1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
Massacre
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A massacre is a specific incident which involves the killing of people, although not necessarily a crime against humanity. Further origins are dubious, though may be related to Latin macellum provisions store, robert Melsons basic working definition, reads, by massacre we shall mean the intentional killing by political actors of a significant number of relatively defenseless people. The motives for massacre need not be rational in order for the killings to be intentional, Mass killings can be carried out for various reasons, including a response to false rumors. Should be distinguished from criminal or pathological mass killings, as political bodies we of course include the state and its agencies, but also nonstate actors. Equally important is that massacres are not carried out by individuals, the use of superior, even overwhelming force. Levene excludes legal, or even some quasi-legal, mass executions and he also points out that it is. most often. When the act is outside the normal bounds of the society witnessing it. List of events named massacres Disaster Ethnic cleansing Genocide Killing spree Mass murder Pogrom Tragedy Tragedy War crime
3.
Bulgarians
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Bulgarians are a South Slavic ethnic group who are native to Bulgaria and its neighboring regions. Bulgarian citizenship shall further be acquirable through naturalization, the population of Bulgaria descend from peoples with different origins and numbers. They became assimilated by the Slavic settlers in the First Bulgarian Empire, from the indigenous Thracian people certain cultural and ethnic elements were taken. Other pre-Slavic Indo-European peoples, including Dacians, Celts, Goths, Romans, Greeks, the Thracian language has been described as a southern Baltic language. Some pre-Slavic linguistic and cultural traces might have preserved in modern Bulgarians. Medieval historians claimed that the Triballi are the largest tribe and that subsequently changed their name to Bulgarians or Serbs. Others claimed that the Paeonians are Bulgarians, others claimed that the Moesi, according to archeological evidence from the late periods of Roman rule, the Romans did not decrease the number of Thracians significantly in major cities. The latter gradually inflicting total linguistic replacement of Thracian if the Thracians had not already been Romanized or Hellenized and they continued coming to the Balkans in many waves, but also leaving, most notably Justinian II settled as many as 30,000 Slavs from Thrace in Asia Minor. The Byzantines grouped the numerous Slavic tribes into two groups, the Sklavenoi and Antes, some Bulgarian scholars suggest that the Antes became one of the ancestors of the modern Bulgarians. The control of the Bulgars in the west was indirect and in the hands of the Slavic chiefs, the Bulgars are first mentioned in the 4th century in the vicinity of the North Caucasian steppe. However, any connection between the Bulgars and postulated Asian counterparts rest on little more than speculative and contorted etymologies. The Bulgars are not thought to have numerous, becoming a ruling elite in the areas they controlled. Their archeological evidence is concentrated in northeast Bulgaria and in Macedonia, mixed Bulgar-Slavic settlements emerged according to archeological evidence. Omurtag was the last ruler with a Turkic name and during the reign of Boris the Slavonic language reached an official level, a substantional number of loan words of the Bulgar language remained in the Medieval Bulgarian Slavic language and fewer survived in the modern. During the Early Byzantine Era, the Roman provincials in Scythia Minor and Moesia Secunda were already engaged in economic, the major port towns in Pontic Bulgaria remained Byzantine Greek in their outlook. The establishment of a new state molded the various Slav, Bulgar, in different periods to the ethnogenesis of the local population contributed also different Indo-European and Turkic people, who settled or lived on the Balkans. The First Bulgarian Empire was founded in 681, after the adoption of Orthodox Christianity in 864 it became one of the cultural centres of Slavic Europe. Its leading cultural position was consolidated with the invention of the Cyrillic script in its capital Preslav at the eve of the 10th century
4.
Batak, Bulgaria
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Batak is a town in Pazardzhik Province, Southern Bulgaria, not far from the town of Peshtera. It is the centre of the homonymous Batak Municipality. As of December 2009, the town has a population of 3,498 inhabitants, Batak is situated in the northwestern slopes of the Rhodope Mountains, at 1036 m above sea level. It is surrounded by many peaks, clad with century-old pine, the climate is temperate continental with a characteristic southern warm wind. Batak was pronounced town in 1964 and has a population of 4,019 people, ninety percent of the municipal area is covered with thick forests. Batak is situated at 15 km to the south of Peshtera and 33 km to the south of the regional centre Pazardzhik, the nearest railway station is in Peshtera. There are numerous monuments of most ancient times in the region of Batak. A find of the Old Stone Age was discovered in 1958, tools, objects, ceramic vessels, ornaments as well as bones of rhinoceros were found which proves that the climate was warmer in the Quaternary. Twenty Thracian, Thraco-Roman, Byzantine and Slavic fortresses, churches and monasteries, as well as Thracian mounds, Roman bridges, mines, mills, the exact origin of Batak is unknown, since there is a lack of historical data. The origin of the name of Batak is not certain, too and it is, however, certain that the name of the village is Bulgarian, not Turkish as some authors assert. From these times have remained the old names, such as Haydushka Skala, Haydushka Polyana, Haydushko Kladenche, Sablen Vrah, Karvav Chuchur. Woodworking, trade and innkeeping were developed in Batak during the National Revival, built for 75 days with the work of citizens of Batak. Famous men of letters are Georgi Busilin and Dragan Manchov, the population of Batak took part in the April Uprising of 1876. The people of Batak rebelled on 22 April under the leadership of voivoda Petar Goranov, on 30 April the village was surrounded by Ottoman army units and irregulars called bashi-bozouk. The battles were carried on for five days, the last stronghold of the rebels was the St. Nedelya Church. At the end five thousand people were killed and the village was burned down to ashes, News of the atrocities spread around the world, aided in large part by Januarius MacGahans writing for the London Daily News. The public outcry created favourable conditions for Russia to declare war on Turkey, on 20 January 1878 the people of Batak who had survived the uprising enthusiastically met the advancing Russian army. Today Batak is a modern town famous for its historical monuments
5.
Ottoman Empire
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After 1354, the Ottomans crossed into Europe, and with the conquest of the Balkans the Ottoman Beylik was transformed into a transcontinental empire. The Ottomans ended the Byzantine Empire with the 1453 conquest of Constantinople by Mehmed the Conqueror, at the beginning of the 17th century the empire contained 32 provinces and numerous vassal states. Some of these were later absorbed into the Ottoman Empire, while others were granted various types of autonomy during the course of centuries. With Constantinople as its capital and control of lands around the Mediterranean basin, while the empire was once thought to have entered a period of decline following the death of Suleiman the Magnificent, this view is no longer supported by the majority of academic historians. The empire continued to maintain a flexible and strong economy, society, however, during a long period of peace from 1740 to 1768, the Ottoman military system fell behind that of their European rivals, the Habsburg and Russian Empires. While the Empire was able to hold its own during the conflict, it was struggling with internal dissent. Starting before World War I, but growing increasingly common and violent during it, major atrocities were committed by the Ottoman government against the Armenians, Assyrians and Pontic Greeks. The word Ottoman is an anglicisation of the name of Osman I. Osmans name in turn was the Turkish form of the Arabic name ʿUthmān, in Ottoman Turkish, the empire was referred to as Devlet-i ʿAlīye-yi ʿOsmānīye, or alternatively ʿOsmānlı Devleti. In Modern Turkish, it is known as Osmanlı İmparatorluğu or Osmanlı Devleti, the Turkish word for Ottoman originally referred to the tribal followers of Osman in the fourteenth century, and subsequently came to be used to refer to the empires military-administrative elite. In contrast, the term Turk was used to refer to the Anatolian peasant and tribal population, the term Rūmī was also used to refer to Turkish-speakers by the other Muslim peoples of the empire and beyond. In Western Europe, the two names Ottoman Empire and Turkey were often used interchangeably, with Turkey being increasingly favored both in formal and informal situations and this dichotomy was officially ended in 1920–23, when the newly established Ankara-based Turkish government chose Turkey as the sole official name. Most scholarly historians avoid the terms Turkey, Turks, and Turkish when referring to the Ottomans, as the power of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum declined in the 13th century, Anatolia was divided into a patchwork of independent Turkish principalities known as the Anatolian Beyliks. One of these beyliks, in the region of Bithynia on the frontier of the Byzantine Empire, was led by the Turkish tribal leader Osman, osmans early followers consisted both of Turkish tribal groups and Byzantine renegades, many but not all converts to Islam. Osman extended the control of his principality by conquering Byzantine towns along the Sakarya River and it is not well understood how the early Ottomans came to dominate their neighbours, due to the scarcity of the sources which survive from this period. One school of thought which was popular during the twentieth century argued that the Ottomans achieved success by rallying religious warriors to fight for them in the name of Islam, in the century after the death of Osman I, Ottoman rule began to extend over Anatolia and the Balkans. Osmans son, Orhan, captured the northwestern Anatolian city of Bursa in 1326 and this conquest meant the loss of Byzantine control over northwestern Anatolia. The important city of Thessaloniki was captured from the Venetians in 1387, the Ottoman victory at Kosovo in 1389 effectively marked the end of Serbian power in the region, paving the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe
6.
