1.
Wars of the Roses
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The conflict lasted through many sporadic episodes between 1455 and 1487, however, there was fighting before and after this period between the houses. With the Duke of Yorks passing, the transferred to his heir, Edward. His son reigned for 86 days as Edward V, but Parliament then decided that Edward and his brother Richard were illegitimate and offered the crown to Edward IVs younger brother, the two young princes disappeared within the confines of the Tower of London. The final victory went to a claimant of the Lancastrian party, Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, after assuming the throne as Henry VII, he married Elizabeth of York, the eldest daughter and heir of Edward IV, thereby uniting the two claims. The House of Tudor ruled the Kingdom of England until 1603, with the death of Elizabeth I, granddaughter of Henry VII and Elizabeth of York. The name Wars of the Roses refers to the badges associated with the two royal houses, the White Rose of York and the Red Rose of Lancaster. Wars of the Roses came into use in the nineteenth century. Badges were not always distinct, at the Battle of Barnet, Edwards sun was very similar to the Earl of Oxfords Vere star, which caused fateful confusion. Another example, Henry Tudors forces at Bosworth fought under the banner of a red dragon, although the names of the rival houses derive from the cities of York and Lancaster, the corresponding duchies had little to do with these cities. Although minor armed clashes had occurred previously between supporters of York and Lancaster, the first open fighting broke out in 1455 at the First Battle of St Albans, several prominent Lancastrians died at the hands of the Yorkists. Although peace was restored, the Lancastrians were inspired by Margaret of Anjou to contest Yorks influence. Fighting resumed more violently in 1459, York and his supporters were forced to flee the country, but one of his most prominent supporters, the Earl of Warwick, invaded England from Calais and captured Henry VI at the Battle of Northampton. York returned to the country and became Protector of England, but was dissuaded from claiming the throne, Margaret and the remaining Lancastrian nobles gathered their army in the north of England. When York moved north to engage them, he and his second son Edmund were killed at the Battle of Wakefield in December 1460. The Lancastrian army advanced south and released Henry at the Second Battle of St Albans, but failed to occupy London, Yorks eldest son, Edward, Earl of March, was proclaimed King Edward IV. He gathered the Yorkist armies and won a victory at the Battle of Towton in March 1461. After Lancastrian revolts in the north were suppressed in 1464 and Henry was captured once again, Edward fell out with his chief supporter and adviser, the Earl of Warwick after Edwards unpopular and secretly conducted marriage with the widow of a Lancastrian supporter, Elizabeth Woodville. Within a few years, it clear that Edward was favoring his wifes family
2.
Chipping Barnet
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Chipping Barnet or High Barnet is a market town in the London Borough of Barnet, England. Its name is often abbreviated to just Barnet, which is also the name of the borough of which it forms a part. Chipping Barnet is one of the urban settlements in London. The towns name derives from an ancient settlement, recorded as Barneto c,1070, Barnet 1197, La Barnette 1248, that is the land cleared by burning, from Old English bærnet, referring to the clearing of this once densely forested area in early times. This was one of the most important battles of the Wars of the Roses, Barnet Hill is said to be the hill mentioned in the nursery rhyme The Grand Old Duke of York. It is also the site of an ancient and well-known horse fair, the fair dates back to 1588 when Queen Elizabeth I granted a charter to the Lord of the Manor of Barnet to hold a twice yearly fair. The famous Barnet Market is now over 810 years old, on 23 August 1199 King John issued a charter for a market at Barnet to the Lord of the Manor, the Abbot of St. Albans, John de Cella. Chipping Barnet was historically a parish of Hertfordshire and formed part of the Barnet Urban District from 1894. The parish was abolished in 1965 and the Chipping Barnet section of its area was transferred from Hertfordshire to Greater London. In 1801 the parish had a population of 1,258, by 1901 the parish was reduced to 380 acres and had a population of 2,893. In 1951 the population was 7,062, in Saxon times the site was part of an extensive wood called Southaw, belonging to the Abbey of St Albans. The name of the town appears in deeds as Bergnet – the Saxon word Bergnet meant a little hill. Barnets elevated position is indicated in one of its alternative names, which appears in many old books and maps. The area was historically a common resting point on the traditional Great North Road between the City of London and York and Edinburgh, Barnet Council has been treating any such alterations to public road signs as vandalism. Playing on its antiquity, it continues to call itself Barnet Church, the parish church of St Mary the Virgin, Monken Hadley also has parish boundaries which include a significant part of High Barnet, including much of Barnet High Street. The living of Barnet is a curacy, held with the rectory of East Barnet till the death of the last incumbent in 1866, in addition to the charity established to maintain his fathers tomb, James Ravenscroft established a charity to support six poor and ancient women. The tower of Barnet parish church — St John the Baptist — at the top of Barnet Hill claims to be the highest point between itself and the Ural Mountains 2,000 miles to the east, however, the same has been said of numerous other points. Since the opening of the railway, development has increased considerably, especially in the west of the area near Arkley, for a London town, Barnet lies very high
3.
House of York
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The House of York was a cadet branch of the English royal House of Plantagenet. Three of its members became Kings of England in the late 15th century and it is based on these descents that they claimed the English crown. Compared with the House of Lancaster, it had a claim to the throne of England according to cognatic primogeniture. The reign of this dynasty ended with the death of Richard III of England in 1485 and it became extinct in the male line with the death of Edward Plantagenet, 17th Earl of Warwick in 1499. Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York, 1st Earl of Cambridge, KG was a son of King Edward III of England and Philippa of Hainault. He was the founder of the House of York, but it was through the marriage of his younger son, Richard to Anne Mortimer that the Yorkist faction in the Wars of the Roses made its claim on the throne. The other party in the Wars of the Roses, the Lancasters, were descendants of Edmunds elder brother, Edmund had two sons, Edward, and Richard of Conisburgh. Edward succeeded to the dukedom in 1402, but was killed at the battle of Agincourt in 1415, Richard married Anne Mortimer, a great-granddaughter of Lionel of Antwerp, the second son of Edward III. Furthermore, Annes son Richard also became heir general to the earldom of March, after her brother, Edmund, 5th Earl. Richard of Conisburgh was executed following his involvement in the Southampton Plot to depose Henry V of England in favour of the Earl of March, the dukedom of York therefore passed to his son, Richard Plantagenet. Through his mother, Richard Plantagenet also inherited the lands of the earldom of March, although he served as Protector of the Realm during Henry VIs period of incapacity in 1453-54, his reforms were reversed by Somersets party once the king had recovered. The Wars of the Roses began the year, with the First Battle of St Albans. Initially, Richard aimed only to purge his Lancastrian political opponents from positions of influence over the king and it was not until October 1460 that he claimed the throne for the House of York. In that year the Yorkists had captured the king at the battle of Northampton, Richard and his second son Edmund were killed at the battle of Wakefield on 30 December. Richards claim to the throne was inherited by his son Edward, with the support of Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick, Edward, already showing great promise as a leader of men, defeated the Lancastrians in a succession of battles. While Henry VI and Margaret of Anjou were campaigning in the north, Edward strengthened his claim with a decisive victory at the Battle of Towton in the same year, in the course of which the Lancastrian army was virtually wiped out. The early reign of Edward IV was marred by Lancastrian plotting, Warwick himself changed sides, and supported Margaret of Anjou and the kings jealous brother George, Duke of Clarence, in briefly restoring Henry in 1470-71. However, Edward regained his throne, and the House of Lancaster was wiped out with the death of Henry VI himself, in the Tower of London in 1471
4.
House of Lancaster
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The House of Lancaster was the name of two cadet branches of the royal House of Plantagenet. The first house was created when Henry III of England created the Earldom of Lancaster—from which the house was named—for his second son Edmund Crouchback in 1267 and this brought him—and Henry, his younger brother—into conflict with their cousin Edward II of England, leading to Thomass execution. Henry inherited Thomass titles and he and his son, who was also called Henry, the second house of Lancaster was descended from John of Gaunt, who married the heiress of the first house. Edward III married all his sons to wealthy English heiresses rather than following his predecessors practice of finding continental political marriages for royal princes. Henry of Grosmont, 1st Duke of Lancaster, had no male heir so Edward married his son John to Henrys heiress daughter and this gave John the vast wealth of the House of Lancaster. Their son Henry usurped the throne in 1399, creating one of the factions in the Wars of the Roses, there was an intermittent dynastic struggle between the descendants of Edward III. In these wars, the term Lancastrian became a reference to members of the family, the family provided England with three kings, Henry IV, who ruled from 1399 to 1413, Henry V, and Henry VI. Later grants included the first Earldom of Lancaster on 30 June 1267, Edmund was also Count of Champagne and Brie from 1276 by right of his wife. Edmunds second marriage to Blanche of Artois, the widow of the King of Navarre, Blanches daughter Joan I of Navarre was queen regnant of Navarre and through her marriage to Philip IV of France was queen consort of France. Edmunds son Thomas became the most powerful nobleman in England, gaining the Earldoms of Lincoln and Salisbury through marriage to the heiress of Henry de Lacy and his income was £11,000 per annum—double that of the next wealthiest earl. After initially supporting Edward, Thomas became one of the Lords Ordainers, who demanded the banishment of Piers Gaveston, after Gaveston was captured, Thomas took the lead in his trial and execution at Warwick in 1312. Edwards authority was weakened by poor governance and defeat by the Scots at the Battle of Bannockburn and this allowed Thomas to restrain Edwards power by republishing the Ordinances of 1311. Following this achievement Thomas took little part in the governance of the realm and this allowed Edward to regroup and re-arm, leading to a fragile peace in August 1318 with the Treaty of Leake. In 1321 Edwards rule again collapsed into civil war, Thomas raised a northern army but was defeated and captured at the Battle of Boroughbridge. He was sentenced to be hanged, drawn and quartered but because he was Edwards cousin he was given a death by beheading. Henry joined the revolt of Edwards wife Isabella of France and her lover Mortimer in 1326 and his restored prestige led to him knighting the young King Edward III of England before his coronation. Mortimer lost support over the Treaty of Edinburgh–Northampton that formalised Scotlands independence, when Mortimer called a parliament to make his new powers and estates permanent with the title of Earl of March in 1328, Henry led the opposition and held a counter-meeting. In response, Mortimer ravaged the lands of Lancaster and checked the revolt, Edward III was able to assume control in 1330 but Henrys further influence was restricted by poor health and blindness for the last fifteen years of his life
5.
