1.
Abugida
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This contrasts with a full alphabet, in which vowels have status equal to consonants, and with an abjad, in which vowel marking is absent, partial, or optional. The terms also contrast them with a syllabary, in which the symbols cannot be split into separate consonants, abugidas include the extensive Brahmic family of scripts of South and Southeast Asia, Semitic Ethiopic scripts, and Canadian Aboriginal syllabics. As is the case for syllabaries, the units of the system may consist of the representations both of syllables and of consonants. For scripts of the Brahmic family, the term akshara is used for the units, abugida as a term in linguistics was proposed by Peter T. Daniels in his 1990 typology of writing systems. Abugidas were long considered to be syllabaries, or intermediate between syllabaries and alphabets, and the term syllabics is retained in the name of Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics, other terms that have been used include neosyllabary, pseudo-alphabet, semisyllabary and syllabic alphabet. The formal definitions given by Daniels and Bright for abugida and alphasyllabary differ, some writing systems are abugidas but not alphasyllabaries, an abugida is defined as a type of writing system whose basic characters denotes consonants followed by a particular vowel, and in which diacritics denote other vowels. Bright did not require that an alphabet explicitly represent all vowels, Phagspa is an example of an abugida that is not an alphasyllabary, and modern Lao is an example of an alphasyllabary that is not an abugida, for its vowels are always explicit. This description is expressed in terms of an abugida and this may formally make the system ambiguous, but in practice this is not a problem, for then the interpretation with the never used inherent vowel sound will always be a wrong interpretation. The fundamental principles of an abugida apply to words made up of consonant-vowel syllables, the syllables are written as a linear sequences of the units of the script. If all modifications are by diacritics and all follow the direction of the writing of the letters. However, most languages have words that are more complicated than a sequence of CV syllables, the first complication is syllables that consist of just a vowel. Now, in languages, this issue does not arise. This is common in Semitic languages and in languages of mainland SE Asia, for some languages, a zero consonant letter is used as though every syllable began with a consonant. For other languages, each vowel has a letter that is used for each syllable consisting of just the vowel. These letters are known as independent vowels, and are found in most Indic scripts and these letters may be quite different to the corresponding diacritics, which by contrast are known as dependent vowels. As a result of the spread of writing systems, independent vowels may be used to represent syllables beginning with a glottal stop, the next two complications are sequences of consonants before a vowel and syllables ending in a consonant. The simplest solution, which is not always available, is to break with the principle of writing words as a sequence of syllables and use a unit representing just a consonant. In a true abugida, the lack of marking may result from the diachronic loss of the inherent vowel
2.
Batak languages
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The Batak languages are spoken by Batak of North Sumatra, Indonesia. Historically they were written using Batak script but the Latin script is now used for most writing, there are considered to be two main Batak language groups, Northern Batak and Southern Batak. Simalungun has been considered an intermediary, but more recent studies suggest that it is a part of the Southern Batak group, within Northern Batak, a study noted 76% cognate words between Karo and Batak, 81% with Pakpak, 80% with Simalungun, and 30% with Malay. Karo and Toba Batak are mutually unintelligible, Northern Batak, Pak-Pak Dairi, Karo Southern Batak, Simalungun, Angkola–Batak Mandailing, Batak Toba Mandailing and Angkola are closer related to each other than to Toba. The geographical influences on the Batak languages can be seen in the map to the right, Lake Toba separates the Karo from direct contact with the Toba. http, //unicode-table. com/en/sections/batak/
3.
Proto-Sinaitic script
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It is also referred to as Sinaitic, Proto-Canaanite, Old Canaanite, and Canaanite. The earliest Proto-Sinaitic inscriptions are dated to between the mid-19th and the mid-16th century BC. The principal debate is between an early date, around 1850 BC, and a date, around 1550 BC. The choice of one or the other date decides whether it is proto-Sinaitic or proto-Canaanite, the so-called Proto-Sinaitic inscriptions were discovered in the winter of 1904–1905 in Sinai by Hilda and Flinders Petrie. The Wadi el-Hol inscriptions strongly suggest a date of development of Proto-Sinaitic writing from the mid-19th to 18th centuries BC, the Sinai inscriptions are best known from carved graffiti and votive texts from a mountain in the Sinai called Serabit el-Khadim and its temple to the Egyptian goddess Hathor. The mountain contained turquoise mines which were visited by repeated expeditions over 800 years, many of the workers and officials were from the Nile Delta, and included large numbers of Canaanites who had been allowed to settle the eastern Delta. The date of the inscriptions is placed in the 17th or 16th century BC. Four inscriptions have been found in the temple, on two small statues and on either side of a small stone sphinx. They are crudely done, suggesting that the workers who made them were illiterate apart from this script and they are all very short, most consisting of only a couple of letters, and may have been written by Canaanite caravaners or soldiers from Egypt. They sometimes go by the name Proto-Canaanite, although the term Proto-Canaanite is also applied to early Phoenician or Hebrew inscriptions, the Wadi el-Hol inscriptions were carved on the stone sides of an ancient high-desert military and trade road linking Thebes and Abydos, in the heart of literate Egypt. They are in a wadi in the Qena bend of the Nile, 25°57′N 32°25′E, among dozens of hieratic and hieroglyphic inscriptions. If the latter, h1 and h2 may be graphic variants rather than different consonants, some scholars think that the רב rb at the beginning of Inscription 1 is likely rebbe, and that the אל ʾl at the end of Inscription 2 is likely ʾel god. Brian Colless has published a translation of the text, in some of the signs are treated as logograms or rebuses Excellent banquet of the celebration of ʿAnat. ʾEl will provide plenty of wine and victuals for the celebration and we will sacrifice to her an ox and a prime fatling. This interpretation fits into the pattern in some of the surrounding Egyptian inscriptions, according to the alphabet hypothesis, the shapes of the letters would have evolved from Proto-Sinaitic forms into Phoenician forms, but most of the names of the letters would have remained the same. Below is a table showing selected Proto-Sinaitic signs and the correspondences with Phoenician letters. Also shown are the values, names, and descendants of the Phoenician letters. The Other section shows the corresponding Archaic Greek, Modern Greek, Etruscan, abjad Byblos syllabary Ugaritic script Albright, Wm. F
4.
Phoenician alphabet
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The Phoenician alphabet, called by convention the Proto-Canaanite alphabet for inscriptions older than around 1050 BC, is the oldest verified alphabet. The Phoenician alphabet is an abjad consisting of 22 letters, all consonants and it was used for the writing of Phoenician, a Northern Semitic language, used by the civilization of Phoenicia. The Phoenician alphabet is derived from Egyptian hieroglyphs and it became one of the most widely used writing systems, spread by Phoenician merchants across the Mediterranean world, where it evolved and was assimilated by many other cultures. The Paleo-Hebrew alphabet was derived from Phoenician. Another derivative script is the Aramaic alphabet, which was the ancestor of the modern Arabic script, the Modern Hebrew script is a stylistic variant of the Aramaic script. The Greek alphabet was derived from Phoenician. Phoenician was usually written from right to left, although there are texts written in boustrophedon. The earliest known inscriptions are the so-called Proto-Sinaitic script sporadically attested in the Sinai and in Canaan in the late Middle. The script was not widely used until the rise of new Semitic kingdoms in the 13th and 12th centuries BC, the Phoenician alphabet is a direct continuation of the Proto-Canaanite script of the Bronze Age collapse period. Beginning in the 9th century BC, adaptations of the Phoenician alphabet -- such as Greek, Old Italic, Anatolian, and the Paleohispanic scripts -- were very successful. This simple system contrasted with the scripts in use at the time, such as cuneiform and Egyptian hieroglyphs. Another reason for its success was the trading culture of Phoenician merchants. Phoenician inscriptions have been found in sites at a number of former Phoenician cities and colonies around the Mediterranean, such as Byblos. Later finds indicate earlier use in Egypt, Phoenician had long-term effects on the social structures of the civilizations that came in contact with it. As mentioned above, the script was the first widespread phonetic script and its simplicity not only allowed it to be used in multiple languages, but it also allowed the common people to learn how to write. The Phoenician alphabet was first uncovered in the 17th century, and it was at first believed that the script was a direct variation of Egyptian hieroglyphs. This idea was popular due to the recent decipherment of hieroglyphs. However, scholars could not find any link between the two writing systems, nor to hieratic or cuneiform, the theories of independent creation ranged from the idea of a single man conceiving it, to the Hyksos people forming it from corrupt Egyptian
5.
Aramaic alphabet
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The ancient Aramaic alphabet is adapted from the Phoenician alphabet and became distinctive from it by the 8th century BCE. It was used to write the Aramaic language and had displaced the Paleo-Hebrew alphabet for the writing of Hebrew, the letters all represent consonants, some of which are also used as matres lectionis to indicate long vowels. Rather, it is a different type, the earliest inscriptions in the Aramaic language use the Phoenician alphabet. Over time, the alphabet developed into the form shown below, Aramaic gradually became the lingua franca throughout the Middle East, with the script at first complementing and then displacing Assyrian cuneiform, as the predominant writing system. Imperial Aramaic was highly standardised, its orthography was based more on historical roots than any spoken dialect and was influenced by Old Persian. Both were in use through the Achaemenid Persian period, but the cursive form steadily gained ground over the lapidary, the Aramaic script would survive as the essential characteristics of the Iranian Pahlavi writing system. A group of 30 Aramaic documents from Bactria has been recently discovered, an analysis was published in November 2006. The texts, which were rendered on leather, reflect the use of Aramaic in the 4th century BC in the Persian Achaemenid administration of Bactria, the widespread usage of Achaemenid Aramaic in the Middle East led to the gradual adoption of the Aramaic alphabet for writing Hebrew. Formerly, Hebrew had been using an alphabet closer in form to that of Phoenician. After the fall of the Achaemenid Empire, the unity of the Imperial Aramaic script was lost, the Hebrew and Nabataean alphabets, as they stood by the Roman era, were little changed in style from the Imperial Aramaic alphabet. A cursive Hebrew variant developed from the early centuries AD, the Old Turkic script is generally considered to have its ultimate origins in Aramaic, in particular via the Pahlavi or Sogdian alphabets, as suggested by V. Thomsen, or possibly via Karosthi. Aramaic is also considered to be the most likely source of the Brahmi script, ancestor of the Brahmic family of scripts, today, Biblical Aramaic, Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialects and the Aramaic language of the Talmud are written in the Hebrew alphabet. Syriac and Christian Neo-Aramaic dialects are written in the Syriac alphabet, Mandaic is written in the Mandaic alphabet. The near-identity of the Aramaic and the classical Hebrew alphabets caused Aramaic text to be mostly in the standard Hebrew script in scholarly literature. In Maloula, one of few surviving communities in which a Western Aramaic dialect is still spoken and they started to use the Syriac alphabet instead. In Aramaic writing, Waw and Yodh serve a double function, originally, they represented only the consonants w and y, but they were later adopted to indicate the long vowels ū and ī respectively as well. In the latter role, they are known as matres lectionis or mothers of reading. Ālap, likewise, has some of the characteristics of a mater lectionis because in initial positions, it indicates a glottal stop, among Jews, the influence of Hebrew often led to the use of Hē instead, at the end of a word
6.