April Uprising
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The April Uprising was an insurrection organised by the Bulgarians in the Ottoman Empire from April to May 1876, which indirectly resulted in the re-establishment of Bulgaria in 1878. The 1876 uprising involved only those parts of the Ottoman territories populated predominantly by Bulgarians, the emergence of Bulgarian national sentiments was closely related to the re-establishment of the independent Bulgarian Orthodox Church in 1870. Together with notions of nationalism, the rise of national awareness became known as the Bulgarian National Revival. The idea of state was an increasing emphasis during the 19th century, on the ethnic. The most noticeable characteristic was the degree to which nation states use the state as an instrument of national unity, in economic, by the 18th century, the Ottomans had fallen well behind the rest of Europe in science, technology, and industry. However, the Bulgarian population was also suppressed socially and politically under Ottoman rule, the failure of the Ottomans to handle the Herzegovinian uprising successfully showed the weakness of the Ottoman state, and atrocities discredited it for the outside world. In the late 19th century, European ideas of nationalism were adopted by the Bulgarian elite, in November 1875, activists of the Bulgarian Revolutionary Central Committee met in the Romanian town of Giurgiu and decided that the political situation was suitable for a general uprising. The uprising was scheduled for April or May 1876, the territory of the country was divided into five revolutionary districts with centers in Vratsa, Veliko Tarnovo, Sliven, Plovdiv and Sofia. The rebels had been hoarding arms and ammunition for some time, on 14 April 1876, a general meeting of the committees from the fourth revolutionary district was held in the Oborishte locality near Panagyurishte to discuss the proclamation of the insurrection. One of the delegates, however, disclosed the plot to the Ottoman authorities, on 2 May 1876, Ottoman police made an attempt to arrest the leader of the local revolutionary committee in Koprivshtitsa, Todor Kableshkov. These actions include killing, arson of property and homes and seizure of assets, on the other hand Muslims who did not resist were to be protected in the same way as the Bulgarian population. The committee also gives approval for torching towns and villages, there is no evidence that this plan was implemented. In conformity with the decisions taken at Oborishte, on 20 April 1876 the local rebel committee attacked and surrounded the headquarters of the Ottoman police in Koprivshtitsa commanded by Necip Aga. At least two Ottoman police officials were killed and Necip Aga was forced to release arrested Bulgarian rebel suspects, Necip Aga and his close officials managed to escape the siege. However, due to this incident the Bulgarian rebels had to proclaim the insurrection two weeks in advance of the planned date, within several days, the rebellion spread to the whole Sredna Gora and to a number of towns and villages in the northwestern Rhodopes. The insurrection broke out in the other districts, as well. The areas of Gabrovo, Tryavna, and Pavlikeni also revolted in force, as well as several villages north and south of Sliven, the rebels attacked Muslim civilians as well as Ottoman officials and police. The number of killed by the rebels is disputed
7.
Pomaks
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The term has also been used as a wider designation, including also the Slavic Muslim populations of the Republic of Macedonia and Albania. The Bulgarian dialect spoken by the Pomaks in Greece and Turkey, is referred there as the Pomak language, the origin of the Pomaks has been debated, but usually they are considered descendants of native Bulgarians, who converted to Islam during the Ottoman rule of the Balkans. They are not officially recognized as one people with the ethnonym of Pomaks, the term is widely used colloquially for Eastern South Slavic Muslims, considered derogatory. However, it should be noted that in Greece and Turkey the practice for declaring the group at census has been abolished for decades. Different members of the group today declare a variety of identities, Bulgarian, Pomak, Muslim, Turkish, Albanian. The Pomaks in Bulgaria are referred to as Bulgarian Muslims, and under the locally used names Ahryani, Pogantsi, Poturani, Poturnatsi, Eruli, Charaklii and they mainly inhabit the Rhodope Mountains in Smolyan Province, Kardzhali Province, Pazardzhik Province and Blagoevgrad Province. There are Pomaks in other parts of Bulgaria as well, there are a few Pomak villages in Burgas Province, Lovech Province, Veliko Tarnovo Province and Ruse Province. Officially no ethnic Pomaks are recorded, while 67,000 declared Muslim and ethnic Bulgarian identity, down from 131,000 who declared Muslim Bulgarian identity at the 2001 census. Unofficially, there may be between 150,000 and 250,000 Pomaks in Bulgaria, though not in the ethnic sense as one part declare Bulgarian. The first two campaigns were abandoned after a few years, while the second was reversed in 1989 and these attempts were met with stiff resistance by some Pomaks. A Pomak community is present in Turkey, mostly in Eastern Thrace and fewer in Anatolia, where they are called in Turkish Pomaklar, the Pomak community in Turkey is unofficially estimated between 300,000 and 600,000. Today the Pomaks in Greece inhabit the province of East Macedonia and Thrace in Northern Greece, particularly the regional units of Xanthi, Rhodope. Their estimated population is 50,000, only in Western Thrace, german sightseer Adolf Struck in 1898 describes Konstantia as a big village with 300 houses and two panes, inhabited exclusively by Pomaks. The 1941 census recorded that the vast majority of the Pomaks in Greece, especially in the Xanthi area had Turkish national identity, less than these in Komotini. However, at the 1943 census after pro-Bulgarian education, those who declared as Bulgarians were more, the Macedonian Muslims, are occasionally also referred to as Pomaks, especially in historical context. However the estimated 100,000 Pomaks in Macedonia maintain an affiliation to the Turkish identity. Slavic-speaking Muslims, sometimes referred to as Pomaks, live also in the Albanian region of Golloborda, however these people are also referred to as Torbeš. They speak the Drimkol-Golo Brdo dialect of the Macedonian language, part of this people still self-identify as Bulgarians
8.
Bashi-bazouk
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A bashi-bazouk or bashibazouk was an irregular soldier of the Ottoman army. A Bashi-Bazouk may be Turk but also Circassian, Arab, Albanian and they were particularly noted for their lack of discipline. They were armed and maintained by the government, but did not receive pay and they were motivated to fight mostly by expectations of plunder. Though the majority of troops fought on foot, some troops rode on horseback, because of their lack of discipline, they were incapable of undertaking major military operations, but were useful for other tasks such as reconnaissance and outpost duty. However, their uncertain temper occasionally made it necessary for the Turkish regular troops to them by force. The Ottoman army consisted of the following, The Sultans household troops, called Kapıkulu, provincial soldiers, which were fiefed, the most important being Timarli Sipahi and their retainers, but other kinds were also present. Soldiers of subject, protectorate, or allied states Bashi-bazouk usually did not receive regular salaries, an attempt by Husrev Pasha to disband his Albanian bashi-bazouks in favor of his regular forces began the rioting which led to the establishment of Muhammad Alis Khedivate of Egypt. The bashi-bazouk were notorious for being brutal and undisciplined, thus giving the term its second, a notable example of this use is in the comic series The Adventures of Tintin, where the word is often used as an expletive by Captain Haddock. Their use was abandoned by the end of the 19th century, however, self-organized bashi-bazouk troops still appeared later. The term bashibozouk has also used for a mounted force, existing in peacetime in various provinces of the Ottoman Empire. Mercenary Pindari Ottoman warfare, 1500–1700 by Rhoads Murphey, a History of Warfare, The World Publishing Company
9.
Millet (Ottoman Empire)
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In the Ottoman Empire, a millet was a separate legal court pertaining to personal law under which a confessional community was allowed to rule itself under its own laws. Despite frequently being referred to as a system, before the century the organization of what are now retrospectively called millets in the Ottoman Empire was far from systematic. Rather, non-Muslims were simply given a significant degree of autonomy within their own community, the notion of distinct millets corresponding to different religious communities within the empire would not emerge until the eighteenth century. After the Ottoman Tanzimat reforms, the term was used for legally protected religious minority groups, the word millet comes from the Arabic word millah and literally means nation. The millet system has been called an example of religious pluralism. The millet system has a history in the Middle East and is closely linked to Islamic rules on the treatment of non−Muslim minorities living under Islamic dominion. The concept was used even before the establishment of the Ottoman Empire for the communities of the Church of the East under the Zoroastrian Sassanid Persia in the 4th century. People were bound to their millets by their religious affiliations, rather than their ethnic origins, the millets had a great deal of power – they set their own laws and collected and distributed their own taxes. All that was required was loyalty to the Empire, later, the perception of the millet concept was altered in the 19th century by the rise of nationalism within the Ottoman Empire. After the decline of the Assyrian Church of the East in the 14th century, until the 19th century beside the Muslim millet, each official within each community was in charge of tax collection, education, justice and religious affairs. By doing so, however, the Ottoman administration was simply tolerating these non-Muslim communities and they were allowing them religious freedom in a way that kept them from resisting Ottoman rule. This kept these religious communities from prospering or being regarded as equals to Muslims, social discrimination was just as significant during these times as many Jews were unable to serve within the Ottoman armed forces and were unable to join the Ottoman ruling elite. They were granted freedom, however, at a cost. Armenians formed more than one millets under the Ottoman rule, a wide array of other groups such as Catholics, Karaites and Samaritans was also represented. The Orthodox Christians were included in the Rum Millet, or the Roman nation conquered by Islam, only later did a separate Catholic millet emerge. These groups included the Syriac Orthodox and the Copts, the Syriac Catholic community was recognized as its own millet in 1829. The Chaldean community was recognized as its own millet in 1846, the Syriac Orthodox community in the Ottoman Empire was for long not recognized as its own millet, but part of the Armenian millet. Then, during the Tanzimat reforms, the Syriac Orthodox were granted independent status with the recognition of their own millet in 1873, under the millet system the Jews were organized as a community on the basis of religion, alongside the other millets
10.
