1.
British Battledress
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This article is about the standard British combat uniform worn from 1939 to 1961. For other British Army standard issue uniforms, see British Army uniform, for the similarly named US Armed Forces standard issue combat uniform used from the 1980s until the first decade of the 21st century, see Battle Dress Uniform. For army action clothing in general, see Battledress, Battledress was the specific title of a military uniform adopted by the British Army in the late 1930s and worn until the 1960s. Battledress, or later No.5 Uniform, was the uniform worn by British Commonwealth and Imperial forces. It was worn mostly but not exclusively in temperate climates, in some armies it continued in use into the 1970s. During the Second World War and thereafter this uniform was used for formal parades until the re-introduction of separate parade uniforms in the late 1950s. From the early 1930s, the British War Office began research on a replacement for the Service Dress that had been a combined field, initially conducted on a small scale over several years, some of the ideas tested included deerstalker hats and safari jackets. After extensive field trials of other uniforms, Battledress, Serge was adopted just before the Second World War, the jacket was copied by the U. S Army and was christened the Ike jacket. On the trousers, there was a large map pocket on the front near the left knee and a special pocket for a field dressing near the right front pocket. One problem often developed, the gap between the blouse and trousers would open up in movement and buttons popped, so braces were issued. Battledress was issued beginning in 1939 in the British Army. 1940 Pattern Battledress was introduced in 1942, it deleted the fly front, the front buttons, as well as the pocket buttons, were now exposed. Pocket pleats to the blouse were removed, as were box pleats to cuffs, plastic buttons were introduced, rather than the brass dished buttons of Battledress, Serge. The trousers retained the features of the Austerity pattern but the button was now exposed. Officers were permitted to tailor the collar of their blouses so as to wear a collared shirt, Battle Dress, Olive Drab, War Aid was made in the U. S. A. for the British Army and was widely seen in the Mediterranean theatre. Note the American use of Battle Dress as two words, the blouse featured exposed buttons on the outer pockets, which also bore no box pleats. The fly front of Battledress, Serge was retained, cuff buttons were exposed, and there were two inside pockets. A small, internal hanger loop was introduced to the collar, the collar was closed by double hook-and-eye arrangement
2.
Battledress
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A battledress is a type of uniform used as combat uniforms, as opposed to dress uniforms or formal uniform worn at parades and functions. In American English, the term fatigues is often used, originally being a term for soldiers work uniforms, the battledress is generally camouflaged, either in monochrome such as a shade of green or brown to approximate the background, or in a disruptive pattern. Contrary to dress uniforms, the battledress is usually made from cotton, the first purpose-made and widely issued military camouflage fabric was for half-shelters by the Italian Army after the First World War. Most nations developed camouflage uniforms during the Second World War, though these were issued only to elite units. Currently, Australian troops wear a uniform called Disruptive Pattern Combat Uniform. It was developed by entering the colours of the Australian landscape into a computer program, the first true battledress adopted by Canada for standard issue across the board was the khaki field uniform known as Service Dress, adopted in 1907. Officers wore a distinctive pattern of Service Dress, which was identical to that worn by British officers, they were privately purchased, and of better quality than Other Ranks uniform. In combat in France and Flanders, they were replaced on an individual basis by Other Ranks Service Dress. Canada developed its own pattern after the First World War, worn in tropics far beyond 1949. KD was still in issue and worn with short or long trousers as parade dress. Jacket was replaced with shirt for normal barrack dress wear, worn by all British units in Kenya until Dec 1964. Also in issue and worn by British Honduras Garrison and attached Infantry Company Group until at least 1968, officers had the option of having BD tailored from better material, but in the field most wore off the rack BD, perhaps with a modified open collar. Service Dress was worn in 1939 and into 1940 by soldiers in Canada as field dress, while a new pattern of Service Dress was introduced for Other Ranks in this period, it was reserved for dress wear only. Battle Dress completely replaced SD as a field uniform beginning in 1940 as enough of the new became available. A new pattern of BD was introduced in 1949, with an open collar matching that of British Pattern 1949 BD, the garment was worn as a field dress throughout the Korean War, and into the 1960s until replaced by the Combat uniform. Some Militia units used BD as a uniform until the early 1970s. The US Army produced its own version of the BD blouse for issue to soldiers in Europe, although most of these were produced in England, they were of a dark green color, rather than khaki. Called the ETO jacket, American soldiers dubbed it the Ike Jacket, Bush Dress was a series of dark green cotton uniforms, similar to KD clothing, which replaced those uniforms just prior to the Korean War
3.
Cold War
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The Cold War was a state of geopolitical tension after World War II between powers in the Eastern Bloc and powers in the Western Bloc. Historians do not fully agree on the dates, but a common timeframe is the period between 1947, the year the Truman Doctrine was announced, and 1991, the year the Soviet Union collapsed. The term cold is used there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two sides, although there were major regional wars, known as proxy wars, supported by the two sides. The Cold War split the temporary alliance against Nazi Germany, leaving the Soviet Union. The USSR was a Marxist–Leninist state ruled by its Communist Party and secret police, the Party controlled the press, the military, the economy and all organizations. In opposition stood the West, dominantly democratic and capitalist with a free press, a small neutral bloc arose with the Non-Aligned Movement, it sought good relations with both sides. The two superpowers never engaged directly in full-scale armed combat, but they were armed in preparation for a possible all-out nuclear world war. The first phase of the Cold War began in the first two years after the end of the Second World War in 1945, the Berlin Blockade was the first major crisis of the Cold War. With the victory of the communist side in the Chinese Civil War and the outbreak of the Korean War, the USSR and USA competed for influence in Latin America, and the decolonizing states of Africa and Asia. Meanwhile, the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was stopped by the Soviets, the expansion and escalation sparked more crises, such as the Suez Crisis, the Berlin Crisis of 1961, and the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The USSR crushed the 1968 Prague Spring liberalization program in Czechoslovakia, détente collapsed at the end of the decade with the beginning of the Soviet–Afghan War in 1979. The early 1980s were another period of elevated tension, with the Soviet downing of Korean Air Lines Flight 007, the United States increased diplomatic, military, and economic pressures on the Soviet Union, at a time when the communist state was already suffering from economic stagnation. In the mid-1980s, the new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the reforms of perestroika and glasnost. Pressures for national independence grew stronger in Eastern Europe, especially Poland, Gorbachev meanwhile refused to use Soviet troops to bolster the faltering Warsaw Pact regimes as had occurred in the past. The result in 1989 was a wave of revolutions that peacefully overthrew all of the communist regimes of Central, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union itself lost control and was banned following an abortive coup attempt in August 1991. This in turn led to the dissolution of the USSR in December 1991. The United States remained as the only superpower. The Cold War and its events have left a significant legacy and it is often referred to in popular culture, especially in media featuring themes of espionage and the threat of nuclear warfare
4.
Kosovo War
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The Kosovo War was an armed conflict in Kosovo that lasted from 5 March 1998 until 11 June 1999. After attempts at a diplomatic solution failed, NATO intervened, justifying the campaign in Kosovo as a humanitarian war and this precipitated a mass expulsion of Kosovar Albanians as the Yugoslav forces continued to fight during the aerial bombardment of Yugoslavia. The war ended with the Kumanovo Treaty, with Yugoslav and Serb forces agreeing to withdraw from Kosovo to make way for an international presence, Kosovos borders did not precisely match the areas of ethnic Albanian settlement in Yugoslavia. Kosovos formal autonomy, established under the 1945 Yugoslav constitution, initially meant relatively little in practice, the secret police cracked down hard on nationalists. In 1956 a number of Albanians went on trial in Kosovo on charges of espionage, the threat of separatism was in fact minimal, as the few underground groups aiming for union with Albania had little political significance. Demaci himself was imprisoned in 1964 along with many of his followers, Yugoslavia underwent a period of economic and political crisis in 1969, as a massive government program of economic reform widened the gap between the rich north and poor south of the country. Student demonstrations and riots in Belgrade in June 1968 spread to Kosovo in November of the same year, however, Tito conceded some of the students demands—in particular, representative powers for Albanians in both the Serbian and Yugoslav state bodies and better recognition of the Albanian language. The University of Pristina was established as an independent institution in 1970, the lack of Albanian-language educational materials in Yugoslavia hampered the Albanisation of education in Kosovo, so an agreement was struck with Albania itself to supply textbooks. In 1974 Kosovos political status improved further when a new Yugoslav constitution granted a set of political rights. Along with Vojvodina, Kosovo was declared a province and gained many of the powers of a fully-fledged republic, power was still exercised by the Communist Party, but it was now devolved mainly to ethnic Albanian communists. Titos death on 4 May 1980 ushered in a period of political instability, worsened by growing economic crisis. The disturbances were quelled by the Presidency of Yugoslavia proclaiming a state of emergency, sending in riot police and the army, hard-liners instituted a fierce crackdown on nationalism of all kinds, Albanian and Serbian alike. Kosovo endured a heavy secret-police presence throughout most of the 1980s that ruthlessly suppressed any unauthorised nationalist manifestations, according to a report quoted by Mark Thompson, as many as 580,000 inhabitants of Kosovo were arrested, interrogated, interned or reprimanded. Thousands of these lost their jobs or were expelled from their educational establishments, during this time tension between the Albanian and Serbian communities continued to escalate. Such concerns did attract interest in Belgrade, stories appeared from time to time in the Belgrade media claiming that Serbs and Montenegrins were being persecuted. There was a perception among Serbian nationalists that Serbs were being driven out of Kosovo, in addition to all this, the worsening state of Kosovos economy made the province a poor choice for Serbs seeking work. Albanians, as well as Serbs, tended to favor their compatriots when hiring new employees, Kosovo was the poorest entity of Yugoslavia, the average per capita income was $795, compared with the national average of $2,635. 33 nationalist formations were dismantled by Yugoslav police, who sentenced some 280 people and seized arms caches, in Kosovo an increasingly poisonous atmosphere between Serbs and Albanians led to wild rumors being spread and otherwise trivial incidents being blown out of proportion
5.
War on Terror
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The War on Terror, also known as the Global War on Terrorism, is a metaphor of war referring to the international military campaign that started after the September 11th attacks on the United States. U. S. President George W. Bush first used the term War on Terror on 20 September 2001 and it was originally used with a particular focus on countries associated with Islamic terrorist organizations including al-Qaeda and like-minded organizations. In 2013, President Barack Obama announced that the United States was no longer pursuing a War on Terror, in 2017 Donald Trump assumed presidency of the United States and vowed that the fight against ISIL is his number one priority. Trump has also agreed to work together and carry joint operations with Russian President Vladimir Putin in the war on terror. The phrase War on Terror has been used to refer to the ongoing military campaign led by the U. S. The conflict has also referred to by names other than the War on Terror. Author Shane Harris asserts this was a reaction to the 1983 Beirut barracks bombing, Bush later apologized for this remark due to the negative connotations the term crusade has to people, e. g. of the Muslim faith. The word crusade was not used again, on 20 September 2001, during a televised address to a joint session of Congress, Bush stated that ur war on terror begins with al-Qaeda, but it does not end there. It will not end until every terrorist group of global reach has been found, stopped, in April 2007, the British government announced publicly that it was abandoning the use of the phrase War on Terror as they found it to be less than helpful. This was explained more recently by Lady Eliza Manningham-Buller, in her 2011 Reith lecture, the former head of MI5 said that the 9/11 attacks were a crime, not an act of war. So I never felt it helpful to refer to a war on terror. U. S. President Barack Obama has rarely used the term, in March 2009 the Defense Department officially changed the name of operations from Global War on Terror to Overseas Contingency Operation. In March 2009, the Obama administration requested that Pentagon staff members avoid the use of the term, basic objectives of the Bush administration war on terror, such as targeting al Qaeda and building international counterterrorism alliances, remain in place. Because the actions involved in the war on terrorism are diffuse, jackson cites among many examples a statement by John Ashcroft that the attacks of September 11 drew a bright line of demarcation between the civil and the savage. Administration officials also described terrorists as hateful, treacherous, barbarous, mad, twisted, perverted, without faith, parasitical, inhuman, Americans, in contrast, were described as brave, loving, generous, strong, resourceful, heroic, and respectful of human rights. The origins of al-Qaeda can be traced to the Soviet war in Afghanistan, a small number of Afghan Arab volunteers joined the fight against the Soviets, including Osama bin Laden, but there is no evidence they received any external assistance. On 7 August 1998, al-Qaeda struck the U. S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania, killing 224 people, the plant produced much of the regions antimalarial drugs and around 50% of Sudans pharmaceutical needs. The strikes failed to kill any leaders of WIFJAJC or the Taliban, next came the 2000 millennium attack plots, which included an attempted bombing of Los Angeles International Airport
6.
