1.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
Massacre
–
A massacre is a specific incident which involves the killing of people, although not necessarily a crime against humanity. Further origins are dubious, though may be related to Latin macellum provisions store, robert Melsons basic working definition, reads, by massacre we shall mean the intentional killing by political actors of a significant number of relatively defenseless people. The motives for massacre need not be rational in order for the killings to be intentional, Mass killings can be carried out for various reasons, including a response to false rumors. Should be distinguished from criminal or pathological mass killings, as political bodies we of course include the state and its agencies, but also nonstate actors. Equally important is that massacres are not carried out by individuals, the use of superior, even overwhelming force. Levene excludes legal, or even some quasi-legal, mass executions and he also points out that it is. most often. When the act is outside the normal bounds of the society witnessing it. List of events named massacres Disaster Ethnic cleansing Genocide Killing spree Mass murder Pogrom Tragedy Tragedy War crime
3.
Bulgarians
–
Bulgarians are a South Slavic ethnic group who are native to Bulgaria and its neighboring regions. Bulgarian citizenship shall further be acquirable through naturalization, the population of Bulgaria descend from peoples with different origins and numbers. They became assimilated by the Slavic settlers in the First Bulgarian Empire, from the indigenous Thracian people certain cultural and ethnic elements were taken. Other pre-Slavic Indo-European peoples, including Dacians, Celts, Goths, Romans, Greeks, the Thracian language has been described as a southern Baltic language. Some pre-Slavic linguistic and cultural traces might have preserved in modern Bulgarians. Medieval historians claimed that the Triballi are the largest tribe and that subsequently changed their name to Bulgarians or Serbs. Others claimed that the Paeonians are Bulgarians, others claimed that the Moesi, according to archeological evidence from the late periods of Roman rule, the Romans did not decrease the number of Thracians significantly in major cities. The latter gradually inflicting total linguistic replacement of Thracian if the Thracians had not already been Romanized or Hellenized and they continued coming to the Balkans in many waves, but also leaving, most notably Justinian II settled as many as 30,000 Slavs from Thrace in Asia Minor. The Byzantines grouped the numerous Slavic tribes into two groups, the Sklavenoi and Antes, some Bulgarian scholars suggest that the Antes became one of the ancestors of the modern Bulgarians. The control of the Bulgars in the west was indirect and in the hands of the Slavic chiefs, the Bulgars are first mentioned in the 4th century in the vicinity of the North Caucasian steppe. However, any connection between the Bulgars and postulated Asian counterparts rest on little more than speculative and contorted etymologies. The Bulgars are not thought to have numerous, becoming a ruling elite in the areas they controlled. Their archeological evidence is concentrated in northeast Bulgaria and in Macedonia, mixed Bulgar-Slavic settlements emerged according to archeological evidence. Omurtag was the last ruler with a Turkic name and during the reign of Boris the Slavonic language reached an official level, a substantional number of loan words of the Bulgar language remained in the Medieval Bulgarian Slavic language and fewer survived in the modern. During the Early Byzantine Era, the Roman provincials in Scythia Minor and Moesia Secunda were already engaged in economic, the major port towns in Pontic Bulgaria remained Byzantine Greek in their outlook. The establishment of a new state molded the various Slav, Bulgar, in different periods to the ethnogenesis of the local population contributed also different Indo-European and Turkic people, who settled or lived on the Balkans. The First Bulgarian Empire was founded in 681, after the adoption of Orthodox Christianity in 864 it became one of the cultural centres of Slavic Europe. Its leading cultural position was consolidated with the invention of the Cyrillic script in its capital Preslav at the eve of the 10th century
4.
Batak, Bulgaria
–
Batak is a town in Pazardzhik Province, Southern Bulgaria, not far from the town of Peshtera. It is the centre of the homonymous Batak Municipality. As of December 2009, the town has a population of 3,498 inhabitants, Batak is situated in the northwestern slopes of the Rhodope Mountains, at 1036 m above sea level. It is surrounded by many peaks, clad with century-old pine, the climate is temperate continental with a characteristic southern warm wind. Batak was pronounced town in 1964 and has a population of 4,019 people, ninety percent of the municipal area is covered with thick forests. Batak is situated at 15 km to the south of Peshtera and 33 km to the south of the regional centre Pazardzhik, the nearest railway station is in Peshtera. There are numerous monuments of most ancient times in the region of Batak. A find of the Old Stone Age was discovered in 1958, tools, objects, ceramic vessels, ornaments as well as bones of rhinoceros were found which proves that the climate was warmer in the Quaternary. Twenty Thracian, Thraco-Roman, Byzantine and Slavic fortresses, churches and monasteries, as well as Thracian mounds, Roman bridges, mines, mills, the exact origin of Batak is unknown, since there is a lack of historical data. The origin of the name of Batak is not certain, too and it is, however, certain that the name of the village is Bulgarian, not Turkish as some authors assert. From these times have remained the old names, such as Haydushka Skala, Haydushka Polyana, Haydushko Kladenche, Sablen Vrah, Karvav Chuchur. Woodworking, trade and innkeeping were developed in Batak during the National Revival, built for 75 days with the work of citizens of Batak. Famous men of letters are Georgi Busilin and Dragan Manchov, the population of Batak took part in the April Uprising of 1876. The people of Batak rebelled on 22 April under the leadership of voivoda Petar Goranov, on 30 April the village was surrounded by Ottoman army units and irregulars called bashi-bozouk. The battles were carried on for five days, the last stronghold of the rebels was the St. Nedelya Church. At the end five thousand people were killed and the village was burned down to ashes, News of the atrocities spread around the world, aided in large part by Januarius MacGahans writing for the London Daily News. The public outcry created favourable conditions for Russia to declare war on Turkey, on 20 January 1878 the people of Batak who had survived the uprising enthusiastically met the advancing Russian army. Today Batak is a modern town famous for its historical monuments
5.