Agha (title)
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Agha, also Aga, as an honorific title for a civilian or military officer, or often part of such title, was placed after the name of certain military functionaries in the Ottoman Empire. At the same time some court functionaries were entitled to the agha title, the word agha entered English from Turkish, and the Turkish word comes from the Old Turkic aqa, meaning elder brother. It is an equivalent of Mongolian word aka, in Kurdistan, within the tribal Kurdish society, agha is the title given to tribal chieftains, either supreme chieftains, or to village heads. It is also given to landlords and owners of major real estates in the urban Kurdish centers. The common tribesmen would honor the chieftains or the heads by calling them agha or agha so and so. The agha and his guests would listen at times for local or visiting singers and story tellers, one of the best studies on aghas in the Kurdish society is the important book of Mordechai Zaken, Jewish Subjects and their tribal chieftains in Kurdistan. State organisation of the Ottoman Empire Agaluk Kapi Agha Kizlar Agha Silahdar Agha
11.
Shish kebab
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Shish kebab or Seekh kebab is a dish of skewered and grilled cubes of meat. The word kebab denotes a variety of different grilled meat dishes. Shish is the Turkish word for sword or skewer, and kebab is originally an ancient Aramaic word meaning roast meat and it is popular in the whole of Asia. Its similar to a dish called shashlik, which is found in the Caucasus region and it is generally made of lamb but there are also versions with beef or veal, swordfish and chicken meat. In Turkey, şiş kebap and the served with it are grilled separately, normally not on the same skewer. A Pakistani variation prepared with minced meat with spices and grilled on skewers and it is cooked in a Tandoor, and is often served with chutneys or mint sauce. It is often included in tandoori sampler platters, which contain a variety of cooked dishes. A seekh kebab can also be served in a naan bread much like döner kebab, Seekh kebabs are part of the traditional Pakistani diet. Adana kebabı Cağ kebabı Döner kebap İskender kebap Patlıcanlı kebap Şiş köfte Şiş tavuk Anticuchos List of kebabs
12.
Januarius MacGahan
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Januarius Aloysius MacGahan was an American journalist and war correspondent working for the New York Herald and the London Daily News. Januarius Aloysius MacGahan was born near New Lexington, Ohio on June 12,1844 and his father was an immigrant from Ireland who had served on the Northumberland, the ship which took Napoleon into exile on St. Helena. MacGahan moved to St. Louis, where he worked briefly as a teacher, there he met his cousin, General Philip Sheridan, a Civil War hero also of Irish parentage, who convinced him to study law in Europe. He sailed to Brussels in December 1868, MacGahan did not get a law degree, but he discovered that he had a gift for languages, learning French and German. He ran short of money and was about to return to America in 1870 when the Franco-Prussian War broke out, by the age of twenty-seven, he was a celebrity. He was arrested by the French military and nearly executed, and was rescued through the intervention of the U. S. In 1871 MacGahan was assigned as the Heralds correspondent to St. Petersburg and he learned Russian, mingled with the Russian military and nobility, covered the Russian tour of General William Tecumseh Sherman and met his future wife, Varvara Elagina, whom he married in 1873. He learned in 1873 that Russia was planning to invade the khanate of Khiva, defying a Russian ban of foreign correspondents, he crossed the Kyzyl-Kum desert on horseback and witnessed the surrender of the city of Khiva to the Russian Army. There he met a Russian Lieutenant Colonel, Mikhail Skobelev, who became famous as Russian commander during the Russian-Turkish War of 1877–78. MacGahan described his adventures in a book, Campaigning on the Oxus. MacGahan was also married to the daughter of an old Russian noble family, in 1874 he spent ten months in Spain, covering the Third Carlist War. In 1875 he voyaged with British explorer Sir Allan William Young on his steam yacht HMS Pandora on an expedition to try to find the Northwest Passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific. The expedition got as far as Peel Sound in the Canadian Arctic before it met pack ice and was forced to return, in 1876 MacGahan quarreled with James Gordon Bennett Jr. the publisher of the New York Herald, and left the newspaper. It was a low building with a low roof, supported by heavy irregular arches, what we saw there was too frightful for more than a hasty glance. I had never imagined anything so horrible and we all turned away sick and faint, and staggered out of the fearful pest house glad to get into the street again. We waled about the place and saw the same thing repeated over and over a hundred times, skeletons of men with the clothing and flesh still hanging to and rotting together, skulls of women, with the hair dragging in the dust. Bones of children and infants everywhere, here they show us a house where twenty people were burned alive, there another where a dozen girls had taken refuge, and been slaughtered to the last one, as their bones amply testified. MacGahan reported that the Turkish soldiers had forced some of the villagers into the church, then the church was burned, MacGahan said that of a population of seven thousand, only two thousand survived
13.
New York Herald
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The New York Herald was a large distribution newspaper based in New York City that existed between May 6,1835, and 1924. The first issue of the paper was published by James Gordon Bennett, by 1845, it was the most popular and profitable daily newspaper in the United States. In 1861, it circulated 84,000 copies and called itself the most largely circulated journal in the world, Bennett stated that the function of a newspaper is not to instruct but to startle and amuse. His politics tended to be anti-Catholic and he had tended to favor the Know-Nothing faction, during the American Civil War, his policy as expressed by the newspaper was to staunchly support the Democratic Party. Frederic Hudson served as managing editor of the paper from 1846–1866, Bennett turned over control of the paper to his son James Gordon Bennett, Jr. in 1866. Under Gordon Bennett Jr. the paper financed Henry Morton Stanleys expeditions into Africa to find David Livingstone, the paper also supported Stanleys trans-Africa exploration, and in 1879 supported the ill-fated expedition of George W. DeLong to the arctic region. On October 4,1887, Bennett Jr. sent Julius Chambers to Paris, Bennett himself later moved to Paris, but the New York Herald suffered from his attempt to manage its operation in New York by telegram. In 1924, after Bennett Jr. s death, the New York Herald was acquired by its rival the New York Tribune. In 1959, the New York Herald Tribune and its European edition were sold to John Hay Whitney, in 1966, the New York paper ceased publication. The Washington Post and the New York Times acquired joint control of the European edition, when the Herald was still under the authority of its original publisher Bennett, it was considered to be the most invasive and sensationalist of the leading New York papers. Its ability to entertain the public with timely daily news made it the leading circulation paper of its time, the New York Evening Telegram was founded in 1867 by the junior Bennett, and was considered by many to be an evening edition of the Herald. Frank Munsey acquired the Telegram in 1920, which ceased its connection to the Herald, New Yorks Herald Square is named after the New York Herald newspaper, in the north side of the square there is a sculpture commemorating the Bennetts. The statue of Minerva, the Bellringers, and Owls by Antonin Carles originally graced the New York Herald building and rang every hour until it was moved to Herald Square, the chorus of Give My Regards to Broadway includes the phrase, emember me to Herald Square. North of Herald Square is Times Square, which is named after rival The New York Times, New York Herald Tribune Three months with the New York Herald, or, Old news on board of a homeward. By John Henry Potter Photographs and architectural sketches of the New York Herald Building
14.
The Daily News (UK)
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The Daily News was a national daily newspaper in the United Kingdom. The News was founded in 1846 by Charles Dickens, who served as the newspapers first editor. It was conceived as a rival to the right-wing Morning Chronicle. The paper was not at first a commercial success, Dickens edited 17 issues before handing over the editorship to his friend John Forster, who had more experience in journalism than Dickens. Forster ran the paper until 1870, in 1870, the News absorbed the Morning Star. In 1876, Daily News and its correspondent Edwin Pears, and later Januarius MacGahan, in 1901, Quaker chocolate manufacturer George Cadbury bought the Daily News and used the paper to campaign for old age pensions and against sweatshop labour. As a pacifist, Cadbury opposed the Boer War – and the Daily News followed his line, in 1906, the News sponsored an exhibition on sweated labour at the Queens Hall. This exhibition was credited with strengthening the womens suffrage movement, in 1909, H. N. Brailsford and H. W. Nevinson resigned from the paper when it refused to condemn the force feeding of suffragettes. In 1912, the News merged with the Morning Leader, and was for a known as the Daily News. In 1928, it merged with The Westminster Gazette, and in 1930, the chairman from 1911 to 1930 was Edward Cadbury, eldest son of George Cadbury
15.