Propper
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Propper is a manufacturer of clothing and gear for tactical, law enforcement, public safety, and military applications. Since 1967 it has one of the main uniform suppliers to the US Military. Propper International was founded in 1967 by William S. Propper and landed its first government contract with the U. S. Navy, manufacturing the iconic white sailor caps known as Dixie cups. Propper also manufactures apparel for the military, tactical, law enforcement. Propper commercial products are distributed more than 2,500 military and law enforcement. Proppers core product has always been the current standard issue U. S. military uniform, more recently, they expanded their product line to include clothing for law enforcement officers, firefighters and emergency medical personnel. Propper is a contractor in nearly every branch of the U. S. military. In 2015 the company began offering boots, Battle Dress Uniform The Propper Battle Dress Uniform was issued to the U. S. Army, Navy, Marines and Air Force. It used M81 Woodland and Desert Camouflage and it is now being phased out in favor of less utilitarian uniforms. Army Combat Uniform The Army Combat Uniform is the current combat uniform worn by the U. S. Army and it introduced the Universal Camouflage Pattern and also uses MultiCam pattern in Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan during military operations. The 4PV, in mens and womens versions, offers wearers better comfort and protection than the typical clam shell two-panel design found in most other body armor. In addition to body armor, Propper also introduced a full range of tactical body armor with trauma plates front. In addition to armor, Propper also provides a range of police uniforms, tactical pants. One bag, the UC Pack, is based on the Marine CorpsFILBE complete with MOLLE attachment points and extensive use of hook, Propper has received 7 awards from the Defense Logistics Agency dating as far back as 1995
7.
Desert Camouflage Uniform
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The Desert Camouflage Uniform is an American arid-environment camouflage uniform used by the United States Armed Forces. In terms of pattern and cut, it is identical to the U. S. As a replacement pattern, this meant a new region had to be utilized to test the effectiveness of the DCU. Desert soil samples from parts of the Middle East, namely Saudi Arabia, fielded in 1991, the DCU served as the U. S. Armys primary desert combat pattern from 1992 to 2004. In June 2004, the Army introduced a new style pattern called UCP. In 2005, the DCU and the BDU was discontinued within the U. S. Army, following the Army, the United States Marine Corps began issuing the DCU from 1993 through 1995 and remained the Marine Corps standard arid combat uniform from 1993 to 2002. In January 2002, the U. S. Marine Corps became the first branch to both its BDUs and DCUs with the Marine Corps Combat Utility Uniform, completely replacing them in October 2004. Along with the Army, the Air Force began issuing the DCU in 1992, the U. S. Air Force officially replaced the BDU and DCU on November 1,2011 with the Airman Battle Uniform. The United States Navy issued the DCU from 1993 until 2010 when it was replaced by the variant of the Navy Working Uniform. The U. S. Navy has authorized a replacement uniform of its own for the U. S. Navy SEALs while maintaining it for other NECC ground units, the DCU was introduced to the Coast Guard sometime in the 1990s. As of the early 2010s, the DCU is still issued to members of the U. S. Coast Guard when deployed to Southwest Asia or arid regions, FAS page with descriptions and pictures of BDU camouflage patterns GlobalSecurity page detailing Desert BDU militaryclothing. com/img/DCU%20Quick%20Find. JPG
8.
Desert Battle Dress Uniform
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Although the U. S. military has since abandoned the pattern, it is still in widespread use by militaries across the world as of the early 2010s. The Desert Battle Dress Uniform uses a pattern known as the Chocolate-Chip Camouflage, Cookie Dough Camouflage. The camouflage received its nickname because it resembles chocolate-chip cookie dough and it is made up of a base pattern of light tan overlaid with broad swathes of pale green and wide two-tone bands of brown. Clusters of black-on-white spots are scattered over, to mimic the appearance of pebbles, although the chocolate-chip camouflage became well known during the Persian Gulf War, it was originally designed decades prior, in 1962. The U. S. Army, believing that it one day become necessary to intervene in the Arab-Israeli conflicts. When the hostilities in the Middle East wound down, the test pattern was mothballed. Rapid Deployment Force in 1979, with its remit to operate in the Middle East, 82nd Airborne or 101st Airborne who deployed to Egypt and the Sinai desert to participate in the Bright Star exercise in December 1980. The DBDU was the U. S. Armys first fully functional desert combat pattern from 1981 to 1992, like the Army, the DBDU was seldom issued whenever Marines were deployed to participate in the Bright Star exercises, but became their standard arid combat uniform by 1985. The 6-color desert pattern was used by the Corps from 1982 to 1995, first issued in 1982 for their participation and deployments to arid regions, the DBDU became the United States Air Forces primary desert uniform from 1982 to 1993. Like its sister branches, The Navy began limited issue of the DBDU in the early 80s and it would remain the Navys main desert combat uniform from the early 80s to the mid 90s. The Coast Guard was the last branch to see remaining issue of the DBDU in the mid to late 1980s, the six-color desert pattern entered service in 1981 at the same time as the woodland BDUs and would be worn in limited numbers by U. S. S. Embassy staff being held hostage in Iran, feedback from these users indicated that the design contrasted too much with the terrain, preventing the camouflage from blending in effectively. Anecdotal evidence suggested that the areas of the pattern warmed up more than the paler parts under desert sunlight. The U. S. Army Natick Soldier Center began the search for a substitute, samples of sand and earth from the Middle East were measured for optical and infrared reflectance, and seven trial patterns were created using these statistics. The patterns were evaluated in fourteen different desert locations and narrowed down to one favourite, the resulting Desert Camouflage Pattern, Combat was standardized in 1990, but was not ready before troops deployed to Saudi Arabia during the Persian Gulf War. Consequently, U. S. forces wore the six-color BDUs during the campaign, a total of 500,000 improved cotton BDUs were ordered. However, cost concerns caused the cotton six-color Desert BDU to be discontinued shortly after the Persian Gulf War, an initial batch of desert BDUs in the new camouflage scheme was en route to the Middle East when hostilities ceased. Both patterns were used together during the transition period, most notably during Operation Restore Hope
9.
United States Armed Forces
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The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President
10.
Law enforcement in the United States
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Law enforcement in the United States is one of three major components of the criminal justice system of the United States, along with courts and corrections. Although each component operates semi-independently, the three form a chain leading from investigation of suspected criminal activity to administration of criminal punishment. Also, courts are vested with the power to make determinations regarding the conduct of the other two components. Law enforcement operates primarily through governmental police agencies, other duties may include the service and enforcement of warrants, writs, and other orders of the courts. Policing in the United States is conducted by close to 18,000 federal, state, local, every state has its own nomenclature for agencies, and their powers, responsibilities and funding vary from state to state. Both police and law enforcement agencies operate at the highest level and are endowed with police roles, the agencies have nationwide jurisdiction for enforcement of federal law. All federal agencies are limited by the U. S. Code to investigating matters that are explicitly within the power of the federal government. However, federal powers have become very broad in practice. The Department of Justice is responsible for most law enforcement duties at the federal level, the Department of Homeland Security is another branch with numerous federal law enforcement agencies reporting to it. U. S. Customs and Border Protection, U. S and it should be noted that the United States Coast Guard is assigned to the United States Department of Defense in the event of war. Command in such situations remains a complex and flexible issue, each of the United States 50 federated states retain their own police, military and domestic law-making powers. The US Constitution gives the government the power to deal with foreign affairs. For policing, this means if a non-federal crime is committed in a US state and the fugitive does not flee the state. Most states operate statewide government agencies that provide law enforcement duties, including investigations and they may be called state police or highway patrol, and are normally part of the state Department of Public Safety. In addition, the Attorney Generals office of state has its own state bureau of investigation. In Texas, the Texas Ranger Division fulfill this role though they have their history in the period before Texas became a state, in Colorado, for instance, the Department of Revenue has its own investigative branch, as do many of the state-funded universities. Also known as parishes and boroughs, county law enforcement is provided by sheriffs departments or offices, County police tend to exist only in metropolitan counties and have countywide jurisdiction. In some areas, there is a department which only handles minor issues such as service of papers
11.
Drug Enforcement Administration
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The Drug Enforcement Administration is a United States federal law enforcement agency under the U. S. Department of Justice, tasked with combating drug smuggling and use within the United States. S. It has sole responsibility for coordinating and pursuing U. S. drug investigations both domestic, and abroad, the Drug Enforcement Administration was established on July 1,1973, by Reorganization Plan No.2 of 1973, signed by President Richard Nixon on July 28. It proposed the creation of a federal agency to enforce the federal drug laws as well as consolidate and coordinate the governments drug control activities. Congress accepted the proposal, as they were concerned with the availability of drugs. From the early 1970s, DEA headquarters was located at 1405 I Street NW in downtown Washington, however, then–Attorney General Edwin Meese determined that the headquarters had to be located in close proximity to the Attorney Generals office. Thus, in 1989, the relocated to 600–700 Army-Navy Drive in the Pentagon City area of Arlington, Virginia. On April 19,1995, Timothy McVeigh attacked the Alfred P, security measures include hydraulic steel roadplates to enforce standoff distance from the building, metal detectors, and guard stations. In February 2003, the DEA established a Digital Evidence Laboratory within its Office of Forensic Sciences, the DEA is headed by an Administrator of Drug Enforcement appointed by the President of the United States and confirmed by the U. S. Senate. The Administrator reports to the Attorney General through the Deputy Attorney General, the Administrator is assisted by a Deputy Administrator, the Chief of Operations, the Chief Inspector, and three Assistant Administrators. Other senior staff include the financial officer and the Chief Counsel. The Administrator and Deputy Administrator are the only presidentially-appointed personnel in the DEA, DEAs headquarters is located in Arlington, Virginia across from the Pentagon. It maintains its own DEA Academy located on the United States Marine Corps base at Quantico and it maintains 21 domestic field divisions with 227 field offices and 86 foreign offices in 62 countries. With a budget exceeding 2 billion dollars, DEA employs over 10,800 people, becoming a Special Agent or Intelligence Analyst with the DEA is a competitive process. DEA agents starting salary is $49, 746–$55,483, after four years working as an agent, the salary jumps to above $92,592. Upon graduation, recruits earn themselves the title of DEA Special Agent, the DEA excludes from consideration job-applicants who have a history of any use of narcotics or illicit drugs. Investigation usually includes a polygraph test for special-agent, diversion-investigator, exceptions to this policy may be made for applicants who admit to limited youthful and experimental use of marijuana. The DEAs relatively firm stance on this issue contrasts with that of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, the DEA Aviation Division or Office of Aviation Operations is an airborne division based in Fort Worth Alliance Airport, Texas. The current OA fleet consists of 106 aircraft and 124 DEA pilots, rapid Response Teams was decommissioned by DEA Administrator Chuck Rosenburg on March 2017 via memorandum
12.
SWAT
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SWAT is a term for law enforcement units which use specialized or military equipment and tactics in the United States. In the United States as of 2005, SWAT teams were deployed 50,000 times every year, almost 80% of the time to search warrants. Other countries have developed their own police units that are also described as or compared to SWAT forces. SWAT units are equipped with specialized firearms including submachine guns, assault rifles, breaching shotguns, sniper rifles, riot control agents. The tactic worked and was soon to resolve other types of incidents involving heavily-armed criminals. The LAPD promoted what became known as SWAT teams for a variety of reasons, after the racially charged Watts Riots in Los Angeles in August 1965, the LAPD began considering tactics it could use when faced with urban unrest, rioting, or widespread violence. Daryl Gates, who led the LAPD response to the riots, would write that police at the time didnt face a single mob. New York University professor Christian Parenti has written that SWAT teams were originally conceived of as an urban counterinsurgency bulwark. Another reason for the creation of SWAT teams was the fear of lone or barricaded gunmen who might outperform police in a shootout, after the LAPDs establishment of its own SWAT team, many law enforcement agencies across the United States established their own specialized units under various names. At the time, the United Farm Workers union led by César Chavez was staging numerous protests in Delano, though the strike never turned violent, the Delano Police Department responded by forming ad-hoc SWAT-type units involving crowd and riot control, sniper skills and surveillance. Television news stations and print media carried live and delayed reportage of events across the United States. Personnel from the LAPD, having seen these broadcasts, contacted Delano, inspector Gates approved this idea, and he formed a small select group of volunteer officers. This first SWAT unit initially consisted of fifteen teams of four men each and these officers were given special status and benefits, and were required to attend special monthly training sessions. The unit also served as a security unit for police facilities during civil unrest, the LAPD SWAT units were organized as D Platoon in the Metro division. Early police powers and tactics used by SWAT teams were aided by legislation passed in 1967-8 with the help of Republican House representative Donald Santarelli. The legislation was promoted within the context of fears over the Civil Rights Movement, race riots, the Black Panther Party, and the emerging War on Drugs. The first significant deployment of the LAPDs SWAT unit was on December 9,1969, the raid was problematic from the start, leading to a shoot-out in which Daryl Gates phoned the Department of Defense, requesting and receiving permission to use a grenade launcher. The Panthers eventually surrendered, with four Panthers and four officers being injured, all six arrested Panthers were acquitted of the most serious charges brought against them, including conspiracy to murder police officers, because it was ruled that they acted in self-defense
13.