Brahmi script
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Brahmi is the modern name given to one of the oldest writing systems used in South and Central Asia from the 1st millennium BCE. Brahmi is an abugida that thrived in the Indian subcontinent and uses a system of marks to associate vowels with consonant symbols. It evolved into a host of other scripts that continue in use, Brahmi is related to the ancient Kharosthi script, which was used in what is now eastern Afghanistan and Pakistan. Kharosthi died out in ancient times, the best-known Brahmi inscriptions are the rock-cut edicts of Ashoka in north-central India, dating to 250–232 BCE. The script was deciphered in 1837 by James Prinsep, an archaeologist, philologist, Brahmi was at one time referred to in English as the pin-man script, that is stick figure script. Thence the name was adopted in the work of Georg Bühler. The Gupta script of the 5th century is sometimes called Late Brahmi, the Brahmi script diversified into numerous local variants, classified together as the Brahmic scripts. Dozens of modern scripts used across South Asia have descended from Brahmi, one survey found 198 scripts that ultimately derive from it. The script was associated with its own Brahmi numerals, which provided the graphic forms for the Hindu–Arabic numeral system now used through most of the world. The Brahmi script is mentioned in the ancient Indian texts of Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism, for example, the Lipisala samdarshana parivarta lists 64 lipi, with the Brahmi script starting the list. The Lalitavistara Sūtra states that young Siddhartha, the future Buddha, mastered philology, Brahmi and other scripts from Brahmin Lipikara, a shorter list of eighteen ancient scripts is found in the texts of Jainism, such as the Pannavana Sutra and the Samavayanga Sutra. These Jaina script lists include Brahmi at number 1 and Kharoshthi at number 4 but also Javanaliya, while the contemporary Kharosthi script is widely accepted to be a derivation of the Aramaic alphabet, the genesis of the Brahmi script is less straightforward. Salomon reviewed existing theories in 1998, while Falk provided an overview in 1993, an origin in Semitic scripts has been proposed by some scholars since the publications by Albrecht Weber and Georg Bühlers On the origin of the Indian Brahma alphabet. The most disputed point about the origin of the Brahmi script has long been whether it was an indigenous development or was borrowed or derived from scripts that originated outside India. Most scholars believe that Brahmi was likely derived from or influenced by a Semitic script model, however, the issue is not settled due to the lack of direct evidence and unexplained differences between Aramaic, Kharosthi and Brahmi. Virtually all authors accept that regardless of the origins, the degree of Indian development of the Brahmi script in both the form and the structure has been extensive. It is also accepted that theories of Vedic grammar probably had a strong influence on this development. In contrast, some reject the idea of foreign influence
7.
Pallava alphabet
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The Pallava script, a Brahmic script, was developed under the Pallava dynasty of Southern India around the 6th century AD. The form shown here is based on examples from the 7th century AD, letters labeled * have uncertain sound value, as they have little occurrence in Southeast Asia. Each consonant has an inherent /a/, which will be sounded if no vowel sign is attached, if two consonants follow one another without intervening vowel, the second consonant is made into a subscript form, and attached below the first. Sivaramamurti, C, Indian Epigraphy and South Indian Scripts, bulletin of the Madras Government Museum. Chennai 1999 Media related to Pallava script at Wikimedia Commons Examples of Pallava at SkyKnowledge. com
8.
Kawi script
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Aksara Kawi is the name given to the writing system originating in Java and used across much of Maritime Southeast Asia from the 8th century to around 1500 AD. Kawi is the ancestor of traditional Indonesian scripts, such as Javanese and Balinese, Kawi is derived from the Pallava script mentioned by scholars of Southeast Asian studies such as George Coedès and D. G. E. Hall as the basis of several writing systems of Southeast Asia. The Pallava script was used to write middle Tamil. The earliest known texts in Kavi date from the Singhasari kingdom in eastern Java, the more recent scripts were extant in the Majapahit kingdom, also in eastern Java, Bali, Borneo and Sumatra. The scripts are abugidas, meaning that characters are read with an inherent vowel, diacritics are used, either to suppress the vowel and represent a pure consonant, or to represent other vowels. The literary genre written in this alphabet is called Kakawin, a well-known document written in Kawi is the Laguna Copperplate Inscription, found in 1989 in Laguna de Bay, in the metroplex of Manila, Philippines. Baybayin Hanunóo script Tagbanwa alphabet Buhid script Filipino orthography Vatteluttu - TAMIL Tiongson, Jaime F. Laguna copperplate inscription, a new interpretation using early Tagalog dictionaries
9.
Balinese script
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With some modifications, the script is also used to write the Sasak language, used in the neighboring island of Lombok. The script is a descendant of the Brahmi script, and so has similarities with the modern scripts of South. The Balinese script, along with the Javanese script, is considered the most elaborate and ornate among Brahmic scripts of Southeast Asia, the script is mainly used today for copying lontar or palm leaf manuscripts containing religious texts. There are 47 letters in the Balinese script, each representing a syllable with inherent vowel /a/ or/ə/ at the end of a sentence, which changes depending on the diacritics around the letter. Pure Balinese can be written with 18 consonant letters and 9 vowel letters, while Sanskrit transliteration or loan words from Sanskrit, a set of modified letters are also used for writing the Sasak language. Each consonant has a form called gantungan which nullifies the inherent vowel of the previous syllable. Punctuation includes a comma, period, colon, as well as marks to introduce, musical notation uses letter-like symbols and diacritical marks in order to indicate metrical information. Text are written left to right without word boundaries, There is also a set of holy letters called aksara modre which appears in religious texts and protective talismans. Most of them are constructed using diacritic ulu candra with corresponding characters, a number of additional characters, known to be used inline in text, remains under study and those characters are expected to be proposed as Balinese extensions in due course. A basic letter in Balinese is called aksara, and each letter stands for a syllable with inherent vowel /a/, consonants are called wianjana or aksara wianjana. Balinese script has 33 consonants, however only 18 consonants called wreṣāstra are used for writing basic vocabulary in Balinese language, the rest consonants are, known as sualalita, mainly used for writing Sanskrit and Kawi loanwords in Balinese language. The consonants can be arranged into Sanskrit order and hanacaraka traditional order, the consonants can be arranged in hanacaraka traditional order. The sequence forms a poem of 4 verses narrating the myth of Aji Saka, however, the hanacaraka sequence only has the 18 consonants of aksara wreṣāstra and exclude aksara sualalita. However, this table below include aksara sualalita as the current romanization have no diacritics for the consonants, as other Brahmic scripts, consonants in Balinese script can be arranged into Sanskrit order. Thus, Balinese script had been influenced by Shiksha, the table below uses Sanskrit order. They are, in order, ha na ca ra ka / da ta sa wa la / ma ga ba nga / pa ja ya nya. ^2 The consonant ha is sometimes not pronounced. For example, ᬳᬸᬚᬦ᭄ hujan is pronounced ujan. ^3 The exact form of ca laca is unknown because only the form is left. Vowels, called suara or aksara suara, can be written as independent letters when vowels appear in initial position
10.
Baybayin
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Baybayin, known in Visayan as badlit, and known in Ilocano as kur-itan/kurditan, is an ancient Philippine script derived from Brahmic scripts of India and first recorded in the 16th century. It continued to be used during the Spanish colonization of the Philippines up until the late 19th century, the alphabet is well known because it was carefully documented by Catholic clergy living in the Philippines during the colonial era. The term baybay literally means to spell in Tagalog, Baybayin was extensively documented by the Spanish. Some have incorrectly attributed the name Alibata to it, but that term was coined by Paul Rodríguez Verzosa after the arrangement of letters of the Arabic alphabet, other Brahmic scripts used currently among different ethnic groups in the Philippines are Buhid, Hanunóo, Kulitan and Tagbanwa. Many of these writing systems descended from ancient alphabets used in India over 2000 years ago, although Baybayin does share some, there is no evidence that it is this old nor is there evidence that it is recent. The Archives of the University of Santo Tomas in Manila, one of the largest archives in the Philippines, currently possesses the biggest collection of extant ancient Baybayin alphabets in the world. A Baybayin bill, House Bill no.4395 and Senate Bill 1899 and it was refiled in the 17th Congress of the Philippines through Senate Bill 433 in 2016. It aims to declare Baybayin, wrongfully known as Alibata, as the script of the Philippines. The bill mandates to put a Baybayin translation under all business, the writing system being pursued by the bill is a modernized version of the Baybayin which incorporates the common segments of numerous indigenous writing forms throughout the country. The system is a nationalistic approach due to its comprehensive range. Baybayin was noted by the Spanish priest Pedro Chirino in 1604 and Antonio de Morga in 1609, to be known by most Filipinos, and was generally used for personal writings, poetry, etc. According to William Henry Scott, there were some datus from the 1590s who could not sign affidavits or oaths, there is no data on when this level of literacy was first achieved, and no history of the writing system itself. There are at least six theories about the origins of Baybayin, the Kawi script originated in Java, and was used across much of Maritime Southeast Asia. It is a document, and has inscribed on it a date of Saka era 822. One hypothesis therefore reasons that, since Kawi is the earliest attestation of writing on the Philippines, a second example of Kawi script can be seen on the Butuan Ivory Seal, though it has not been dated. An earthenware burial jar, called the Calatagan Pot, found in Batangas is inscribed with characters similar to Baybayin. However, its authenticity has not yet been proven, many of the writing systems of Southeast Asia descended from ancient scripts used in India over 2000 years ago. The shapes of the characters bear a slight resemblance to the ancient Kavi script of Java, Indonesia
11.