Edward IV of England
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Edward IV was the King of England from 4 March 1461 until 3 October 1470, and again from 11 April 1471 until his death in 1483. He was the first Yorkist King of England, before becoming king, he was 4th Duke of York, 7th Earl of March, 5th Earl of Cambridge and 9th Earl of Ulster. He was also the 65th Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece, Edward of York was born at Rouen in France, the second son of Richard, 3rd Duke of York, and Cecily Neville. He was the eldest of the four sons who survived to adulthood and he bore the title Earl of March before his fathers death and his accession to the throne. Edwards father Richard, Duke of York, had been heir to King Henry VI until the birth of Henrys son Edward in 1453, Richard carried on a factional struggle with the kings Beaufort relatives. He established a dominant position after his victory at the First Battle of St Albans in 1455, in which his chief rival Edmund Beaufort, however, Henrys Queen, Margaret of Anjou, rebuilt a powerful faction to oppose the Yorkists over the following years. The Yorkist leaders fled from England after the collapse of their army in the confrontation at Ludford Bridge, the Duke of York took refuge in Ireland, while Edward went with the Nevilles to Calais where Warwick was governor. In 1460 Edward landed in Kent with Salisbury, Warwick and Salisburys brother William Neville, Lord Fauconberg, raised an army and this left Edward, now Duke of York, at the head of the Yorkist faction. He defeated a Lancastrian army at Mortimers Cross in Herefordshire on 2–3 February 1461 and he then united his forces with those of Warwick, whom Margarets army had defeated at the Second Battle of St Albans, during which Henry VI had been rescued by his supporters. Edwards father had restricted his ambitions to becoming Henrys heir, and he then advanced against the Lancastrians, having his life saved on the battlefield by the Welsh Knight Sir David Ap Mathew. He defeated the Lancastrian army in the exceptionally bloody Battle of Towton in Yorkshire on 29 March 1461, Edward had effectively broken the military strength of the Lancastrians, and he returned to London for his coronation. King Edward IV named Sir David Ap Mathew Standard Bearer of England, Lancastrian resistance continued in the north, but posed no serious threat to the new regime and was finally extinguished by Warwicks brother John Neville in the Battle of Hexham in 1464. Henry VI had escaped into the Pennines, where he spent a year in hiding, Queen Margaret fled abroad with the young Prince Edward and many of their leading supporters. Even at the age of nineteen, Edward exhibited remarkable military acumen and he also had a notable physique and was described as handsome and affable. His height is estimated at 6 feet 4.5 inches, making him the tallest among all English, Scottish, most of Englands leading families had remained loyal to Henry VI or remained uncommitted in the recent conflict. The new regime, therefore, relied heavily on the support of the Nevilles, however, the king increasingly became estranged from their leader the Earl of Warwick, due primarily to his marriage. Warwick, acting on Edwards behalf, made arrangements with King Louis XI of France for Edward to marry either Louis daughter Anne or his sister-in-law Bona of Savoy. He was humiliated and enraged to discover that, while he was negotiating, Edward had secretly married Elizabeth Woodville, Edwards marriage to Elizabeth Woodville has been criticised as an impulsive action that did not add anything to the security of England or the York dynasty
6.
Richard III of England
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Richard III was King of England from 1483 until his death in 1485, at the age of 32, in the Battle of Bosworth Field. He was the last king of the House of York and the last of the Plantagenet dynasty and his defeat at Bosworth Field, the last decisive battle of the Wars of the Roses, marked the end of the Middle Ages in England. He is the subject of the historical play Richard III by William Shakespeare, when his brother King Edward IV died in April 1483, Richard was named Lord Protector of the realm for Edwards son and successor, the 12-year-old Edward V. As the young king travelled to London from Ludlow, Richard met and escorted him to lodgings in the Tower of London, on 25 June, an assembly of Lords and commoners endorsed the claims. The following day, Richard III began his reign, and he was crowned on 6 July 1483. The young princes were not seen in public after August, and accusations circulated that the boys had been murdered on Richards orders, there were two major rebellions against Richard. The first, in October 1483, was led by allies of Edward IV and Richards former ally, Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham. In August 1485, Henry Tudor and his uncle, Jasper Tudor, Henry Tudor landed in southern Wales with a small contingent of French troops and marched through his birthplace, Pembrokeshire, recruiting soldiers. Henrys force engaged Richards army and defeated it at the Battle of Bosworth Field in Leicestershire, Richard was struck down in the conflict, making him the last English king to die in battle on home soil and the first since Harold Godwinson. Henry then ascended the throne as Henry VII, after the battle Richards corpse was taken to Leicester and buried without pomp. His original tomb monument is believed to have been removed during the Reformation, in 2012, an archaeological excavation was commissioned by the Richard III Society on a city council car park on the site once occupied by Greyfriars Priory Church. Richards remains were reburied in Leicester Cathedral on 26 March 2015 and they returned to England following the defeat of the Lancastrians at the Battle of Towton and participated in the coronation of Richards eldest brother as King Edward IV in June 1461. At this time Richard was named Duke of Gloucester and made a Knight of the Garter and Knight of the Bath, by the age of seventeen, he had an independent command. With some interruptions, Richard stayed at Middleham either from late 1461 until early 1465, while at Warwicks estate, he probably met Francis Lovell, a strong supporter later in his life, and Warwicks younger daughter, his future wife Anne Neville. As the relationship between the king and Warwick became strained, Edward IV opposed the match, during Warwicks lifetime, George was the only royal brother to marry one of his daughters, the eldest, Isabel, on 12 July 1469, without the kings permission. George joined his father-in-laws revolt against the king, while Richard remained loyal to Edward, in 1468, Richards sister Margaret had married Charles the Bold, the Duke of Burgundy, and the brothers could expect a welcome there. Although only eighteen years old, Richard played crucial roles in the battles of Barnet, during his adolescence, Richard developed idiopathic scoliosis. Following a decisive Yorkist victory over the Lancastrians at the Battle of Tewkesbury, Richard married Anne Neville, by the end of 1470 Anne had previously been wedded to Edward of Westminster, only son of Henry VI, to seal her fathers allegiance to the Lancastrian party
7.
William Hastings, 1st Baron Hastings
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William Hastings, 1st Baron Hastings KG was an English nobleman. A loyal follower of the House of York during the Wars of the Roses, he became a friend and one of the most important courtiers of King Edward IV. At the time of Edwards death he was one of the most powerful and he was summarily executed following accusations of treason by Edwards brother and ultimate successor, Richard III. William Hastings, born about 1431, was the eldest son of Sir Leonard Hastings, Hastings succeeded his father in service to the House of York and through this service became close to his distant cousin the future Edward IV, whom he was to serve loyally all his life. He was High Sheriff of Warwickshire and High Sheriff of Leicestershire in 1455 and he was knighted on the field of battle. He was also created Baron Hastings, a title reinforced by grants of land and office, in 1462 he was invested as a Knight of the Garter. In 1474, he was awarded royal licence to crenellate at three of his landholdings in Leicestershire, at Ashby-de-la-Zouch, Kirby Muxloe, and at Bagworth. He built extensively at Ashby, mostly making additions to the manor house built by the de la Zouch family in the thirteenth century. His greatest achievement at Ashby was the Hastings Tower, at Kirby Muxloe Castle he began an intricate fortified house of red brick, one of the first of its kind in the county. Thanks to English Heritage, the castles at Ashby and Kirby can still be seen and his importance in these years is recorded in a number of sources and was recognised by the greatest peer in the realm, Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick. In 1462, Warwick arranged for Hastings to marry his widowed sister, despite this matrimonial relationship with the Nevilles, when Warwick drove Edward IV into exile in 1470, Hastings went with Edward and accompanied the king back the following spring. Hastings raised troops for Edward in the English Midlands and served as one of the captains of the Yorkist forces at both Barnet and Tewkesbury. His service, loyalty and ability, along with the fall of his Neville in-laws and he continued to serve as Chamberlain and was awarded the position of Chamberlain of the Exchequer in 1471, which he held until 1483. He was also appointed Lieutenant of Calais, which him a important player in foreign affairs. At court, he was involved in two lengthy feuds with members of Queen Elizabeth Woodvilles family, most notably with her son Thomas Grey, Hastings, who had long been friendly with Richard and hostile to the Woodvilles, was a key figure in checking these manoeuvres. While keeping the Woodvilles in check in London, Hastings informed Richard of their proceedings, Richard intercepted the young king, who was on his way to London, with his Woodville relatives. Hastings then supported Richards formal installation as Lord Protector and collaborated with him in the royal council, while the other alleged conspirators were imprisoned, Hastings was immediately beheaded on Richards orders over a log in the courtyard of the Tower. The summary execution of the popular Hastings was controversial among contemporaries and has been interpreted differently by historians, others have been more open to the possibility of such a conspiracy and that Richard merely reacted to secure his position
8.
Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick
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Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick KG, known as Warwick the Kingmaker, was an English nobleman, administrator, and military commander. The son of Richard Neville, 5th Earl of Salisbury, Warwick was the wealthiest and most powerful English peer of his age, through fortunes of marriage and inheritance, Warwick emerged in the 1450s at the centre of English politics. Originally he was a supporter of King Henry VI, however, from this conflict he gained the strategically valuable post of Captain of Calais, a position that benefited him greatly in the years to come. The political conflict later turned into rebellion, where in battle York was slain. Yorks son, however, later triumphed with Warwicks assistance, and was crowned King Edward IV, Edward initially ruled with Warwicks support, but the two later fell out over foreign policy and the kings choice of Elizabeth Woodville as his wife. After a failed plot to crown Edwards brother, George, Duke of Clarence, the triumph was short-lived however, on 14 April 1471 Warwick was defeated by Edward at the Battle of Barnet, and killed. The elder of his two daughters, Isabel, married George, Duke of Clarence and his younger daughter Anne had a short-lived marriage to King Henrys son Edward of Westminster, who died in battle at the age of 17. She then married King Edwards younger brother Richard, Duke of Gloucester, Warwicks historical legacy has been a matter of much dispute. Historical opinion has alternated between seeing him as self-centred and rash, and regarding him as a victim of the whims of an ungrateful king. It is generally agreed, however, that in his own time he enjoyed popularity in all layers of society. The Nevilles, an ancient Durham family, came to prominence in Englands fourteenth-century wars against the Scots, in 1397 King Richard II made Ralph Neville Earl of Westmorland. Ralphs son Richard, the later Earl of Warwicks father, was a son by a second marriage. He received a settlement, however, and became jure uxoris Earl of Salisbury through his marriage to Alice, daughter and heiress of Thomas Montacute. Salisburys son Richard, the later Earl of Warwick, was born on 22 November 1428, at the age of six, Richard was betrothed to Anne Beauchamp, daughter of Richard de Beauchamp, 13th Earl of Warwick, and of his wife Isabel Despenser. This made him not only to the earldom of Salisbury, but also to a substantial part of the Montague, Beauchamp. Circumstances would, however, increase his fortune even further, Beauchamps son Henry, who had married the younger Richards sister Cecily, died in 1446. When Henrys daughter Anne died in 1449, Richard also found himself jure uxoris Earl of Warwick, Richards succession to the estates did not go undisputed, however. A protracted battle over parts of the inheritance ensued, particularly with Edmund Beaufort, 1st Duke of Somerset, the dispute centred on land, not on the Warwick title, as Henrys half-sisters were excluded from the succession
9.
John Neville, 1st Marquess of Montagu
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Captured twice, he was released twice. Montagu was the son of Richard Neville, 5th Earl of Salisbury and Alice Montacute, 5th Countess of Salisbury, and a younger brother of Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick. His early activity there consisted of diplomatic meetings with the Scots, at which he acted as a witness, between 1449 and 1451. He was also one of three men who was instructed, in a letter of 3 February 1449, to not attend the forthcoming parliament and remain in the north guarding the border. He was knighted by King Henry VI at Greenwich on 5 January 1453, alongside Edmund and Jasper Tudor, his brother Thomas Neville, William Herbert, Roger Lewknor, and William Catesby. He was from the branch of the Neville family based at Middleham Castle in Yorkshire and it has been claimed that he, as a landless younger son caused their long-running feud with the Lancastrian Percy family of Northumberland. On 1 May 1453 the royal licence for John Nevilles brother, news of this must have reached the north within the fortnight, for by the twelfth, one of the earl of Northumberlands younger sons, Thomas Percy, Lord Egremont began recruiting men. Both him and Egremont were subsequently summoned to appear before the Royal Council and this was followed by more letters to the sons. John Neville was with his brothers wedding party when Egremont ambushed them on the return from Tattershall Castle and this took place on Heworth Moor on 24 August 1453. The next month, John took a party and ransacked Egremonts Catton manor, breaking windows. With his brothers, Thomas and Richard, as well as the earl of Salisbury, they faced the earl of Northumberland and his sons at Topcliffe on 20 October 1453, although a peace was then negotiated. The feud continued for much of the year, and only came to a halt with a battle at Salisbury’s manor of Stamford Bridge. Thomas and John confronted, and decisively beat, Egremont and Richard Percy, the king had become incapacitated in August 1453, which had led to the duke of York being appointed protector and controlling the government. By Christmas of 1454, however, King Henry had recovered from his illness, having reconvened the court at Westminster by mid-April 1455, Henry and a select council of nobles decided to hold a great council at Leicester. York and the Nevilles anticipated that Somerset would bring charges against them at this assembly, John Neville included, they gathered an armed retinue and marched to stop the royal party from reaching Leicester, intercepting them at St Albans. It was John, too, who appears to have responsible for the victorious duke of York removing Sir William Skipwith from the household offices the latter held of the duke. Neville achieved this pointing out how Skipwith failed to join York in battle, in December 1456, the new Duke of Somerset tried to attack John Neville in Londons Cheapside, Somerset had already attempted something similar to Johns brother Warwick the previous month. John’s encounter, reported contemporary chroniclers, would have become a ‘skirmish’ if the mayor had not intervened, as it had been John who had spearheaded the Neville retailiation to the Percies during their feud, Salisbury entered into a bond for Thomas and John’s behaviour on 23 March 1458
10.
Henry Holland, 3rd Duke of Exeter
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Henry Holland, 3rd Duke of Exeter was a Lancastrian leader during the English Wars of the Roses. He was the son of John Holland, 2nd Duke of Exeter. His maternal grandparents were Edmund Stafford, 5th Earl of Stafford and he inherited the Dukedom of Exeter when his father died in 1447. A great-grandson of John of Gaunt, he might have had a claim to the throne after the death of Henry VI. However, he was cruel, savagely temperamental and unpredictable, Exeter was for a time Constable of the Tower of London, and afterwards the rack there came to be called the Duke of Exeters daughter. In 1447 he married Anne, the daughter of Richard of York. However, in the Wars of the Roses, he remained loyal to Henry VI against the Yorkists and he was imprisoned at Wallingford Castle when York briefly seized power after the First Battle of St Albans in 1455. He was a commander at the Lancastrian victories at the Wakefield in 1460 and the Second Battle of St Albans in 1461 and he fled to Scotland after the battle, and then joined Queen Margaret in her exile in France. He was attainted in 1461, and his estates were given to his wife, during the brief period of Henry VIs restoration he was able to regain many of his estates and posts. At the Battle of Barnet, Exeter commanded the Lancastrian left flank and he was badly wounded and left for dead, but survived. Afterwards he was imprisoned, and Anne divorced him in 1472 and he volunteered to serve on Edwards 1475 expedition to France. On the return voyage he fell overboard and drowned, some say he was in fact thrown overboard at the kings command. Before 30 July 1447, he married Anne of York, the child and eldest surviving daughter of Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York. She was a sister of Edward IV and Richard III. He had one child, Lady Anne Holland, who married Thomas Grey. Since Henry had no male issue the disposition of his estates became a complex matter for his widow. Local Rivalries and National Politics, the Percies, the Nevilles, pugh, T. B. Richard, duke of York, and the rebellion of Henry Holand, duke of Exeter, in May 1454
11.