United States Air Force Security Forces
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United States Air Force Security Forces are the force protection and military police of the United States Air Force. Security Forces were formerly known as Military Police, Air Police, in early 1943, the first Army Aviation Military Police Companies were established from existing Army MP units. The USAF Security Forces lineage can be traced to its beginning in WWII with the German blitzkrieg, blitzkrieg relied on swift attacks by land and air. One of the tactics employed by blitzkrieg was the use of paratroops and airborne forces to capture, or destroy in advance, air bases. A key turning point in air base defensive thinking came with the loss of the island of Crete to German forces, on February 12,1942 the United States adopted the British air defense philosophy. It was then that the Army Chief of Staff, General George C. ”This order formed the Army Air Forces air base security battalions in June 1942 and was influenced by racial as well as military considerations. Units were deployed throughout the European, Asian and African theaters and these units were armed with rifles, machine guns, and 37-mm guns. In 1945 all AAF air base security battalions were closed, the National Security Act of 1947 established the current United States Department of Defense, or DoD and formed the United States Air Force from the Army Air Forces as a separate service. MP units serving with the Army Air Corps before this separation were transferred to the Air Force, the Army-Air Force agreement of 1947 stated that each department will be responsible for the security of its own installations. However, the agreement made no mention of an Air Force ground combat mission, on January 2,1948, General Order No.1 from Headquarters USAF designated those transferred units and personnel as Air Police. On 1 September 1950, the first Air Police school was established at Tyndall AFB, in June 1950 the Air Force began urgent operations focused on air base defense with the outbreak of the Korean War. A buildup of combat forces began. The center of this buildup was the expansion of the Air Force Air Police from 10,000 in July 1950 to 39,000 in December 1951. Still, one year into the war, the Air Provost Marshal reported that “the Air Force is without policy or tactical doctrine for Air Base Ground Defense. ”In haste, Air Police serving as the cadre of this force were outfitted with armored vehicles, machine guns, and recoilless rifles. Air base defense was officially implemented by Air Force Regulation 355-4 on March 3,1953. ”However, performance of this mission fell to the provisional base defense task forces to be organized and equipped like infantry. It was the Strategic Air Command’s October 1952 edition of the SAC Manual 205-2 which rejected the notion that the USAF’s ground defense mission conflicted with Army functions. Though at times some 32,000 to 35,000 North Korean guerrillas were operating in United Nations controlled territory they ignored US air bases and this would not be the case for USAF Air Bases in the Republic of Vietnam. In 1952, the Air Police school was transferred to Parks AFB, California and it soon became evident the emphasis on air base defense was not making much headway
14.
Fort Huachuca
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Fort Huachuca is a United States Army installation, established 3 March 1877 as Camp Huachuca. The garrison is now under the command of the United States Army Installation Management Command. It is located in Cochise County, in southeast Arizona, about 15 miles north of the border with Mexico and at the end of the Huachuca Mountains. From 1913 to 1933 the fort was the base for the Buffalo Soldiers of the 10th Cavalry Regiment, during the buildup of World War II, the fort had quarters for more than 25,000 male soldiers and hundreds of WACs. In the 2010 census, Fort Huachuca had a population of about 6,500 active duty soldiers,7,400 military family members and 5,000 civilian employees. Fort Huachuca has over 18,000 people on post during the working hours of 0700 and 1600 on week days. The major units are the United States Army Network Enterprise Technology Command, Libby Army Airfield is on post and shares its runway with Sierra Vista Municipal Airport. It was a landing location for the space shuttle. Fort Huachuca is also the headquarters of Army Military Auxiliary Radio System, other units include the Joint Interoperability Test Command, the Information Systems Engineering Command and the Electronic Proving Ground. The fort has a radar-equipped aerostat, one of a series maintained for the Drug Enforcement Administration by Harris Corporation, the aerostat is northeast of Garden Canyon and supports the DEA drug interdiction mission by detecting low-flying aircraft attempting to enter the United States from Mexico. Fort Huachuca contains the Western Division of the Advanced Airlift Tactics Training Center which is based at the 139th Airlift Wing, Rosecrans Air National Guard Base, Saint Joseph, Missouri. Sierra Vista, which annexed the post in 1971, is located south and east of the post, the installation was founded to counter the Chiricahua Apache threat and secure the border with Mexico. On 3 March 1877, Captain Samuel Marmaduke Whitside led two companies of the 6th Cavalry and chose a site at the base of the Huachuca Mountains that provided sheltering hills, in 1882, Camp Huachuca was redesignated a fort. General Nelson A. Miles controlled Fort Huachuca as his headquarters, after the surrender of Geronimo in 1886, the Apache threat was essentially extinguished, but the army continued to operate Fort Huachuca because of its strategic border position. In 1913, the became the base for the Buffalo Soldiers, the 10th Cavalry Regiment. It served this purpose for twenty years, during General Pershings failed Punitive Expedition of 1916–1917, he used the fort as a forward logistics and supply base. From 1916–1917, the base was commanded by Charles Young, the first African American to be promoted to colonel and he left because of medical reasons. In 1933, the 25th Infantry Regiment replaced the 10th Cavalry at the fort, with the build-up during World War II, the fort had an area of 71,253 acres, with quarters for 1,251 officers and 24,437 enlisted soldiers
15.
Italian Army
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The Italian Army is the land defence force of the Italian Armed Forces of the Italian Republic. The armys history dates back to the unification of Italy in the 1850s and 1860s, during the Cold War the army prepared itself to defend against a Warsaw Pact invasion from the east. Since the end of the Cold War the army has seen extensive peacekeeping service and combat in Afghanistan, the headquarters of the Army General Staff are located in Rome, at the back of the Presidential Palace. The army is a force of active-duty personnel, numbering 99,042 personnel in 2016. The Italian Army originated as the Royal Army which dates from the proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy following the seizure of the Papal States and the unification of Italy. In 1861, under the leadership of Giuseppe Garibaldi, Victor Emmanuel II of the House of Savoy was invited to take the throne of the independent kingdom. Italian expeditions were dispatched to China during the Boxer Rebellion of 1900, the Italian Royal Armys first real taste of modern warfare was during World War I. Most of the actions were fought in northern Italy and the Royal Army suffered many casualties, Italian discipline was also harsher, with punishments for infractions of duty of a severity not known in the German, French, and British armies. On paper, the Royal Army was one of the largest ground forces in World War II, though in reality it could not field the numbers claimed, due to their generally smaller size, many Italian divisions were reinforced by an Assault Group of two battalions of Blackshirts. Reports of Italian military prowess in the Second World War were, almost always and this perception was the result of disastrous Italian offensives against Egypt and the performance of the army in the Greco-Italian War. Both campaigns were ill-prepared and executed inadequately, Italian medium M11, M13, M14 and M15 tanks were at a marked disadvantage against the comparatively heavily armed American Sherman tanks, for example. There were too few weapons, obsolete anti-tank guns. When the Soviet offensive Operation Saturn began on December 12,1942 the Italian 8th Army was quickly crushed, in North Africa, the Italian 132 Armored Division Ariete and the 185 Airborne Division Folgore fought to total annihilation at the Second Battle of El Alamein. Although the battle was lost, the resistance of the Italian soldiers at the Battle of Keren in East Africa is still commemorated today by the Italian military. After the Axis defeat in Tunisia the morale of the Italian troops dropped, the sagging morale led to the overthrow of Italian dictator Benito Mussolini by King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy 15 days later. The Italian Co-Belligerent Army was the army of the Italian royalist forces fighting on the side of the Allies in southern Italy after the Allied armistice with Italy in September 1943. The Italian soldiers fighting in this no longer fought for Benito Mussolini as their allegiance was to King Victor Emmanuel and to Marshal of Italy Pietro Badoglio. The kingdom was replaced by a Republic in 1946 and the Royal Army changed its name to become the Italian Army, initially five infantry divisions were active, including the newly renamed Infantry Division Friuli
16.
Camouflage
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Camouflage is the use of any combination of materials, coloration, or illumination for concealment, either by making animals or objects hard to see, or by disguising them as something else. Examples include the spotted coat, the battledress of a modern soldier. A third approach, motion dazzle, confuses the observer with a pattern, making the object visible. The majority of camouflage methods aim for crypsis, often through a general resemblance to the background, high contrast disruptive coloration, eliminating shadow, and countershading. Some animals, such as chameleons and octopuses, are capable of changing their skin pattern and colours. Military camouflage was spurred by the range and accuracy of firearms in the 19th century. In particular the replacement of the inaccurate musket with the rifle made personal concealment in battle a survival skill, in the 20th century, military camouflage developed rapidly, especially during the First World War. On land, artists such as André Mare designed camouflage schemes, at sea, merchant ships and troop carriers were painted in dazzle patterns that were highly visible, but designed to confuse enemy submarines as to the targets speed, range, and heading. During and after the Second World War, a variety of schemes were used for aircraft. The use of radar since the century has largely made camouflage for fixed-wing military aircraft obsolete. Non-military use of camouflage includes making cell telephone towers less obtrusive, patterns derived from military camouflage are frequently used in fashion clothing, exploiting their strong designs and sometimes their symbolism. Camouflage themes recur in modern art, and both figuratively and literally in science fiction and works of literature, in ancient Greece, Aristotle commented on the colour-changing abilities, both for camouflage and for signalling, of cephalopods including the octopus, in his Historia animalium, The octopus. Seeks its prey by so changing its colour as to render it like the colour of the adjacent to it, it does so also when alarmed. Camouflage has been a topic of interest and research in zoology for well over a century, the English zoologist Edward Bagnall Poulton studied animal coloration, especially camouflage. In his 1890 book The Colours of Animals, he classified different types such as special protective resemblance and his experiments showed that swallowtailed moth pupae were camouflaged to match the backgrounds on which they were reared as larvae. Among vertebrates numerous species of parrots, iguanas, tree-frogs, beddard did however briefly mention other methods, including the alluring coloration of the flower mantis and the possibility of a different mechanism in the orange tip butterfly. He wrote that the scattered green spots upon the surface of the wings might have been intended for a rough sketch of the small flowerets of the plant. The artist Abbott Handerson Thayer formulated what is sometimes called Thayers Law, Thayer was roundly mocked for these views by critics including Teddy Roosevelt
17.