Ottoman Empire
–
After 1354, the Ottomans crossed into Europe, and with the conquest of the Balkans the Ottoman Beylik was transformed into a transcontinental empire. The Ottomans ended the Byzantine Empire with the 1453 conquest of Constantinople by Mehmed the Conqueror, at the beginning of the 17th century the empire contained 32 provinces and numerous vassal states. Some of these were later absorbed into the Ottoman Empire, while others were granted various types of autonomy during the course of centuries. With Constantinople as its capital and control of lands around the Mediterranean basin, while the empire was once thought to have entered a period of decline following the death of Suleiman the Magnificent, this view is no longer supported by the majority of academic historians. The empire continued to maintain a flexible and strong economy, society, however, during a long period of peace from 1740 to 1768, the Ottoman military system fell behind that of their European rivals, the Habsburg and Russian Empires. While the Empire was able to hold its own during the conflict, it was struggling with internal dissent. Starting before World War I, but growing increasingly common and violent during it, major atrocities were committed by the Ottoman government against the Armenians, Assyrians and Pontic Greeks. The word Ottoman is an anglicisation of the name of Osman I. Osmans name in turn was the Turkish form of the Arabic name ʿUthmān, in Ottoman Turkish, the empire was referred to as Devlet-i ʿAlīye-yi ʿOsmānīye, or alternatively ʿOsmānlı Devleti. In Modern Turkish, it is known as Osmanlı İmparatorluğu or Osmanlı Devleti, the Turkish word for Ottoman originally referred to the tribal followers of Osman in the fourteenth century, and subsequently came to be used to refer to the empires military-administrative elite. In contrast, the term Turk was used to refer to the Anatolian peasant and tribal population, the term Rūmī was also used to refer to Turkish-speakers by the other Muslim peoples of the empire and beyond. In Western Europe, the two names Ottoman Empire and Turkey were often used interchangeably, with Turkey being increasingly favored both in formal and informal situations and this dichotomy was officially ended in 1920–23, when the newly established Ankara-based Turkish government chose Turkey as the sole official name. Most scholarly historians avoid the terms Turkey, Turks, and Turkish when referring to the Ottomans, as the power of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum declined in the 13th century, Anatolia was divided into a patchwork of independent Turkish principalities known as the Anatolian Beyliks. One of these beyliks, in the region of Bithynia on the frontier of the Byzantine Empire, was led by the Turkish tribal leader Osman, osmans early followers consisted both of Turkish tribal groups and Byzantine renegades, many but not all converts to Islam. Osman extended the control of his principality by conquering Byzantine towns along the Sakarya River and it is not well understood how the early Ottomans came to dominate their neighbours, due to the scarcity of the sources which survive from this period. One school of thought which was popular during the twentieth century argued that the Ottomans achieved success by rallying religious warriors to fight for them in the name of Islam, in the century after the death of Osman I, Ottoman rule began to extend over Anatolia and the Balkans. Osmans son, Orhan, captured the northwestern Anatolian city of Bursa in 1326 and this conquest meant the loss of Byzantine control over northwestern Anatolia. The important city of Thessaloniki was captured from the Venetians in 1387, the Ottoman victory at Kosovo in 1389 effectively marked the end of Serbian power in the region, paving the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe
6.
April Uprising
–
The April Uprising was an insurrection organised by the Bulgarians in the Ottoman Empire from April to May 1876, which indirectly resulted in the re-establishment of Bulgaria in 1878. The 1876 uprising involved only those parts of the Ottoman territories populated predominantly by Bulgarians, the emergence of Bulgarian national sentiments was closely related to the re-establishment of the independent Bulgarian Orthodox Church in 1870. Together with notions of nationalism, the rise of national awareness became known as the Bulgarian National Revival. The idea of state was an increasing emphasis during the 19th century, on the ethnic. The most noticeable characteristic was the degree to which nation states use the state as an instrument of national unity, in economic, by the 18th century, the Ottomans had fallen well behind the rest of Europe in science, technology, and industry. However, the Bulgarian population was also suppressed socially and politically under Ottoman rule, the failure of the Ottomans to handle the Herzegovinian uprising successfully showed the weakness of the Ottoman state, and atrocities discredited it for the outside world. In the late 19th century, European ideas of nationalism were adopted by the Bulgarian elite, in November 1875, activists of the Bulgarian Revolutionary Central Committee met in the Romanian town of Giurgiu and decided that the political situation was suitable for a general uprising. The uprising was scheduled for April or May 1876, the territory of the country was divided into five revolutionary districts with centers in Vratsa, Veliko Tarnovo, Sliven, Plovdiv and Sofia. The rebels had been hoarding arms and ammunition for some time, on 14 April 1876, a general meeting of the committees from the fourth revolutionary district was held in the Oborishte locality near Panagyurishte to discuss the proclamation of the insurrection. One of the delegates, however, disclosed the plot to the Ottoman authorities, on 2 May 1876, Ottoman police made an attempt to arrest the leader of the local revolutionary committee in Koprivshtitsa, Todor Kableshkov. These actions include killing, arson of property and homes and seizure of assets, on the other hand Muslims who did not resist were to be protected in the same way as the Bulgarian population. The committee also gives approval for torching towns and villages, there is no evidence that this plan was implemented. In conformity with the decisions taken at Oborishte, on 20 April 1876 the local rebel committee attacked and surrounded the headquarters of the Ottoman police in Koprivshtitsa commanded by Necip Aga. At least two Ottoman police officials were killed and Necip Aga was forced to release arrested Bulgarian rebel suspects, Necip Aga and his close officials managed to escape the siege. However, due to this incident the Bulgarian rebels had to proclaim the insurrection two weeks in advance of the planned date, within several days, the rebellion spread to the whole Sredna Gora and to a number of towns and villages in the northwestern Rhodopes. The insurrection broke out in the other districts, as well. The areas of Gabrovo, Tryavna, and Pavlikeni also revolted in force, as well as several villages north and south of Sliven, the rebels attacked Muslim civilians as well as Ottoman officials and police. The number of killed by the rebels is disputed
7.