Eugene Schuyler
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Eugene Schuyler was a nineteenth-century American scholar, writer, explorer and diplomat. Schuyler was one of the first three Americans to earn a Ph. D. from an American university, and the first American translator of Ivan Turgenev and Lev Tolstoi and he was the first American Minister to Romania and Serbia, and U. S. Eugene Schuyler was the son of George W. Schuyler, an owner in Ithaca. His fathers ancestors, of Dutch descent, included a general in George Washingtons army and his mother, Matilda Scribner, was half-sister of Charles Scribner, the founder of the famous American publishing house. At the age of fifteen Schuyler entered Yale College, where he studied languages, literature and he graduated with honors in 1859 and was a member of Skull and Bones. He became one of the first graduate students at Yale, and in 1861, he, in 1860 Schuyler became an assistant to Noah Porter, a prominent linguistician and literary figure, in the revision of Websters Dictionary, the first dictionary of American English. In 1862 Schuyler began to study law at Yale Law School and he began practicing law in New York, but did not find it very interesting. Instead he began to write, becoming a contributor to The Nation magazine and he continued to write for The Nation until the end of his life. Schuyler met some of the officers of the Russian flagship, the Alexander Nevsky and he learned Russian well enough to translate the novel of Ivan Turgenev, Fathers and Sons, which was published in 1867, the first translation of Turgenev to appear in the United States. The same year Schuyler studied Finnish, and edited the first American translation of the Finnish national epic, in 1864, Schuyler applied for a diplomatic post in the State Department. The State Department took three years to consider his application, and then offered him the position of consul in Moscow, en route to his post, Schuyler stopped in Baden-Baden to meet Turgenev, who gave him a letter of introduction to Lev Tolstoi. Schuyler began his tour in Moscow in August 1867. In 1868, Schuyler was a guest of Tolstoi for a week at his estate at Yasnaya Polyana, at the time when Tolstoi was finishing War and he helped Tolstoi rearrange his library, and went hunting with him. Tolstoi, who was interested in education in the United States, asked Schuyler for copies of American primers. Schuyler received Tolstois permission to translate his novel The Cossacks into English, in 1869, the new Administration of President Ulysses Grant removed Schuyler from his post in Moscow and replaced him with a political appointee. Schuyler was able to obtain a post as consul to the Russian port of Reval, in November,1869, President Grant appointed a new Minister to Russia, Andrew Curtin, a former Governor of Pennsylvania who knew nothing of Russia. Curtin was impressed by Schuyler and appointed him as the secretary of the American legation in St. Petersburg, Schuyler was able to combine his diplomatic duties with scholarship and travel. He began writing a biography of Peter the Great
16.
Orthodoxy
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Orthodoxy is adherence to correct or accepted creeds, especially in religion. In the Christian sense the term means conforming to the Christian faith as represented in the creeds of the early Church, the first seven Ecumenical Councils were held between the years of 325 and 787 with the aim of formalizing accepted doctrines. In classical Christian usage, the term refers to the set of doctrines which were believed by the early Christians. A series of councils, also known as the First seven Ecumenical Councils, were held over a period of several centuries to try to formalize these doctrines. The most significant of these decisions was that between the Homoousian doctrine of Athanasius and Eustathius and the Heteroousian doctrine of Arius and Eusebius. The earliest recorded use of the term orthodox is in the Codex Iustinianus of 529–534, following the 1054 Great Schism, both the Western and Eastern Churches continued to consider themselves uniquely orthodox and catholic. Over time, the Western Church gradually identified with the Catholic label and this was in note of the fact that both Catholic and Orthodox were in use as ecclesiastical adjectives as early as the 2nd and 4th centuries respectively. Today the two largest Orthodox Christian communions are the Eastern Orthodox Church and Oriental Orthodoxy, Orthodox Judaism is split into various different movements and factions. They have different ways of interpreting and following the laws and traditions of Judaism, Orthodox Judaism is distinct from Conservative Judaism. The term Orthodox Islam generally refers to the teachings and religious practices of traditional Sunni Islam. The term Orthodox Hinduism commonly refers to the teachings and practices of Sanātanī. In this sense, the term has a pejorative connotation. Among various orthodoxies in distinctive fields, most common terms are, Political orthodoxy, Social orthodoxy, Economic orthodoxy, Scientific orthodoxy, Orthodoxy is opposed to heterodoxy or heresy. A deviation lighter than heresy is commonly called error, in the sense of not being enough to cause total estrangement. Sometimes error is used to cover both full heresies and minor errors. The concept of orthodoxy is prevalent in many forms of organized monotheism, syncretism, for example, plays a much wider role in non-monotheistic religion. The prevailing governing norm within polytheism is often rather than the right belief of orthodoxy. Henderson, The Construction of Orthodoxy and Heresy, Neo-Confucian, Islamic, Jewish, and Early Christian Patterns, SUNY Press 1998
17.
Perushtitsa
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Perushtitsa or Perushtitza is a Bulgarian town located in Perushtitsa Municipality, Plovdiv Province at the foot of the Rhodopes,22 kilometers south of Plovdiv. The town is famous throughout Bulgaria for the fight took place there in 1876 during the April Uprising against the Ottoman reign. During the suppression of the uprising by Turkish irregulars, the majority of the residents were slaughtered. The French journalist Ivan de Woestyne, who visited the town in July 1876, reported for the newspaper Le Figaro that out of a population of about 2000 only 150 elders, lady Strangford arrived from Britain later that year with relief for the people of Bulgaria following the massacres. She first built a hospital at Batak and eventually other hospitals were built including one here at Perushtitsa, the name Perushtitsa comes from the word Peristitsa, which in turn comes from the name of the God Perun. Perushtitsa is one of the few places in Bulgaria where Mavrud grapes are grown for a typical Bulgarian wine Mavrud, about 2 kilometers south of Perushtitsa is the Red Church. The remains of the Red Church date from the 5th or 6th century and are a symbol for the city of Perushtitsa
18.
Bratsigovo
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Bratsigovo is a town in Southern Bulgaria. It is located in the foothills of the Rhodope Mountains, on the banks of the Umishka River in Pazardzhik oblast, Bratsigovo Hills on Trinity Peninsula in Antarctica are named after the town. Archeological evidence has shown that the area was inhabited by Thracians, historical records show the township was established at some point in the 16th-17th century, built over the ruins of an earlier settlement. The founders of the new town were Bulgarian emigrants from the part of Aegean Macedonia. The population of Bratsigovo took a part in the April Uprising of 1876. In 1950 Bratsigovo had a population of 3,364, web page, http, //www. bratsigovo. bg/ The town is developing as a balneological center, too. There is a mineral water spring with the flow rate of 120 liters per minute at the distance of 500 metres west of it. There is a built up here. The mineral water treats some skin diseases, the system, kidney related diseases. There is a park and a country-houses zone around it
19.
Antoni Piotrowski
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Piotrowski was born in 1853 into a family of sheet iron worker in Nietulisko Duże near Kunów, then in the Russian sector of the partitioned Poland. From 1869 on, Piotrowski studied painting with professor Wojciech Gerson in Warsaw, between 1875 and 1877 he studied in Munich with Wilhelm Lindenschmit the Younger, and from 1877 to 1879, with Polands nominal painter Jan Matejko at the Academy of Fine Arts in Kraków. He moved back to Paris only to return to Bulgaria in 1885 to join the Serbo-Bulgarian War as a Bulgarian volunteer, for his merits during the fighting he was honoured with an Order of Bravery. During his time as an artist in the Bulgarian Army Piotrowski painted the Battle of Slivnitsa, the storming of Tsaribrod and he also published illustrations from the war in various Western European illustrated periodicals. Among his works were portraits of Bulgarian princes Alexander of Battenberg and Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, all his nine historical battle-scenes painted in Bulgaria were purchased by the Bulgarian state, and are exhibited in the National Museum of Military History in Sofia. Piotrowski returned to Bulgaria in 1889, he visited Batak and painted his epic canvas The Batak Massacre and this painting of his won an award at the Plovdiv Fair in 1892. In 1900 Piotrowski returned to Poland and settled in Warsaw, in 1905, he was a war correspondent in Manchuria. He died in 1924 in Warsaw, works by Antoni Piotrowski at Project Gutenberg
20.
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was established as a sovereign state on 1 January 1801 by the Acts of Union 1800, which merged the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland. The growing desire for an Irish Republic led to the Irish War of Independence, Northern Ireland remained part of the United Kingdom, and the state was consequently renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Britain financed the European coalition that defeated France in 1815 in the Napoleonic Wars, the British Empire thereby became the foremost world power for the next century. The Crimean War with Russia and the Boer wars were relatively small operations in a largely peaceful century, rapid industrialisation that began in the decades prior to the states formation continued up until the mid-19th century. A devastating famine, exacerbated by government inaction in the century, led to demographic collapse in much of Ireland. It was an era of economic modernization and growth of industry, trade and finance. Outward migration was heavy to the colonies and to the United States. Britain also built up a large British Empire in Africa and Asia, India, by far the most important possession, saw a short-lived revolt in 1857. In foreign policy Britain favoured free trade, which enabled its financiers and merchants to operate successfully in many otherwise independent countries, as in South America. Britain formed no permanent military alliances until the early 20th century, when it began to cooperate with Japan, France and Russia, and moved closer to the United States. A brief period of limited independence for Ireland came to an end following the Irish Rebellion of 1798, the British governments fear of an independent Ireland siding against them with the French resulted in the decision to unite the two countries. This was brought about by legislation in the parliaments of both kingdoms and came into effect on 1 January 1801, however, King George III was bitterly opposed to any such Emancipation and succeeded in defeating his governments attempts to introduce it. When the Treaty of Amiens ended the war, Britain agreed to return most of the territories it had seized, in May 1803, war was declared again. In 1806, Napoleon issued the series of Berlin Decrees, which brought into effect the Continental System and this policy aimed to eliminate the threat from the British by closing French-controlled territory to foreign trade. Frances population and agricultural capacity far outstripped that of the British Isles, Napoleon expected that cutting Britain off from the European mainland would end its economic hegemony. The Spanish uprising in 1808 at last permitted Britain to gain a foothold on the Continent, after Napoleons surrender and exile to the island of Elba, peace appeared to have returned. The Allies united and the armies of Wellington and Blucher defeated Napoleon once, simultaneous with the Napoleonic Wars, trade disputes, arming hostile Indians and British impressment of American sailors led to the War of 1812 with the United States. The war was little noticed in Britain, which could devote few resources to the conflict until the fall of Napoleon in 1814, American frigates inflicted a series of defeats on the Royal Navy, which was short on manpower due to the conflict in Europe
21.