Oberkommando der Wehrmacht
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The Oberkommando der Wehrmacht was part of the command structure of the Wehrmacht of Nazi Germany during World War II. Created in 1938, the OKW had nominal oversight over the Heer, the Kriegsmarine, rivalry with the armed services branch commands, mainly with the Oberkommando des Heeres, prevented the OKW from becoming a unified German General Staff in an effective chain of command. However, it did coordinate operations between the three services, during the war, the OKW, subordinate to Adolf Hitler as Supreme Commander of the Wehrmacht, acquired more and more operational powers. By 1942, OKW had responsibility for all theaters except for the Eastern Front against the Soviet Union, Hitler manipulated the bipolar system to keep ultimate decisions in his own hands. Hitler took the chance to get rid of his critics within the armed forces, the Reich War Ministry was dissolved and replaced with the OKW led by devoted General Wilhelm Keitel in the rank of a Reich Minister, with Alfred Jodl as Chief of the Operations Staff. Nevertheless, all Supreme Commanders of the service branches, like OKH Chief General Walther von Brauchitsch, had direct access to Hitler and were able to circumvent Keitels command. By June 1938, the OKW comprised four departments, Wehrmacht-Führungsamt – operational orders, Chief, Major General Hasso von Wedel,1 September 1939 –8 May 1945 Heeresstab – army staff. Chief, General Walther Buhle,15 February 1942 –8 May 1945 Inspekteur der Wehrmachtnachrichtenverbände – Chief of Staff, Chief, Major General Hans Oster,1 September 1939 – January 1944 Abteilung Ausland – foreign. Hitler promoted Keitel to Chief of the OKW, i. e, Chief of the Supreme Command of the Armed Forces. As head of the WFA, Keitel appointed Max von Viebahn although after two months he was removed from command, and this post was not refilled until the promotion of Alfred Jodl, to replace Jodl at Abteilung Landesverteidigungsführungsamt, Walther Warlimont was appointed. In December 1941 further changes took place with Abteilung Landesverteidigungsführungsamt being merged into the Wehrmacht-Führungsamt and these changes were largely cosmetic however as key staff remained in post and continued to fulfill the same duties. The OKW directed the operations of the German Armed Forces during World War II, the OKW was almost always represented at daily situation conferences by Jodl, Keitel, and the officer serving as Hitlers adjutant. During these conferences situation reports prepared by the head of WFA/L would be delivered to Hitler, following these discussions, Hitler would issue further operational orders. These orders were then relayed back to WFA/L by Jodl along with the minutes of the meeting and these would then be converted into orders for issuance to the appropriate commanders. Officially, the OKW served as the general staff for the Third Reich, coordinating the efforts of the Army, Navy. In practice, the OKW acted as Hitlers personal military staff, translating his ideas into military orders, however, as the war progressed the OKW found itself exercising increasing amounts of direct command authority over military units, particularly in the West. This created a situation such that by 1942 the OKW held the de facto command of Western forces while the Army High Command exercised de facto command of the Eastern Front. It was not until 28 April 1945 that Hitler placed OKH under OKW, since most German operations during World War II were Army controlled, the OKH demanded control over German military forces
18.
Splittertarnmuster
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Splittertarnmuster, Splittertarn or Splittermuster is a four-colour military camouflage pattern developed by Germany in the late 1920s, first issued to the Reichswehr in 1931. It was first printed on the designed and issued triangular tent/poncho called the zeltbahn. Known in German as Buntfarbenaufdruck 31, for its year of introduction, the pattern consists of a disruptive, zig-zag pattern of hard-edged wood-brown and medium green polygons printed on a light field-grey or tan background. A random pattern of dashes, called raindrops, was applied in places to improve the camouflage effect. Proposed in 1931 and introduced in 1932, the camouflage patterns incorporated splinters on top of the 1918 colour pattern. This pattern included ochre, rust, and brown overlaid on a green foundation and this new pattern was printed on zeltbahn material, and could also be used as a camouflage rain poncho in the field. Both sides of the material showed the same pattern, but the printing was brighter on one side, a subdued grey-beige tint replaced the yellow-ochre colour. On top of background, green and brown irregular patterns were screen-printed. A final innovation applied to this camouflage colour printing were the splinters irregularly printed on the fabric, directional, dark-green dashed lines were printed in selected areas to help break up the silhouette. Many similar rain pattern designs inspired by splittermuster were made after the war by Warsaw Pact countries, during the war, cost-saving measures required textiles to be printed with changed colours. In addition, many of the lower-cost two-colour options were abandoned and these cost-saving measures caused significant deviations from the original colour patterns. In 1941 splitter pattern jump smocks were issued to German paratroops for the invasion of Crete, in 1942, a Tarnhemd and Tarnhelmüberzug, both of a lightweight herringbone twill linen, were issued. Only one side of each was printed in splitter pattern, the side was left white for snow camouflage. In April 1942 a Wintertarnanzug suit consisted of a jacket, trousers, separate hood. These were also printed only on one side and were white on the other side. However, only an amount of these were produced, a similar set made in mouse grey or field grey were more common. Many unofficial garments and helmet covers were produced as field expedients or were tailor-made and these included versions of the service dress uniform, parachute-jump smocks, field jackets, rucksacks and panzer jackets. Luftwaffen-Splittermuster 41 is a Luftwaffe version with a splinter and a more-complicated pattern
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Splinter pattern camouflage
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Splinter pattern camouflage is a military camouflage pattern consisting of polygons. Splittermuster was developed by Germany in the late 1920s, splittermuster was issued to practically all Wehrmacht units. The pattern consists of a pattern of hard-edged polygons, with sharp corners between coloured patches. A random pattern of dashes was applied in places to improve the camouflage effect, m90 camouflage is the camouflage pattern used by the Swedish armed forces for clothing and vehicles. The pattern employs hard lines of geometric shapes in order to create a pattern effective in the temperate forests. M90 camouflage comprises four colours, dark green, medium green, dark navy, desert and jungle variants have also been developed
20.
Shelter-half
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A shelter-half, is a simple kind of tent designed to provide temporary shelter and concealment. Two sheets of canvas or a material are fastened together with snaps, straps or buttons to form a larger surface. The shelter-half is then erected using poles, ropes, pegs, shelter halves are a mainstay of most armies, and are known from the mid 19th century. Often, each carries one shelter-half and half the poles, etc. The size and shape of each half shelter piece may vary from army to army, when time and space allow, some forms of half-shelters can be combined into a larger, more complex tent. Shelter-halves are usually designed to serve double duty as ponchos against the rain, while the fabric is often simple olive drab, several nations use camouflaged fabric. Indeed, the first printed camouflage for soldiers were the Italian Telo mimetico introduced in 1929 for their half-shelters, the first camouflage uniforms were the Second World War German paratrooper smock, based on their M1931 Splittermuster shelter-halves
21.
Waffen-SS
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The Waffen-SS was the armed wing of the Nazi Partys SS organisation. Its formations included men from Nazi Germany, along with volunteers, the Waffen-SS grew from three regiments to over 38 divisions during World War II, and served alongside the Heer, Ordnungspolizei and other security units. Prior to the war, it was under the control of the SS Führungshauptamt beneath Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler, initially, in keeping with the racial policy of Nazi Germany, membership was only open to people of Germanic origin. The rules were relaxed in 1940, and later the formation of units composed largely or solely of foreign volunteers. These SS units were made up of men mainly from among the nationals of Nazi-occupied Europe, despite relaxation of the rules, the Waffen-SS was still based on the racist ideology of Nazism, and ethnic Poles were barred specifically from the formations. At the post-war Nuremberg trials the Waffen-SS was judged to be a criminal organisation due to its connection to the Nazi Party, former Waffen-SS members were denied many of the rights afforded to the military veterans. An exception was made for Waffen-SS conscripts, who were exempted because they were not volunteers, about a third of the total membership were conscripts. The origins of the Waffen-SS can be traced back to the selection of a group of 120 SS men in March 1933 by Sepp Dietrich to form the Sonderkommando Berlin. By November 1933 the formation had 800 men, and at a ceremony in Munich for the tenth anniversary of the failed Munich Putsch the regiment swore allegiance to Adolf Hitler. The oaths pledged were Pledging loyalty to him alone and Obedience unto death, the formation was given the title Leibstandarte Adolf Hitler. On 13 April 1934, by order of Himmler, the regiment became known as the Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler, led by one of Hitlers oldest comrades, Ernst Röhm, the SA was seen as a threat by Hitler to his newly gained political power. Hitler also wanted to conciliate leaders of the Reichswehr and conservatives of the country, when Hitler decided to act against the SA, the SS was put in charge of eliminating Röhm and the other high-ranking SA officers. The Night of the Long Knives occurred between 30 June and 2 July 1934 and saw the killing of up to 200 people and this included almost the entire SA leadership, effectively ending its power. This action was carried out by SS personnel, and the Gestapo. In September 1934, Hitler authorized the formation of the wing of the Nazi Party and approved the formation of the SS-Verfügungstruppe. The SS was given the lowest priority for recruits, at the same time Himmler established the SS-Junkerschule Bad Tölz and SS-Junkerschule Braunschweig for military training of SS officers. Both schools used regular army training methods and mainly used former army officers as instructors, Himmler initially in 1934 set stringent requirements for recruits. They were to be German nationals who could prove their Aryan ancestry back to 1800, unmarried, a four-year commitment was required for the SS-VT and LSSAH
22.
United States Marine Corps
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The U. S. Marine Corps is one of the four armed service branches in the U. S. Department of Defense and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The current Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the military officer in the U. S. Armed Forces, is a Marine Corps general, the Marine Corps has been a component of the U. S. Department of the Navy since 30 June 1834, working closely with naval forces for training, transportation, and logistics. The USMC operates posts on land and aboard sea-going amphibious warfare ships around the world, two battalions of Continental Marines were formed on 10 November 1775 in Philadelphia as a service branch of infantry troops capable of fighting for independence both at sea and on shore. The role of the Corps has since grown and evolved, expanding to aerial warfare and earning popular titles such as, Americas third air force, and, second land army. By the mid-20th century, the U. S. Marine Corps had become a major theorist of and its ability to rapidly respond on short notice to expeditionary crises gives it a strong role in the implementation and execution of American foreign policy. As of 2016, the USMC has around 182,000 active duty members and it is the smallest of the U. S. The USMC serves as an expeditionary force-in-readiness and this last clause, while seemingly redundant given the Presidents position as Commander-in-chief, is a codification of the expeditionary responsibilities of the Marine Corps. It derives from similar language in the Congressional acts For the Better Organization of the Marine Corps of 1834, in 1951, the House of Representatives Armed Services Committee called the clause one of the most important statutory – and traditional – functions of the Marine Corps. In addition to its duties, the Marine Corps conducts Visit, Board, Search, and Seizure operations, as well as missions in direct support of the White House. The Marine Band, dubbed the Presidents Own by Thomas Jefferson, Marines from Ceremonial Companies A & B, quartered in Marine Barracks, Washington, D. C. The Executive Flight Detachment also provides transport to Cabinet members. The relationship between the Department of State and the U. S. Marine Corps is nearly as old as the corps itself, for over 200 years, Marines have served at the request of various Secretaries of State. After World War II, an alert, disciplined force was needed to protect American embassies, consulates, in 1947, a proposal was made that the Department of War furnish Marine Corps personnel for Foreign Service guard duty under the provisions of the Foreign Service Act of 1946. A formal Memorandum of Agreement was signed between the Department of State and the Secretary of the Navy on December 15,1948, during the first year of the MSG program,36 detachments were deployed worldwide. Continental Marines manned raiding parties, both at sea and ashore, the Advanced Base Doctrine of the early 20th century codified their combat duties ashore, outlining the use of Marines in the seizure of bases and other duties on land to support naval campaigns. Throughout the late 19th and 20th centuries, Marine detachments served aboard Navy cruisers, battleships, Marine detachments served in their traditional duties as a ships landing force, manning the ships weapons and providing shipboard security. Marines would develop tactics and techniques of amphibious assault on defended coastlines in time for use in World War II, during World War II, Marines continued to serve on capital ships
23.
Military camouflage
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Military camouflage is the use of camouflage by a military force to protect personnel and equipment from observation by enemy forces. The French slang word camouflage came into common English usage during World War I when the concept of visual deception developed into a part of modern military tactics. In that war, long-range artillery and observation from the air combined to expand the field of fire, as such, military camouflage is a form of military deception. Camouflage was first practiced in simple form in the mid 18th century by jäger- or rifle units and their tasks required them to be inconspicuous, and they were issued green and later other drab colour uniforms. Many modern camouflage textiles address visibility not only to light but also near infrared. Camouflage is not only visual, heat, sound, magnetism and even smell can be used to target weapons, some forms of camouflage have elements of scale invariance, designed to disrupt outlines at different distances, typically digital camouflage patterns made of pixels. Camouflage for equipment and positions was extensively developed for use by the French in 1915. In both world wars, artists were recruited as camouflage officers, ship camouflage developed via conspicuous dazzle camouflage schemes during WWI, but since the development of radar, ship camouflage has received less attention. Aircraft, especially in World War II, were painted with different schemes above and below, to camouflage them against the ground. Military camouflage patterns have been popular in fashion and art from as early as 1915, Camouflage patterns have appeared in the work of artists such as Andy Warhol and Ian Hamilton Finlay, sometimes with an anti-war message. In fashion, many designers have exploited camouflages style and symbolism. Military camouflage is part of the art of military deception, the main objective of military camouflage is to deceive the enemy as to the presence, position and intentions of military formations. Camouflage techniques include concealment, disguise, and dummies, applied to troops, vehicles, vision is the main sense of orientation in humans, and the primary function of camouflage is to deceive the human eye. Camouflage works through concealment, mimicry, or possibly by dazzle, in modern warfare, some forms of camouflage, for example face paints, also offer concealment from infrared sensors, while CADPAT textiles in addition help to provide concealment from radar. While camouflage tricks are in principle limitless, both cost and practical considerations limit the choice of methods and the time and effort devoted to camouflage, paint and uniforms must also protect vehicles and soldiers from the elements. Units need to move, fire their weapons and perform tasks to keep functional. No single camouflage pattern is effective in all terrains, the effectiveness of a pattern depends on contrast as well as colour tones. Terrain-specific camouflage patterns, made to match the terrain, may be more effective in that terrain than more general patterns
24.
