wars between Qin and Chu ensued, Chu lost more and more land, first its dominance over the Sichuan Basin, then its heartland, which correspond to modern Hubei. In 223 BC Qin chased down the remnants of the Chu regime, Qin founded the Qin dynasty in 221 BC, the first unified state in the region. Qin was succeeded by the Han dynasty in 206 BC, which established the province of Jingzhou in what is now Hubei, the Qin and Han played an active role in the agricultural colonization of Hubei, maintaining a system of river dikes to protect farmland from summer floods. Towards the end of the Han Dynasty in the beginning of the 3rd century, the incursion of northern nomadic peoples into the region at the beginning of the 4th century began nearly three centuries of division into a nomad-ruled north and a Han Chinese-ruled south. Hubei, to the South, remained under southern rule for this entire period, until the unification of China by the Sui dynasty in 589. After the Tang dynasty disintegrated in the 10th century, Hubei came under the control of several regional regimes, Jingnan in the center, Wu to the east, and the Five Dynasties to the north. The Song dynasty reunified the region in 982 and placed most of Hubei into Jinghubei Circuit, Mongols conquered the region in 1279, and under their rule the province of Huguang was established, covering Hubei, Hunan, and parts of Guangdong and Guangxi. The Ming dynasty drove out the Mongols in 1368 and their version of Huguang province was smaller, and corresponded almost entirely to the modern provinces of Hubei and Hunan combined. While Hubei was geographically removed from the centers of the Ming power, during the last years of the Ming, todays Hubei was ravaged several times by the rebel armies of Zhang Xianzhong and Li Zicheng. The Manchu Qing dynasty which had much of the region in 1644, soon split Huguang into the provinces of Hubei. The Huangshi/Daye area, south-east of Wuhan, became an important center of mining, in 1911 the Wuchang Uprising took place in modern-day Wuhan, overthrowing the Qing dynasty and establishing the Republic of China. In 1927 Wuhan became the seat of a government established by left-wing elements of the Kuomintang, led by Wang Jingwei, during World War II the eastern parts of Hubei were conquered and occupied by Japan while the western parts remained under Chinese control
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Muhlenbergia filipes
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Muhlenbergia filipes, gulf hairawn muhly or sweet grass, and syn. Muhlenbergia capillaris, is a species of grass in the Poaceae family and it is native to the Southeastern United States. Among Floridas Seminole Indians, sweetgrass was the most commonly used material for basket weaving and these baskets were often sold in tourist gift shops. In recent years, sweetgrass is becoming harder to find in South Florida and it is now only harvested during certain times of the year and in just a few locations. This grass has historical importance in South Carolina, where it has used for Basket weaving. African Americans from the Gullah tradition in the South Carolina Lowcountry still weave artistic baskets using this native grass
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"Basket". Encyclopædia Britannica. 3 (11th ed.). 1911.
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