Kulitan alphabet
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Kulitan is one of various indigenous writing systems in the Philippines. It is used for writing the Kapampangan language spoken in the provinces of Pampanga, Tarlac, Bataan, Kulitan is an abugida or alphasyllabary writing system, where the consonantal characters possess a default vowel sound that can be altered with use of diacritical marks. Kulitan, like other scripts in Southeast Asia, is an Indian-inspired script, there is a proposal to encode the script in Unicode by Anshuman Pandey, from the Department of Linguistics at UC Berkeley. The indigenous characters were recorded as culit by the early 17th and 18th century Spanish lexicographers, the ordinary folks simply called them Súlat Kapampángan to distinguish them from the Latin Alphabet script. Kulitan is basically made up of Indûng Súlat or the progenitor characters, the Indûng Súlat are the base characters with the unaltered inherent vowel sounds. They are the blocks of Súlat Kapampángan. Indûng súlat gives birth to Anak Súlat or offspring characters whenever their inherent vowel sound has been altered by a ligature or a diacritical mark, the siuálâ or vowels in Kulitan are usually written as garlit or diacritical marks placed above or below an individual Indûng Súlat or mother character. Ligatures are also used to further lengthen these vowel sounds or represent the monophthongized diphthongs AI. A glyph with a mark or ligature attached to it is an Anak Súlat or offspring character. A consonant can lose its following vowel if written at the side of the preceding consonant. The recital order of the Indûng Súlat characters are A, I, U, E, O, GA, KA, NGA, TA, DA, NA, LA, SA, MA, PA, BA. Historic, Traditional, Modern, Kulitan is currently the only script in the Philippines that is written. Whereas, Surat Mangyan, Hanunóo and Buhid scripts are written vertically from bottom to top and from left to right, historic catalogues of pre-colonial Filipino scripts point to a right to left and top to bottom writing direction, as with sister scripts of Tagalog and Tagbanwa
12.
Javanese script
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The Javanese script is a descendant of the Brahmi script and therefore has many similarities with the modern scripts of South and Southeast Asia. The Javanese script, along with the Balinese script, is considered the most elaborate and ornate among Brahmic scripts of Southeast Asia, the script was widely used by the court scribes of Java and the Lesser Sunda Islands. Numerous efforts to standardize the script were made in the late 19th to early 20th-century, with the invention of the scripts first metal type, today, everyday use of the Javanese script has been largely supplanted by the Latin alphabet. There are a total of 53 letters in the Javanese script, each letter represents a syllable, with an inherent vowel /a/ or /ɔ/, which changes depending on the diacritics around the letter. Each consonant has a form called pasangan which nullifies the inherent vowel of the previous syllable. In the word aksara for example, the inherent vowel of the ka is nullified by the use of pasangan in the following letter. Punctuation includes the comma, period, colon, and quotation marks, as well as several decorative marks indicating poetic chapter, text is written from left to right and without word boundaries. Many of the letters are constructed from visually similar components, most notably n-shaped hills and u-shaped valleys, there are only a few components unique to certain characters and even fewer letters that are truly unique, resulting in a very uniform-looking script. The Javanese and Balinese alphabets are both variants of the Kawi script, a Brahmic script developed in Java around the ninth century. It was widely used in religious literature written in palm-leaf manuscripts called lontar, over the Hindu-Buddhist period the letter forms changed into Javanese, and by the 17th century, the script was identifiable as in its modern form. The Javanese script was employed by court scribes centered in Surakarta and Yogyakarta, but the use was widespread among various courts of Java. They are used to write historical accounts, stories, ancient verses, the first Javanese metal type font was produced in the 1830s by the Dutch. Two other cursive type fonts were also produced in the early 20th-century, in 1926, an academic workshop in Sriwedari, Surakarta issued Wewaton Sriwedari or the Sriwedari Resolve as the first standard for Javanese spelling and orthography. Since then, numerous guidelines on Javanese orthography have been published, however, further development was halted abruptly during the second World War when the use of the Javanese script was prohibited during the Japanese occupation. Currently, there are no newspapers or magazines being printed in the Javanese script, everyday use of the script has been largely replaced by the Latin alphabet. As a preservation effort, the Indonesian government prescribed most elementary and its use is also encouraged by the Central Javanese government in road signs and public signage alongside Indonesian as administered in the 2012 local legislation. A single letter in the Javanese script is called an aksara and it can also depend on the speakers dialect, speakers of Western Javanese dialects tend to pronounce the inherent vowel as /a/, while those of Eastern Javanese prefer /ɔ/. Rules determining the inherent vowel of a letter are described in Wewaton Sriwedari as follows, a letter stands for a syllable with the vowel /a/ if the following character contains diacritics
13.
Lontara script
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The Lontara script is a Brahmic script traditionally used for the Bugis, Makassarese, and Mandar languages of Sulawesi in Indonesia. It is also known as the Buginese script, as Lontara documents written in language are the most numerous. It was largely replaced by the Latin alphabet during the period of Dutch colonization, the term Lontara is derived from the Malay name for palmyra palm, lontar, whose leaves are traditionally used for manuscripts. Lontara is a descendant of the Kawi script, used in Maritime Southeast Asia around 800 CE and it is unclear whether the script is a direct descendant from Kawi, or derived from one of Kawis other descendants. One theory states that it is modelled after the Rejang script, but this claim may be unfounded as some characters of the Lontara are a late development. The term Lontara has also come to refer to literature regarding Bugis history and genealogy, historically, Lontara was also used for a range of documents including contracts, trade laws, treaties, maps, and journals. The text is read by scrolling the lontar strip from left to right. Although the Latin alphabet has largely replaced Lontara, it is used to a limited extent in Bugis. In Bugis, its usage is limited to ceremonial purposes such as wedding ceremonies, Lontara is also used extensively in printing traditional Buginese literature. In Makasar, Lontara is additionally used for documents such as letters. Those who are skilled in writing the script are known as palontara, Lontara is an abugida with 23 basic consonants. However, Lontara do not have a virama, or other consonant-ending diacritics, nasal /ŋ/, glottal /ʔ/, and gemination used in Buginese language are not written. As such, text can be ambiguous, even to native readers. For instance, ᨔᨑ can be read as sara sorrow, sara rule, the Buginese people take advantage of this defective element of the script in language games called Basa to Bakke’ ᨅᨔ ᨈᨚ ᨅᨙᨀ and Elong maliung bəttuanna ᨕᨒᨚ ᨆᨒᨗᨕᨘ ᨅᨛᨈᨘᨕᨊ riddles. Basa to Bakke’ is similar to punning, where words with different meanings and this is similar to Elong maliung bettuanna, in which audience are asked to figure the correct pronunciation of a meaningless poem to reveal the poems hidden message. Lontara is written left to right, but it can also be written boustrophedonically. This method is applied in old Buginese journals, in which each page are reserved for record of one day. If a scribe ran out of writing space for one days log, the contemporary Lontara script is distinctively angular compared to other Brahmic scripts, succeeding from two older, less angular variant called Toa jangang-jangang and Bilang-bilang
14.
Sundanese script
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Sundanese script is a writing system which is used by the Sundanese people. It is built based on Old Sundanese script which was used by the ancient Sundanese between the 14th and 18th centuries, the government of West Java Province has announced Peraturan Daerah no.61996 about the Sundanese language, literature and script. The regulation was motivated by Keputusan Presiden no, and now it is also agreed upon scholars that the script can simply be called Aksara Sunda. Since there were variants in writing due to materials, timeline. And, considering the completeness and practicality, the variant found in soft-material-documents shall be used for modern usage, there was a tendency to name Cacarakan script as Sundanese script by some people before. However, it can be traced back that the earliest source was a written by G. J. Grashuis. The book taught to write Sundanese Script but using Cacarakan, the Cacarakan script itself only contains around 10% of innovation by Sundanese people, especially by reducing and simplifying the sounds in Javanese to suit Sundanese language. From the cultural point of view, Sundanese script is one part of Sundanese civilization, therefore, spreading and utilizing Sundanese script shall integrate with the task to maintain and conserve Sundanese culture as a whole. Thus, it will have broader scope as wide as the scope of the people itself, re-spreading and re-utilizing Sundanese script shall be done in several steps since it was not well known by the community within the last three centuries. 434/SK. 614-Dis. PK/99 about Standardization of Sundanese Script, Local Governments Regulation no.52003 about Conservation of Local Language, Literature, and Script, there are two non-standard sounds kha and sya for writing foreign Arabic consonants خ and ش. These are considered non-standard because their usage only supported by few Sundanese people, there are also rarangkéns or attachments for removing, modifying, or adding vowel or consonant sound to the base characters. In addition, there are glyphs for number characters, from zero to nine, graphically, Ngalagena characters including rarangkéns have angle 45° – 75°. In general, the ratio is 4,4, except for the Ngalagena character ra, ba and nya. Rarangkéns have dimension ratio 2,2, except for panyecek, panglayar, panyakra, pamaéh, numbers have ratio 4,4, except for number 4 and 5. Rarangkéns above the base glyph b, rarangkéns below the base glyph c. Rarangkéns inline the base glyph In texts, numbers are written surrounded with dual pipe sign |, example, |᮲᮰᮱᮵| =2015 For modern use, Latin punctuations are used. Such punctuations are, comma, dot, semicolon, colon, exclamation mark, question mark, quotes, parenthesis, simple words or sentences can be written directly, for example by arranging Ngalagena letters which represent the sounds. However, in words, compound consonants can be found
15.
Rencong alphabet
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Rencong, or Rentjong, is a general term used to refer to any native writing systems found in Malay Peninsula, central and south Sumatra, including Kerinci, Bengkulu, Palembang and Lampung. These scripts lasted until the 18th century, when the Dutch colonised Indonesia and these scripts were used to write manuscripts in native languages and in Malay, such as the Tanjung Tanah Code of Law. The Malay writing was replaced by the Jawi script, a localized version of the Arabic script. Rencong scripts were written on tree bark, bamboo, horns. Many of the Rencong scripts are known as Surat Ulu, or upriver scripts. The term Rencong is often confused with Rejang, which refers to a set of related scripts that were used to write various dialects of the Rejang language. This map below shows the distribution of various Rencong scripts in South Sumatra, Rejang script Kerinci script Lampung script Palembang script List of languages of Indonesia
16.
Rejang script
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The Rejang script, sometimes spelt Redjang and locally known as Surat Ulu, is an abugida of the Brahmic family, and is related to other scripts of the region, like Batak, Buginese, and others. Rejang is a member of the related group of Surat Ulu scripts that include the script variants of Bengkulu, Lembak, Lintang, Lebong. Other scripts that are related, and sometimes included in the Surat Ulu group, are Kerinci. The script was in use prior to the introduction of Islam to the Rejang area, the Rejang script is sometimes also known as the KaGaNga script following the first three letters of the alphabet. The term KaGaNga was never used by the users of the script community, canberra, The Australian National University 1964. There are five dialects of Rejang, Lebong, Musi, Kebanagung, Pesisir. Most of its users live in remote rural areas, of whom slightly less than half are literate. The traditional Rejang corpus consists chiefly of ritual texts, medical incantations, Rejang script was added to the Unicode Standard in April,2008 with the release of version 5.1. The Unicode block for Rejang is U+A930–U+A95F, Rencong script Everson, proposal for encoding the Rejang script in the BMP of the UCS
17.