Normandy landings
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The Normandy landings were the landing operations on Tuesday,6 June 1944 of the Allied invasion of Normandy in Operation Overlord during World War II. The largest seaborne invasion in history, the operation began the liberation of German-occupied northwestern Europe from Nazi control, planning for the operation began in 1943. Adolf Hitler placed German Field Marshal Erwin Rommel in command of German forces, the amphibious landings were preceded by extensive aerial and naval bombardment and an airborne assault—the landing of 24,000 American, British, and Canadian airborne troops shortly after midnight. Allied infantry and armoured divisions began landing on the coast of France at 06,30, the target 50-mile stretch of the Normandy coast was divided into five sectors, Utah, Omaha, Gold, Juno, and Sword. Strong winds blew the landing craft east of their positions, particularly at Utah. Casualties were heaviest at Omaha, with its high cliffs, at Gold, Juno, and Sword, several fortified towns were cleared in house-to-house fighting, and two major gun emplacements at Gold were disabled, using specialised tanks. The Allies failed to any of their goals on the first day. Carentan, St. Lô, and Bayeux remained in German hands, and Caen, German casualties on D-Day have been estimated at 4,000 to 9,000 men. Allied casualties were at least 10,000, with 4,414 confirmed dead, museums, memorials, and war cemeteries in the area now host many visitors each year. Between 27 May and 4 June 1940, over 338,000 troops of the British Expeditionary Force, after the German Army invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin began pressing his allies for the creation of a second front in western Europe. In late May 1942 the Soviet Union and the United States made a joint announcement that a. full understanding was reached with regard to the urgent tasks of creating a front in Europe in 1942. Instead of a return to France, the Western Allies staged offensives in the Mediterranean Theatre of Operations. By mid-1943 the campaign in North Africa had been won, the Allies then launched the invasion of Sicily in July 1943, and subsequently invaded Italy in September the same year. By then, Soviet forces were on the offensive and had won a victory at the Battle of Stalingrad. The decision to undertake a cross-channel invasion within the year was taken at the Trident Conference in Washington in May 1943. Initial planning was constrained by the number of landing craft, most of which were already committed in the Mediterranean. At the Tehran Conference in November 1943, Roosevelt and Churchill promised Stalin that they would open the second front in May 1944. Four sites were considered for the landings, Brittany, the Cotentin Peninsula, Normandy, as Brittany and Cotentin are peninsulas, it would have been possible for the Germans to cut off the Allied advance at a relatively narrow isthmus, so these sites were rejected
25.
Flecktarn
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The original German 5-color pattern was designed for use in European temperate woodland terrain. A 3-color variation called Wüstentarn is used for arid and desert conditions and has been used by the German Bundeswehr in Afghanistan, the original German 5-color flecktarn has been adopted, copied and modified by many countries for their own camouflage patterns. The German Army started experimenting with camouflage patterns before World War II, Waffen-SS combat units used various patterns from 1935 onwards. Many SS camouflage patterns were designed by Prof. Johann Georg Otto Schick, at least four distinct camouflage patterns were tested during Bundeswehr Truppenversuch 76. These were based on patterns in nature, one was called Dots or Points, another was called Ragged Leaf or Saw Tooth Edge, designed by the German company Marquardt & Schulz, several patterns were developed and tested by the German military. The pattern named Flecktarn B was chosen as the pattern for use. The word flecktarn is a formed from the German words Fleck. The Bundeswehr kept its green combat dress throughout the 1980s, however, Flecktarn was only widely introduced in 1990 in a newly reunited Germany. In Germany, the Flecktarn camouflage pattern is used by all Bundeswehr service branches, the Heer and it is also used by snipers of the Österreichisches Bundesheer and Belgian Air Force ground personnel and airborne infantry. France tested Flecktarn for use, but rejected it, the Dutch army also tested and rejected it, Flecktarn was seen as controversial because of its resemblance to the Waffen-SS peas and oak leaves patterns, which also used dots in various colors. Flecktarn is the basis for the Bundeswehrs Tropentarn desert camouflage, the Danish militarys T/78 and M/84 camouflage, several variations of the Flecktarn camouflage are also used by the Russian military, one is called Sever, sometimes also referred as Flectar-d. Other country variations include Japans Type II Camouflage, Type 03 Plateau camouflage, used by the Chinese military in Tibet, albania used a 5-color German flecktarn while participating in IFOR in Bosnia in 1996. In 2013, the German company Mil-Tec introduced a new version of Flecktarn and it retains the 5-color pattern but with the colour scheme resembling that of MultiCam. It remains a commercial variant and is not in use by any world military
26.
Vietnam War
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It was the second of the Indochina Wars and was officially fought between North Vietnam and the government of South Vietnam. The war is considered a Cold War-era proxy war. As the war continued, the actions of the Viet Cong decreased as the role. U. S. and South Vietnamese forces relied on air superiority and overwhelming firepower to conduct search and destroy operations, involving ground forces, artillery, in the course of the war, the U. S. conducted a large-scale strategic bombing campaign against North Vietnam. The North Vietnamese government and the Viet Cong were fighting to reunify Vietnam and they viewed the conflict as a colonial war and a continuation of the First Indochina War against forces from France and later on the United States. The U. S. government viewed its involvement in the war as a way to prevent a communist takeover of South Vietnam and this was part the domino theory of a wider containment policy, with the stated aim of stopping the spread of communism. Beginning in 1950, American military advisors arrived in what was then French Indochina, U. S. involvement escalated in the early 1960s, with troop levels tripling in 1961 and again in 1962. Regular U. S. combat units were deployed beginning in 1965, despite the Paris Peace Accord, which was signed by all parties in January 1973, the fighting continued. In the U. S. and the Western world, a large anti-Vietnam War movement developed as part of a larger counterculture, the war changed the dynamics between the Eastern and Western Blocs, and altered North–South relations. Direct U. S. military involvement ended on 15 August 1973, the capture of Saigon by the North Vietnamese Army in April 1975 marked the end of the war, and North and South Vietnam were reunified the following year. The war exacted a huge human cost in terms of fatalities, estimates of the number of Vietnamese soldiers and civilians killed vary from 966,000 to 3.8 million. Some 240, 000–300,000 Cambodians,20, 000–62,000 Laotians, and 58,220 U. S. service members died in the conflict. Various names have applied to the conflict. Vietnam War is the most commonly used name in English and it has also been called the Second Indochina War and the Vietnam Conflict. As there have been several conflicts in Indochina, this conflict is known by the names of its primary protagonists to distinguish it from others. In Vietnamese, the war is known as Kháng chiến chống Mỹ. It is also called Chiến tranh Việt Nam, France began its conquest of Indochina in the late 1850s, and completed pacification by 1893. The 1884 Treaty of Huế formed the basis for French colonial rule in Vietnam for the seven decades
27.
United States Army
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The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President
28.
OG-107
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The OG-107 was the basic work utility uniform of all branches of the United States Armed Forces from 1952 until its discontinuation in 1989. Regardless of the fabric, the two shades were almost identical, the OG-107 was superseded by the Battle Dress Uniform throughout the 1980s, and was also used by several other countries, including ones that received military aid from the United States. All versions of the OG-107 shared several basic design features and they were made out of an 8.5 ounce cotton sateen. The shirt could be tucked in or worn outside the trousers depending on the preference of the local commander, if sufficiently hot and humid, troops could be permitted to roll up the sleeves and unblouse the trousers. It consisted of a front and two simple patch pockets on the upper chest that closed by means of a buttoned flap. The trousers were straight leg pants intended to be bloused into boot tops with two patch pockets in the front with slash openings and two simple patch pockets on the back with a button flap. The cotton versions tended to quickly to greenish grey while the poly-cotton variant used in the OG-507 stayed darker much longer. The OG-107 uniform was introduced in 1952, and, succeeding the M1943 Uniform, as the Tropical Combat Uniform became more plentiful in South Vietnam, they began to replace the OG-107 Uniform in combat units. A rough time line is that line infantry units from standard divisions began receiving jungle fatigues in the spring of 1966, in the United States and foreign postings, the OG-107 remained the standard uniform throughout the 1960s and 1970s. This is one of the longest issued uniforms by the US Military, minor modifications were made to the uniform over time such as adding buttoned cuff slits in the mid-1960s. The shirt featured a sleeve with no true cuff or buttons, the shirts two chest pockets and the trousers rear two pockets had a rectangular pocket flap that buttoned. The buttons were a style and most of the 50s production were a dark brown color while the majority of the 60s production were dark green. The trousers also had a simple adjustment tab on the waist that could be buttoned, the shirt and trousers were also sized in groups This model was replaced in April 1963 when specifications came out for the second model. The Type II was specified for production in April 1963 and had slight variations from the Type I. The only change of any significance was the clipping of the pocket flaps on the shirt. As with the Type I, the shirt and trousers were also sized in groups, due to the limited production time before the Type III was specified, these were not seen nearly as often as the Type I or III. The Type III is the most common model and can be split into two based on the time of manufacture and material. Cotton – This version was specified at the end of 1964
29.
South Vietnam
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South Vietnam, officially the Republic of Vietnam, was a state governing the southern half of Vietnam from 1955 to 1975. It received international recognition in 1949 as the State of Vietnam, the term South Vietnam became common usage in 1954, when the Geneva Conference provisionally partitioned Vietnam into communist and non-communist parts. The Republic of Vietnam was proclaimed on 26 October 1955, with Ngô Đình Diệm as its first president and its sovereignty was recognized by the United States and eighty-seven other nations. It had membership in several committees of the United Nations. After the Second World War, the Viet Minh, led by Ho Chi Minh, in 1949, anti-communist Vietnamese politicians formed a rival government in Saigon led by former emperor Bảo Đại. Bảo Đại was deposed by Prime Minister Ngô Đình Diệm in 1955, after Diệm was killed in a military coup led by general Dương Văn Minh in 1963, there was a series of short-lived military governments. General Nguyễn Văn Thiệu led the country from 1967 until 1975, the Vietnam War began in 1959 with an uprising by Viet Cong forces armed and controlled by Democratic Republic of Vietnam. Fighting reached a climax during the Tet Offensive of 1968, when there were over 1.5 million South Vietnamese soldiers and 500,000 U. S. soldiers in South Vietnam. Despite a peace treaty concluded in January 1973, fighting continued until the North Vietnamese and Viet Cong armies overran Saigon on 30 April 1975, the creation of this republic, during the Indochina War, allowed France to evade a promise to recognise Vietnam as independent. This pre-Vietnam government prepared for a unified Vietnamese state, but the countrys full reunification was delayed for a year because of the problems posed by Cochinchinas legal status, Nguyễn Văn Xuân 1949–55 State of Vietnam. Roughly 60% of Vietnamese territory was controlled by the communist Việt Minh. Vietnam was partitioned at the 17th parallel in 1954, once highly lauded by America, he was ousted and assassinated in a U. S. -backed coup. In 1963–65, there were numerous coups and short-lived governments, several of which were headed by Dương Văn Minh or Nguyễn Khánh, Prime Minister Nguyễn Cao Kỳ was the top leader in 1965–67. Surrendered to Communists when others abandoned their posts, 1975–76 Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam. Huỳnh Tấn Phát Before World War II, the third of Vietnam was the concession of Cochinchina. Between Tonkin in the north and Cochinchina in the south was the protectorate of Annam, Cochinchina had been annexed by France in 1862 and even elected a deputy to the French National Assembly. It was more evolved, and French interests were stronger than in parts of Indochina. During World War II, Indochina was administered by Vichy France, japanese troops overthrew the French administration on 9 March 1945, Emperor Bảo Đại proclaimed Vietnam independent
30.