Pomak
–
The term has also been used as a wider designation, including also the Slavic Muslim populations of the Republic of Macedonia and Albania. The Bulgarian dialect spoken by the Pomaks in Greece and Turkey, is referred there as the Pomak language, the origin of the Pomaks has been debated, but usually they are considered descendants of native Bulgarians, who converted to Islam during the Ottoman rule of the Balkans. They are not officially recognized as one people with the ethnonym of Pomaks, the term is widely used colloquially for Eastern South Slavic Muslims, considered derogatory. However, it should be noted that in Greece and Turkey the practice for declaring the group at census has been abolished for decades. Different members of the group today declare a variety of identities, Bulgarian, Pomak, Muslim, Turkish, Albanian. The Pomaks in Bulgaria are referred to as Bulgarian Muslims, and under the locally used names Ahryani, Pogantsi, Poturani, Poturnatsi, Eruli, Charaklii and they mainly inhabit the Rhodope Mountains in Smolyan Province, Kardzhali Province, Pazardzhik Province and Blagoevgrad Province. There are Pomaks in other parts of Bulgaria as well, there are a few Pomak villages in Burgas Province, Lovech Province, Veliko Tarnovo Province and Ruse Province. Officially no ethnic Pomaks are recorded, while 67,000 declared Muslim and ethnic Bulgarian identity, down from 131,000 who declared Muslim Bulgarian identity at the 2001 census. Unofficially, there may be between 150,000 and 250,000 Pomaks in Bulgaria, though not in the ethnic sense as one part declare Bulgarian. The first two campaigns were abandoned after a few years, while the second was reversed in 1989 and these attempts were met with stiff resistance by some Pomaks. A Pomak community is present in Turkey, mostly in Eastern Thrace and fewer in Anatolia, where they are called in Turkish Pomaklar, the Pomak community in Turkey is unofficially estimated between 300,000 and 600,000. Today the Pomaks in Greece inhabit the province of East Macedonia and Thrace in Northern Greece, particularly the regional units of Xanthi, Rhodope. Their estimated population is 50,000, only in Western Thrace, german sightseer Adolf Struck in 1898 describes Konstantia as a big village with 300 houses and two panes, inhabited exclusively by Pomaks. The 1941 census recorded that the vast majority of the Pomaks in Greece, especially in the Xanthi area had Turkish national identity, less than these in Komotini. However, at the 1943 census after pro-Bulgarian education, those who declared as Bulgarians were more, the Macedonian Muslims, are occasionally also referred to as Pomaks, especially in historical context. However the estimated 100,000 Pomaks in Macedonia maintain an affiliation to the Turkish identity. Slavic-speaking Muslims, sometimes referred to as Pomaks, live also in the Albanian region of Golloborda, however these people are also referred to as Torbeš. They speak the Drimkol-Golo Brdo dialect of the Macedonian language, part of this people still self-identify as Bulgarians
8.
Bashi-bazouk
–
A bashi-bazouk or bashibazouk was an irregular soldier of the Ottoman army. A Bashi-Bazouk may be Turk but also Circassian, Arab, Albanian and they were particularly noted for their lack of discipline. They were armed and maintained by the government, but did not receive pay and they were motivated to fight mostly by expectations of plunder. Though the majority of troops fought on foot, some troops rode on horseback, because of their lack of discipline, they were incapable of undertaking major military operations, but were useful for other tasks such as reconnaissance and outpost duty. However, their uncertain temper occasionally made it necessary for the Turkish regular troops to them by force. The Ottoman army consisted of the following, The Sultans household troops, called Kapıkulu, provincial soldiers, which were fiefed, the most important being Timarli Sipahi and their retainers, but other kinds were also present. Soldiers of subject, protectorate, or allied states Bashi-bazouk usually did not receive regular salaries, an attempt by Husrev Pasha to disband his Albanian bashi-bazouks in favor of his regular forces began the rioting which led to the establishment of Muhammad Alis Khedivate of Egypt. The bashi-bazouk were notorious for being brutal and undisciplined, thus giving the term its second, a notable example of this use is in the comic series The Adventures of Tintin, where the word is often used as an expletive by Captain Haddock. Their use was abandoned by the end of the 19th century, however, self-organized bashi-bazouk troops still appeared later. The term bashibozouk has also used for a mounted force, existing in peacetime in various provinces of the Ottoman Empire. Mercenary Pindari Ottoman warfare, 1500–1700 by Rhoads Murphey, a History of Warfare, The World Publishing Company
9.
Pomaks
–
The term has also been used as a wider designation, including also the Slavic Muslim populations of the Republic of Macedonia and Albania. The Bulgarian dialect spoken by the Pomaks in Greece and Turkey, is referred there as the Pomak language, the origin of the Pomaks has been debated, but usually they are considered descendants of native Bulgarians, who converted to Islam during the Ottoman rule of the Balkans. They are not officially recognized as one people with the ethnonym of Pomaks, the term is widely used colloquially for Eastern South Slavic Muslims, considered derogatory. However, it should be noted that in Greece and Turkey the practice for declaring the group at census has been abolished for decades. Different members of the group today declare a variety of identities, Bulgarian, Pomak, Muslim, Turkish, Albanian. The Pomaks in Bulgaria are referred to as Bulgarian Muslims, and under the locally used names Ahryani, Pogantsi, Poturani, Poturnatsi, Eruli, Charaklii and they mainly inhabit the Rhodope Mountains in Smolyan Province, Kardzhali Province, Pazardzhik Province and Blagoevgrad Province. There are Pomaks in other parts of Bulgaria as well, there are a few Pomak villages in Burgas Province, Lovech Province, Veliko Tarnovo Province and Ruse Province. Officially no ethnic Pomaks are recorded, while 67,000 declared Muslim and ethnic Bulgarian identity, down from 131,000 who declared Muslim Bulgarian identity at the 2001 census. Unofficially, there may be between 150,000 and 250,000 Pomaks in Bulgaria, though not in the ethnic sense as one part declare Bulgarian. The first two campaigns were abandoned after a few years, while the second was reversed in 1989 and these attempts were met with stiff resistance by some Pomaks. A Pomak community is present in Turkey, mostly in Eastern Thrace and fewer in Anatolia, where they are called in Turkish Pomaklar, the Pomak community in Turkey is unofficially estimated between 300,000 and 600,000. Today the Pomaks in Greece inhabit the province of East Macedonia and Thrace in Northern Greece, particularly the regional units of Xanthi, Rhodope. Their estimated population is 50,000, only in Western Thrace, german sightseer Adolf Struck in 1898 describes Konstantia as a big village with 300 houses and two panes, inhabited exclusively by Pomaks. The 1941 census recorded that the vast majority of the Pomaks in Greece, especially in the Xanthi area had Turkish national identity, less than these in Komotini. However, at the 1943 census after pro-Bulgarian education, those who declared as Bulgarians were more, the Macedonian Muslims, are occasionally also referred to as Pomaks, especially in historical context. However the estimated 100,000 Pomaks in Macedonia maintain an affiliation to the Turkish identity. Slavic-speaking Muslims, sometimes referred to as Pomaks, live also in the Albanian region of Golloborda, however these people are also referred to as Torbeš. They speak the Drimkol-Golo Brdo dialect of the Macedonian language, part of this people still self-identify as Bulgarians
10.