Tagbanwa script
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Tagbanwa, also known as Apurahuano, is one of the writing systems of the Philippines. The Tagbanwa script was used in the Philippines until the 17th century, Tagbanwa is a syllabic alphabet in which each consonant has an inherent vowel /a/. Other vowels are indicated by a diacritic above or below the consonant, vowels at the beginning of syllables are represented by their own, independent characters. Syllables ending in a consonant are written without the final consonant, Tagbanwa is traditionally written on bamboo in vertical columns from bottom to top and left to right. Though it is read left to right in horizontal lines. Buhid writing makes use of single and double punctuation marks, Tagbanwa script was added to the Unicode Standard in March,2002 with the release of version 3.2. The Unicode block for Tagbanwa is U+1760–U+177F, Baybayin Buhid script Hanunóo script Kulitan Kawi script Filipino orthography Tagbanwa font
18.
Universal Character Set characters
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The Unicode Consortium and the International Organisation for Standardisation collaborate on the Universal Character Set. The UCS is a standard to map characters used in natural language, mathematics, music. By creating this mapping, the UCS enables computer software vendors to interoperate, because it is a universal map, it can be used to represent multiple languages at the same time. UCS has a capacity to encode over 1 million characters. Each UCS character is represented by a code point, which is an integer between 0 and 1,114,111, used to represent each character within the internal logic of text processing software. The number of encoded characters is made up as follows,128,019 graphical characters 218 special purpose characters for control, ISO maintains the basic mapping of characters from character name to code point. Often the terms character and code point will get used interchangeably, however, when a distinction is made, a code point refers to the integer of the character, what one might think of as its address. Input methods can be through keyboard or a character palette. The UCS can be divided in various ways, such as by plane, block, character category, the x must be lowercase in XML documents. The nnnn or hhhh may be any number of digits and may include leading zeros, the hhhh may mix uppercase and lowercase, though uppercase is the usual style. In contrast, an entity reference refers to a character by the name of an entity which has the desired character as its replacement text. The entity must either be predefined or explicitly declared in a Document Type Definition, the format is the same as for any entity reference, &name, where name is the case-sensitive name of the entity. Unicode and ISO divide the set of points into 17 planes. As of 2016 ISO and the Unicode Consortium has only allocated characters, the others remain empty and reserved for future use. Most characters are assigned to the first plane, the Basic Multilingual Plane. This is to ease the transition for legacy software since the Basic Multilingual Plane is addressable with just two octets. The characters outside the first plane usually have very specialized or rare use. Each plane corresponds with the value of the one or two hexadecimal digits preceding the four ones, hence U+24321 is in Plane 2, U+4321 is in Plane 0
19.
International Phonetic Alphabet
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The International Phonetic Alphabet is an alphabetic system of phonetic notation based primarily on the Latin alphabet. It was devised by the International Phonetic Association as a representation of the sounds of spoken language. The IPA is used by lexicographers, foreign students and teachers, linguists, speech-language pathologists, singers, actors, constructed language creators. The IPA is designed to represent only those qualities of speech that are part of language, phones, phonemes, intonation. IPA symbols are composed of one or more elements of two types, letters and diacritics. For example, the sound of the English letter ⟨t⟩ may be transcribed in IPA with a letter, or with a letter plus diacritics. Often, slashes are used to signal broad or phonemic transcription, thus, /t/ is less specific than, occasionally letters or diacritics are added, removed, or modified by the International Phonetic Association. As of the most recent change in 2005, there are 107 letters,52 diacritics and these are shown in the current IPA chart, posted below in this article and at the website of the IPA. In 1886, a group of French and British language teachers, led by the French linguist Paul Passy, for example, the sound was originally represented with the letter ⟨c⟩ in English, but with the digraph ⟨ch⟩ in French. However, in 1888, the alphabet was revised so as to be uniform across languages, the idea of making the IPA was first suggested by Otto Jespersen in a letter to Paul Passy. It was developed by Alexander John Ellis, Henry Sweet, Daniel Jones, since its creation, the IPA has undergone a number of revisions. After major revisions and expansions in 1900 and 1932, the IPA remained unchanged until the International Phonetic Association Kiel Convention in 1989, a minor revision took place in 1993 with the addition of four letters for mid central vowels and the removal of letters for voiceless implosives. The alphabet was last revised in May 2005 with the addition of a letter for a labiodental flap, apart from the addition and removal of symbols, changes to the IPA have consisted largely in renaming symbols and categories and in modifying typefaces. Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet for speech pathology were created in 1990, the general principle of the IPA is to provide one letter for each distinctive sound, although this practice is not followed if the sound itself is complex. There are no letters that have context-dependent sound values, as do hard, finally, the IPA does not usually have separate letters for two sounds if no known language makes a distinction between them, a property known as selectiveness. These are organized into a chart, the chart displayed here is the chart as posted at the website of the IPA. The letters chosen for the IPA are meant to harmonize with the Latin alphabet, for this reason, most letters are either Latin or Greek, or modifications thereof. Some letters are neither, for example, the letter denoting the glottal stop, ⟨ʔ⟩, has the form of a question mark
20.
Specials (Unicode block)
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Specials is a short Unicode block allocated at the very end of the Basic Multilingual Plane, at U+FFF0–FFFF. Of these 16 codepoints, five are assigned as of Unicode 9, U+FFFD � REPLACEMENT CHARACTER used to replace an unknown, unrecognized or unrepresentable character U+FFFE <noncharacter-FFFE> not a character. FFFE and FFFF are not unassigned in the sense. They can be used to guess a texts encoding scheme, since any text containing these is by not a correctly encoded Unicode text. The replacement character � is a found in the Unicode standard at codepoint U+FFFD in the Specials table. It is used to indicate problems when a system is unable to render a stream of data to a correct symbol and it is usually seen when the data is invalid and does not match any character, Consider a text file containing the German word für in the ISO-8859-1 encoding. This file is now opened with an editor that assumes the input is UTF-8. The first and last byte are valid UTF-8 encodings of ASCII, therefore, a text editor could replace this byte with the replacement character symbol to produce a valid string of Unicode code points. The whole string now displays like this, f�r, a poorly implemented text editor might save the replacement in UTF-8 form, the text file data will then look like this, 0x66 0xEF 0xBF 0xBD 0x72, which will be displayed in ISO-8859-1 as f�r. Since the replacement is the same for all errors this makes it impossible to recover the original character, a better design is to preserve the original bytes, including the error, and only convert to the replacement when displaying the text. This will allow the text editor to save the original byte sequence and it has become increasingly common for software to interpret invalid UTF-8 by guessing the bytes are in another byte-based encoding such as ISO-8859-1. This allows correct display of both valid and invalid UTF-8 pasted together, Unicode control characters UTF-8 Mojibake Unicodes Specials table Decodeunicodes entry for the replacement character
21.
Unicode
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Unicode is a computing industry standard for the consistent encoding, representation, and handling of text expressed in most of the worlds writing systems. As of June 2016, the most recent version is Unicode 9.0, the standard is maintained by the Unicode Consortium. Unicodes success at unifying character sets has led to its widespread, the standard has been implemented in many recent technologies, including modern operating systems, XML, Java, and the. NET Framework. Unicode can be implemented by different character encodings, the most commonly used encodings are UTF-8, UTF-16 and the now-obsolete UCS-2. UTF-8 uses one byte for any ASCII character, all of which have the same values in both UTF-8 and ASCII encoding, and up to four bytes for other characters. UCS-2 uses a 16-bit code unit for each character but cannot encode every character in the current Unicode standard, UTF-16 extends UCS-2, using one 16-bit unit for the characters that were representable in UCS-2 and two 16-bit units to handle each of the additional characters. Many traditional character encodings share a common problem in that they allow bilingual computer processing, Unicode, in intent, encodes the underlying characters—graphemes and grapheme-like units—rather than the variant glyphs for such characters. In the case of Chinese characters, this leads to controversies over distinguishing the underlying character from its variant glyphs. In text processing, Unicode takes the role of providing a unique code point—a number, in other words, Unicode represents a character in an abstract way and leaves the visual rendering to other software, such as a web browser or word processor. This simple aim becomes complicated, however, because of concessions made by Unicodes designers in the hope of encouraging a more rapid adoption of Unicode, the first 256 code points were made identical to the content of ISO-8859-1 so as to make it trivial to convert existing western text. For other examples, see duplicate characters in Unicode and he explained that he name Unicode is intended to suggest a unique, unified, universal encoding. In this document, entitled Unicode 88, Becker outlined a 16-bit character model, Unicode could be roughly described as wide-body ASCII that has been stretched to 16 bits to encompass the characters of all the worlds living languages. In a properly engineered design,16 bits per character are more than sufficient for this purpose, Unicode aims in the first instance at the characters published in modern text, whose number is undoubtedly far below 214 =16,384. By the end of 1990, most of the work on mapping existing character encoding standards had been completed, the Unicode Consortium was incorporated in California on January 3,1991, and in October 1991, the first volume of the Unicode standard was published. The second volume, covering Han ideographs, was published in June 1992, in 1996, a surrogate character mechanism was implemented in Unicode 2.0, so that Unicode was no longer restricted to 16 bits. The Microsoft TrueType specification version 1.0 from 1992 used the name Apple Unicode instead of Unicode for the Platform ID in the naming table, Unicode defines a codespace of 1,114,112 code points in the range 0hex to 10FFFFhex. Normally a Unicode code point is referred to by writing U+ followed by its hexadecimal number, for code points in the Basic Multilingual Plane, four digits are used, for code points outside the BMP, five or six digits are used, as required. Code points in Planes 1 through 16 are accessed as surrogate pairs in UTF-16, within each plane, characters are allocated within named blocks of related characters
22.