Prisoner of war
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A prisoner of war is a person, whether combatant or non-combatant, who is held in custody by a belligerent power during or immediately after an armed conflict. The earliest recorded usage of the prisoner of war dates to 1660. The first Roman gladiators were prisoners of war and were named according to their ethnic roots such as Samnite, Thracian, typically, little distinction was made between enemy combatants and enemy civilians, although women and children were more likely to be spared. Sometimes, the purpose of a battle, if not a war, was to capture women, a known as raptio. Typically women had no rights, and were legally as chattel. For this he was eventually canonized, during Childerics siege and blockade of Paris in 464, the nun Geneviève pleaded with the Frankish king for the welfare of prisoners of war and met with a favourable response. Later, Clovis I liberated captives after Genevieve urged him to do so, many French prisoners of war were killed during the Battle of Agincourt in 1415. In the later Middle Ages, a number of religious wars aimed to not only defeat, in Christian Europe, the extermination of heretics was considered desirable. Examples include the 13th century Albigensian Crusade and the Northern Crusades, likewise, the inhabitants of conquered cities were frequently massacred during the Crusades against the Muslims in the 11th and 12th centuries. Noblemen could hope to be ransomed, their families would have to send to their captors large sums of wealth commensurate with the status of the captive. In feudal Japan there was no custom of ransoming prisoners of war, in Termez, on the Oxus, all the people, both men and women, were driven out onto the plain, and divided in accordance with their usual custom, then they were all slain. The Aztecs were constantly at war with neighbouring tribes and groups, for the re-consecration of Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan in 1487, between 10,000 and 80,400 persons were sacrificed. During the early Muslim conquests, Muslims routinely captured large number of prisoners, aside from those who converted, most were ransomed or enslaved. Christians who were captured during the Crusades, were either killed or sold into slavery if they could not pay a ransom. The freeing of prisoners was highly recommended as a charitable act, there also evolved the right of parole, French for discourse, in which a captured officer surrendered his sword and gave his word as a gentleman in exchange for privileges. If he swore not to escape, he could gain better accommodations, if he swore to cease hostilities against the nation who held him captive, he could be repatriated or exchanged but could not serve against his former captors in a military capacity. Early historical narratives of captured colonial Europeans, including perspectives of literate women captured by the peoples of North America. The writings of Mary Rowlandson, captured in the fighting of King Philips War, are an example
12.
John de Vere, 13th Earl of Oxford
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He was the principal commander of King Henry VIIs army at the Battle of Bosworth, and again led Henrys troops to victory at the Battle of Stoke two years later. He became one of the men of the Kings regime. John de Vere, 13th Earl of Oxford, was born on 8 September 1442, the son of John de Vere, 12th Earl of Oxford, and his wife Elizabeth Howard. The 12th Earl was beheaded on Tower Hill on 26 February 1462 and his son Aubrey had been beheaded on the same scaffold six days earlier. Pursuing a conciliatory policy with Lancastrian families, King Edward allowed John de Vere to succeed his father, in November 1468, however, he was committed to the Tower, and confessed to plotting with the Lancastrians against the King. He was likely released before 7 January 1469, and received a pardon on 5 April of that year. However, by early July 1469 Oxford had joined the discontented Yorkists led by his brother-in-law, the Earl of Warwick, and King Edwards brother and he fled overseas in the following spring to the court of King Henry VIs wife, Margaret of Anjou. In September 1470 he joined Warwick and Clarence in the invasion of England which restored Henry VI to the throne, and on 13 October bore the Sword of State before Henry in a procession to St Pauls. He was appointed Lord High Constable of England, and as such on 15 October tried and condemned for treason the same Earl of Worcester who had in 1462 condemned Oxfords own father and brother. In March 1471, he prevented Edward IVs army from landing in Norfolk, however this early success in the battle turned to disaster when Oxfords forces began pillaging. Whereupon Oxford and his men cried Treasoune, after this defeat Oxford escaped to Scotland with 40 men, accompanied by his two brothers, George and Thomas Vere, and the Viscount Beaumont. From there he went to France, where he collected ships, although he was not attainted after leaving England in 1471, his lands were confiscated, and his wife, Margaret, is said to have been subjected to great financial hardship. On 28 May 1473, Oxford attempted a landing at St Osyth in Essex. On 30 September 1473, he seized St Michaels Mount in Cornwall, after most of his men had deserted and he had been wounded in the face with an arrow, Oxford was eventually compelled to surrender on 15 February 1474, along with his two brothers and Beaumont. Oxford was imprisoned at Hammes Castle near Calais, and was attainted early in 1475, at this time his mother, the 12th Earls widow, was forced to surrender her property to the Duke of Gloucester. In 1478 Oxford scaled the walls of Hammes and leapt into the moat and it is said that Richmond was ravished with joy incredible at this event. Oxford immediately returned to Hammes to bring the garrison there to join Richmond, to celebrate the Tudor victory at Bosworth, Oxford commissioned the building of the church of St. Peter and St. Paul, Lavenham. According to Gunn, Oxford was immediately recognized as one of the men of Henry VIIs regime
13.
First Battle of St Albans
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The First Battle of St Albans, fought on 22 May 1455 at St Albans,22 miles north of London, traditionally marks the beginning of the Wars of the Roses. Richard, Duke of York and his allies, the Neville Earls of Salisbury and Warwick, defeated an army commanded by Edmund Beaufort, Duke of Somerset. With King Henry VI captured, a subsequent parliament appointed Richard of York Lord Protector, the incapacitation of Henry VI by mental illness in 1454 had led to the recall to court of Richard of York, his closest adult relative. He presented himself as a champion of the law and kept urging the King to have Somerset tried and held accountable for his failures. York formed a force to force the issue in 1452, and after meeting with the council of war and the King. He disbanded his army as a result, but in no way did he expect to be arrested, an execution was avoided as the King was nervous about arousing trouble, the Duke of York was very popular and an individual known as a man of honor. York was only released after he agreed to swear an oath at St. Pauls Cathedral that he would never again take up arms against the King. After the English army led by Sir John Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury, was routed in the Battle of Castillion, Somerset had attempted to take control of the country and sought to make himself Lord Protector. And so York was given the appointment to govern England as Lord Protector and he used this position to move against his chief rival and express the bitterness which had accumulated over the years, and thus the Duke of Somerset was imprisoned. It was during this 14 months that the sides were clearly forming, there was conflict beyond that between the Dukes of York and Somerset, in fact, the two richest and most prominent families from the north, the Percys and Nevilles, were having their own conflicts. The Percys were, and still are to this day, the Earls of Northumberland, the Nevilles were also related to the Duke of York by marriage, as the Duchess of York was Cecily Neville, the daughter and subsequently the sister of the Duke of Salisbury. Much of the fighting was over land and money, but both were clearly choosing sides, the Percys for Somerset and the Nevilles for York, by Christmas of 1454, King Henry had recovered from his illness, removing the basis for Yorks authority. Somerset was released and restored to his position of power. Having reconvened the court at Westminster by mid-April 1455, Henry, York and his closest allies anticipated that Somerset would bring charges against them at this assembly. They gathered an armed retinue and marched to stop the party from reaching Leicester. The reassignment of Buckingham from Somerset as Commander of the Army had been a last minute decision by Henry VI, whether by fear of Somersets past failures, the 7, 000-strong Yorkist army arrived and camped in Keyfield to the east. Lengthy negotiations ensued with heralds moving back and forth between the rival commanders, after a few hours, it was believed in the Yorkist camp that King Henry VI knew nothing of the letters of negotiation. The Duke of York had made his intentions clear, he wanted Somerset punished, in a message to Henry VI he states
14.
Battle of Blore Heath
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The Battle of Blore Heath was one of the first major battles in the English Wars of the Roses. It was fought on 23 September 1459, at Blore Heath in Staffordshire, Blore Heath itself is a sparsely populated area of farmland, two miles east of the town of Market Drayton in Shropshire, and close to the towns of Market Drayton and Loggerheads, Staffordshire. After the First Battle of St Albans in 1455, an uneasy peace held in England, attempts at reconciliation between the houses of Lancaster and York enjoyed but marginal success. However, both sides became increasingly wary of other and by 1459 were actively recruiting armed supporters. The Yorkist force based at Middleham Castle in Yorkshire needed to link up with the main Yorkist army at Ludlow Castle in Shropshire, as Salisbury marched south-west through the Midlands the queen ordered Lord Audley to intercept them. Audley chose the barren heathland of Blore Heath to set up an ambush, Yorkist scouts spotted Lancastrian banners over the top of a hedge and immediately warned Salisbury. As they emerged from the woodland, the Yorkist force of some 5,000 men realized that a larger enemy force was awaiting their arrival. Salisbury, instead of disbanding or withdrawing his army, immediately arranged his troops into battle order, to secure his right flank, he arranged the supply wagons in a defensive laager, a circular formation to provide cover to the men. Fearing a rout, Yorkist soldiers are reported to have kissed the ground beneath them, the two armies were separated by about 300 metres on the barren heathland. A steep-sided, wide and fast-flowing brook ran between them, the brook made Audleys position seemingly impenetrable. Initially, both leaders sought unsuccessfully to parley in an attempt to avoid bloodshed, in keeping with many late medieval battles, the conflict opened with an archery duel between the longbows of both armies. At Blore Heath, this proved inconclusive because of the distance between the two sides, Salisbury, aware that any attack across the brook would be suicidal, employed a ruse to encourage the enemy to attack him. He withdrew some of his middle-order just far enough that the Lancastrians believed them to be retreating, the Lancastrians launched a cavalry charge. After they had committed themselves, Salisbury ordered his men to turn back and it is possible that the order for this Lancastrian charge was not given by Audley but it had the effect of turning the balance in favour of Salisbury. The charge resulted in casualties for the Lancastrians. The Lancastrians withdrew, and then made an assault, possibly attempting to rescue casualties. This second attack was successful with many Lancastrians crossing the brook. This led to a period of fighting in which Audley himself was killed, possibly by Sir Roger Kynaston of Myddle
15.