Millet (Ottoman Empire)
–
In the Ottoman Empire, a millet was a separate legal court pertaining to personal law under which a confessional community was allowed to rule itself under its own laws. Despite frequently being referred to as a system, before the century the organization of what are now retrospectively called millets in the Ottoman Empire was far from systematic. Rather, non-Muslims were simply given a significant degree of autonomy within their own community, the notion of distinct millets corresponding to different religious communities within the empire would not emerge until the eighteenth century. After the Ottoman Tanzimat reforms, the term was used for legally protected religious minority groups, the word millet comes from the Arabic word millah and literally means nation. The millet system has been called an example of religious pluralism. The millet system has a history in the Middle East and is closely linked to Islamic rules on the treatment of non−Muslim minorities living under Islamic dominion. The concept was used even before the establishment of the Ottoman Empire for the communities of the Church of the East under the Zoroastrian Sassanid Persia in the 4th century. People were bound to their millets by their religious affiliations, rather than their ethnic origins, the millets had a great deal of power – they set their own laws and collected and distributed their own taxes. All that was required was loyalty to the Empire, later, the perception of the millet concept was altered in the 19th century by the rise of nationalism within the Ottoman Empire. After the decline of the Assyrian Church of the East in the 14th century, until the 19th century beside the Muslim millet, each official within each community was in charge of tax collection, education, justice and religious affairs. By doing so, however, the Ottoman administration was simply tolerating these non-Muslim communities and they were allowing them religious freedom in a way that kept them from resisting Ottoman rule. This kept these religious communities from prospering or being regarded as equals to Muslims, social discrimination was just as significant during these times as many Jews were unable to serve within the Ottoman armed forces and were unable to join the Ottoman ruling elite. They were granted freedom, however, at a cost. Armenians formed more than one millets under the Ottoman rule, a wide array of other groups such as Catholics, Karaites and Samaritans was also represented. The Orthodox Christians were included in the Rum Millet, or the Roman nation conquered by Islam, only later did a separate Catholic millet emerge. These groups included the Syriac Orthodox and the Copts, the Syriac Catholic community was recognized as its own millet in 1829. The Chaldean community was recognized as its own millet in 1846, the Syriac Orthodox community in the Ottoman Empire was for long not recognized as its own millet, but part of the Armenian millet. Then, during the Tanzimat reforms, the Syriac Orthodox were granted independent status with the recognition of their own millet in 1873, under the millet system the Jews were organized as a community on the basis of religion, alongside the other millets
11.
Bashi-bozouk
–
A bashi-bazouk or bashibazouk was an irregular soldier of the Ottoman army. A Bashi-Bazouk may be Turk but also Circassian, Arab, Albanian and they were particularly noted for their lack of discipline. They were armed and maintained by the government, but did not receive pay and they were motivated to fight mostly by expectations of plunder. Though the majority of troops fought on foot, some troops rode on horseback, because of their lack of discipline, they were incapable of undertaking major military operations, but were useful for other tasks such as reconnaissance and outpost duty. However, their uncertain temper occasionally made it necessary for the Turkish regular troops to them by force. The Ottoman army consisted of the following, The Sultans household troops, called Kapıkulu, provincial soldiers, which were fiefed, the most important being Timarli Sipahi and their retainers, but other kinds were also present. Soldiers of subject, protectorate, or allied states Bashi-bazouk usually did not receive regular salaries, an attempt by Husrev Pasha to disband his Albanian bashi-bazouks in favor of his regular forces began the rioting which led to the establishment of Muhammad Alis Khedivate of Egypt. The bashi-bazouk were notorious for being brutal and undisciplined, thus giving the term its second, a notable example of this use is in the comic series The Adventures of Tintin, where the word is often used as an expletive by Captain Haddock. Their use was abandoned by the end of the 19th century, however, self-organized bashi-bazouk troops still appeared later. The term bashibozouk has also used for a mounted force, existing in peacetime in various provinces of the Ottoman Empire. Mercenary Pindari Ottoman warfare, 1500–1700 by Rhoads Murphey, a History of Warfare, The World Publishing Company
12.
Agha (Ottoman Empire)
–
Agha, also Aga, as an honorific title for a civilian or military officer, or often part of such title, was placed after the name of certain military functionaries in the Ottoman Empire. At the same time some court functionaries were entitled to the agha title, the word agha entered English from Turkish, and the Turkish word comes from the Old Turkic aqa, meaning elder brother. It is an equivalent of Mongolian word aka, in Kurdistan, within the tribal Kurdish society, agha is the title given to tribal chieftains, either supreme chieftains, or to village heads. It is also given to landlords and owners of major real estates in the urban Kurdish centers. The common tribesmen would honor the chieftains or the heads by calling them agha or agha so and so. The agha and his guests would listen at times for local or visiting singers and story tellers, one of the best studies on aghas in the Kurdish society is the important book of Mordechai Zaken, Jewish Subjects and their tribal chieftains in Kurdistan. State organisation of the Ottoman Empire Agaluk Kapi Agha Kizlar Agha Silahdar Agha
13.