Writing system
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A writing system is any conventional method of visually representing verbal communication. While both writing and speech are useful in conveying messages, writing differs in also being a form of information storage. The processes of encoding and decoding writing systems involve shared understanding between writers and readers of the meaning behind the sets of characters that make up a script, the general attributes of writing systems can be placed into broad categories such as alphabets, syllabaries, or logographies. Any particular system can have attributes of more than one category, in the alphabetic category, there is a standard set of letters of consonants and vowels that encode based on the general principle that the letters represent speech sounds. In a syllabary, each symbol correlates to a syllable or mora, in a logography, each character represents a word, morpheme, or other semantic units. Other categories include abjads, which differ from alphabets in that vowels are not indicated, alphabets typically use a set of 20-to-35 symbols to fully express a language, whereas syllabaries can have 80-to-100, and logographies can have several hundreds of symbols. Systems will also enable the stringing together of these groupings in order to enable a full expression of the language. The reading step can be accomplished purely in the mind as an internal process, writing systems were preceded by proto-writing, which used pictograms, ideograms and other mnemonic symbols. Proto-writing lacked the ability to capture and express a range of thoughts. Soon after, writing provided a form of long distance communication. With the advent of publishing, it provided the medium for a form of mass communication. Writing systems are distinguished from other possible symbolic communication systems in that a system is always associated with at least one spoken language. In contrast, visual representations such as drawings, paintings, and non-verbal items on maps, such as contour lines, are not language-related. Some other symbols, such as numerals and the ampersand, are not directly linked to any specific language, every human community possesses language, which many regard as an innate and defining condition of humanity. However, the development of writing systems, and the process by which they have supplanted traditional oral systems of communication, have been sporadic, uneven, once established, writing systems generally change more slowly than their spoken counterparts. Thus they often preserve features and expressions which are no current in the spoken language. One of the benefits of writing systems is that they can preserve a permanent record of information expressed in a language. In the examination of individual scripts, the study of writing systems has developed along partially independent lines, thus, the terminology employed differs somewhat from field to field
23.
Austronesian languages
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The Austronesian languages are a language family that is widely dispersed throughout Maritime Southeast Asia, Madagascar and the islands of the Pacific Ocean, with a few members in continental Asia. It is on par with Indo-European, Niger–Congo, and Afroasiatic as one of the language families. Major Austronesian languages with the highest number of speakers are Malay, Javanese, the family contains 1,257 languages, which is the second most of any language family. Otto Dempwolff was the first researcher to extensively explore Austronesian using the comparative method, another German, Wilhelm Schmidt, coined the German word austronesisch which comes from Latin auster south wind plus Greek nêsos island. The name Austronesian was formed from the same roots, the family is aptly named, as the vast majority of Austronesian languages are spoken on islands, only a few languages, such as Malay and the Chamic languages, are indigenous to mainland Asia. Twenty or so Austronesian languages are official in their respective countries, hawaiian, Rapa Nui, and Malagasy are the geographic outliers of the Austronesian family. According to Robert Blust, Austronesian is divided in several branches, all. The Formosan languages of Taiwan are grouped into as many as nine first-order subgroups of Austronesian, all Austronesian languages spoken outside Taiwan belong to the Malayo-Polynesian branch, sometimes called Extra-Formosan. Most Austronesian languages lack a long history of attestation, making the feat of reconstructing earlier stages – up to distant Proto-Austronesian – all the more remarkable. The oldest inscription in the Cham language, the Đông Yên Châu inscription and it is difficult to make generalizations about the languages that make up a family as diverse as Austronesian. The phenomenon has frequently referred to as focus. Furthermore, the choice of voice is influenced by the definiteness of the participants, the word order has a strong tendency to be verb-initial. They are also characterized by the presence of preposed clitic pronouns, unlike the Philippine type, these languages mostly tend towards verb-second word-orders. A number of languages, such as the Batak languages, Old Javanese, Balinese, Sasak, finally, in some languages, which Ross calls post-Indonesian, the original voice system has broken down completely and the voice-marking affixes no longer preserve their functions. The Austronesian languages tend to use reduplication, like many East and Southeast Asian languages, most Austronesian languages have highly restrictive phonotactics, with generally small numbers of phonemes and predominantly consonant–vowel syllables. Some cognate sets are very stable, the word for eye in many Austronesian languages is mata. Other words are harder to reconstruct, the word for two is also stable, in that it appears over the entire range of the Austronesian family, but the forms require some linguistic expertise to recognise. The Austronesian Basic Vocabulary Database gives word lists for approximately 1000 Austronesian languages, the internal structure of the Austronesian languages is complex
24.
Indonesia
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Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a unitary sovereign state and transcontinental country located mainly in Southeast Asia with some territories in Oceania. Situated between the Indian and Pacific oceans, it is the worlds largest island country, with more than seventeen thousand islands. At 1,904,569 square kilometres, Indonesia is the worlds 14th-largest country in terms of area and worlds 7th-largest country in terms of combined sea. It has an population of over 260 million people and is the worlds fourth most populous country. The worlds most populous island, Java, contains more than half of the countrys population, Indonesias republican form of government includes an elected legislature and president. Indonesia has 34 provinces, of which five have Special Administrative status and its capital and countrys most populous city is Jakarta, which is also the most populous city in Southeast Asia and the second in Asia. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, other neighbouring countries include Singapore, Vietnam, the Philippines, Australia, Palau, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the second highest level of biodiversity. The country has abundant natural resources like oil and natural gas, tin, copper, agriculture mainly produces rice, palm oil, tea, coffee, cacao, medicinal plants, spices and rubber. Indonesias major trading partners are Japan, United States, China, the Indonesian archipelago has been an important region for trade since at least the 7th century, when Srivijaya and then later Majapahit traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries CE, Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Indonesia consists of hundreds of native ethnic and linguistic groups. The largest – and politically dominant – ethnic group are the Javanese, a shared identity has developed, defined by a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a Muslim-majority population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. Indonesias national motto, Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, articulates the diversity that shapes the country, Indonesias economy is the worlds 16th largest by nominal GDP and the 8th largest by GDP at PPP, the largest in Southeast Asia, and is considered an emerging market and newly industrialised country. Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950, Indonesia is a member of the G20 major economies and World Trade Organization. The name Indonesia derives from the Greek name of the Indós, the name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians—and, his preference, in the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago. However, Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia, they preferred Malay Archipelago, the Netherlands East Indies, popularly Indië, the East, and Insulinde
25.
Sumatra
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Sumatra is a large island in western Indonesia that is part of the Sunda Islands. It is the largest island that is entirely in Indonesia and the sixth-largest island in the world at 473,481 km2, Sumatra is an elongated landmass spanning a diagonal northwest-southeast axis. The Indian Ocean borders the west, northwest, and southwest sides of Sumatra with the chain of Simeulue, Nias. On the northeast side the narrow Strait of Malacca separates the island from the Malay Peninsula, on the southeast the narrow Sunda Strait separates Sumatra from Java. The northern tip of Sumatra borders the Andaman Islands, while on the eastern side are the islands of Bangka and Belitung, Karimata Strait. The Bukit Barisan mountains, which several active volcanoes, form the backbone of the island, while the northeast sides are outlying lowlands with swamps, mangrove. The equator crosses the island at its center on West Sumatra, the climate of the island is tropical, hot and humid with lush tropical rain forest once dominating the landscape. Sumatra was known in ancient times by the Sanskrit names of Swarnadwīpa and Swarnabhūmi, the first word mentioning the name of Sumatra was the name of Srivijayan Haji Sumatrabhumi, who sent an envoy to China in 1017. Arab geographers referred to the island as Lamri in the tenth through thirteenth centuries, late in the 14th century the name Sumatra became popular in reference to the kingdom of Samudra Pasai, which was a rising power until it was replaced by Sultanate of Aceh. Sultan Alauddin Shah of Aceh, on letters written in 1602 addressed to Queen Elizabeth I of England, referred to himself as king of Aceh, the word itself is from Sanskrit Samudra, meaning gathering together of waters, sea or ocean. European writers in the 19th century found that the inhabitants did not have a name for the island. The Melayu Kingdom was absorbed by Srivijaya, Srivijaya was a Buddhist monarchy centred in what is now Palembang. Dominating the region trade and conquest throughout the 7th to 9th centuries. The empire was a thalassocracy or maritime power that extended its influence from island to island, Palembang was a center for scholarly learning, and it was there the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim I Ching studied Sanskrit in 671 CE before departing for India. On his journey to China, he spent four years in Palembang translating Buddhist texts, Srivijayan influence waned in the 11th century after it was defeated by the Chola Empire of southern India. At the same time, Islam made its way to Sumatra through Arabs, by the late 13th century, the monarch of the Samudra kingdom had converted to Islam. Marco Polo visited the island in 1292, and Ibn Battuta visited twice during 1345–1346, Samudra was succeeded by the powerful Aceh Sultanate, which survived to the 20th century. With the coming of the Dutch, the many Sumatran princely states fell under their control
26.
Pallava dynasty
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The Pallava dynasty was a South Indian dynasty that existed from 275 CE to 897 CE, ruling a portion of what is today southern India. They gained prominence after the eclipse of the Satavahana dynasty, whom the Pallavas served as feudatories, Pallavas are most noted for their patronage of architecture, the finest example being the Shore Temple, a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Mahabalipuram. The Pallavas, who left behind magnificent sculptures and temples, established the foundations of medieval South Indian architecture and they developed the Pallava script from which Grantha ultimately descended. The Pallava script gave rise to other southeast Asian scripts. Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang visited Kanchipuram during Pallava rule and extolled their benign rule, the Pallavas themselves claimed to descend from Brahma and Ashvatthama. Though Manimekalai posits Ilam Tiriyan as a Chola, not a Pallava, thence, came into existence the race of Pallavas. Vīrakūrcha, of celebrated name, who simultaneously with the daughter of the chief of serpents grasped also the insignia of royalty. The Proceedings of the First Annual Conference of South Indian History Congress also notes, The word Tondai means a creeper, historian K. R. Subramanian says the Pallavas were originally a Telugu power rather than a Tamil one. Telugu sources know of a Trilochana Pallava as the earliest Telugu king, the first Chalukya king is said to have been met, repulsed and killed by the same Trilochana near Mudivemu. A Buddhist story describes Kala the Nagaraja, resembling the Pallava Kalabhartar as a king of the region near Krishna district, the Pallava Bogga may be identified with the kingdom of Kala in Andhra which had close and early maritime and cultural relations with Ceylon. K. A. K. P. Jayaswal also proposed a North Indian origin, the Pallavas captured Kanchi from the Cholas as recorded in the Velurpalaiyam Plates, around the reign of the fifth king of the Pallava line Kumaravishnu I. Thereafter Kanchi figures in inscriptions as the capital of the Pallavas, the Cholas drove the Pallavas away from Kanchi in the mid-4th century, in the reign of Vishugopa, the tenth king of the Pallava line. The Pallavas re-captured Kanchi in the century, possibly in the reign of Simhavishnu, the fourteenth king of the Pallava line. Thereafter the Pallavas held on to Kanchi until the 9th century, until the reign of their last king, the Pallavas were in conflict with major kingdoms at various periods of time. A contest for political supremacy existed between the early Pallavas and the Kadambas, numerous Kadamba inscriptions provide details of Pallava-Kadamba hostlities. During the reign of Vishnugopavarman II, political convulsion engulfed the Pallavas due to the Kalabhra invasion of the Tamil country, towards the close of the 6th century, the Pallava Simhavishnu stuck a blow against the Kalabhras. Thereafter the Tamil country was divided between the Pallavas in the north with Kanchipuram as their capital, and Pandyas in the south with Madurai as their capital, the royal custom of using a series of descriptive honorific titles, Birudas, was particularly prevalent among the Pallavas. The birudas of Mahendravarman I are in Sanskrit, Tamil and Telugu, the Telugu birudas show Mahendravarmans involvement with the Andhra region continued to be strong at the time he was creating his cave-temples in the Tamil region
27.