Battle of Ludford Bridge
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The Battle of Ludford Bridge was a largely bloodless battle fought in the early years of the Wars of the Roses. It took place on 12 October 1459, and resulted in a setback for the Yorkists, although this seemed to be a triumph for the rival Lancastrians at the time, they had thrown away their advantage within six months. In the first pitched battle of the wars, the First Battle of St Albans in 1455 and he reaffirmed his allegiance to the King, Henry of Lancaster and was reappointed Lord Protector, until February 1456. However, Henrys Queen, Margaret of Anjou, suspected that Richard ultimately intended to supplant her infant son Edward of Westminster, Prince of Wales and she continually plotted and agitated against Richard and the Nevilles, his chief supporters amongst the nobles. She was supported by nobles, many of them the sons of Yorks opponents who had died at St. Albans. The renewed outbreak of warfare was precipitated by some high-handed actions by Yorks nephew Richard Neville. Though these actions infuriated the royal court, they were popular among the merchants, particularly in London and Kent, when Warwick was summoned to London to explain his actions before the Kings council, there was violence between Warwicks retinue and the royal household. Warwick claimed that his life had been threatened, and he returned to Calais with any charges unanswered, Margaret took this to be open defiance of Henrys authority. She had long before persuaded Henry to move the court from London to the Midlands and they began mustering their forces, and summoned a council to be held in Coventry on 24 June. They were quickly indicted for rebellion, richards forces began the campaign dispersed over the country. Richard himself was at Ludlow in the Welsh Marches, Salisbury was at Middleham Castle in North Yorkshire, as Salisbury and Warwick marched to join Richard, Margaret ordered a force under James Tuchet, 5th Baron Audley to intercept Salisbury. At the bloody Battle of Blore Heath, Audleys forces were routed, even after this defeat, the forces available to Henry and Margaret outnumbered Yorks, Salisburys and Warwicks combined armies by two to one. The Yorkist army tried to move towards London, but found their path blocked by the Lancastrian army with King Henry himself nominally at its head, here, Richard attended mass in the cathedral before sending written protestations of his loyalty to Henry. Richard retreated towards Ludlow, before making a stand at a position near Ludford. His troops excavated a defensive ditch in a field on the side of the River Teme from Ludlow. They also constructed barricades of carts in which cannon were emplaced, however, morale was low, not least because the royal standard could be seen flying in the Lancastrian army, and it was known that King Henry himself was present, in full armour. For much of his reign, Henry had been regarded as an ineffectual ruler, Richard of York and his supporters had maintained that they were opposed only to Henrys evil counsellors. Now they realised that their army would refuse to fight against Henry himself
16.
Battle of Sandwich (1460)
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Not to be confused with the Battle of Sandwich. The Battle of Sandwich was a skirmish off the town of Sandwich in January 1460 during the Wars of the Roses. In it, Sir John Denham and the Earl of Warwick, Captain of Calais, now on the Yorkist side, defeated a Lancastrian fleet, little evidence and few details of the battle survive. Edward, Earl of March and Richard, Earl of Salisbury, had fled to the English stronghold of Calais after their defeat at the Battle of Ludford Bridge, sent ahead by Warwick, Sir John Denham found the kings fleet lying at Sandwich. Arriving at dawn, Denham launched an attack while the officers were still in bed. His success was so overwhelming that he tooke the principall shippes of the Kynges navie, well furnished with ordinaunce and artillarie. With command of the English Channel secured by this battle, a small Yorkist army of two thousand men landed in Kent from Calais ahead of March and Warwick. Once the town of Sandwich itself had been secured by his forces in June 1460, Warwick landed there with March, having cleared the Channel of French pirates and having made the coast of Kent safe, Warwick was received in Kent as a hero. Warwicks army soon increased in numbers, joined by new recruits. The Yorkist commanders had remained popular in Kent, and the officers in charge of protecting the county against them even joined forces with the rebels. The growing army then marched on London, where it arrived on 2 July to be welcomed by William Hulin, Lord Mayor of London, and Thomas Bourchier, Archbishop of Canterbury. The Yorkist army then marched towards Northampton to meet Henry VI and his Lancastrian army, and the two forces met at the Battle of Northampton on 10 July
17.
Battle of Northampton (1460)
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The Battle of Northampton was fought on 10 July 1460 near the River Nene, Northamptonshire. It was a battle of the Wars of the Roses. The battle was the first in artillery was used in England. After the disintegration of the Yorkist army at Ludford Bridge in 1459, the Duke of York and his second son Edmund, Earl of Rutland, retired to the relative safety of Dublin, Ireland. In England, the Lancastrians were quick to exploit the Yorkist flight, the Earl of Wiltshire was appointed Lieutenant of Ireland and the Duke of Somerset became Captain of Calais. Neither however succeeded in occupying their new posts as the Irish refused to dislodge York, the Lancastrians gave Somerset an army to storm Calais, but first they had to cross the Channel, so the construction of a fleet was started at Sandwich in Kent. In January and May 1460, Warwick made a raid on Sandwich, in June 1460, the Lancastrian invasion was pre-empted by an attack on Sandwich, which had been reinforced with several hundred Lancastrian troops commanded by Osbert Mundford. The Yorkist force under Lord Fauconberg, Sir John Wenlock and John Dynham seized the port, capturing troops, Mundford was captured, taken to Rysbank tower and executed. Warwick left his uncle, Lord Fauconberg, in Sandwich with a force of Yorkists to act as a bridgehead for his planned invasion of England. On 26 June 1460, Warwick, Salisbury and Edward landed at Sandwich with 2,000 men at arms, King Henry VI and his Queen, Margaret of Anjou, were at Coventry with their small army. Warwick entered London on 2 July with an army of supporters numbering approximately 10,000. The Kings forces took up a position at Northampton, in the grounds of Delapré Abbey, with their backs to the River Nene. The defending army was around 5,000 strong, consisting mainly of men-at-arms, the Lancastrians also had some field artillery. While approaching, Warwick sent a delegate to negotiate with the King on his behalf, the Lancastrian commander, the Duke of Buckingham, replied The Earl of Warwick shall not come to the Kings presence and if he comes he shall die. During Warwicks advance to Northampton he was twice more denied access to the Kings person, once in position, he sent a message that read At 2 oclock I will speak with the King or I will die. At two oclock the Yorkists advanced, the men were in column, but the hard rain blowing in their faces somewhat hindered them. As they closed with the Lancastrians, Warwick was met by a hail of arrows. When Warwick reached the Lancastrian left flank, commanded by Lord Grey of Ruthin, Grey had his men lay down their weapons and simply allow the Yorkists to have easy access into the camp beyond
18.
Battle of Worksop
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Battle of Worksop was a skirmish during the Wars of the Roses, near the town of Worksop, Nottinghamshire on 16 December 1460, part of the campaign which led to the Battle of Wakefield on 30 December. Beaufort had marched from Corfe Castle, Dorset and was heading north towards the rest of the Lancastrian army which had based in Hull before moving onto Pontefract. It is not known how many men Beaufort had at Worksop as he had split up his cavalry and it is supposed that Yorks men had diverted off the Great North Road to get to Sandal Castle, though it is not clear why they went via Worksop. A market was held in Worksop every Thursday and scouting parties may have been sent there to look for supplies, revenge was certainly in order as the Earl of Shrewsbury had been given Richard of Yorks land in Wakefield in 1459. Also Richard of York had a vendetta against the Earls of Somerset. There is no evidence of the battle except perhaps a section of skull in Worksop Priory with a bodkin arrowhead lodged firmly in it. This is visible to members of the public and located in the aisle of the church towards the west end. The Battle of Wakefield Revisited, A Fresh Perspective on Richard of Yorks Final Battle, December 1460
19.
Battle of Wakefield
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The Battle of Wakefield took place in Sandal Magna near Wakefield, in West Yorkshire in Northern England, on 30 December 1460. It was a battle of the Wars of the Roses. For several years before the battle, the Duke of York had become opposed to the weak King Henrys court. After King Henry became his prisoner for the time, he laid claim to the throne. Instead, he accepted the title of Protector, and a promise that he or his heirs would succeed Henry, Margaret of Anjou and several prominent nobles were irreconcilably opposed to this accord, and massed their armies in the north. Richard of York marched north to deal with them, but found he was outnumbered, although he occupied Sandal Castle, York sortied from the castle on 30 December. The Duke of York was killed and his army was destroyed, many of the prominent Yorkist leaders, King Henry VI ascended the throne when he was only nine months old. He grew up to be a king, and prone to spells of mental illness. There were increasingly bitter divisions among the officials and councillors who governed in Henrys name, by the early 1450s, the most important rivalry was that between Richard of York and Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset. York had been Lieutenant in France for several years and resented being supplanted in that office by Somerset and his rival, Somerset, belonged to the Beaufort family, who were distant cousins of King Henry. Originally illegitimate, the Beauforts had been made legitimate by an Act of Parliament but were barred from the line of succession to the throne. However, there was always the possibility that this could be circumvented and the Beaufort line eventually produced King Henry VII, York was appointed Lieutenant of Ireland, effectively exiling him from court, while Somerset increased his influence over the King. Then in 1453, Henry VI suffered a mental breakdown. The Great Council of peers appointed York Lord Protector and he governed the country responsibly, during Henrys madness his Queen, Margaret of Anjou, had given birth to a son, which dashed Yorks hopes of becoming king if Henry died. Fearing arrest for treason, York and his most prominent allies, at the First Battle of St Albans, many of Yorks and Salisburys rivals and enemies were killed, including Somerset, the Earl of Northumberland and Lord Clifford. After the battle, York reaffirmed his loyalty to King Henry and he was reappointed Lord Protector and Lieutenant of Ireland. After an uneasy peace during which attempts at reconciliation failed, hostilities broke out again in 1459, Richard of York once again feared indictment for rebellion by a Great Council dominated by his opponents. York and the Nevilles promptly abandoned their troops and fled, the next day, the outnumbered and leaderless Yorkist army surrendered
20.