Shish kebab
–
Shish kebab or Seekh kebab is a dish of skewered and grilled cubes of meat. The word kebab denotes a variety of different grilled meat dishes. Shish is the Turkish word for sword or skewer, and kebab is originally an ancient Aramaic word meaning roast meat and it is popular in the whole of Asia. Its similar to a dish called shashlik, which is found in the Caucasus region and it is generally made of lamb but there are also versions with beef or veal, swordfish and chicken meat. In Turkey, şiş kebap and the served with it are grilled separately, normally not on the same skewer. A Pakistani variation prepared with minced meat with spices and grilled on skewers and it is cooked in a Tandoor, and is often served with chutneys or mint sauce. It is often included in tandoori sampler platters, which contain a variety of cooked dishes. A seekh kebab can also be served in a naan bread much like döner kebab, Seekh kebabs are part of the traditional Pakistani diet. Adana kebabı Cağ kebabı Döner kebap İskender kebap Patlıcanlı kebap Şiş köfte Şiş tavuk Anticuchos List of kebabs
14.
Januarius MacGahan
–
Januarius Aloysius MacGahan was an American journalist and war correspondent working for the New York Herald and the London Daily News. Januarius Aloysius MacGahan was born near New Lexington, Ohio on June 12,1844 and his father was an immigrant from Ireland who had served on the Northumberland, the ship which took Napoleon into exile on St. Helena. MacGahan moved to St. Louis, where he worked briefly as a teacher, there he met his cousin, General Philip Sheridan, a Civil War hero also of Irish parentage, who convinced him to study law in Europe. He sailed to Brussels in December 1868, MacGahan did not get a law degree, but he discovered that he had a gift for languages, learning French and German. He ran short of money and was about to return to America in 1870 when the Franco-Prussian War broke out, by the age of twenty-seven, he was a celebrity. He was arrested by the French military and nearly executed, and was rescued through the intervention of the U. S. In 1871 MacGahan was assigned as the Heralds correspondent to St. Petersburg and he learned Russian, mingled with the Russian military and nobility, covered the Russian tour of General William Tecumseh Sherman and met his future wife, Varvara Elagina, whom he married in 1873. He learned in 1873 that Russia was planning to invade the khanate of Khiva, defying a Russian ban of foreign correspondents, he crossed the Kyzyl-Kum desert on horseback and witnessed the surrender of the city of Khiva to the Russian Army. There he met a Russian Lieutenant Colonel, Mikhail Skobelev, who became famous as Russian commander during the Russian-Turkish War of 1877–78. MacGahan described his adventures in a book, Campaigning on the Oxus. MacGahan was also married to the daughter of an old Russian noble family, in 1874 he spent ten months in Spain, covering the Third Carlist War. In 1875 he voyaged with British explorer Sir Allan William Young on his steam yacht HMS Pandora on an expedition to try to find the Northwest Passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific. The expedition got as far as Peel Sound in the Canadian Arctic before it met pack ice and was forced to return, in 1876 MacGahan quarreled with James Gordon Bennett Jr. the publisher of the New York Herald, and left the newspaper. It was a low building with a low roof, supported by heavy irregular arches, what we saw there was too frightful for more than a hasty glance. I had never imagined anything so horrible and we all turned away sick and faint, and staggered out of the fearful pest house glad to get into the street again. We waled about the place and saw the same thing repeated over and over a hundred times, skeletons of men with the clothing and flesh still hanging to and rotting together, skulls of women, with the hair dragging in the dust. Bones of children and infants everywhere, here they show us a house where twenty people were burned alive, there another where a dozen girls had taken refuge, and been slaughtered to the last one, as their bones amply testified. MacGahan reported that the Turkish soldiers had forced some of the villagers into the church, then the church was burned, MacGahan said that of a population of seven thousand, only two thousand survived
15.
New York Herald
–
The New York Herald was a large distribution newspaper based in New York City that existed between May 6,1835, and 1924. The first issue of the paper was published by James Gordon Bennett, by 1845, it was the most popular and profitable daily newspaper in the United States. In 1861, it circulated 84,000 copies and called itself the most largely circulated journal in the world, Bennett stated that the function of a newspaper is not to instruct but to startle and amuse. His politics tended to be anti-Catholic and he had tended to favor the Know-Nothing faction, during the American Civil War, his policy as expressed by the newspaper was to staunchly support the Democratic Party. Frederic Hudson served as managing editor of the paper from 1846–1866, Bennett turned over control of the paper to his son James Gordon Bennett, Jr. in 1866. Under Gordon Bennett Jr. the paper financed Henry Morton Stanleys expeditions into Africa to find David Livingstone, the paper also supported Stanleys trans-Africa exploration, and in 1879 supported the ill-fated expedition of George W. DeLong to the arctic region. On October 4,1887, Bennett Jr. sent Julius Chambers to Paris, Bennett himself later moved to Paris, but the New York Herald suffered from his attempt to manage its operation in New York by telegram. In 1924, after Bennett Jr. s death, the New York Herald was acquired by its rival the New York Tribune. In 1959, the New York Herald Tribune and its European edition were sold to John Hay Whitney, in 1966, the New York paper ceased publication. The Washington Post and the New York Times acquired joint control of the European edition, when the Herald was still under the authority of its original publisher Bennett, it was considered to be the most invasive and sensationalist of the leading New York papers. Its ability to entertain the public with timely daily news made it the leading circulation paper of its time, the New York Evening Telegram was founded in 1867 by the junior Bennett, and was considered by many to be an evening edition of the Herald. Frank Munsey acquired the Telegram in 1920, which ceased its connection to the Herald, New Yorks Herald Square is named after the New York Herald newspaper, in the north side of the square there is a sculpture commemorating the Bennetts. The statue of Minerva, the Bellringers, and Owls by Antonin Carles originally graced the New York Herald building and rang every hour until it was moved to Herald Square, the chorus of Give My Regards to Broadway includes the phrase, emember me to Herald Square. North of Herald Square is Times Square, which is named after rival The New York Times, New York Herald Tribune Three months with the New York Herald, or, Old news on board of a homeward. By John Henry Potter Photographs and architectural sketches of the New York Herald Building
16.