Eng (letter)
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Eng or engma is a letter of the Latin alphabet, used to represent a velar nasal in the written form of some languages and in the International Phonetic Alphabet. N with a tail like that of g, which must be understood where the Printer has imitated it by n or y” and it was later used in Benjamin Franklins phonetic alphabet, with its current phonetic value. Lowercase eng is derived from n, with the addition of a hook to the right leg, the uppercase has two variants, it can be based on the usual uppercase N, with a hook added, or it can be an enlarged version of the lowercase. The former is preferred in Sami languages that use it, the latter in African languages, early printers, lacking a specific glyph for eng, sometimes approximated it by rotating a capital G, or by substituting a Greek eta for it. Americanist phonetic notation, where it may represent a uvular nasal. Languages marked † no longer use eng, but formerly did, mapuche language Eng is encoded in Unicode as U+014A LATIN CAPITAL LETTER ENG and U+014B LATIN SMALL LETTER ENG, part of the Latin Extended-A range. In ISO 8859-4 its located at BD and BF, in African languages such as Bemba, ng is widely used as a substitute in media where eng is hard to reproduce
28.
Diacritic
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A diacritic – also diacritical mark, diacritical point, or diacritical sign – is a glyph added to a letter, or basic glyph. The term derives from the Ancient Greek διακριτικός, from διακρίνω, diacritic is primarily an adjective, though sometimes used as a noun, whereas diacritical is only ever an adjective. Some diacritical marks, such as the acute and grave, are often called accents, diacritical marks may appear above or below a letter, or in some other position such as within the letter or between two letters. The main use of marks in the Latin script is to change the sound-values of the letters to which they are added. In other Latin alphabets, they may distinguish between homonyms, such as the French là versus la that are both pronounced /la/, in Gaelic type, a dot over a consonant indicates lenition of the consonant in question. In other alphabetic systems, diacritical marks may perform other functions, vowel pointing systems, namely the Arabic harakat and the Hebrew niqqud systems, indicate vowels that are not conveyed by the basic alphabet. The Indic virama and the Arabic sukūn mark the absence of a vowel, in the Hanyu Pinyin official romanization system for Chinese, diacritics are used to mark the tones of the syllables in which the marked vowels occur. In orthography and collation, a letter modified by a diacritic may be treated either as a new and this varies from language to language, and may vary from case to case within a language. ◌ː – triangular colon, used in the IPA to mark long vowels, not all diacritics occur adjacent to the letter they modify. In the Wali language of Ghana, for example, an apostrophe indicates a change of vowel quality, because of vowel harmony, all vowels in a word are affected, so the scope of the diacritic is the entire word. In abugida scripts, like those used to write Hindi and Thai, diacritics indicate vowels, the tittle on the letter i of the Latin alphabet originated as a diacritic to clearly distinguish i from the minims of adjacent letters. It first appeared in the 11th century in the sequence ii, then spread to i adjacent to m, n, u, the j, originally a variant of i, inherited the tittle. The shape of the diacritic developed from initially resembling todays acute accent to a flourish by the 15th century. With the advent of Roman type it was reduced to the round dot we have today, tanwīn symbols, Serve a grammatical role in Arabic. The sign ـً is most commonly written in combination with alif, waṣla, Comes most commonly at the beginning of a word. Indicates a type of hamza that is pronounced only when the letter is read at the beginning of the talk, ḥarakāt, fatḥa kasra ḍamma sukūn The ḥarakāt or vowel points serve two purposes, They serve as a phonetic guide. They indicate the presence of short vowels or their absence, at the last letter of a word, the vowel point reflects the inflection case or conjugation mood. For nouns, The ḍamma is for the nominative, fatḥa for the accusative, for verbs, the ḍamma is for the imperfective, fatḥa for the perfective, and the sukūn is for verbs in the imperative or jussive moods
29.
Batak Karo language
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Karo, referred to in Indonesia as Bahasa Karo, is an Austronesian language that is spoken by the Karo people of Indonesia. It is used by around 600,000 people in North Sumatra and it is mainly spoken in Karo Regency, southern parts of Deli Serdang Regency and northern parts of Dairi Regency, North Sumatra, Indonesia. Karo is a Northern Batak language, and is related to Pakpak. It is mutually unintelligible from the Southern Batak languages, such as Toba, Angkola, there are several dialects within Karo. A major dialect boundary exists between the dialects spoken in the east and the dialects spoken in the west and these are largely distinguished according to phonological and lexical differences. Vowels in the dialect are lowered and fronted in the western dialect. Similarly, diphthongs in the dialect are realised as monophthongs in the western dialect. Karo has 17 consonant phonemes and 7 vowel phonemes, Karo Ope denga ijadiken Dibata doni enda Kata e enggo lit. Kata e ras Dibata, janah Kata e me Dibata English Translation In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, language-museum. com omniglot. com KARO BATAK, PASSIVE, ERGATIVE OR NEITHER. ACTOR VOICE IN KARO BATAK Paradisec archive of recordings from a 2010 Field Methods class on Batak Karo, indonesian to Karonese Dictionary Batak Karo Christian Bible
30.
Toba Batak language
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Batak Toba /ˈtoʊbə ˈbætək/ is an Austronesian language spoken in North Sumatra province in Indonesia. It is part of a group of languages called Batak, there are approximately 2,000,000 Batak Toba speakers, living to the east, west and south of Lake Toba. Historically it was written using Batak script, but the Latin script is now used for most writing, Herman Neubronner van der Tuuk was involved in translating the Christian Bible into Batak Toba. The name of this arises from a rich and complex history of ethnic identity in colonial and post-colonial Indonesia. Linguistically and culturally these tribes of people are closely related, other nearby communities such as Silalahi and Tongging may also be classified as speakers of Toba Batak. The term Toba Batak is, itself, a derivation of the Toba Batak language, as such, it is used both as a noun and an adjective, both to describe a language, and also to describe the people who speak the language. In contemporary Indonesia the language is referred to as Toba Batak. The -Batak refer to it in their own language as Hata Batak, there are several dictionaries and grammars for each of the five major dialects of Batak. Specifically for Toba Batak the most important dictionaries are that of Johannes Warneck, Toba Batak has verb-initial, VOS word order, as with many Austronesian languages. In, the verb mangallang eat precedes the object kue cake, SVO word order, however, is also very common. In, the subject dakdanakon this child precedes the verb phrase mangatuk biangi hit the dog, Cole & Hermon claim that VOS order is the result of VP-raising. Then, the subject may optionally raise over the phrase due because of information structure. This analysis provides a basis for understanding Austronesian languages that have more fully become SVO, like many Austronesian languages, DP wh-movement is subject to an extraction restriction. The verb in must agree with aha what for it to be extracted in front of the verb, if the verb agrees with the subject, si John John, aha what may not extract. Reference to contemporary Batak Bible Example translation of Biblical Scripture Musgrave, non-subject Arguments in Indonesian, Department of Linguistics and Applied Linguistics, THE UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE. See page 112 and reference to Cole, Peter & Gabriella Hermon Word order, paper presented at AFLA7, Amsterdam Sejara Indonesia An Online Outline of Indonesia History. First English edition, first published in Dutch in 1864-1867, translation J. Scott-Kemball, edited by A. Teeuw and R. Roolvink. Http, //www. language-archives. org/language/bbc Rackowski, Andrea & Norvin Richards, phase Edge and Extraction, A Tagalog Case Study
31.
Voiceless velar fricative
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The voiceless velar fricative is a type of consonantal sound used in some spoken languages. It was part of the consonant inventory of Old English and can still be found in dialects of English. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨x⟩ and it is also used in broad transcription instead of the symbol ⟨χ⟩, the Greek chi, for the voiceless uvular fricative. There is also a voiceless fricative in some languages. For voiceless pre-velar fricative, see voiceless palatal fricative and its place of articulation is velar, which means it is articulated with the back of the tongue at the soft palate. Its phonation is voiceless, which means it is produced without vibrations of the vocal cords, in some languages the vocal cords are actively separated, so it is always voiceless, in others the cords are lax, so that it may take on the voicing of adjacent sounds. It is a consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only. It is a consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue. The airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the lungs and diaphragm, thus Proto-Indo-European *ḱr̥nom horn and *kʷód what became Proto-Germanic *hurnan and *hwat, where *h and *hw were likely to be and. This sound change is part of Grimms law, in Modern Greek, the voiceless velar fricative originated from the Ancient Greek voiceless aspirated stop /kʰ/ in a sound change that lenited Greek aspirated stops into fricatives
32.
Typographic ligature
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In writing and typography, a ligature occurs where two or more graphemes or letters are joined as a single glyph. An example is the character æ as used in English, in which the letters a and e are joined, the common ampersand developed from a ligature in which the handwritten Latin letters e and t were combined. The origin of typographical ligatures comes from the invention of writing with a stylus on fibrous material or clay, the earliest known script, Sumerian cuneiform, includes many cases of character combinations that, over time, gradually evolve from ligatures into separately recognizable characters. Ligatures figure prominently in many manuscripts, notably the Brahmic abugidas. Medieval scribes who wrote in Latin increased their speed by combining characters. Others conjoined letters for aesthetic purposes, for example, in blackletter, letters with right-facing bowls and those with left-facing bowls were written with the facing edges of the bowls superimposed. In many script forms, characters such as h, m, scribes also used notational abbreviations to avoid having to write a whole character in one stroke. Manuscripts in the century employed hundreds of such abbreviations. In hand writing, a ligature is made by joining two or more characters in atypical fashion by merging their parts or by writing one above or inside the other. While in printing, a ligature is a group of characters that is typeset as a unit, for example, in some cases the fi ligature prints the letters f and i with a greater separation than when they are typeset as separate letters. When printing with movable type was invented around 1450, typefaces included many ligatures and additional letters, Ligatures began to fall out of use due to their complexity in the 20th century. Sans serif typefaces, increasingly used for text, generally avoid ligatures, though notable exceptions include Gill Sans. Inexpensive phototypesetting machines in the 1970s also generally avoid them, the trend was further strengthened by the desktop publishing revolution starting around 1977 with the production of the Apple II. Early computer software in particular had no way to allow for ligature substitution, as most of the early PC development was designed for the English language dependence on ligatures did not carry over to digital. Ligature use fell as the number of traditional hand compositors and hot metal typesetting machine operators dropped since the mass of the IBM Selectric brand of electric typewriter in 1961. A designer active in the period commented, some of the world’s greatest typefaces were quickly becoming some of the world’s worst fonts, Ligatures have grown in popularity over the last 20 years due to an increasing interest in creating typesetting systems that evoke arcane designs and classical scripts. One of the first computer typesetting programs to take advantage of computer-driven typesetting was Donald Knuths TeX program, now the standard method of mathematical typesetting, its default fonts are explicitly based on nineteenth-century styles. Many new fonts feature extensive ligature sets, these include FF Scala, Seria and others by Martin Majoor, mrs Eaves by Zuzana Licko contains a particularly large set to allow designers to create dramatic display text with a feel of antiquity
33.