Battle of Mortimer's Cross
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The Battle of Mortimers Cross was fought on 2 February 1461 near Wigmore, Herefordshire, not far from the Welsh border. It was a battle of the Wars of the Roses. Some sources say it was fought on 3 February, and the location has been the subject of some speculation. Upon the death of the Duke of York at Wakefield the previous December and he sought to prevent Lancastrian forces from Wales, led by Owen Tudor and his son Jasper, Earl of Pembroke, from joining up with the main body of Lancastrian forces. The elder Tudor had been second husband to Catherine of Valois, widow of Henry V, their sons, as Henry VIs half-brothers, had been made earls, Edward, based at Wigmore Castle had gathered his army from the English border counties and from Wales. Among his leading supporters present were Lord Audley, Lord Grey of Wilton, Sir William Herbert of Raglan, Sir Walter Devereux, after spending Christmas in Gloucester, he began to prepare to return to London. As dawn broke, the phenomenon known as parhelion occurred. He later took it as his emblem, the Sun in splendour, the event was dramatized by William Shakespeare in King Henry VI, Part 3 and in Sharon Kay Penmans The Sunne In Splendour. One of Yorks advisers, Sir Richard Croft, a lord from Croft Castle. The Lancastrians commenced the attack – Butlers ‘battle’ led the first assault, forcing Edward’s right wing to retreat across the road, where this flank dissolved. Pembroke faced Edward’s centre division and was held off, but most decisively, Owen Tudor attempted an encirclement of the Yorkist left wing, his ‘battle’ was defeated, pembrokes centre then also broke and the battle was won. Owen Tudor’s men were now in flight, some of them were followed as far as Hereford, approximately seventeen miles. He took up position north of St Albans astride the road from the north. Although he lost the battle followed, and Margaret of Anjou and her army could now march unopposed on to London. The Lancastrian armys reputation for pillage caused the Londoners to bar the gates and this in turn caused Margaret to hesitate, as did the news of the Yorkist victory at Mortimers Cross. The Lancastrians fell back through Dunstable, losing many Scots and Borderers who deserted and returned home with the plunder they had already gathered, Edward of March and Warwick entered London on 2 March, and Edward was quickly proclaimed King Edward IV of England. Within a few weeks he had confirmed his hold on the throne with a victory at the Battle of Towton. Conventional sketch maps of Mortimers Cross show the armies facing each other across the valley with the River Lugg at the rear of Edwards Yorkist army and this almost east/west alignment is partly based on the supposed approach routes of both armies
21.
Second Battle of St Albans
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The Second Battle of St Albans was a battle of the English Wars of the Roses, fought on 17 February 1461, at St Albans. The army of the Yorkist faction under the Earl of Warwick attempted to bar the road to London north of the town, the rival Lancastrian army used a wide outflanking manoeuvre to take Warwick by surprise, cut him off from London, and drive his army from the field. The victors also released the feeble King Henry VI, who had been Warwicks prisoner, however, they ultimately failed to take advantage of their victory. The Wars of the Roses were fought between the supporters of the House of Lancaster, represented by the mentally unstable King Henry VI, Richard of York quarrelled with several of Henrys court during the late 1440s and early 1450s. He was respected as a soldier and administrator, and was believed by his own supporters to have a claim to the throne than Henry. York and his friends finally openly rebelled in 1455, at the First Battle of St Albans, York gained a victory, but this did not resolve the causes of the conflict. After several attempts at reconciliation, fighting resumed in 1459, at the Battle of Northampton in 1460, Richard of Yorks nephew, the Earl of Warwick, defeated a Lancastrian army and captured King Henry, who had taken no part. York returned to London from exile in Ireland and attempted to claim the throne, instead, an agreement was reached, the Act of Accord, by which York or his heirs were to become king after Henrys death. This agreement disinherited Henrys young son Edward of Westminster, Henrys queen, Margaret of Anjou, refused to accept the Act of Accord and took Edward to Scotland to gain support there. Yorks rivals and enemies meanwhile raised an army in the north of England, York and his brother-in-law, the Earl of Salisbury, led an army to the north late in 1460 to counter these threats, but they drastically underestimated the Lancastrian forces. At the Battle of Wakefield, the Yorkist army was destroyed and York, Salisbury and Yorks second son, Edmund, the victorious Lancastrian army began advancing south towards London. The army contained a contingent from the West Country, but many of its men were from the Scottish Borders or Scotland. The death of Richard of York left his eighteen-year-old son Edward, Earl of March and he led one Yorkist army in the Welsh Marches, while Warwick led another in London and the south east. Naturally, they intended to combine their forces to face Margarets army, on 2 February, Edward defeated Tudors army at the Battle of Mortimers Cross. Warwick, with the captive King Henry in his train, meanwhile moved to block Margarets armys route to London. He took up position north of St Albans astride the road from the north. Part of his defences used the ancient Belgic earthwork known as Beech Bottom Dyke, Warwicks forces were divided into three Battles, as was customary at the time. He himself led the Main Battle in the centre, the Duke of Norfolk led the Forward Battle on the right and Warwicks brother John Neville commanded the Rear Battle on the left
22.
Battle of Ferrybridge
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The Battle of Ferrybridge,28 March 1461, was a preliminary engagement between the houses of York and Lancaster before the larger battle of Towton, during the period known as the Wars of the Roses. After proclaiming himself king, Edward IV gathered together a large force, on 27 March the Earl of Warwick forced a crossing at Ferrybridge, bridging the gaps with planks. In the process he lost many men, both to the winter water and to the frequent hail of arrows coming from a small. Once the crossing was managed and the Lancastrians seen off, Warwick had his men repair the bridge while camp was established on the side of the river. Early next morning the Yorkists were ambushed by a party of Lancastrians under Lord Clifford and John. Completely surprised and confused Warwick’s forces suffered many losses, Warwick’s second-in-command at camp, Lord FitzWalter was mortally wounded while trying to rally his men. The Bastard of Salisbury, Warwicks half-brother was slain and in the process of retreating the Earl of Warwick himself was injured, jean de Wavrin states that nearly 3000 men perished in the fighting. After the battle Edward arrived with his army and together Warwick. Warwick sent his uncle, Lord Fauconberg with the Yorkist cavalry upstream to where they crossed the ford at Castleford, Fauconberg pursued Lord Clifford, in sight of the main Lancastrian army and defeated him after a fierce struggle. Clifford was killed by an arrow in the throat, having removed the piece of armour that should have protected this area of his body
23.
Battle of Towton
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The Battle of Towton was fought during the English Wars of the Roses on 29 March 1461, near the village of Towton in Yorkshire. It is described as probably the largest and bloodiest battle fought on English soil. According to chroniclers, more than 50,000 soldiers from the Houses of York and Lancaster fought for hours amidst a snowstorm on that day, a newsletter circulated a week after the battle reported that 28,000 died on the battlefield. Contemporary accounts described Henry VI as peaceful and pious, not suited for the violent dynastic civil wars and he had periods of insanity while his inherent benevolence eventually required his wife, Margaret of Anjou, to assume control of his kingdom, which contributed to his own downfall. After the Yorkists captured Henry in 1460, the English parliament passed an Act of Accord to let York, Henrys consort, Margaret of Anjou, refused to accept the dispossession of her sons right to the throne and, along with fellow Lancastrian malcontents, raised an army. Richard of York was killed at the Battle of Wakefield and his titles, including the claim to the throne, the Battle of Towton was to affirm the victors right to rule over England through force of arms. On reaching the battlefield, the Yorkists found themselves heavily outnumbered, Part of their force under the Duke of Norfolk had yet to arrive. The Yorkist leader Lord Fauconberg turned the tables by ordering his archers to take advantage of the wind to outrange their enemies. The one-sided missile exchange, with Lancastrian arrows falling short of the Yorkist ranks, the ensuing hand-to-hand combat lasted hours, exhausting the combatants. The arrival of Norfolks men reinvigorated the Yorkists and, encouraged by Edward, many Lancastrians were killed while fleeing, some trampled each other and others drowned in the rivers, which are said to have made them run red with blood for several days. Several who were taken as prisoners were executed, the power of the House of Lancaster was severely reduced after this battle. Later generations remembered the battle as depicted in William Shakespeares dramatic adaptation of Henrys life—Henry VI, Part 3, Act 2, in 1929, the Towton Cross was erected on the battlefield to commemorate the event. Various archaeological remains and mass graves related to the battle were found in the centuries after the engagement. In 1461, England was in the year of the Wars of the Roses. The Lancastrians backed the reigning King of England, Henry VI, the leader of the Yorkists was initially Richard, Duke of York, who resented the dominance of a small number of aristocrats favoured by the king, principally his close relatives the Beaufort family. Fuelled by rivalries between influential supporters of both factions, Yorks attempts to displace Henrys favourites from power escalated into a full-blown conflict, after capturing Henry at the Battle of Northampton in 1460, the duke, who was of royal blood, issued his own claim to the throne. The Queen of England, Margaret of Anjou, refused to accept an arrangement that deprived her son—Edward of Westminster—of his birthright. She had fled to Scotland after the Yorkist victory at Northampton, there she began raising an army and her Lancastrian supporters also mustered in the north of England, preparing for her arrival
24.