The Daily News (UK)
–
The Daily News was a national daily newspaper in the United Kingdom. The News was founded in 1846 by Charles Dickens, who served as the newspapers first editor. It was conceived as a rival to the right-wing Morning Chronicle. The paper was not at first a commercial success, Dickens edited 17 issues before handing over the editorship to his friend John Forster, who had more experience in journalism than Dickens. Forster ran the paper until 1870, in 1870, the News absorbed the Morning Star. In 1876, Daily News and its correspondent Edwin Pears, and later Januarius MacGahan, in 1901, Quaker chocolate manufacturer George Cadbury bought the Daily News and used the paper to campaign for old age pensions and against sweatshop labour. As a pacifist, Cadbury opposed the Boer War – and the Daily News followed his line, in 1906, the News sponsored an exhibition on sweated labour at the Queens Hall. This exhibition was credited with strengthening the womens suffrage movement, in 1909, H. N. Brailsford and H. W. Nevinson resigned from the paper when it refused to condemn the force feeding of suffragettes. In 1912, the News merged with the Morning Leader, and was for a known as the Daily News. In 1928, it merged with The Westminster Gazette, and in 1930, the chairman from 1911 to 1930 was Edward Cadbury, eldest son of George Cadbury
17.
Eugene Schuyler
–
Eugene Schuyler was a nineteenth-century American scholar, writer, explorer and diplomat. Schuyler was one of the first three Americans to earn a Ph. D. from an American university, and the first American translator of Ivan Turgenev and Lev Tolstoi and he was the first American Minister to Romania and Serbia, and U. S. Eugene Schuyler was the son of George W. Schuyler, an owner in Ithaca. His fathers ancestors, of Dutch descent, included a general in George Washingtons army and his mother, Matilda Scribner, was half-sister of Charles Scribner, the founder of the famous American publishing house. At the age of fifteen Schuyler entered Yale College, where he studied languages, literature and he graduated with honors in 1859 and was a member of Skull and Bones. He became one of the first graduate students at Yale, and in 1861, he, in 1860 Schuyler became an assistant to Noah Porter, a prominent linguistician and literary figure, in the revision of Websters Dictionary, the first dictionary of American English. In 1862 Schuyler began to study law at Yale Law School and he began practicing law in New York, but did not find it very interesting. Instead he began to write, becoming a contributor to The Nation magazine and he continued to write for The Nation until the end of his life. Schuyler met some of the officers of the Russian flagship, the Alexander Nevsky and he learned Russian well enough to translate the novel of Ivan Turgenev, Fathers and Sons, which was published in 1867, the first translation of Turgenev to appear in the United States. The same year Schuyler studied Finnish, and edited the first American translation of the Finnish national epic, in 1864, Schuyler applied for a diplomatic post in the State Department. The State Department took three years to consider his application, and then offered him the position of consul in Moscow, en route to his post, Schuyler stopped in Baden-Baden to meet Turgenev, who gave him a letter of introduction to Lev Tolstoi. Schuyler began his tour in Moscow in August 1867. In 1868, Schuyler was a guest of Tolstoi for a week at his estate at Yasnaya Polyana, at the time when Tolstoi was finishing War and he helped Tolstoi rearrange his library, and went hunting with him. Tolstoi, who was interested in education in the United States, asked Schuyler for copies of American primers. Schuyler received Tolstois permission to translate his novel The Cossacks into English, in 1869, the new Administration of President Ulysses Grant removed Schuyler from his post in Moscow and replaced him with a political appointee. Schuyler was able to obtain a post as consul to the Russian port of Reval, in November,1869, President Grant appointed a new Minister to Russia, Andrew Curtin, a former Governor of Pennsylvania who knew nothing of Russia. Curtin was impressed by Schuyler and appointed him as the secretary of the American legation in St. Petersburg, Schuyler was able to combine his diplomatic duties with scholarship and travel. He began writing a biography of Peter the Great
18.
Orthodox Christianity
–
Orthodoxy is adherence to correct or accepted creeds, especially in religion. In the Christian sense the term means conforming to the Christian faith as represented in the creeds of the early Church, the first seven Ecumenical Councils were held between the years of 325 and 787 with the aim of formalizing accepted doctrines. In classical Christian usage, the term refers to the set of doctrines which were believed by the early Christians. A series of councils, also known as the First seven Ecumenical Councils, were held over a period of several centuries to try to formalize these doctrines. The most significant of these decisions was that between the Homoousian doctrine of Athanasius and Eustathius and the Heteroousian doctrine of Arius and Eusebius. The earliest recorded use of the term orthodox is in the Codex Iustinianus of 529–534, following the 1054 Great Schism, both the Western and Eastern Churches continued to consider themselves uniquely orthodox and catholic. Over time, the Western Church gradually identified with the Catholic label and this was in note of the fact that both Catholic and Orthodox were in use as ecclesiastical adjectives as early as the 2nd and 4th centuries respectively. Today the two largest Orthodox Christian communions are the Eastern Orthodox Church and Oriental Orthodoxy, Orthodox Judaism is split into various different movements and factions. They have different ways of interpreting and following the laws and traditions of Judaism, Orthodox Judaism is distinct from Conservative Judaism. The term Orthodox Islam generally refers to the teachings and religious practices of traditional Sunni Islam. The term Orthodox Hinduism commonly refers to the teachings and practices of Sanātanī. In this sense, the term has a pejorative connotation. Among various orthodoxies in distinctive fields, most common terms are, Political orthodoxy, Social orthodoxy, Economic orthodoxy, Scientific orthodoxy, Orthodoxy is opposed to heterodoxy or heresy. A deviation lighter than heresy is commonly called error, in the sense of not being enough to cause total estrangement. Sometimes error is used to cover both full heresies and minor errors. The concept of orthodoxy is prevalent in many forms of organized monotheism, syncretism, for example, plays a much wider role in non-monotheistic religion. The prevailing governing norm within polytheism is often rather than the right belief of orthodoxy. Henderson, The Construction of Orthodoxy and Heresy, Neo-Confucian, Islamic, Jewish, and Early Christian Patterns, SUNY Press 1998
19.