Turkish people
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Turkish people, or the Turks, also known as Anatolian Turks, are a Turkic ethnic group and nation living mainly in Turkey and speaking Turkish, the most widely spoken Turkic language. They are the largest ethnic group in Turkey, as well as by far the largest ethnic group among the speakers of Turkic languages, ethnic Turkish minorities exist in the former lands of the Ottoman Empire. In addition, a Turkish diaspora has been established with modern migration, the ethnonym Turk may be first discerned in Herodotus reference to Targitas, first king of the Scythians, furthermore, during the first century AD. Pomponius Mela refers to the Turcae in the north of the Sea of Azov. The first definite references to the Turks come mainly from Chinese sources in the sixth century, in these sources, Turk appears as Tujue, which referred to the Göktürks. Although Turk refers to Turkish people, it may sometimes refer to the wider language group of Turkic peoples. In the 19th century, the word Türk only referred to Anatolian villagers, the Ottoman ruling class identified themselves as Ottomans, not usually as Turks. In the late 19th century, as the Ottoman upper classes adopted European ideas of nationalism the term Türk took on a more positive connotation. The Turkish-speakers of Anatolia were the most loyal supporters of Ottoman rule, Turkish Jews, Christians, or even Alevis may be considered non-Turks. On the other hand, Kurdish Arab followers of the Sunni branch of Islam who live in eastern Anatolia are sometimes considered Turks, article 66 of the Turkish Constitution defines a Turk as anyone who is bound to the Turkish state through the bond of citizenship. Anatolia was first inhabited by hunter-gatherers during the Paleolithic era, most of the Turkic peoples were followers of Tengriism, sharing the cult of the sky god Tengri, although there were also adherents of Manichaeism, Nestorian Christianity and Buddhism. However, during the Muslim conquests, the Turks entered the Muslim world proper as servants, during the booty of Arab raids, the Turks began converting to Islam after Muslim conquest of Transoxiana through the efforts of missionaries, Sufis, and merchants. Although initiated by the Arabs, the conversion of the Turks to Islam was filtered through Persian, under the Umayyads, most were domestic servants, whilst under the Abbasids, increasing numbers were trained as soldiers. By the ninth century, Turkish commanders were leading the caliphs’ Turkish troops into battle, as the Abbasid caliphate declined, Turkish officers assumed more military and political power taking over or establishing provincial dynasties with their own corps of Turkish troops. During the 11th century the Seljuk Turks who were admirers of the Persian civilization grew in number and were able to occupy the province of the Abbasid Empire. By 1055, the Seljuk Empire captured Baghdad and began to make their first incursions into the edges of Anatolia, when the Seljuk Turks won the Battle of Manzikert against the Byzantine Empire in 1071, it opened the gates of Anatolia to them. Although ethnically Turkish, the Seljuk Turks appreciated and became the purveyors of the Persian culture rather than the Turkish culture, in dire straits, the Byzantine Empire turned to the West for help setting in motion the pleas that led to the First Crusade. Once the Crusaders took Iznik, the Seljuk Turks established the Sultanate of Rum from their new capital, Konya, by the 12th century the Europeans had begun to call the Anatolian region Turchia or Turkey, meaning the land of the Turks
22.
Controversy
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Controversy is a state of prolonged public dispute or debate, usually concerning a matter of conflicting opinion or point of view. The word was coined from the Latin controversia, as a composite of controversus – turned in a direction, from contra – against – and vertere – to turn, or versus, hence. The most applicable or well known controversial subjects, topics or areas are politics, religion, philosophy, parenting and sex. Other prominent areas of controversy are economics, science, finances, culture, education, the military, society, celebrities, organisation, the media, age, gender, Controversy in matters of theology has traditionally been particularly heated, giving rise to the phrase odium theologicum. In the theory of law, a controversy differs from a case, while legal cases include all suits, criminal as well as civil. For example, the Case or Controversy Clause of Article Three of the United States Constitution states that the judicial Power shall extend, to Controversies to which the United States shall be a Party. Controversies are frequently thought to be a result of a lack of confidence on the part of the disputants – as implied by Benfords law of controversy, which only talks about lack of information. A study of 1540 US adults found instead that levels of scientific literacy correlated with the strength of opinion on climate change, in other controversies – such as that around the HPV vaccine, the same evidence seemed to license inference to radically different conclusions. Kahan et al. explained this by the biases of biased assimilation. Similar effects on reasoning are seen in non-scientific controversies, for example in the gun control debate in the United States. As with other controversies, it has suggested that exposure to empirical facts would be sufficient to resolve the debate once. In computer simulations of cultural communities, beliefs were found to polarize within isolated sub-groups, Bayesian decision theory allows these failures of rationality to be described as part of a statistically optimized system for decision making. As such, it appears neurobiologically plausible that the brain implements decision-making procedures that are close to optimal for Bayesian inference, in addition, the preferences of the agent also cause the beliefs formed to change – this explains the biased assimilation shown above. Argument Bipartisanship Dialectic ProCon. org Scandal Brian Martin, The Controversy Manual
23.
Bulgarian Academy of Sciences
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The Bulgarian Academy of Sciences is the National Academy of Bulgaria, established in 1869. The Academy, located in Sofia, is autonomous and has a Society of Academicians, Correspondent Members and it publishes and circulates different scientific works, encyclopedias, dictionaries and journals, and runs its own publishing house. Stefan Vodenicharov has been president of the BAS since 2012 and its budget in 2009 was 84 million leva, or 42.7 million euro. The Bulgarian Space Agency, part of the BAS, has a budget of 1 million euro, as Bulgaria was part of the Ottoman Empire, Bulgarian émigrés founded the Bulgarian Literary Society on 26 September 1869, in Brăila in the Kingdom of Romania. Stoyanov – Secretary The following year, the Literary Society began issuing the Periodical Journal, its official publication, the BLS headquarters were completed in 1892. The building was designed by architect Hermann Mayer and was expanded during the 1920s, the Bulgarian Literary Society adopted its present-day name in 1911, and Ivan Geshov became the Academys first president. The BAS became a member of the Union of Slavonic Academies and Scientific Communities in 1913, each consists of independent scientific institutes, laboratories and other sections. D. Camp Academia Bulgarian Academy of Sciences official website Institute of Solid State Physics
24.
Bozhidar Dimitrov
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Bozhidar Dimitrov Stoyanov is a Bulgarian historian working in the sphere of Medieval Bulgarian history, the Ottoman rule of Bulgaria and the Macedonian Question. Currently Bozhidar Dimitrov is not engaged in political activity, because of this he was taken down from the post of BSP municipal councillors leader in Sofia. Before the 2009 Bulgarian parliamentary election, Dimitrov formally left BSP and he was the partys candidate for 2nd MMC – Burgas in the first-past-the-post vote and won the election with 35. 92%. He finished ahead of Volen Siderov, the leader of the nationalist Attaka, Dimitrov is the author of 30 treatises and over 250 articles and papers in the sphere of his research, as well as several books. He has specialized in palaeography in Paris and also hosts the patriotic history-related Pamet Balgarska show on Kanal 1, Dimitrov believes that the Bulgars played a more important role in the formation of the contemporary Bulgarians as a people than previously believed. He was Minister without portfolio responsible for Bulgarians abroad in the GERB government, the book has caused considerable controversy and criticism from ethnic Macedonian sources. Dimitrov claims that it has reached best-seller status in the Republic of Macedonia, the 10 lies described by Dimitrov are, First lie, the notion that contemporary ethnic Macedonians are descendants of ancient Macedonians. Second lie, ethnic Macedonians are pure Slavs distinct from Bulgarians, third lie, medieval figures like Saints Cyril and Methodius were ethnic Macedonians. Fourth lie, Samuel of Bulgaria was an ethnic Macedonian and the First Bulgarian Empire was a Macedonian state, fifth lie, the Archbishopric of Ohrid was a Macedonian church. Sixth lie, the Bulgarian Exarchate conquered the ethnic Macedonian people, seventh lie, early 20th-century revolutionary movements such as the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization worked for a Macedonian national goal. Eighth lie, that Krste Misirkov is the number 1 ethnic Macedonian of the 20th century, ninth lie, the heroic struggle of the Macedonian people against Bulgarian occupiers in 1941-1944. Tenth lie, on the rejoicing of the Macedonian people for their inclusion in Yugoslavia in 1944. The True History of Liberation 1860–1878,183 pp. ISBN 978-954-92377-9-5 Bozhidar Dimitrov, co-author. 80 pp. ISBN 978-954-92032-2-6 Bozhidar Dimitrov,107 pp. ISBN 978-954-91652-9-6 Bozhidar Dimitrov. Macedonia – Holy Bulgarian Land, Who Are the Successors of Alexander the Great,80 pp. ISBN 978-954-8745-06-2 Bozhidar Dimitrov. Seven Ancient Civilizations in Bulgaria, With Maps & Color Illustrations,112 pp. ISBN 978-954-9464-07-8 Bozhidar Dimitrov. 148 pp. ISBN 978-954-91652-1-0 Bozhidar Dimitrov, Sofia, St. Kliment Ohridsky University Press,2002. 108 pp. ISBN 978-954-07-1758-6 Bozhidar Dimitrov,56 pp. ISBN 978-954-91062-4-4 Bozhidar Dimitrov
25.