Battle of Hedgeley Moor
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The Battle of Hedgeley Moor,25 April 1464, was a battle of the Wars of the Roses. The battle ended in a Yorkist victory, at the beginning of 1464, after setbacks in 1463, the Lancastrians were hoping that the Welsh Marches and the West Country would rise in their support. The Yorkists wanted to remove the threat of Scottish invasion, by reaching an agreement with the Scots, lord Montagu was therefore sent north with a small force to escort them to York. The Duke of Somerset tried to ambush Montagu near Newcastle but the latter was able to evade this attempt and he continued his journey northwards, gathering troops as he went. When Montagu reached Hedgeley Moor he had an army of five or six thousand men, there he met a Lancastrian army of five thousand men commanded by Somerset. The Lancastrian army also included Lords Roos and Hungerford, Sir Ralph Percy, the battle began with the normal exchange of archery between the two armies. The whole Lancastrian force gave way when the Yorkists clashed with their line, pushed back by weight of numbers all but a few of the remaining Lancastrians fled the field. Sir Ralph Percy stayed with his retainers and made a brave last stand. However, deserted by the rest of the army, including all the other commanders, as he died he is said to have uttered the enigmatic words, ‘I have saved the bird in my bosom’. The defeat and dispersal of the Lancastrian forces made it possible for the Scottish negotiators to be escorted to York. A square sandstone pillar stands near the site of the battle, there are two ballads commemorating the battle, The Battle of Hedgley Moor by Frederick Sheldon, and The Legend of Percys Cross by James Service. Battle for Northumbria,1988, Bridge Studios, ISBN 0-9512630-3-X
25.
Battle of Hexham
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The Battle of Hexham marked the end of significant Lancastrian resistance in the north of England during the early part of the reign of Edward IV. The battle was fought near the town of Hexham in Northumberland, John Neville, later to be 1st Marquess of Montagu, led a modest force of 3, 000-4,000 men, routed the rebel Lancastrians. Most of the leaders were captured and executed, including Henry Beaufort, Duke of Somerset. Henry VI, however, was safely away, and escaped to the north. With their leadership gone, only a few remained in rebel hands. After these fell later in the year, Edward IV was not seriously challenged until the Earl of Warwick changed his allegiance from the Yorkist to the Lancastrian cause in 1469. It was decided to mount a campaign in the North of England to gather Lancastrian support before a force under Edward IV could muster in Leicester. The Lancastrian army moved through Northumberland in late April 1464 under the Duke of Somerset, a Yorkist force under John Neville raced north in vanguard of Edwards larger force and the two sides met outside Hexham on 14 May 1464. Details of the site of the battle, the composition and number of combatants, the Lancastrian camp was near Linnels Bridge over the Devils Water found slightly to the south of Hexham. The Yorkists crossed onto the bank of the Tyne on the night of 12th/13 May and were by the morning of the 14th in a position to attack Hexham. Presumably the Yorkist advance was at speed, as despite warnings by their own scouts the Lancastrians had little time to prepare for battle, no sooner had the Lancastrians taken their positions than the Yorkists charged down from their positions on higher ground. Upon seeing the Yorkist advance the right detachment of the Lancastrian army, commanded by Lord Roos, turned and fled across the Devils Water and into Hexham, before a single blow had been struck. Lancastrian morale collapsed, and after some resistance the remains of Somersets army was pushed into the Devils Water by the Yorkist infantry. A chaotic rout followed, men either drowned in the river or were crushed as they tried to climb the banks of the Devils Water in the retreat towards Hexham. Most, however were trapped in West Dipton Wood on the bank of the river and were forced to surrender when the Yorkists approached. Sir William Tailboys was captured and executed shortly after as he tried to flee north with £2000 of Henrys war chest, on the loss of its leadership and bank roll, the Lancastrian resistance in the North of England collapsed. The capture of Henry at Waddington, near Clitheroe, Lancashire meant the rebellion was effectively over, there followed a relative period of peace until the Earl of Warwicks defection to the Lancastrian cause in 1469 and the wars started anew
26.
Battle of Edgecote Moor
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The Battle of Edgecote Moor took place 6 miles north east of Banbury, Oxfordshire, in what is now the civil parish of Chipping Warden and Edgcote, England on 26 July 1469 during the Wars of the Roses. The site of the battle was actually Danes Moor in Northamptonshire, the battle saw supporters of Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, defeat the forces of King Edward IV, leading to the kings capitulation soon afterwards. The Earl of Warwick came to be in rebellion against Edward by 1469. Eight years after the great Yorkists victory in battle of Towton in which The Kingmaker took crucial part, he, in 1464 Warwick was in the middle of negotiations with pro-Lancastrian France, and he knew that a royal marriage with a French princess could solve their problems. Later on, Elizabeths brothers and sisters were married off to ladies and nobles of importance, most of these marriages offended Warwick in some way, and at least one was a direct insult to his family. Warwick was also angered by Edwards constant refusal to let George, Duke of Clarence, Edward claimed hypocritically that Clarence would serve for a diplomatic marriage and none other. Warwick no longer exercised any control or even influence over his cousin, thoughts turned to rebellion in Warwicks mind, a rebellion in which he already had an ally, the Duke of Clarence, heir to the English throne while the king had no male offspring. Small rebellions in the North sent the King on a march in that direction. With the Kings back turned, Warwicks agents spread rumours stating that the King was bastard-born, in the North, one of Warwicks captains, calling himself Robin of Redesdale, started a new rebellion. When Edward heard of this, he believed the rebellion would easily be put down and he soon learned that the rebels in fact outnumbered his own small force, and he started a retreat towards Nottingham to gather more recruits. Unfortunately, the King lacked the popularity he once had, Edward decided to wait in Nottingham for the Earls of Pembroke and Devon to arrive with an army from the south. On 12 July, Warwick and Clarence declared their support for the rebels, on the 18th, Warwick left London at the head of a large army to reinforce the rebels. The rebels hurried south to meet with Warwick, bypassing the King but nearly colliding with Pembroke, the two armies became aware of each other on 25 July and joined in battle early in the morning of the 26th. The beginning was a rather one-sided affair as the Earl of Devon and his Welsh archers were some miles away, the rebels attacked across the river forcing Pembroke to retreat and pull his men back some distance. Pembroke was attacked again in his new position, but he put up a defence while awaiting Devon. At 1 oclock the Earl received the news he had been waiting for, however, at the same time the advance guard of Warwicks army arrived upon the field. Seeing Warwicks livery amongst the enemy, Pembrokes men presumed his whole force of soldiers was upon them. The royal army broke and fled the field, possibly before Devon could even reinforce them, the Earl of Pembroke and his brother Sir Richard Herbert were captured and executed the following day
27.
Battle of Losecoat Field
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The Battle of Losecoat Field was fought on 12 March 1470, during the Wars of the Roses. Spellings of Losecoat vary, with Losecote and Loose-coat also seen, however, with the help and support of his brother Richard, Duke of Gloucester, he had by now regained power. Despite the nominal reconciliation of Warwick and the king, by March 1470 Warwick found himself in a position to that which he had been in before the battle of Edgecote. He was unable to exercise any control over, or influence, Warwick wanted to place another of the Kings brothers, George, Duke of Clarence, on the throne so that he could regain his influence. To do so, he called on supporters of the defeated House of Lancaster. When his family fell foul of Edward in 1470, Robert Welles, 8th Baron Willoughby de Eresby, Warwick judged the time was ripe for another coup détat, to kill or remove Edward from the throne. Welles started gathering armed forces at his base in Lincolnshire, ready for a show of arms against the King, the unrest in Lincolnshire, prompted the King to act, and he started gathering men for his army on 4 March. The news of the Kings intention to march to Lincolnshire quickly spread panic among people there, with the encouragement of Warwick and Clarence, Sir Robert Welles set himself up as a great captain of the people of Lincolnshire. On 4 March summons were sent to all the surrounding estates requesting every able man to him in the resisting of the King. On the 7th the King heard that the rebels were marching towards Stamford with an army of 100,000 men, having recruited many men from the local counties, especially from Yorkshire. The King later received letters from Clarence and Warwick stating they were marching North with all their men to support the King, the King then unsuspectingly issued commissions of array which included Warwicks name, authorising him to raise his own army of professional soldiers. Edward then received news that the rebels had changed course for Leicester, as had Warwick and Clarence, Sir Robert Welles received a letter from the King telling him to disband his rebel army, or his father would be executed. Welles quickly turned back with his army to Stamford, Edwards confidence grew when Welles failed to rendezvous with Warwick and his experienced forces, and the captured Lord Welles was duly beheaded. Edwards scouts informed him that the army was some five miles from Stamford. Edward positioned his men in a line to the north of Welles army. This action set off the rebels, advancing with cries of á Warwick, a single barrage of cannonballs was fired and then Edward had his men charge towards the enemy. Before the leaders of this attack could come to blows with the rebel front line the battle was over. The rebels broke and fled rather than face the Kings highly trained men, both captains, Sir Robert Welles and his commander of foot Richard Warren were captured during the rout and were executed a week later on 19 March
28.