Perushtitsa
–
Perushtitsa or Perushtitza is a Bulgarian town located in Perushtitsa Municipality, Plovdiv Province at the foot of the Rhodopes,22 kilometers south of Plovdiv. The town is famous throughout Bulgaria for the fight took place there in 1876 during the April Uprising against the Ottoman reign. During the suppression of the uprising by Turkish irregulars, the majority of the residents were slaughtered. The French journalist Ivan de Woestyne, who visited the town in July 1876, reported for the newspaper Le Figaro that out of a population of about 2000 only 150 elders, lady Strangford arrived from Britain later that year with relief for the people of Bulgaria following the massacres. She first built a hospital at Batak and eventually other hospitals were built including one here at Perushtitsa, the name Perushtitsa comes from the word Peristitsa, which in turn comes from the name of the God Perun. Perushtitsa is one of the few places in Bulgaria where Mavrud grapes are grown for a typical Bulgarian wine Mavrud, about 2 kilometers south of Perushtitsa is the Red Church. The remains of the Red Church date from the 5th or 6th century and are a symbol for the city of Perushtitsa
20.
Bratsigovo
–
Bratsigovo is a town in Southern Bulgaria. It is located in the foothills of the Rhodope Mountains, on the banks of the Umishka River in Pazardzhik oblast, Bratsigovo Hills on Trinity Peninsula in Antarctica are named after the town. Archeological evidence has shown that the area was inhabited by Thracians, historical records show the township was established at some point in the 16th-17th century, built over the ruins of an earlier settlement. The founders of the new town were Bulgarian emigrants from the part of Aegean Macedonia. The population of Bratsigovo took a part in the April Uprising of 1876. In 1950 Bratsigovo had a population of 3,364, web page, http, //www. bratsigovo. bg/ The town is developing as a balneological center, too. There is a mineral water spring with the flow rate of 120 liters per minute at the distance of 500 metres west of it. There is a built up here. The mineral water treats some skin diseases, the system, kidney related diseases. There is a park and a country-houses zone around it
21.
Antoni Piotrowski
–
Piotrowski was born in 1853 into a family of sheet iron worker in Nietulisko Duże near Kunów, then in the Russian sector of the partitioned Poland. From 1869 on, Piotrowski studied painting with professor Wojciech Gerson in Warsaw, between 1875 and 1877 he studied in Munich with Wilhelm Lindenschmit the Younger, and from 1877 to 1879, with Polands nominal painter Jan Matejko at the Academy of Fine Arts in Kraków. He moved back to Paris only to return to Bulgaria in 1885 to join the Serbo-Bulgarian War as a Bulgarian volunteer, for his merits during the fighting he was honoured with an Order of Bravery. During his time as an artist in the Bulgarian Army Piotrowski painted the Battle of Slivnitsa, the storming of Tsaribrod and he also published illustrations from the war in various Western European illustrated periodicals. Among his works were portraits of Bulgarian princes Alexander of Battenberg and Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, all his nine historical battle-scenes painted in Bulgaria were purchased by the Bulgarian state, and are exhibited in the National Museum of Military History in Sofia. Piotrowski returned to Bulgaria in 1889, he visited Batak and painted his epic canvas The Batak Massacre and this painting of his won an award at the Plovdiv Fair in 1892. In 1900 Piotrowski returned to Poland and settled in Warsaw, in 1905, he was a war correspondent in Manchuria. He died in 1924 in Warsaw, works by Antoni Piotrowski at Project Gutenberg
22.
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
–
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was established as a sovereign state on 1 January 1801 by the Acts of Union 1800, which merged the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland. The growing desire for an Irish Republic led to the Irish War of Independence, Northern Ireland remained part of the United Kingdom, and the state was consequently renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Britain financed the European coalition that defeated France in 1815 in the Napoleonic Wars, the British Empire thereby became the foremost world power for the next century. The Crimean War with Russia and the Boer wars were relatively small operations in a largely peaceful century, rapid industrialisation that began in the decades prior to the states formation continued up until the mid-19th century. A devastating famine, exacerbated by government inaction in the century, led to demographic collapse in much of Ireland. It was an era of economic modernization and growth of industry, trade and finance. Outward migration was heavy to the colonies and to the United States. Britain also built up a large British Empire in Africa and Asia, India, by far the most important possession, saw a short-lived revolt in 1857. In foreign policy Britain favoured free trade, which enabled its financiers and merchants to operate successfully in many otherwise independent countries, as in South America. Britain formed no permanent military alliances until the early 20th century, when it began to cooperate with Japan, France and Russia, and moved closer to the United States. A brief period of limited independence for Ireland came to an end following the Irish Rebellion of 1798, the British governments fear of an independent Ireland siding against them with the French resulted in the decision to unite the two countries. This was brought about by legislation in the parliaments of both kingdoms and came into effect on 1 January 1801, however, King George III was bitterly opposed to any such Emancipation and succeeded in defeating his governments attempts to introduce it. When the Treaty of Amiens ended the war, Britain agreed to return most of the territories it had seized, in May 1803, war was declared again. In 1806, Napoleon issued the series of Berlin Decrees, which brought into effect the Continental System and this policy aimed to eliminate the threat from the British by closing French-controlled territory to foreign trade. Frances population and agricultural capacity far outstripped that of the British Isles, Napoleon expected that cutting Britain off from the European mainland would end its economic hegemony. The Spanish uprising in 1808 at last permitted Britain to gain a foothold on the Continent, after Napoleons surrender and exile to the island of Elba, peace appeared to have returned. The Allies united and the armies of Wellington and Blucher defeated Napoleon once, simultaneous with the Napoleonic Wars, trade disputes, arming hostile Indians and British impressment of American sailors led to the War of 1812 with the United States. The war was little noticed in Britain, which could devote few resources to the conflict until the fall of Napoleon in 1814, American frigates inflicted a series of defeats on the Royal Navy, which was short on manpower due to the conflict in Europe
23.