Tigerstripe
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During and following the Vietnam war the pattern was adopted by several other Asian countries. It derives its name from its resemblance to a tigers stripes and were called tigers. It features narrow stripes that look like brush-strokes of green and brown, the brush-strokes interlock rather than overlap, as in French Lizard pattern from which it apparently derives. It is unclear who developed the first tigerstripe pattern, consisting of sixty-four stripes, the French used a similar pattern in their war in Vietnam. After the French left Vietnam, the Republic of Vietnam Marine Corps continued using the pattern, when the United States began sending advisors to South Vietnam, USMAAG advisors attached to the ARVN were authorized to wear their Vietnamese units combat uniform with US insignia. Tigerstripe was never an official US-issue item, from 1964 5th Special Forces Group contracted with Vietnamese and other Southeast Asian producers to make fatigues and other items such as boonie hats using tigerstripe fabric. Being manufactured by different producers, there were a variety of patterns. They were made in both Asian and US sizes, during the latter stages of the war, tigerstripe was gradually replaced in American reconnaissance units by the-then-new ERDL pattern, a predecessor of the woodland BDU pattern. The Special Forces-advised Civilian Irregular Defense Group used tigerstripes from 1964 until disbanded in 1971, Special Forces personnel wore tigerstripes when conducting operations with the CIDG. Besides American and ARVN forces, Australian and New Zealand military personnel used tigerstripe uniforms while on duty with the ARVN units. Outside of Vietnam, Thailand and Philippines have been the most prolific manufacturers of tiger stripe designs since the Vietnam War, the pattern became popular throughout the Middle East and South America as well. The Tamil Tigers pattern lacks black, and is small and overwhelmingly horizontal, Tiger Stripe Products, a professional camouflage designer, licenses variations to manufacturers for military use and for the civilian market. A desert version with the black and green colors substituted for browns has seen use in Iraq and Afghanistan by British, US. It is current issue for the Afghan National Security Directorate During 2006-2007 Singapores ISAF contribution wore Tiger Stripe Products desert tiger stripe pattern. With input from Tiger Stripe Products, the United States Air Force developed a digital tigerstripe like pattern using various greens, greys, Special fabric rather than pattern artwork design determines NIR detection. Near Infrared Signature Management Technology is used by the U. S. Department of Defense to prevent detection by NIR Image Converters and these photocathode devices do not detect temperatures, but rather infrared radiation variances. NIR-compliant uniforms use a fabric that allows soldiers to appear at the same radiation level as the surrounding terrain. NIR technology also make uniforms less visible in low-light environments by reducing the reflection of light, as of 2008, Australian Army SAS personnel serving in OPFOR roles have occasionally used commercial Tiger Stripe uniforms
31.
French Army
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The French Army, officially the Land Army is the land-based and largest component of the French Armed Forces. Along with the French Air Force, the French Navy and the National Gendarmerie, the current Chief of Staff of the French Army is General Jean-Pierre Bosser, a direct subordinate of the Chief of the Defence Staff. All soldiers are considered professionals following the suspension of conscription, voted in parliament in 1997, as of 2014, the French Army employed 111,628 personnel. In addition, the element of the French Army consisted of 15,453 personnel of the Operational Reserve. The Kings of France needed reliable troops during and after the Hundred Years War and these units of troops were raised by issuing ordonnances to govern their length of service, composition and payment. These Compagnies dordonnance formed the core of the Gendarme Cavalry into the sixteenth century, stationed throughout France and summoned into larger armies as needed. There was also made for Francs-archers units of bowmen and foot soldiers raised from the non-noble classes. The bulk of the infantry for warfare was still provided by urban or provincial militias, raised from an area or city to fight locally and named for their recruiting grounds. Gradually these units became more permanent, and in 1480s Swiss instructors were recruited and these men would be paid and contracted and receive training. Henry II further regularised the French army by forming standing Infantry regiments to replace the Militia structure, the first of these the Régiments de Picardie, Piémont, Navarre and Champagne were called the Les Vieux Corps. It was normal policy to disband regiments after a war was over as a cost saving measure with the Vieux Corps and the Kings own Household Troops the Maison du Roi being the only survivors. Regiments could be raised directly by the King and so called after the region in which they were raised, or by the nobility and so called after the noble or his appointed colonel. In 1684 there was a reorganisation of the French infantry and again in 1701 to fit in with Louis XIVs plans. This reshuffle created many of the regiments of the French Army and standardised their equipment. The army of the Sun King tended to wear coats with coloured linings. There were exceptions and the troops, recruited from outside France. In addition to these regiments of the line the Maison du Roi provided several elite units, the Swiss Guards, French Guards, the revolution split the army with the main mass losing most of its officers to aristocratic flight or guillotine and becoming demoralised and ineffective. The French Guard joined the revolt and the Swiss Guards were massacred during the storming of the Tuileries palace, under Napoleon I, the French Army conquered most of Europe during the Napoleonic Wars
32.
French Foreign Legion
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The French Foreign Legion is a military service branch of the French Army established in 1831, unique because it was created for foreign nationals willing to serve in the French Armed Forces. Commanded by French officers, it is open to French citizens. This is a way to strengthen them enough to work as a team, although it is part of the French Military, it is the only unit of the military that does not swear allegiance to France, but to the Foreign Legion itself. Consequently, training is described as not only physically challenging. French citizenship may be applied for three years service. Additionally, any soldier who becomes injured during a battle for France immediately becomes a French citizen under a known as Français par le sang versé. As of 2008, members come from 140 countries, the French Foreign Legion was primarily used to protect and expand the French colonial empire during the 19th century. The Foreign Legion was initially stationed only in Algeria, where it took part in the pacification, in World War I, the Foreign Legion fought in many critical battles on the Western Front. It played a role in World War II than in World War I, though having a part in the Norwegian, Syrian. During the First Indochina War, the Foreign Legion saw its numbers swell, the FFL lost a large number of men in the catastrophic Battle of Dien Bien Phu. Notable operations during this period included the Suez Crisis, the Battle of Algiers and various offensives launched by General Maurice Challe including Operations Oranie, in 1990, the Foreign Legion was sent to the Persian Gulf as a part of Opération Daguet. In the 1990s, the Foreign Legion helped with the evacuation of French citizens and foreigners in Rwanda, Gabon, the Foreign Legion was also deployed in Cambodia, Somalia, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina. In the mid- to late-1990s, the Foreign Legion was deployed in the Central African Republic, Congo-Brazzaville, many other countries have tried to emulate the French Foreign Legion model. There have been composed of foreign recruits in China, Israel, the Netherlands, Rhodesia, Russia. The French Foreign Legion was created by Louis Philippe, the King of the French, recruits included soldiers from the recently disbanded Swiss and German foreign regiments of the Bourbon monarchy. The Royal Ordinance for the establishment of the new regiment specified that the foreigners recruited could only serve outside France, the French expeditionary force that had occupied Algiers in 1830 was in need of reinforcements and the Legion was accordingly transferred by sea in detachments from Toulon to Algeria. The Foreign Legion was initially divided into six national battalions, smaller national groups, such as the ten Englishmen recorded in December 1832, appear to have been placed randomly. In late 1831, the first legionnaires landed in Algeria, the country that would be the Foreign Legions homeland for 130 years, the Foreign Legions first service in Algeria came to an end after only four years, as it was needed elsewhere
33.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
34.
Infrared
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It extends from the nominal red edge of the visible spectrum at 700 nanometers, to 1000000 nm. Most of the radiation emitted by objects near room temperature is infrared. Like all EMR, IR carries radiant energy, and behaves both like a wave and like its quantum particle, the photon, slightly more than half of the total energy from the Sun was eventually found to arrive on Earth in the form of infrared. The balance between absorbed and emitted infrared radiation has an effect on Earths climate. Infrared radiation is emitted or absorbed by molecules when they change their rotational-vibrational movements and it excites vibrational modes in a molecule through a change in the dipole moment, making it a useful frequency range for study of these energy states for molecules of the proper symmetry. Infrared spectroscopy examines absorption and transmission of photons in the infrared range, Infrared radiation is used in industrial, scientific, and medical applications. Night-vision devices using active near-infrared illumination allow people or animals to be observed without the observer being detected, Infrared thermal-imaging cameras are used to detect heat loss in insulated systems, to observe changing blood flow in the skin, and to detect overheating of electrical apparatuses. Thermal-infrared imaging is used extensively for military and civilian purposes, military applications include target acquisition, surveillance, night vision, homing, and tracking. Humans at normal body temperature radiate chiefly at wavelengths around 10 μm, Infrared radiation extends from the nominal red edge of the visible spectrum at 700 nanometers to 1 mm. This range of wavelengths corresponds to a range of approximately 430 THz down to 300 GHz. Below infrared is the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. Sunlight, at a temperature of 5,780 kelvins, is composed of near thermal-spectrum radiation that is slightly more than half infrared. At zenith, sunlight provides an irradiance of just over 1 kilowatt per square meter at sea level, of this energy,527 watts is infrared radiation,445 watts is visible light, and 32 watts is ultraviolet radiation. Nearly all the radiation in sunlight is near infrared, shorter than 4 micrometers. On the surface of Earth, at far lower temperatures than the surface of the Sun, almost all thermal radiation consists of infrared in mid-infrared region, much longer than in sunlight. Of these natural thermal radiation processes only lightning and natural fires are hot enough to produce much visible energy, thermal infrared radiation also has a maximum emission wavelength, which is inversely proportional to the absolute temperature of object, in accordance with Wiens displacement law. Therefore, the band is often subdivided into smaller sections. Due to the nature of the blackbody radiation curves, typical hot objects, such as exhaust pipes, the three regions are used for observation of different temperature ranges, and hence different environments in space
35.
Army National Guard
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The Army National Guard, in conjunction with the Air National Guard, is a militia force and a federal military reserve force of the United States. They are simultaneously part of two different organizations, the National Guard of the states, territories and the District of Columbia. The Army National Guard is divided into units stationed in each of the 50 states. Members or units of the Army National Guard may be ordered, temporarily or indefinitely, if mobilized for federal service, the member or unit becomes part of the Army National Guard of the United States, which is a reserve component of the United States Army. Individuals volunteering for active service may do so subject to the consent of their governors. Governors generally cannot veto involuntary activations of individuals or units for federal service, the President may also call up members and units of the Army National Guard, in its status as the militia of the several states, to repel invasion, suppress rebellion, or enforce federal laws. The Army National Guard of the United States is one of two organizations administered by the National Guard Bureau, the other being the Air National Guard of the United States. The Director of the Army National Guard is the head of the organization, Militia members were required to equip themselves, take part in regular training, and report to their units when called. This war resulted in hundreds of deaths, hundreds of Native Americans sold into slavery or scattered throughout North America, the militias of the Southern New England colonies fought Native Americans again in King Philips War from 1675 to 1676. This conflict led to the defeat of the Narragansets, further straining relationships between Native Americans and white Europeans, but enabling continued white settlement of New England. In addition, the colonists had little interest in paying the taxes to maintain permanent garrisons of British troops, the militias were also an early experiment in democracy, with company grade officers often elected by their men, and the higher officers appointed by colonial governors or legislatures. The colonies did not exert centralized control over the militias or coordinate their efforts, Training typically took place during musters each summer, with militia members reporting for inspection and undergoing several days of training in drill and ceremony. Militia members served throughout the Revolution, often near their homes, Militia units served in combat, as well as carrying out guard duty for prisoners, garrisoning of forts, and local patrols. On some occasions, militia members performed ineffectively, as at the Battle of Camden in North Carolina, on other occasions they performed capably, including the Battles of Lexington and Concord, Battle of Bunker Hill, Battle of Bennington, Battles of Saratoga, and Battle of Cowpens. Perhaps the most important role played by the militia was off the battlefield, during the period of the Articles of Confederation, the weak federal government reduced the Continental Army to a handful of officers and soldiers. The Articles of Confederation required each state to maintain a militia, such consent was not forthcoming in an era when the population still harbored a distrust of a standing army, so Congress largely left the defense of the new nation to the state militias. During the Constitutional Convention in 1787, Federalist delegates argued for a federal government. Federalists anticipated using the military to defend the country if it were attacked, anti-Federalists advocated limited federal government, and wanted continued state control over the militias
36.
Yavoriv
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Yavoriv is a city located in Lviv Oblast of western Ukraine near the Polish border. It is the center of Yavoriv Raion and rests approximately 50 kilometres west of the oblast capital. Not far from it is the watering-place of Shklo with sulfur springs, the town was first mentioned in written documents in 1376, when it belonged to the Duke of Opava and Racibórz, Wacław. It received Magdeburg rights in 1569, from King Sigismund II Augustus and it was a favorite residence of king John III Sobieski, who there received the congratulations from the Pope on his success against the Turks at Vienna. Until the Partitions of Poland, Jaworów, was an important center of commerce, in 1772 it was annexed by the Habsburg Empire, as part of Austrian Galicia, where it remained until late 1918. In Galicia, it was the seat of a county, with the population of almost 11,000, the Jews of the village were merchants or artisans. The Germans arrived in June 26,1941, a Jewish ghetto was established in fall 1942. Before the creation of the ghetto,1,200 Jews were deported to Belzec, in April 16,1943, the Jews of the ghetto were taken to the forest. 4,400 Jews were shot in four graves, in the immediate post-World War I period, the area of Jaworów witnessed Polish - Ukrainian fighting. After the war, the became part of the Second Polish Republic. Among notable people born here are Władysław Langner, Stanisław Nowakowski, Yavoriv is twinned with, Battle of Jaworow Yavoriv, Ukraine Official Website Statistics Yavorov Jewish History
37.
Ukraine
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Ukraine is currently in territorial dispute with Russia over the Crimean Peninsula which Russia annexed in 2014 but which Ukraine and most of the international community recognise as Ukrainian. Including Crimea, Ukraine has an area of 603,628 km2, making it the largest country entirely within Europe and it has a population of about 42.5 million, making it the 32nd most populous country in the world. The territory of modern Ukraine has been inhabited since 32,000 BC, during the Middle Ages, the area was a key centre of East Slavic culture, with the powerful state of Kievan Rus forming the basis of Ukrainian identity. Following its fragmentation in the 13th century, the territory was contested, ruled and divided by a variety of powers, including Lithuania, Poland, the Ottoman Empire, Austria-Hungary, and Russia. A Cossack republic emerged and prospered during the 17th and 18th centuries, two brief periods of independence occurred during the 20th century, once near the end of World War I and another during World War II. Before its independence, Ukraine was typically referred to in English as The Ukraine, following independence, Ukraine declared itself a neutral state. Nonetheless it formed a limited partnership with the Russian Federation and other CIS countries. In the 2000s, the government began leaning towards NATO, and it was later agreed that the question of joining NATO should be answered by a national referendum at some point in the future. Former President Viktor Yanukovych considered the current level of co-operation between Ukraine and NATO sufficient, and was against Ukraine joining NATO and these events formed the background for the annexation of Crimea by Russia in March 2014, and the War in Donbass in April 2014. On 1 January 2016, Ukraine applied the economic part of the Deep, Ukraine has long been a global breadbasket because of its extensive, fertile farmlands and is one of the worlds largest grain exporters. The diversified economy of Ukraine includes a heavy industry sector, particularly in aerospace. Ukraine is a republic under a semi-presidential system with separate powers, legislative, executive. Its capital and largest city is Kiev, taking into account reserves and paramilitary personnel, Ukraine maintains the second-largest military in Europe after that of Russia. Ukrainian is the language and its alphabet is Cyrillic. The dominant religion in the country is Eastern Orthodoxy, which has strongly influenced Ukrainian architecture, literature, there are different hypotheses as to the etymology of the name Ukraine. According to the older and most widespread hypothesis, it means borderland, while more recently some studies claim a different meaning, homeland or region. The Ukraine now implies disregard for the sovereignty, according to U. S. ambassador William Taylor. Neanderthal settlement in Ukraine is seen in the Molodova archaeological sites include a mammoth bone dwelling
38.
Starch
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Starch or amylum is a polymeric carbohydrate consisting of a large number of glucose units joined by glycosidic bonds. This polysaccharide is produced by most green plants as an energy store and it is the most common carbohydrate in human diets and is contained in large amounts in staple foods such as potatoes, wheat, maize, rice, and cassava. Pure starch is a white, tasteless and odorless powder that is insoluble in water or alcohol. It consists of two types of molecules, the linear and helical amylose and the branched amylopectin, depending on the plant, starch generally contains 20 to 25% amylose and 75 to 80% amylopectin by weight. Glycogen, the store of animals, is a more branched version of amylopectin. In industry, starch is converted into sugars, for example by malting and it is processed to produce many of the sugars used in processed foods. Dissolving starch in water gives wheatpaste, which can be used as a thickening, stiffening or gluing agent. The biggest industrial non-food use of starch is as an adhesive in the papermaking process, starch can be applied to parts of some garments before ironing, to stiffen them. The word starch is from a Germanic root with the strong, stiff. Amylum for starch is from the Greek αμυλον, amylon which means not ground at a mill, the root amyl is used in biochemistry for several compounds related to starch. Starch grains from the rhizomes of Typha as flour have been identified from grinding stones in Europe dating back to 30,000 years ago, starch grains from sorghum were found on grind stones in caves in Ngalue, Mozambique dating up to 100,000 years ago. Pure extracted wheat starch paste was used in Ancient Egypt possibly to glue papyrus, the extraction of starch is first described in the Natural History of Pliny the Elder around AD 77–79. Romans used it also in cosmetic creams, to powder the hair, persians and Indians used it to make dishes similar to gothumai wheat halva. Rice starch as surface treatment of paper has been used in production in China. In addition to starchy plants consumed directly,66 million tonnes of starch were being produced per year world-wide by 2008. In the EU this was around 8.5 million tonnes, with around 40% being used for applications and 60% for food uses. Most green plants use starch as their energy store, an exception is the family Asteraceae, where starch is replaced by the fructan inulin. In photosynthesis, plants use light energy to produce glucose from carbon dioxide, the glucose is used to make cellulose fibers, the structural component of the plant, or is stored in the form of starch granules, in amyloplasts
39.
M-1965 field jacket
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The M-1965 field jacket is a straight front, cold weather, field coat made of water-repellent fabrics. Initially designed for the US military under the MIL-DTL-43455K standard, it is now worn as a civilian item of clothing. The jacket was introduced into US military service in 1965 to replace the M-1951 field jacket which was an improvement on the M-1943 field jacket of World War II design. It has a hood that can be rolled up and fits into a pouch on the back of the neck as opposed to the separate hood that attached to the M-1951. The M-65 also has velcro fasteners on the cuffs and collar. It was an issue to US troops in several other wars all around the globe as well. Originally introduced in olive green shade 107, it is now produced in a variety of colors and patterns. The frontmost portion of the jacket has two hip pockets and two medium-sized breast pockets. The rearmost neck portion and collar of the features a zipper which houses a protective hood. The M-1965 field jacket can be combined with a button-in insulated lining for cold-weather wear and it was made by Alpha Industries, and John Ownbey Co. inc. as well as other companies like Propper, Golden Manufacturing and many more, for the military. The jacket appeared in films including Taxi Driver, Serpico, Annie Hall, Year of the Dragon, First Blood, The Exterminator, The Exterminator 2, The Terminator, Robocop. Most recently it was worn by Liam Neeson in the film Run All Night, the character James Sunderland from the video game Silent Hill 2, and the character Lincoln Clay from the video game Mafia III
40.
ERDL pattern
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ERDL pattern, also known as Leaf pattern, is a camouflage pattern developed by the United States Army at its Engineer Research & Development Laboratories in 1948. It was not issued to reconnaissance and special operations units until early 1967. The pattern consists of four colors printed in an interlocking pattern, the pattern was initially produced in a lime-dominant colorway, consisting of large organic shapes in mid green and brown, black ‘branches’, and light green ‘leaf highlights’. Shortly thereafter a brown-dominant scheme was manufactured, the two patterns are also unofficially known as Lowland and Highland ERDL, respectively. The ERDL pattern was used on official and unofficial U. S, military garments in Southeast Asia, in both ground and aviation garment versions, from 1967 to the wars end. On official ground combat garments, the ERDL pattern was first applied to the Tropical Combat Uniform around 1967 and this poplin uniform was very short-lived, but it did see combat use in SEA by various U. S. Special Operations and some other units, soon afterwards, the ERDL pattern was again applied to the Tropical Combat Uniform, but was printed onto the standard rip-stop cotton textile material. On official aviation combat garments, the ERDL pattern was used on the USAF Type K-2B Flying Coveralls, the USAF ERDL Coveralls saw some use in SEA from 1967-69, until replaced by the USAF Nomex Coveralls in 1970. The Navy also produced an official ERDL aviation garment in their Flying Coverall MIL-C-5390G pattern and this Navy ERDL Coveralls saw very limited SEA use from 1967-68, as their Nomex Coveralls were already in use. Some commercial ERDL garment examples were made using cotton poplin material, many commercial ERDL garment examples of the time were made in the pattern mirroring the U. S. Military OG-107 Fatigue Uniform, with a standard tucked-in shirt, and these commercial ERDL OG-107 Fatigue-style garments did see some combat use in SEA, such as with U. S. Navy tactical jet aviators in the 1968 timeframe. Some USAF aviators also purchased local/in-country tailor made ERDL garments and Coveralls, for combat, the United States Marine Corps adopted the green Lowland version as standard issue in Vietnam from 1968, and later the U. S. Army introduced it on a wide scale in Southeast Asia. A third variation, unofficially known as Delta from a use in the Mekong Delta area of South Vietnam, was issued in the early 1970s. It was simply a variation and not specifically developed for the Delta region. It was common for Marines to wear mixes of ERDL and OG-107 jungle fatigues, australian and New Zealand SAS were also issued U. S. -issue Tropical combat uniforms in ERDL during their time in Vietnam. By the end of the Vietnam War, American troops wore camouflage combat dress as the norm, Delta ERDL is the same as Highland pattern, but the black branches appear thicker and less detailed. The ERDL-pattern combat uniform was identical in cut to the OG-107 jungle fatigues it was issued alongside, following the withdrawal of the U. S. military from Vietnam in 1973, the Army no longer routinely issued camouflage clothing. During this same period the 82d Airborne Division and 36th Airborne Brigade were issued the ERDL jungle fatigues until replaced by BDUs, in 1976, the Marines obtained the leftover Vietnam-era ERDL pattern uniforms which became general issue, replacing the solid OG sateen utility/fatigue uniform
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U.S. Woodland
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It is a four color, high contrast disruptive pattern with irregular markings in sand, brown, green and black. Woodland pattern is identical to ERDL, but is printed from an enlargement of the original, the ERDL pattern was enlarged and the borders of the splotches were re-drawn to make them less regular. Part of the pattern was left off the later pattern because the enlargement made them no longer fit on the width of the bolt of cloth. The pattern does not repeat horizontally across the width of the bolt, the effect of enlarging the pattern was to make the pattern more visible at a distance, avoiding blobbing, where smaller areas of color seem to blend into larger blobs. This also gave the pattern a higher contrast, making it out more sharply at close distances. Digital and Flecktarn camouflage patterns resolve this problem by using a range of sizes to give a similar effect whatever the distance. These changes reflected a shift in the focus of the United States military from an extremely close-range war in Vietnam to a longer-range battlespace on the fields of Europe. In the U. S. Army, the Woodland Pattern BDU was replaced by the digital Universal Camouflage Pattern Army Combat Uniform in 2004. The U. S. Navy retains the Woodland Pattern BDU for specific units and organizations, such as the U. S. Navy SEALs, sailors have otherwise transitioned to the Navy Working Uniform. Regular Marines competing in Exercise Combined Resolve II at Grafenwoehr Training Area, Germany, the Air Force dropped the Woodland Pattern BDU when they went to the Airman Battle Uniform in 2011 which uses a modern incarnation of the Tigerstripe pattern. The USAFs civilian auxiliary retains the Woodland Pattern BDU as a utility uniform along with ABU, several state defense forces use the Woodland Pattern BDU. Various U. S law enforcement and SWAT teams use the pattern for their personnel as well. United States Army Engineer Research and Development Laboratory
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Eagle, Globe, and Anchor