Humboldt University of Berlin
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The Humboldt university model has strongly influenced other European and Western universities. In 1949, it changed its name to Humboldt-Universität in honour of both its founder Wilhelm and his brother, geographer Alexander von Humboldt. The first semester at the newly founded Berlin university occurred in 1810 with 256 students and 52 lecturers in faculties of law, medicine, theology, du Bois and European unifier Robert Schuman, as well as the influential surgeon Johann Friedrich Dieffenbach in the early half of the 1800s. The structure of German research-intensive universities, such as Humboldt, served as a model for institutions like Johns Hopkins University, Alexander von Humboldt, brother of the founder William, promoted the new learning. With the construction of research facilities in the second half of the 19th Century teaching of the natural sciences began. During this period of enlargement, Berlin University gradually expanded to other previously separate colleges in Berlin. An example would be the Charité, the Pépinière and the Collegium Medico-chirurgicum, in 1717, King Friedrich I had built a quarantine house for Plague at the city gates, which in 1727 was rechristened by the soldier king Friedrich Wilhelm, Es soll das Haus die Charité heißen. By 1829 the site became Berlin Universitys medical campus and remained so until 1927 when the more modern University Hospital was constructed, Berlin University started a natural history collection in 1810, which, by 1889 required a separate building and became the Museum für Naturkunde. The preexisting Tierarznei School, founded in 1790 and absorbed by the university, also the Landwirtschaftliche Hochschule Berlin, founded in 1881 was affiliated with the Agricultural Faculties of the University. After 1933, like all German universities, it was affected by the Nazi regime, the rector during this period was Eugen Fischer. The Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service resulted in 250 Jewish professors and employees being fired during 1933/1934, students and scholars and political opponents of Nazis were ejected from the university and often deported. During this time one third of all of the staff were fired by the Nazis. The Soviet Military Administration in Germany ordered the opening of the university in January 1946, the SMAD wanted a redesigned Berlin University based on the Soviet model, however they insisted on the phrasing newly opened and not re-opened for political reasons. The University of Berlin must effectively start again in almost every way and you have before you this image of the old university. What remains of that is nought but ruins, the teaching was limited to seven departments working in reopened, war-damaged buildings, with many of the teachers dead or missing. However, by the semester of 1946, the Economic. This program existed at Berlin University until 1962, the East-West conflict in post-war Germany led to a growing communist influence in the university. This was controversial, and incited strong protests within the student body, Soviet NKVD secret police arrested a number of students in March 1947 as a response
26.
Sergei Stanishev
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Sergei Dmitrievich Stanishev is a Bulgarian politician who was the leader of the Bulgarian Socialist Party from 2001 until 2014. He is the President of the Party of European Socialists, the second-largest party in the European Parliament since 2011 and he was Prime Minister of Bulgaria from 2005 to 2009. Stanishev was born in 1966, in Kherson, Ukrainian SSR to Dinah Sergeevna Muhina, a Jewish woman and Dimitar Jacov Stanishev, after beginning his schooling in Russia, he then graduated from the 35 SOU Dobri Voynikov in Sofia. Stanishev subsequently graduated from Moscow State University in 1989 and obtained his degree in 1994 both in the field of history. His thesis was entitled “The system of promotion of high ranking officials in Russia. In 1998, he specialized in sciences at Moscow School of political studies. He was a fellow in international relations at the London School of Economics. He also worked as a freelance journalist, in 1995 he became a staff member in the Foreign Affairs Department of the BSP. He was Chief of Foreign Policy and International Relations for the BSP from 1996 to 2001, in May 2000 he was elected a Member of the BSP Supreme Council and Member of the Executive Bureau. In June 2001, he entered politics when he was elected as a member of the Bulgarian National Assembly from the region of Ruse, since April 2004 Stanishev has also been a member of the presidency of the Party of European Socialists. For more information on cabinet formation and composition, see Stanishev Government, in the general election of June 25,2005, Stanishev was re-elected to the National Assembly, this time for a seat in Burgas. Under his leadership the Coalition for Bulgaria won 31% of the votes, Stanishev said that the next government should be led by the party which won most votes in the elections. On 20 July, after nearly a month of political uncertainty, however, the parliament voted against Stanishevs proposed Cabinet by 119 to 117 votes. This was followed by two weeks of political deadlock. Stanishev said the coalitions priorities would be European integration, social responsibility and he was elected Prime Minister by the Bulgarian parliament on August 16 with 168 in favour and 67 against. On August 17,2005, with a ceremony on 1 Dondukov Boulevard. Sergei Stanishev is an avid pro-EU politician who is credited with reforming Bulgaria to the extent that he managed to steer his country to be among the last group of countries which joined the EU, reading the report, Barroso said the two nations entry would be a historic achievement. Also in June 2008 The Guardian published a highly critical of planned real estate development in a pristine seacoast area under EU environmental protection
27.
Georgi Parvanov
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Georgi Sedefchov Parvanov is a Bulgarian historian and politician who was President of Bulgaria from 2002 to 2012. He was elected defeating the incumbent Petar Stoyanov in the second round of the November 2001 presidential election. He was reelected in a victory in 2006, becoming the first Bulgarian president to serve two terms. Parvanov was a supporter of Bulgarias membership in NATO and the European Union, according to Bulgarian law, a Bulgarian president is not allowed to be a member of a political party, thus Parvanov left the Bulgarian Socialist Party after his election in 2001. Although he identified as a socialist, Parvanov often called himself a social president, after completing his second term as President, Parvanov returned to the Socialist Party, prompting a dispute over the party leadership. In January 2014 Parvanov restarted his Alternative for Bulgarian Revival project, on January 15,2017 he stepped down as party leader and was replaced by Konstantin Prodanov. Georgi Parvanov was born in the village of Sirishtnik, Pernik Province on 28 June 1957, in 1988 Parvanov defended his doctoral thesis in history, which is titled Dimitar Blagoev and the Bulgarian national question 1879-1917. Parvanov joined the Institute for History of the Bulgarian Communist Party as a researcher in 1981 and his main interest was the Bulgarian national issue and the early history of social democracy in Bulgaria. In 1989 he was promoted to a research associate. In May 2001 he became a member of the Internet Society of Bulgaria, in 1981 Parvanov joined the Bulgarian Communist Party. In April 1990 the party was transformed into the Bulgarian Socialist Party, in 1989 Parvanov formed the nationalist organization Nationwide Committee for the Defense of National Interests. In 1994 he became Deputy Chairman of the BSP national Council and it was also in that year that he was elected to the National Assembly, he was reelected in 1997 and 2001. Parvanov was chairman of the Parliamentary Group for Friendship with Greece and member of the Parliamentary Committee on Radio, because of a severe financial crisis, the Prime Minister and leader of the BSP, Zhan Videnov, resigned in December 1996. Georgi Parvanov was elected as his successor that month, however, after large protests against the socialist government in January 1997, Parvanov and Nikolay Dobrev returned the mandate to form a government. In the early elections that ensued, the Socialist Party went into opposition. In 2000 Parvanov was reelected as Chairman of the National Council of the BSP and he has been credited with altering the geopolitical orientation of the party, paving the way for Bulgarias joining of NATO in 2004. Parvanov led his party to its worst electoral performance in 2001, both the BSP and the SDS suffered greatly from the rise of the newly founded National Movement for Simeon II. In the first round of the 2001 presidential election, Parvanov won 36. 4% of the votes, finishing ahead of the incumbent SDS candidate, Petar Stoyanov, the voter turnout was the lowest to date, only 41. 8%
28.