Turkish people
–
Turkish people, or the Turks, also known as Anatolian Turks, are a Turkic ethnic group and nation living mainly in Turkey and speaking Turkish, the most widely spoken Turkic language. They are the largest ethnic group in Turkey, as well as by far the largest ethnic group among the speakers of Turkic languages, ethnic Turkish minorities exist in the former lands of the Ottoman Empire. In addition, a Turkish diaspora has been established with modern migration, the ethnonym Turk may be first discerned in Herodotus reference to Targitas, first king of the Scythians, furthermore, during the first century AD. Pomponius Mela refers to the Turcae in the north of the Sea of Azov. The first definite references to the Turks come mainly from Chinese sources in the sixth century, in these sources, Turk appears as Tujue, which referred to the Göktürks. Although Turk refers to Turkish people, it may sometimes refer to the wider language group of Turkic peoples. In the 19th century, the word Türk only referred to Anatolian villagers, the Ottoman ruling class identified themselves as Ottomans, not usually as Turks. In the late 19th century, as the Ottoman upper classes adopted European ideas of nationalism the term Türk took on a more positive connotation. The Turkish-speakers of Anatolia were the most loyal supporters of Ottoman rule, Turkish Jews, Christians, or even Alevis may be considered non-Turks. On the other hand, Kurdish Arab followers of the Sunni branch of Islam who live in eastern Anatolia are sometimes considered Turks, article 66 of the Turkish Constitution defines a Turk as anyone who is bound to the Turkish state through the bond of citizenship. Anatolia was first inhabited by hunter-gatherers during the Paleolithic era, most of the Turkic peoples were followers of Tengriism, sharing the cult of the sky god Tengri, although there were also adherents of Manichaeism, Nestorian Christianity and Buddhism. However, during the Muslim conquests, the Turks entered the Muslim world proper as servants, during the booty of Arab raids, the Turks began converting to Islam after Muslim conquest of Transoxiana through the efforts of missionaries, Sufis, and merchants. Although initiated by the Arabs, the conversion of the Turks to Islam was filtered through Persian, under the Umayyads, most were domestic servants, whilst under the Abbasids, increasing numbers were trained as soldiers. By the ninth century, Turkish commanders were leading the caliphs’ Turkish troops into battle, as the Abbasid caliphate declined, Turkish officers assumed more military and political power taking over or establishing provincial dynasties with their own corps of Turkish troops. During the 11th century the Seljuk Turks who were admirers of the Persian civilization grew in number and were able to occupy the province of the Abbasid Empire. By 1055, the Seljuk Empire captured Baghdad and began to make their first incursions into the edges of Anatolia, when the Seljuk Turks won the Battle of Manzikert against the Byzantine Empire in 1071, it opened the gates of Anatolia to them. Although ethnically Turkish, the Seljuk Turks appreciated and became the purveyors of the Persian culture rather than the Turkish culture, in dire straits, the Byzantine Empire turned to the West for help setting in motion the pleas that led to the First Crusade. Once the Crusaders took Iznik, the Seljuk Turks established the Sultanate of Rum from their new capital, Konya, by the 12th century the Europeans had begun to call the Anatolian region Turchia or Turkey, meaning the land of the Turks
24.
Chios massacre
–
The Chios massacre was the killing of tens of thousands of Greeks on the island of Chios by Ottoman troops during the Greek War of Independence in 1822. Greeks from neighbouring islands had arrived on Chios and encouraged the Chians to join their revolt, in response, Ottoman troops landed on the island and killed thousands. The massacre provoked outrage, and led to increasing support for the Greek cause worldwide. For over 2,000 years, Chios merchants and shipowners had been prominent in trade and diplomacy throughout the Black Sea, the Aegean, and the Mediterranean. The Ottoman Empire allowed Chios almost complete control over its own affairs as Chian trade, the cosmopolitan Chians were also very prominent in Constantinople. Following the massacre, however, the island never regained its commercial prominence, the islands ruling classes were reluctant to join the Greek revolt, fearing the loss of their security and prosperity. Furthermore, they were aware that they were situated far too close to the Turkish heartland in Anatolia to be safe, at some points, Chios is only 6.7 kilometres from the Anatolian mainland. In March 1822, as the Greek revolt gathered strength on the mainland and they attacked the Turks, who retreated to the citadel. Many islanders also decided to join the revolution, however, the vast majority of the population had by all accounts done nothing to provoke the reprisals, and had not joined other Greeks in their revolt against the Ottoman Empire. Reinforcements in the form of a Turkish fleet under the Kapudan Pasha Nasuhzade Ali Pasha arrived on the island on 22 March and they quickly pillaged and looted the town. On 31 March, orders were given to burn down the town, and over the four months. In addition to setting fires, the troops were ordered to kill all infants under three years old, all males 12 years and older, and all females 40 and older, approximately three-quarters of the population of 120,000 were killed, enslaved or died of disease. It is estimated that 2,000 people remained on the island after 21,000 managed to flee,52,000 were enslaved and 52,000 massacred, tens of thousands of survivors dispersed throughout Europe and became part of the Chian Diaspora. Another source says that approximately 20,000 Chians were killed or starved to death, some young Greeks enslaved during the massacre were adopted by wealthy Ottomans and converted to Islam. Some rose to levels of prominence in the Ottoman Empire, such as Georgios Stravelakis, there was outrage when the events were reported in Europe. French painter Eugène Delacroix created a painting depicting the events that occurred, in 2009, a copy of the painting was displayed in the local Byzantine museum on Chios. It was withdrawn from the museum on November 2009 in a good faith initiative for the improvement of Greek-Turkish relations, however, the Greek press protested its removal. The copy is now back on display in the museum, Chios expedition Navarino massacre Tripolitsa massacre Massacres during the Greek Revolution Ottoman wars in Europe List of massacres in Greece Christopher A
25.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Bulgaria: History". Encyclopædia Britannica. 4 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "