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The Eagle, Globe, and Anchor is the official emblem and insignia of the United States Marine Corps. It is commonly referred to as an EGA, although usage is officially discouraged by the U. S. Marine Corps. The current emblem traces its roots in the designs and ornaments of the early Continental Marines as well as the United Kingdoms Royal Marines, the present emblem, adopted in 1955, differs from the emblem of 1868 only by a change in the eagle. Before that time many devices, ornaments, ribbons, and distinguishing marks followed one another as official badges of the corps, in 1776, the device consisted of a fouled anchor of silver or pewter. Changes were made in 1798,1821, and 1824, in 1834, it was prescribed that a brass eagle be worn on the cover, the eagle to measure 3.5 inches from wingtip to wingtip. An eagle clutching a fouled anchor with thirteen six-pointed stars above was used on uniform buttons starting in 1804 and this same insignia is used today on the buttons of Marine dress and service uniforms, with the six-pointed stars changed to five-pointed stars. During the early years numerous distinguishing marks were prescribed, including black cockades, scarlet plumes, in 1859, the first version of the present color scheme for the officers dress uniform insignia appeared on an elaborate device of solid white metal and yellow metal. The design included a United States shield, half wreath, a bugle, in 1868, the Commandant, Brigadier General Jacob Zeilin, appointed a board to decide and report upon the various devices of cap ornaments of the Marine Corps. On November 13,1868, the board recommended the modern insignia and it was approved by the commandant four days later, and by the Secretary of the Navy on November 19,1868. The emblem recommended by the 1868 board consisted of a globe intersected by a fouled anchor, on the emblem itself, there is a ribbon, clasped in the eagles beak, bearing the Latin motto Semper Fidelis. The uniform insignias omit the motto ribbon, the general design of the emblem was probably derived from the Royal Marines Globe and Laurel. The globe on the U. S. Marine emblem signifies the Corps readiness to service in any part of the world, the eagle represents the United States. The anchor, which dates back to the founding of the corps in 1775, acknowledges the naval tradition of the Marines, the service uniform insignia is coated a flat black color. The officers insignia is assembled from four parts, a silver colored globe with eagle, and gold colored anchor with silver colored fouling rope. In 1954, the Commandant, General Lemuel C, shepherd, Jr. requested the design of an official seal for the corps. The new seal included the traditional Eagle, Globe, and Anchor emblem in gold, with the Globe, an American bald eagle replaced the crested eagle depicted on the 1868 emblem. S. President Eisenhower approved the design on June 22,1954, the emblem as shown on the seal was adopted in 1955 as the official Marine Corps emblem
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Utility cover
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The utility cover, also known as the utility cap and eight-pointed cover, is the United States Marine Corps cap, worn with their utility uniform. It is a hat, with a visor similar to a baseball cap. It is worn blocked, that is, creased and peaked and it is also worn by the U. S. Navy units such as Seabees and Beachmasters. It is also worn with the newer Navy Working Uniform as well as the Woodland BDU and it is also under consideration by the United States Coast Guards uniform board, and has been publicly wear-tested by former Commandant Adm. Robert J. Papp, Jr. The utility cover was first issued in World War II, with the Herringbone Twill utility uniform issued in 1943 and it was based on a US Army field cap design and a railroad engineer cap. World War II Marines nicknamed it the raider cap from its use by the Marine Raiders and it was made from herringbone twill until 1959, when the material changed to cotton sateen. It is currently issued in desert and woodland MARPAT camouflage patterns, though older versions came in M81 woodland, six-color desert, three-color desert camouflage patterns, during recruit training, Marine and Navy recruits are instructed in the proper method of wearing the utility cover. Boonie hat Patrol cap the United States Army, and Air Force equivalent, Marine Corps Combat Utility Uniform Side cap Media related to Utility covers at Wikimedia Commons
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United States Air Force
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The United States Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a branch of the military on 18 September 1947 under the National Security Act of 1947. It is the most recent branch of the U. S. military to be formed, the U. S. Air Force is a military service organized within the Department of the Air Force, one of the three military departments of the Department of Defense. The Air Force is headed by the civilian Secretary of the Air Force, who reports to the Secretary of Defense, the U. S. Air Force provides air support for surface forces and aids in the recovery of troops in the field. As of 2015, the service more than 5,137 military aircraft,406 ICBMs and 63 military satellites. It has a $161 billion budget with 313,242 active duty personnel,141,197 civilian employees,69,200 Air Force Reserve personnel, and 105,500 Air National Guard personnel. According to the National Security Act of 1947, which created the USAF and it shall be organized, trained, and equipped primarily for prompt and sustained offensive and defensive air operations. The stated mission of the USAF today is to fly, fight, and win in air, space and we will provide compelling air, space, and cyber capabilities for use by the combatant commanders. We will excel as stewards of all Air Force resources in service to the American people, while providing precise and reliable Global Vigilance, Reach and it should be emphasized that the core functions, by themselves, are not doctrinal constructs. The purpose of Nuclear Deterrence Operations is to operate, maintain, in the event deterrence fails, the US should be able to appropriately respond with nuclear options. Dissuading others from acquiring or proliferating WMD, and the means to deliver them, moreover, different deterrence strategies are required to deter various adversaries, whether they are a nation state, or non-state/transnational actor. Nuclear strike is the ability of forces to rapidly and accurately strike targets which the enemy holds dear in a devastating manner. Should deterrence fail, the President may authorize a precise, tailored response to terminate the conflict at the lowest possible level, post-conflict, regeneration of a credible nuclear deterrent capability will deter further aggression. Finally, the Air Force regularly exercises and evaluates all aspects of operations to ensure high levels of performance. Nuclear surety ensures the safety, security and effectiveness of nuclear operations, the Air Force, in conjunction with other entities within the Departments of Defense or Energy, achieves a high standard of protection through a stringent nuclear surety program. The Air Force continues to pursue safe, secure and effective nuclear weapons consistent with operational requirements, adversaries, allies, and the American people must be highly confident of the Air Forces ability to secure nuclear weapons from accidents, theft, loss, and accidental or unauthorized use. This day-to-day commitment to precise and reliable nuclear operations is the cornerstone of the credibility of the NDO mission, positive nuclear command, control, communications, effective nuclear weapons security, and robust combat support are essential to the overall NDO function. OCA is the method of countering air and missile threats, since it attempts to defeat the enemy closer to its source
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United States Air Force Combat Control Team
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Combat Controllers are FAA-certified air traffic controllers and maintain proficiency throughout their career. Along with TACPs, many Combat Controllers also qualify and maintain proficiency as joint terminal attack controllers where they call in and direct air strikes, close air support and fire support. Out of the seven Air Force Crosses awarded since the Global War on Terror started in 2001, CCT Motto, First There, which reaffirms the Combat Controllers commitment to undertaking the most dangerous missions behind enemy lines by leading the way for other forces to follow. Air Force Special Operations Commands Combat Controllers are battlefield airmen assigned to special tactics squadrons and they are trained special operations forces and certified Federal Aviation Administration air traffic controllers. They deploy with air and ground forces in support of action, such as counter-terrorism, foreign internal defense, humanitarian assistance. Combat Controllers employ all-terrain vehicles, amphibious vehicles, weapons and demolitions in pursuit of their objectives, Combat Controller training, which is nearly two years long, is among the most rigorous in the US military. The CCT pipeline has a wash out rate upwards of 90–95%, mostly due to self-eliminations, injuries sustained during training, the Air Force is working to lower the washout rate through proper education, testing and rigorous pre-pipeline training. Combat Controllers maintain air traffic controller qualification skills throughout their career in addition to special operations skills. Many qualify and maintain proficiency as joint terminal attack controllers and their 35-week initial training and unique mission skills earn them the right to wear the scarlet beret and their 3 skill level. From that point they attend a 12–15-month advanced skill training course to obtain their 5 skill level, once they complete AST their training pipeline is finished and they are mission-ready Combat Controllers. The first course Combat Controller trainees attend after the 8. 5-week Basic Military Training is the two-week-long Combat Control Selection Course at Lackland Air Force Base, the selection course focuses on sports physiology, nutrition, basic exercises, combat control history and fundamentals. The second course in the CCT pipeline is the Combat Control Operator Course located at Keesler Air Force Base, the Operator course is 15.5 weeks long. After the Operator course the trainee attends the Army Airborne School at Fort Benning, in the three-week course the trainees learn basic parachuting skills required to infiltrate an objective area by static line airdrop. The next course after Airborne School is the Air Force Basic Survival School located at Fairchild Air Force Base, the course teaches techniques for survival in remote areas. Instruction includes principles, procedures, equipment and techniques that enable individuals to survive, regardless of conditions or unfriendly environments. The last course in the Combat Control pipeline is the Combat Control School located at Pope Field, the CCT School is thirteen weeks long and it provides the final Combat Controller qualifications. The training includes training, small unit tactics, land navigation, communications, assault zones, demolitions, fire support. Graduates of Combat Control school are awarded their 3-skill level on their Air Force Specialty Code, scarlet beret, the Benini Heritage Center Fund Raising effort supports education and training at the Combat Control School
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United States Air Force Pararescue
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Pararescuemen are United States Air Force Special Operations Command and Air Combat Command operators tasked with recovery and medical treatment of personnel in humanitarian and combat environments. These special operations units are used to support NASA missions and have been used to recover astronauts after water landings. They are attached to other SOF teams from all branches to other operations as appropriate. Of the roughly 200 Air Force Cross recipients, only 24 are enlisted rank, part of the little-known Air Force Special Operations community and long an enlisted preserve, the Pararescue service expanded to include Combat Rescue Officers early in the 21st century. As early as 1922 there was a recognized need for trained personnel to go to remote sites to rescue airmen, however, it was another two decades before technology and necessity helped to create what would eventually become Air Force Pararescue. Even so, there were developments in critical technologies and these parachutes and the techniques smokejumpers used with them were completely different from the techniques used by Army airborne units. It was in year that Dr. Leo P. Martin was trained by the U. S. Forest Service Smokejumper Parachute Training Center in Seeley Lake. During the first months after Americas entry into the War, there was little need for air rescue. As the war progressed, a U. S. strategic bombing campaign was launched, Rescue units were formed around the globe under the operational control of local commanders. While training, techniques and equipment varied, one rule was constant, Search and rescue of downed aviators in the continental United States fell primarily to the Civil Air Patrol, a civilian aviation group under the command of the Army Air Corps. The CAP would usually send in ground crews after locating a site, however, they would sometimes land small aircraft. With Canadas entry into WWII in 1939, former Canadian fighter ace Wop May was put in charge of training operations and took command at the No 2 Air Observer School in Edmonton. Edmonton was one of the stops for A-20 Boston, B-26 Marauder. When these aircraft went down, typically due to mechanical or navigational problems, Mays school was often asked to supply aircraft to search for downed planes, but even when one was spotted there was often little they could do to help. May decided to address this problem, in early 1942 May asked for volunteers from his civilian servicing crew, and about a dozen agreed to join. With basically no equipment, the instruction consisted of jump and pull and windage was calculated by throwing an Eatons catalogue out the door. Early operations were comical, but in early 1943 May sent two volunteers, Owen Hargreaves and Scotty Thompson to the smoke jumpers school in Missoula, Montana to be trained by the U. S. Forest Service. After six weeks they returned home with borrowed equipment to train two other volunteers, Wilfred Rivet and Laurie Poulsom
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United States Navy
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The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U. S. Navy is the largest, most capable navy in the world, the U. S. Navy has the worlds largest aircraft carrier fleet, with ten in service, two in the reserve fleet, and three new carriers under construction. The service has 323,792 personnel on duty and 108,515 in the Navy Reserve. It has 274 deployable combat vessels and more than 3,700 operational aircraft as of October 2016, the U. S. Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. It played a role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy. It played the role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan. The 21st century U. S. Navy maintains a global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific, the Mediterranean. The Navy is administratively managed by the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Navy is itself a division of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of Defense. The Chief of Naval Operations is an admiral and the senior naval officer of the Department of the Navy. The CNO may not be the highest ranking officer in the armed forces if the Chairman or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, the United States Navy is a seaborne branch of the military of the United States. The Navys three primary areas of responsibility, The preparation of naval forces necessary for the prosecution of war. The development of aircraft, weapons, tactics, technique, organization, U. S. Navy training manuals state that the mission of the U. S. Armed Forces is to prepare and conduct prompt and sustained combat operations in support of the national interest, as part of that establishment, the U. S. Navys functions comprise sea control, power projection and nuclear deterrence, in addition to sealift duties. It follows then as certain as that night succeeds the day, that without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, the Navy was rooted in the colonial seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains, and shipbuilders. In the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Massachusetts had its own Massachusetts Naval Militia, the establishment of a national navy was an issue of debate among the members of the Second Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy, then the worlds preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking. Commander in Chief George Washington resolved the debate when he commissioned the ocean-going schooner USS Hannah to interdict British merchant ships, and reported the captures to the Congress