Myth
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A myth is any traditional story consisting of events that are ostensibly historical, though often supernatural, explaining the origins of a cultural practice or natural phenomenon. The word myth is derived from the Greek word mythos, which means story. Mythology can refer either to the study of myths, or to a body or collection of myths, myth can mean sacred story, traditional narrative or tale of the gods. A myth can also be a story to explain why something exists, human cultures usually include a cosmogonical or creation myth, concerning the origins of the world, or how the world came to exist. The active beings in myths are generally gods and goddesses, heroes and heroines, or animals, most myths are set in a timeless past before recorded time or beginning of the critical history. A myth can be a story involving symbols that are capable of multiple meanings, a myth is a sacred narrative because it holds religious or spiritual significance for those who tell it. Myths also contribute to and express a cultures systems of thought and values, myths are often therefore stories that are currently understood as being exaggerated or fictitious. According to Albert A. Anderson, a professor of philosophy, in these works, the term had several meanings, conversation, narrative, speech, story, tale, and word. Like the related term logos, mythos expresses whatever can be delivered in the form of words, Anderson contrasts the two terms with ergon, a Greek term for action, deed, and work. The term mythos lacks an explicit distinction between true or false narratives, in the context of the Theatre of ancient Greece, the term mythos referred to the myth, the narrative, the plot, and the story of a theatrical play. According to David Wiles, the Greek term mythos in this era covered an entire spectrum of different meanings, from undeniable falsehoods to stories with religious, according to philosopher Aristotle, the spirit of a theatrical play was its mythos. The term mythos was also used for the material of Greek tragedy. The tragedians of the era could draw inspiration from Greek mythology, David Wiles observes that modern conceptions about Greek tragedy can be misleading. It is commonly thought that the ancient audience members were familiar with the mythos behind a play. However, the Greek dramatists were not expected to faithfully reproduce traditional myths when adapting them for the stage and they were instead recreating the myths and producing new versions. Storytellers like Euripides relied on suspense to excite their audiences, in one of his works, Merope attempts to kill her sons murderer with an axe, unaware that the man in question is actually her son. According to an ancient description of reactions to this work. They rose to their feet in terror and caused an uproar, David Wiles points that the traditional mythos of Ancient Greece, was primarily a part of its oral tradition
29.
Social construct
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The theory centers on the notions that human beings rationalize their experience by creating models of the social world and share and reify these models through language. A major focus of social constructionism is to uncover the ways in which individuals and it involves looking at the ways social phenomena are created, institutionalized, known, and made into tradition by humans. In terms of background, social constructionism is rooted in symbolic interactionism, with Berger and Luckmans The Social Construction of Reality published in 1966, this concept found its hold. More than four decades later, a number of theory. It is a viewpoint that uproots social processes simultaneously playful and serious and it provides a substitute to the Western intellectual tradition where the researcher earnestly seeks certainty in a representation of reality by means of propositions. Rather, there can be multiple realities that compete for truth, Social constructionism understands the fundamental role of language and communication and this understanding has contributed to the linguistic turn and more recently the turn to discourse theory. The majority of social constructionists abide by the belief that language does not mirror reality, rather, a broad definition of social constructionism has its supporters and critics in the organizational sciences. A constructionist approach to organizational and managerial phenomena appear to be more commonplace. Berger and Luckmann give credit to Max Scheler as an influence as he created the idea of Sociology of knowledge which influenced social construction theory. Social construction may mean many things to many people, X need not have existed, or need not be at all as it is. X, or X as it is at present, is not determined by the nature of things, Hacking adds that the following claims are also often, though not always, implied by the use of the phrase social construction, X is quite bad as it is. We would be better off if X were done away with. Thus a claim that gender is socially constructed probably means that gender, as understood, is not an inevitable result of biology. In addition, depending on who is making the claim, it may mean that our current understanding of gender is harmful, according to Hacking, social construction claims are not always clear about exactly what isnt inevitable, or exactly what should be done away with. Consider a hypothetical claim that quarks are socially constructed, on one reading, this means that quarks themselves are not inevitable or determined by the nature of things. Hackings distinction is based on metaphysics, with a split between things out in the world, on one hand, and ideas thereof in our minds. Hacking is less advocating a serious, particular metaphysics than he is suggesting a way to analyse claims about social construction. Hacking is much more sympathetic to the second reading than the first, furthermore, he argues that, if the second reading is taken, there need not always be a conflict between saying that quarks are socially constructed and saying that they are real
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Censorship
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Governments, private organizations and individuals may engage in censorship. When an individual such as an author or other creator engages in censorship of their own works or speech, Censorship could be direct or indirect, in which case it is referred to as soft censorship. Direct censorship may or may not be legal, depending on the type, location, there are no laws against self-censorship. In 399 BC, Greek philosopher, Socrates, defied attempts by the Greek state to censor his philosophical teachings and was sentenced to death by drinking a poison, hemlock. Socrates student, Plato, is said to have advocated censorship in his essay on The Republic, in contrast to Plato, Greek playwright Euripides defended the true liberty of freeborn men, including the right to speak freely. In 1766, Sweden became the first country to abolish censorship by law, the rationale for censorship is different for various types of information censored, Moral censorship is the removal of materials that are obscene or otherwise considered morally questionable. Pornography, for example, is often censored under this rationale, especially child pornography, Military censorship is the process of keeping military intelligence and tactics confidential and away from the enemy. This is used to counter espionage, which is the process of gleaning military information, political censorship occurs when governments hold back information from their citizens. This is often done to control over the populace and prevent free expression that might foment rebellion. Religious censorship is the means by which any material considered objectionable by a religion is removed. This often involves a dominant religion forcing limitations on less prevalent ones, alternatively, one religion may shun the works of another when they believe the content is not appropriate for their religion. Strict censorship existed in the Eastern Bloc, throughout the bloc, the various ministries of culture held a tight rein on their writers. Cultural products there reflected the needs of the state. Party-approved censors exercised strict control in the early years, in the Stalinist period, even the weather forecasts were changed if they suggested that the sun might not shine on May Day. Under Nicolae Ceauşescu in Romania, weather reports were doctored so that the temperatures were not seen to rise above or fall below the levels which dictated that work must stop. Independent journalism did not exist in the Soviet Union until Mikhail Gorbachev became its leader, pravda, the predominant newspaper in the Soviet Union, had a monopoly. Foreign newspapers were available if they were published by Communist Parties sympathetic to the Soviet Union. Possession and use of copying machines was tightly controlled in order to hinder production and distribution of samizdat, illegal self-published books, possession of even a single samizdat manuscript such as a book by Andrei Sinyavsky was a serious crime which might involve a visit from the KGB
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Academic freedom
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Academic freedom is a contested issue and, therefore, has limitations in practice. For instance, in the Soviet Union, scientific research was brought under strict control in the 1930s. A number of areas were declared bourgeois pseudoscience and forbidden, notably genetics. Demands in Britain for centrally planned scientific research led Polanyi, together with John Baker, the Society promoted a liberal conception of science as free enquiry against the instrumental view that science should exist primarily to serve the needs of society. Just as consumers in a free market determine the value of products, such self-co-ordination of independent initiatives leads to a joint result which is unpremeditated by any of those who bring it about. Any attempt to organize the group, under a single authority would eliminate their independent initiatives, and thus reduce their joint effectiveness to that of the single person directing them from the centre. It would, in effect, paralyse their co-operation, proponents of academic freedom believe that the freedom of inquiry by students and faculty members is essential to the mission of the academy. They argue that communities are repeatedly targeted for repression due to their ability to shape. For example, in North Africa, a professor of public health discovered that his countrys infant mortality rate was higher than government figures indicated and he lost his job and was imprisoned. The fate of biology in the Soviet Union is also cited as a reason why society has an interest in protecting academic freedom. Lysenkos ideas proved appealing to the Soviet leadership, in part because of their value as propaganda, subsequently, Lysenko directed a purge of scientists who professed harmful ideas, resulting in the expulsion, imprisonment, or death of hundreds of Soviet scientists. Lysenkos ideas were implemented on collectivised farms in the Soviet Union. Famines that resulted partly from Lysenkos influence are believed to have killed 30 million people in China alone, AFAF of the United Kingdom is a campaign for lecturers, academic staff and researchers who want to make a public statement in favour of free enquiry and free expression. AFAF and those who agree with its principles believe that it is important for academics to be not only to express their opinions. They are against the idea of telling the public Platonic noble lies, the concept of academic freedom as a right of faculty members is an established part of most legal systems. The nomination and promotion of professors is largely done through a process of peer review rather than through normal administrative procedures, the German Constitution specifically grants academic freedom, Art and science, research and teaching are free. Freedom of teaching does not absolve from loyalty to the constitution, lehrfreiheit embraces the right of professors to determine the content of their lectures and to publish the results of their research without prior approval. Since professors through their Habilitation receive the right to teach in an academic field
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Sofia University