Scriptio continua
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Scriptio continua, also known as scriptura continua or scripta continua, is a style of writing without spaces, or other marks between the words or sentences. The form also lacks punctuation, diacriticals, or distinguished letter case, in the West, the oldest Greek and Latin inscriptions used word dividers to separate words in sentences, however, Classical Greek and late Classical Latin both employed scriptio continua as the norm. Although scriptio continua is evidenced in most Classic Greek and Classic Latin manuscripts, and it must be noted that Classical Latin did often use the interpunct, specially in monuments and inscriptions. In the oldest Classic Greek or in Alexandria, texts were formatted in a constant string of letters from right to left. Later, this evolved to “boustrophedon, ” which included lines written in alternating directions. It was only later on that the Romans adapted the Etruscan alphabet to write Latin and, in the process, switched from using points to divide the words, before the advent of the codex, Latin and Greek script was written on scrolls by enslaved scribes. The role of the scribe was to record everything he heard. Because the free form of speech is so continuous, adding inaudible spaces within the manuscripts was illogical, furthermore, at a time when ink and papyrus were quite costly, adding spaces would be an unnecessary waste of such writing mediums. Typically, the reader of the text was a trained performer, during these reading performances, the scroll acted as a cue sheet, and therefore did not require in-depth reading. While the lack of word parsing forced the reader to distinguish elements of the script without a visual aid, the reader had the liberty to insert pauses and dictate tone, making the act of reading a significantly more subjective activity than it is today. However, the lack of spacing also led to some ambiguity because a minor discrepancy in word parsing could give the text a different meaning, thus, readers had to be much more cognizant of the context to which the text referred. Subsequently, a number of European texts adopted conventional spacing. When word separation became the system, it was seen as a simplification of Roman culture because it undermined the metric and rhythmic fluency generated through scriptio continua. In contrast, paleographers today identify the extinction of scriptio continua as a factor in augmenting the widespread absorption of knowledge in the Pre-Modern Era. By saving the reader the taxing process of interpreting pauses and breaks, furthermore, the brain has a greater capacity to profoundly synthesize text and commit a greater portion of information to memory. Scriptio continua is still in use in Thai, other Southeast Asian abugidas, Lao, before this, the only forms of punctuation found in Chinese writings were marks to denote quotes, proper nouns, and emphasis. Modern Tibetic languages also employ a form of scriptio continua, while they punctuate syllables, beijing is in Northern China, Guangzhou is in Southern China. ꧋ꦱꦧꦼꦤ꧀ ꦲꦸꦮꦺꦴꦁ ꦏꦭꦲꦶꦂꦫꦏꦺ ꦏꦤ꧀ꦛꦶ ꦩꦂꦢꦶꦏ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦢꦂꦧꦺ ꦩꦂꦠꦧꦠ꧀ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦲꦏ꧀-ꦲꦏ꧀ ꦏꦁ ꦥꦝ꧉ – saběn uwong kalairake kanthi mardika lan darbe martabat lan akak kang padha
34.
Bindu (symbol)
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Bindu is a Sanskrit word meaning point or dot. A bindi is a small, ornamental, devotional dot applied to the forehead in Hinduism, in metaphysics, Bindu is considered the point at which creation begins and may become unity. It is also described as the symbol of the cosmos in its unmanifested state. Bindu is the point around which the mandala is created, representing the universe, Bindu is often merged with and ova. In the Yoga Chudamani Upanishad Bindu is a duality, with a white Bindu representing shukla, the white Bindu resides in the bindu visarga and is related to Shiva and the Moon, while the red Bindu resides in the muladhara chakra and is related to Shakti and the Sun. In yoga, the union of two parts results in the ascension of kundalini to the sahasrara. In Tantra, Bindu is a point at the back of the head where Brahmins grow their tuft of hair and this point is below the sahasrara chakra and above the ajna chakra, and is represented by a crescent moon with a white drop. It represents the manifestation of such as consciousness. The Bindu visarga is said to be the source of Bindu fluid, which contains a nectar, the fluid is released from the Bindu visarga, and can be stored in the lalana chakra and purified in the Vishuddha chakra. When the Vishuddha is inactive the fluid flows to the manipura chakra, according to the Hatha Yoga Pradipika, a hatha yoga practitioner can prolong their life by controlling the flow of the fluid. Through practice of Khecari mudra, a practitioner can manipulate the flow of the fluid from the lalana to the Vishuddha, the picture of the chakra is a lotus with 23 petals. Its symbol is the moon, which supports the growth of vegetation, krishna said in the Bhagavad Gita XV/13, Becoming the nectarine moon I nourish all plants. Its divinity is Shiva, who is portrayed with the crescent moon in his hair, the Bindu chakra is a centre for health, giving us the power for physical and mental recuperation. It benefits eyesight, quietens the emotions and promotes inner harmony, clarity, with the help of this chakra we are capable of controlling hunger and thirst, gaining the ability to overcome unhealthy eating habits. Concentration on Bindu relieves anxiety and depression, nervousness and feelings of oppression in the heart, in Tibetan Buddhism Bindu refers to the subtle body, which is composed of drops and winds. Yantra, The Tantric Symbol Of Cosmic Unity, kundalini for Beginners, The Shortest Path to Self-Realization. Yantra, Mantra and Tantrism, The Complete Guide, voices of History, Vol. XV, No.1. Pp. 81–87 Bindu Bindu, Pinnacle of the Three Streams
35.
Rooster
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A rooster, also known as a cockerel or cock, is a male gallinaceous bird, usually a male chicken. Mature male chickens less than one year old are called cockerels, the term rooster originates in the United States, and the term is widely used throughout North America, as well as Australia and New Zealand. The older terms cock or cockerel, the latter denoting a young cock, are used in the United Kingdom, roosting is the action of perching aloft to sleep at day, which is done by both sexes. The rooster is polygamous, but cannot guard several nests of eggs at once and he guards the general area where his hens are nesting, and attacks other roosters that enter his territory. During the daytime, a rooster often sits on a perch, usually 0.9 to 1.5 m off the ground. He sounds an alarm call if predators are nearby. Roosters almost always start crowing before four months of age, although it is possible for a hen to crow as well, crowing is one of the clearest signs of being a rooster. The rooster is often portrayed as crowing at the break of dawn, however, while many roosters crow shortly after waking up, this idea is not exactly true. A rooster can and will crow at any time of the day, some roosters are especially vociferous, crowing almost constantly, while others only crow a few times a day. These differences are dependent both upon the breed and individual personality. A rooster can often be sitting on fence posts or other objects. Roosters have several other calls as well, and can cluck, Roosters occasionally make a patterned series of clucks to attract hens to a source of food, the same way a mother hen does for her chicks. Rooster crowing contests are a sport in several countries, such as Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium. Depending on the breed, either the duration of the crowing or the times the rooster crows within a time is measured. A capon is a castrated rooster, in the caponization procedure, the birds testes are completely removed, a surgical procedure is required for this as the roosters sexual organs are internal. The hackle, tail and saddle feathers grow unusually long, caponization also affects the disposition of the bird. Removal of the birds testes eliminates the male sex hormones, lessening the male sex instincts and changing their behaviour, the birds become more docile, less active and this procedure produces a unique type of poultry meat which is favoured by a specialized market. The meat of normal uncastrated roosters has a tendency to become coarse, stringy and this process does not occur in the capon
36.
Robert C. Williams Paper Museum
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The Robert C. Williams American Museum of Papermaking is a research institution and public museum dedicated to the preservation of the history of paper and paper technology. Changing exhibits focus on art, and a permanent exhibit details the science. Originally called the Dard Hunter Paper Museum, the Robert C. Williams Paper Museum began in 1939, the original museum was created by Dard Hunter and located at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Hunter filled the museum with artifacts representing the art of papermaking. Few people visited the museum while it was at MIT and eventually it was moved to a building on campus. In 1954 the then Institute of Paper Chemistry of Appleton, Wisconsin offered the museum a prominent place on its campus, Hunter became the museums curator, a job he held until his death in 1966. In 1989 the Institute of Paper Chemistry was relocated to Atlanta, Georgia and renamed the Institute of Paper Science, the Dard Hunter Collection was packed and moved as well. During the spring of 1993 the museum was re-opened inside of IPST, during this time the museum continued to grow, and a traveling exhibition program was instituted. In 1996 the museum received a donation from the James River Corporation. As a result, the name was again changed, this time to the Robert C. Williams Paper Museum. Williams, the co-founder of the James River Corporation, in 2005, through a donation from the Mead-Witter Foundation, an additional exhibition space was added to the museum. This new space was named the George W. Mead Education Center, Robert C. Williams Paper Museum official website
37.
Tropenmuseum
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The Tropenmuseum is an ethnographic museum located in Amsterdam, Netherlands, founded in 1864. The Tropenmuseum is part of the Nationaal Museum van Wereldculturen, a combination of three museums in the Netherlands. Until March 2014 the museum was owned and operated by the Royal Tropical Institute, the museum had 176,000 visitors in 2009. The museum was founded in order to show Dutch overseas possessions, in 1871 the institute began research to increase profits made off the colonies. This included attempting to develop improved means of producing coffee beans, rotan, the museum came under the influence of ethnologists, who added information on the economy, manners, and customs of the inhabitants. In 1926, they inaugurated the current building in East Amsterdam, at the time, they had 30,000 objects, and a sizable collection of photographs. In the 1960s and 1970s the Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs encouraged the museum to expand its scope to more issues such as poverty. In the early 1970s a new wing for children was added and this wing is now called Tropenmuseum Junior. The original building, built in 1926, was designed by J. J. van Nieukerken and it was richly decorated for the time, and took 11 years to build due to World War I and various labor strikes. All of the artwork in the building was created in the first half of the 20th century, in 2003, the museum was listed as a historical building in Amsterdam. The museum houses 175,000 objects,155,000 photographs and 10,000 miscellaneous drawings, paintings and it inherited 15,000 of these from the Ethnographisch Museum Artis. These objects are split up into many collections, the museum houses collections for many geographical areas such as Southeast Asia, South Asia, West Asia & North Africa, Sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean. They also have several collections in storage that fall outside of their scope and these include collections for China, Japan, Korea, and Europe. The photography collection consists mainly of photographs of the former Dutch Colonies from 1855–1940. In the period 2009-2015 the Tropemmuseum released 50,000 photographs under a Creative Commons licence to the Wikimedia Commons, a theatric collection is housed at the Tropenmuseum as well. The collection houses 5,500 musical instruments as well as other theatrical objects such as masks. It also features 21,000 textile artifacts, a majority of which are from Indonesia and it features interactive exhibits, and draws 30,000 children a year
38.