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The University of Sofia or simply Sofia University is the oldest higher education institution in Bulgaria, founded on 1 October,1888. The university has 16 faculties and three departments, where over 21,000 students receive their education, the current rector is Anastas Gerdzhikov. The university was founded on 1 October 1888,10 years after the Liberation of Bulgaria, initially, it had 4 regular and 3 additional lecturers and 49 students. It was founded as a pedagogical course, it became a higher school after a few months. The first rector was Bulgarian linguist Aleksandar Teodorov-Balan, during Sofia Universitys first years, it had three faculties, a Faculty of History and Philology, a Faculty of Mathematics and Physics and a Faculty of Law. History, geography, Slavic philology, philosophy and pedagogics, mathematics and physics, chemistry, natural sciences and law were taught. The first women,16 in number, were welcomed to the university in 1901, and 25 November, the day of St Kliment of Ohrid, became the universitys official holiday the following year. In 1907, as Prince Ferdinand opened the National Theatre, he was booed by Sofia University students, for which the university was closed for 6 months, not until a new government with Aleksandar Malinov at the head came into power in January 1908 was the crisis resolved. At the beginning of the Balkan Wars,1,379 students were recorded to attend the university, in 1922–1923, Sofia University had 111 chairs,205 lecturers and assistants and 2,388 students, of which 1,702 men and 686 women. The foundation stone of Sofia Universitys new edifice was laid on 30 June 1924, funds were secured by the brothers Evlogi Georgiev and Hristo Georgiev. The rectorate was built according to the plans of the French architect Henri Bréançon. The plans were developed by Nikola Lazarov and revised by Yordan Milanov, who directed the construction. On 27 October 1929 the first doctoral thesis, in natural science, the second one, in chemistry, followed on 1 July 1930 by Aleksandar Spasov. In 1930–1931, the university had four more doctors, after the political changes of 9 September 1944 and the emergence of the Peoples Republic of Bulgaria, radical alterations were made in the university system of the country. At that time, 1944–45,13,627 students attended the university, communist professors were introduced to the higher ranks of university authority, with others that did not share these views being removed. Specific party-related chairs were established and the university was restricted after the Soviet model, efficiency and public funding for higher education in Bulgaria
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Chios massacre
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The Chios massacre was the killing of tens of thousands of Greeks on the island of Chios by Ottoman troops during the Greek War of Independence in 1822. Greeks from neighbouring islands had arrived on Chios and encouraged the Chians to join their revolt, in response, Ottoman troops landed on the island and killed thousands. The massacre provoked outrage, and led to increasing support for the Greek cause worldwide. For over 2,000 years, Chios merchants and shipowners had been prominent in trade and diplomacy throughout the Black Sea, the Aegean, and the Mediterranean. The Ottoman Empire allowed Chios almost complete control over its own affairs as Chian trade, the cosmopolitan Chians were also very prominent in Constantinople. Following the massacre, however, the island never regained its commercial prominence, the islands ruling classes were reluctant to join the Greek revolt, fearing the loss of their security and prosperity. Furthermore, they were aware that they were situated far too close to the Turkish heartland in Anatolia to be safe, at some points, Chios is only 6.7 kilometres from the Anatolian mainland. In March 1822, as the Greek revolt gathered strength on the mainland and they attacked the Turks, who retreated to the citadel. Many islanders also decided to join the revolution, however, the vast majority of the population had by all accounts done nothing to provoke the reprisals, and had not joined other Greeks in their revolt against the Ottoman Empire. Reinforcements in the form of a Turkish fleet under the Kapudan Pasha Nasuhzade Ali Pasha arrived on the island on 22 March and they quickly pillaged and looted the town. On 31 March, orders were given to burn down the town, and over the four months. In addition to setting fires, the troops were ordered to kill all infants under three years old, all males 12 years and older, and all females 40 and older, approximately three-quarters of the population of 120,000 were killed, enslaved or died of disease. It is estimated that 2,000 people remained on the island after 21,000 managed to flee,52,000 were enslaved and 52,000 massacred, tens of thousands of survivors dispersed throughout Europe and became part of the Chian Diaspora. Another source says that approximately 20,000 Chians were killed or starved to death, some young Greeks enslaved during the massacre were adopted by wealthy Ottomans and converted to Islam. Some rose to levels of prominence in the Ottoman Empire, such as Georgios Stravelakis, there was outrage when the events were reported in Europe. French painter Eugène Delacroix created a painting depicting the events that occurred, in 2009, a copy of the painting was displayed in the local Byzantine museum on Chios. It was withdrawn from the museum on November 2009 in a good faith initiative for the improvement of Greek-Turkish relations, however, the Greek press protested its removal. The copy is now back on display in the museum, Chios expedition Navarino massacre Tripolitsa massacre Massacres during the Greek Revolution Ottoman wars in Europe List of massacres in Greece Christopher A
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International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
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Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
36.
The Sofia Echo
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The Sofia Echo is Bulgarias national English-language weekly newspaper published out of Sofia, the capital of Bulgaria. The Sofia Echo has been published since April 1997, generally targeted at the Bulgarian expatriate community, the newspaper is published by Sofia Echo Media Ltd. A majority stake in the company was bought in 2007 by Bulgarian publisher Economedia, the newspaper is distributed in major Sofia hotels, in outlets throughout the country, as well as in the OMV, Lukoil and Shell petrol stations and the Billa hypermarkets. From 2005 on, articles from the newspaper have been published online with daily news at its website. In 2017 it seems the Sofia Echo is no longer active, the website is not registered and the paper is not available at regular newsstands in Sofia
37.
Deutsche Welle
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Deutsche Welle or DW is Germanys public international broadcaster. The service is available in 30 languages, DWs satellite television service consists of channels in English, German, Spanish, and Arabic. DW also offers regularly updated articles on its news website and runs its own center for international media development. The broadcasters stated goals are to convey Germany as a liberal, democratic state based on the rule of law, to produce reliable news coverage, Deutsche Welle has been broadcasting since 1953. It is headquartered in Bonn, where its programmes are produced. Television broadcasts are produced almost entirely in Berlin, the responsibility for DWs news website is shared between the two locations. Around 3,000 people work for Deutsche Welle in over 60 countries, according to DW, its output reaches 100 million people worldwide every week. The broadcasters director general is Peter Limbourg, Deutsche Welles first shortwave broadcast took place on 3 May 1953 with an address by the then West German President, Theodor Heuss. On 11 June 1953, the broadcasters in the ARD signed an agreement to share responsibility for Deutsche Welle. At first, it was controlled by Nordwestdeutscher Rundfunk, in 1955, when this split into the separate Norddeutscher Rundfunk and Westdeutscher Rundfunk, which assumed responsibility for Deutsche Welle programming. In 1960, Deutsche Welle became an independent public body after a court ruled that broadcasting from Germany was part of the federal governments foreign-affairs function, on 7 June 1962 DW joined ARD as a national broadcasting station. With German reunification in 1990, Radio Berlin International of East Germany ceased to exist, some of the staff of RBI joined Deutsche Welle and it inherited some broadcasting apparatus, including the transmitting facilities at Nauen, as well as RBIs frequencies. DW began as RIAS-TV, a television station launched by the West Berlin broadcaster RIAS in August 1988, the fall of the Berlin Wall the following year and German reunification in 1990 meant that RIAS-TV was to be closed down. In 1995, it began 24-hour operation, at that time, DW introduced a new news studio and a new logo. In addition to radio and television programming, DW sponsored some published material, for example, the South-Asia Department published German Heritage, A Series Written for the South Asia Programme in 1967 and in 1984 published African Writers on the Air. Both publications were transcripts of DW programming, in September 1994, Deutsche Welle was the first public broadcaster in Germany with a World Wide Web presence, initially www-dw. gmd. de, hosted by the GMD Information Technology Research Center. Around 1998, it evolved into a website under the URL dwelle. de, in 2001, the URL later changed to www. dw-world. de. Deutsche Welle purchased the dw. com URL, which belonged to DiamondWare, in 2013, DW had attempted to claim ownership of the address in 2000
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Die Tageszeitung
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Die Tageszeitung, stylized as die tageszeitung and commonly referred to as taz, is a cooperative-owned German daily newspaper administrated by its employees. It has often supported the German Green Party, but the taz has also been critical of the SPD/Greens coalition government, Die Tageszeitung was established in 1978. From the beginning, the taz was intended to be an alternative to the press, in its own words, irreverent, commercially independent, intelligent. One expression of its approach to journalism was the payment of unified salaries for all employees until 1991. Nowadays, employees in highly responsible positions receive bonuses, still, salaries paid by the taz are considerably lower than what is paid in the rest of the industry. WOZ Die Wochenzeitung and taz are joint editors of the German-language edition of Le Monde diplomatique as a supplement of the newspapers, since 1992, the Tageszeitung has been owned by currently more than 13,500 paying members. It has a circulation of more than 60,000, with almost 50,000 subscriptions, in 1995, it was the first German national newspaper to make all of the content of issue available online. In 2009, Ines Pohl became editor in chief, from the beginning, the Tageszeitung appeared in a nationwide edition as well as in a Berlin local edition. Over the years, local offices for North Rhine-Westphalia, Hamburg. While the latter two were merged to taz nord the NRW-offices were closed as of July 2007, in the 2013 elections the magazine was among the supporters of the SPD. On 26 June 2006 Die Tageszeitung published an article on its last page, headlined Die Wahrheit that is reserved for satire. It was titled Polens neue Kartoffel, schurken, die die Welt beherrschen wollen. This article ridiculed the Polish politicians President of Poland Lech Kaczyński, Lech Kaczyński then cancelled talks that were scheduled between Germany, Poland and France, officially for reasons of sickness. The taz is noted for its headlines, such as. – On the election of Joseph Ratzinger as Pope Benedict XVI Es ist ein Mädchen – On the election of Angela Merkel as the first female Chancellor of Germany Oops – they did it again, – On the re-election of George W. That headline, which reference to the book Uncle Toms Cabin, was perceived as racist by some of its readership. List of newspapers in Germany Friede sei mit Dir taz - die tageszeitung, Die Tageszeitung Verlagsgenossenschaft e. G. Berlin 1.1987, 1ff. ISSN 0931-9085 Oliver Tolmein/Detlef zum Winkel, tazsachen, ISBN 3-922144-76-4 Jörg Magenau, Die taz
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Bulgaria: History". Encyclopædia Britannica. 4 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
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