National Museum of Ethnology (Netherlands)
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The National Museum of Ethnology is a museum about ethnology in the Netherlands is located in the university city of Leiden. The institution which was at first called the Museum Japonicum and it was the first museum in Europe which was designed to demonstrate that collecting the artefacts of man could mean more than the mere accumulation of curiosities. From the very outset, this innovative institution incorporated at least four basic principles, collecting, scientific research, presentation to the public, van de Kasteele to collect Japanese objects for his collection. The resulting gift of about 5,000 objects became the heart the new museums holdings, Siebolds home in Leiden—and the objects he brought to Europe after eight years in Japan—was opened to the public in the early 1830s. The Dutch crown had previously purchased the smaller collections of Jan Cock Blomhoff in 1826 and this institution would later evolve into the National Museum of Ethnology. In 1843, Siebold also encouraged other Europeans to create ethnographic institutions similar to what was developing in Leiden, the collection today contains a large number of objects from Africa, China, Indonesia, Japan, Korea, Latin America, North America, Oceania, and Asia. As Opperhoofd for the Dutch East India Company at Dejima island in Nagasaki harbor from 1817 through 1823, despite the Japanese closed door policy for Westerners, he did transport his wife, Titia, and children to join him. Johannes Gerhard Frederik van Overmeer Fischer began as a clerk at Dejima and this material was brought back to the Netherlands in 1829. In 1833, he published Bijdrage tot de kennis van het Japansche rijk, further information relating to this material was published in Siebolds Nippon. His professional interest was drawn to implements used in the practice of traditional Japanese medicine. As of 2005, a museum located in one of Siebolds former houses. The Leiden plate is a Maya belt plaque and important historical artifact from Guatemala and it is depicted on the reverse of a one Guatemalan quetzal banknote. Tropenmuseum, Amsterdam Edo-Tokyo Museum National Museum of Ethnology, Japan The Virtual Collection of Masterpieces Alpen, Jan van, Oriental Medicine, An Illustrated Guide to the Asian Arts of Healing. Book Review, Titia, The First Western Woman in Japan by Rene P. Bersma, Pacific Affairs, Vol.76, Museum Studies, An Anthology of Contexts. ISBN 978-0-631-22830-1 Frederiks, Johannes Godefridus and F. Jos. van den Branden, Johannes Gerhard Frederik van Overmeer Fischer, Biographisch woordenboek der Noord- en Zuidnederlandsche letterkunde. Otterspeer, W. Leiden Oriental Connections, 1850-1940, Vol. V, ISBN 978-90-04-09022-4 Siebold, Philipp Franz von. Lettre sur lutilité des Musées Ethnographiques et sur limportance de leur création dans états européens qui posèdents des Colonies, rudolf Effert, Royal cabinets and auxiliary branches, origins of the National Museum of Ethnology, 1816-1883. ISBN 978-90-5789-159-5 Edo-Tokyo Museum exhibition catalog, a Very Unique Collection of Historical Significance, The Kapitan Collection from the Edo Period—The Dutch Fascination with Japan
39.
SOAS, University of London
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SOAS University of London, is a public research university in London, England, and a constituent college of the University of London. Founded in 1916, SOAS was ranked within the top 30 universities in the United Kingdom by The Guardian University Guide 2017, the School is organised into faculties of humanities, languages and social sciences. It is home to the SOAS School of Law, SOAS offers around 350 undergraduate bachelors degree combinations, over 100 one-year masters degrees and PhD programmes in nearly every department. SOAS has produced several heads of states, government ministers, diplomats, Supreme Court judges, the School of Oriental Studies was founded in 1916 at 2 Finsbury Circus, London, the then premises of the London Institution. The school received its charter on 5 June 1916 and admitted its first students on 18 January 1917. The school was inaugurated a month later on 23 February 1917 by King George V. Among those in attendance were Earl Curzon of Kedleston, formerly Viceroy of India, the School of Oriental Studies was founded by the British state as an instrument to strengthen Britains political, commercial and military presence in Asia and Africa. The school immediately became integral in training British administrators, colonial officials, Africa was added to the schools name in 1938. Its move to new premises in Bloomsbury was held up by delays in construction, with the onset of the Second World War, many University of London colleges were evacuated from London in 1939 and billeted on universities all over the provinces. The School was, on the Governments advice, transferred to Christs College, Cambridge. In 1940, when it became apparent that a return to London was possible, in 1942, the War Office joined with the schools Japanese department to help alleviate the shortage in Japanese linguists. State scholarships were offered to select grammar and public school boys to train as military translators, lodged at Dulwich College in south London, the students became affectionately known as the Dulwich boys. The courses were directed by army cryptographer, Col. John Tiltman, the SOAS School of Law was established in 1947 with Professor Vesey-Fitzgerald as its first head. Growth however was curtailed by following years of austerity, and upon Sir Cyril Philips assuming the directorship in 1956. Over his twenty-year stewardship, Phillips transformed the school, raising funds, a college of the University of London, the Schools fields include Law, Social Sciences, Humanities and Languages with special reference to Asia and Africa. The SOAS Library, located in the Philips Building, is the UKs national resource for materials relating to Asia and Africa and is the largest of its kind in the world. The school has grown considerably over the past thirty years, from fewer than 1,000 students in the 1970s to more than 6,000 students today, nearly half of them postgraduates. SOAS is partnered with the Institut National des Langues et Civilisations Orientales in Paris which is considered the French equivalent of SOAS
40.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
41.
Michael Everson
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Michael Everson is an American and Irish linguist, script encoder, typesetter, font designer, and publisher. He runs a company called Evertype, through which he has published over a hundred books since 2006. His central area of expertise is with writing systems of the world, specifically in the representation of these systems in formats for computer and digital media. In 2003 Rick McGowan said he was probably the leading expert in the computer encoding of scripts for his work to add a wide variety of scripts. Since 1993, he has written two hundred proposals which have added thousands of characters to ISO/IEC10646 and The Unicode Standard. Everson was born in Norristown, Pennsylvania, and moved to Tucson, Arizona and his interest in the works of J. R. R. Tolkien led him to study Old English and then other Germanic languages. He read German, Spanish, and French for his B. A. at the University of Arizona, in 1989, a former professor, Dr. He became a naturalized Irish citizen in 2000, although he retains American citizenship and he currently lives in Port Laoise, County Laois. Everson is active in supporting minority-language communities, especially in the fields of character encoding standardization and internationalization. In addition to being one of the contributing editors of the Unicode Standard, he is also a contributing editor to ISO/IEC10646, registrar for ISO15924. In 2004, Everson was appointed convenor of ISO TC46/WG3, which is responsible for transliteration standards, on July 1,2012, Everson was appointed to the Volapük Academy by the Cifal, Brian R. Bishop, for his work in Volapük publishing. In 1995 he designed the Unicode font, Everson Mono, a typeface with more than 4,800 characters. This font was the third Unicode-encoded font to contain a number of characters from many character blocks, after Lucida Sans Unicode. In 2007 he was commissioned by the International Association of Coptic Studies to create a standard free Unicode 5.1 font for Coptic, Antinoou, using the Sahidic style. Together with John Cowan, he is responsible for the ConScript Unicode Registry. Among the scripts encoded in the CSUR, Shavian and Deseret were eventually adopted into Unicode. Everson has also created locale and language information for many languages, from support for the Irish language, in 2000, together with Trond Trosterud, he co-authored Software localization into Nynorsk Norwegian, a report commissioned by the Norwegian Language Council. More recently, UNESCOs Initiative B@bel funded Eversons work to encode the NKo, in 2007 he co-authored a proposal for a new standard written form of Cornish, called Kernowek Standard
42.
Batak alphabet
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The script may be derived from the Kawi and Pallava script, ultimately derived from the Brahmi script of India, or from the hypothetical Proto-Sumatran script influenced by Pallava. In most Batak communities, only the priests, or datu were able to use the Batak script, soon after the first World War the missionaries decided to discontinue printing books in the Batak script. The script soon fell out of use and is now used for ornamental purposes. The Batak script was derived from Pallava and Old Kawi alphabets, which ultimately were derived from the Brahmi alphabet. Batak is written bottom to top within one column. Like most abugidas, each consonant has an inherent vowel of /a/, other vowels, final ŋ, and final velar fricative are indicated by diacritics, which appear above, below, or after the letter. For example, ba is written ba, bi is written ba. i, bang is written baŋ, final consonants are written with the pangolat, bam is ba. ma. #. However, bim is written ba. ma. i. #, the first diacritic belongs to the first consonant, and the second belongs to the second consonant, unlike most Brahmi-based scripts, Batak does not form consonant conjuncts. Each consonant has an inherent vowel of /a/, the script varies by region and language. The major variants are between Karo, Mandailing, Pakpak/Dairi, Simalungun/Timur, and Toba, Alternate forms, ^1 ^2 ^3 ^4 ^5 ^6 Diacritics are used to change the pronunciation of a letter, examples, ping, pong, peh, and pih. Vowel diacritics are reordered for closed syllables, consonants with no vowel are marked by the Batak pangolat or panongonan diacritic, depending on the language. When they are used for a syllable, both the vowel diacritic and the pangolat/panongonan are written at the end of the syllable. Examples of closed syllables using pangolat, Batak is normally written without spaces or punctuation, however, special marks or bindu are occasionally used. They vary greatly in size and design from manuscript to manuscript, Batak script was added to the Unicode Standard in October 2010 with the release of version 6.0. The Unicode block for Batak is U+1BC0–U+1BFF, Unicode fonts for Batak must handle several requirements to properly render text, Kozok, surat Batak, Sejarah Perkembangan Tulisan Batak, Berikut Pedoman Menulis Aksara Batak Dan Cap Si Singamangaraja XII. Everson, Michael, Kozok, Uli, N3320R, Proposal for encoding the Batak script in the UCS Kozok, archived from the original on 31 October 2002
1
5
4
6
(used in Mandailing) ^2 
^3 
^4 
^5 
^6 
) and H (
) are usually written above spacing vowel diacritics instead of above the base character.
ping, 
pong, 
peh, and 
pih.