Battle of Tewkesbury
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The Battle of Tewkesbury, which took place on 4 May 1471, was one of the decisive battles of the Wars of the Roses. The forces loyal to the House of Lancaster were completely defeated by those of the rival House of York under their monarch, the Lancastrian king, Henry VI, who was a prisoner in the Tower of London, died or was murdered shortly after the battle. Tewkesbury restored political stability to England until the death of Edward IV in 1483, in 1461 the Yorkist claimant, Edward, Earl of March, was proclaimed King Edward IV and defeated the supporters of the weak, intermittently insane Lancastrian king Henry VI at the Battle of Towton. Lancastrian revolts in the far north of England were defeated in 1464, and his Queen, Margaret of Anjou, and their thirteen-year-old son Edward of Westminster, were exiled and impoverished in France. Edward IVs hold on the throne appeared temporarily to be secure, Edward IV owed his victory in large measure to the support of his cousin, the powerful Earl of Warwick. When the marriage became public knowledge, Edward placed many of his new family in powerful positions that Warwick had hoped to control. Edward meanwhile reversed Warwicks policy of friendship with France by marrying his sister Margaret to Charles the Bold, the embittered Warwick secured the support of Edward IVs brother George, Duke of Clarence, for a coup, in exchange for Warwicks promise to crown Clarence king. Although Edward was imprisoned briefly, Clarence was unacceptable as monarch to most of the country, Edward was allowed to resume his rule, outwardly reconciled with Warwick and Clarence. Within a year, he accused them of fresh treachery and forced them to flee to France, with no hope of a reconciliation with King Edward, Warwicks best hope of regaining power in England lay in restoring Henry VI to the throne. Louis XI of France feared an alliance of Burgundy under Charles the Bold. He was prepared to support Warwick with men and money, but to give legitimacy to any uprising by Warwick, Warwick and Margaret were previously sworn enemies, but Margarets attendants and Louis eventually persuaded her to ally the House of Lancaster with Warwick. At Angers, Warwick begged her pardon on his knees for all past wrongs done to her, Prince Edward was betrothed to Warwicks younger daughter Anne. Finally, they swore loyalty to Henry VI on a fragment of the True Cross in Angers Cathedral, however, Margaret declined to let Prince Edward land in England or to land there herself until Warwick had established a firm government and made the country safe for them. Warwick landed in the West Country on 13 September 1470, accompanied by Clarence and some unswerving Lancastrian nobles, including the Earl of Oxford and Jasper Tudor, the Earl of Pembroke. Edward fled to Kings Lynn where he took ship for Flanders, part of Burgundy, accompanied only by his youngest brother, Richard of Gloucester, in London, Warwick released King Henry, led him in procession to Saint Pauls cathedral and installed him in Westminster palace. His alliance with Louis of France and his intention to declare war on Burgundy was contrary to the interests of the merchants, as it threatened English trade with Flanders, Clarence had long been excluded from Warwicks calculations. In November 1470, Parliament declared that Prince Edward and his descendants were Henrys heirs to the throne, unknown to Warwick, Clarence secretly became reconciled with his brother, King Edward. With Warwick in power in England, it was Charles of Burgundys turn to fear a hostile alliance of England, as an obvious counter to Warwick, he supplied King Edward with money, ships and several hundred men
29.
Battle of Bosworth Field
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Fought on 22 August 1485, the battle was won by the Lancastrians. Their leader Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, by his victory became the first English monarch of the Tudor dynasty and his opponent, Richard III, the last king of the House of York, was killed in the battle. Historians consider Bosworth Field to mark the end of the Plantagenet dynasty, at the request of his brother Edward IV, Richard was acting as Lord Protector for his son Edward V. Richard had Parliament declare Edward V illegitimate and ineligible for the throne, across the English Channel in Brittany, Henry Tudor, a descendant of the greatly diminished House of Lancaster, seized on Richards difficulties so that he could challenge his claim to the throne. Henrys first attempt to invade England was frustrated by a storm in 1483, marching inland, Henry gathered support as he made for London. Richard mustered his troops and intercepted Henrys army south of Market Bosworth in Leicestershire, Thomas, Lord Stanley, and Sir William Stanley brought a force to the battlefield, but held back while they decided which side it would be more advantageous to support. Richard divided his army, which outnumbered Henrys, into three groups, one was assigned to the Duke of Norfolk and another to the Earl of Northumberland. Henry kept most of his force together and placed it under the command of the experienced Earl of Oxford, Richards vanguard, commanded by Norfolk, attacked but struggled against Oxfords men, and some of Norfolks troops fled the field. Northumberland took no action when signalled to assist his king, so Richard gambled everything on a charge across the battlefield to kill Henry, seeing the kings knights separated from his army, the Stanleys intervened, Sir William led his men to Henrys aid, surrounding and killing Richard. After the battle Henry was crowned king below an oak tree in nearby Stoke Golding, Henry hired chroniclers to portray his reign favourably, the Battle of Bosworth was popularised to represent the Tudor dynasty as the start of a new age. From the 15th to the 18th centuries the battle was glamorised as a victory of good over evil, the climax of William Shakespeares play Richard III provides a focal point for critics in later film adaptations. The exact site of the battle is disputed because of the lack of conclusive data, in 1974 the Bosworth Battlefield Heritage Centre was built on a site that has since been challenged by several scholars and historians. In October 2009 a team of researchers, who had performed geological surveys and archaeological digs in the area from 2003, during the 15th century civil war raged across England as the Houses of York and Lancaster fought each other for the English throne. In 1471 the Yorkists defeated their rivals in the battles of Barnet, the Lancastrian King Henry VI and his only son, Edward of Lancaster, died in the aftermath of the Battle of Tewkesbury. Their deaths left the House of Lancaster with no direct claimants to the throne, the Yorkist king, Edward IV, was in complete control of England. He attainted those who refused to submit to his rule, such as Jasper Tudor and his nephew Henry, naming them traitors and confiscating their lands. The Tudors tried to flee to France but strong winds forced them to land in Brittany, then a semi-independent duchy, Henrys mother, Lady Margaret Beaufort, was a great-granddaughter of John of Gaunt, uncle of King Richard II and father of King Henry IV. The Beauforts were originally bastards, but Henry IV legitimised them on the condition that their descendants were not eligible to inherit the throne
30.
Battle of Stoke Field
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The Battle of Bosworth Field, two years previously, had established King Henry VII on the throne, ending the last period of Yorkist rule and initiating that of the Tudors. The Battle of Stoke Field was the engagement in an attempt by leading Yorkists to unseat him in favour of the pretender Lambert Simnel. In the end, though, Henrys victory was crushing, almost all the leading Yorkists were killed in the battle. The chief claimant of the York dynasty was the queens first cousin, Edward, Earl of Warwick and this boy was kept confined in the Tower of London. An impostor claiming to be Edward, whose name was Lambert Simnel, came to the attention of John de la Pole, although he probably had no doubt about Simnels true identity, Lincoln saw an opportunity for revenge and reparation. Lincoln fled the English court on 19 March 1487 and went to the court of Mechelen and his aunt, Margaret, Margaret provided financial and military support in the form of 2000 German and Swiss mercenaries, under the commander Martin Schwartz. The Yorkists decided to sail to Ireland, where the Yorkist cause was popular, the Yorkist fleet set sail and arrived in Dublin on 4 May 1487. With the support of the Irish nobility and clergy, Lincoln had the pretender Lambert Simnel crowned King Edward VI in Dublin on 24 May 1487. Although a Parliament was called for the new King, Lincoln had no intention of remaining in Dublin and instead packed up the army and Simnel, on landing on 4 June 1487, Lincoln was joined by a number of the local gentry led by Sir Thomas Broughton. In a series of forced marches, the Yorkist army, now numbering some 8,000 men, on the night of 10 June, at Bramham moor, outside Tadcaster, Lovell led 2,000 men on a night attack against 400 Lancastrians, led by Lord Clifford. The result was an overwhelming Yorkist victory, Lord Scrope then withdrew northwards, taking Northumberlands army with him. Lincoln and the army continued southwards. Outside Doncaster, Lincoln encountered Lancastrian cavalry under Edward Woodville, Lord Scales, there followed three days of skirmishing through Sherwood Forest. Lincoln forced Scales back to Nottingham, where Scales cavalry stayed to wait for the royal army. Rhys ap Thomas, Henrys leading supporter in Wales, also arrived with reinforcements, Henrys army now outnumbered the Yorkists. In addition, it was far better armed and equipped than the Yorkist army and his two principal military commanders, Jasper Tudor and John de Vere, 13th Earl of Oxford, were also more experienced than the Yorkist leaders. On 15 June, King Henry began moving north east toward Newark after receiving news that Lincoln had crossed the River Trent and their right flank was anchored on a high spot known as Burham Furlong. Henrys army was divided into three battles, of which Oxford led the vanguard, as at Bosworth, the king left the direction of the fighting itself to Oxford
31.
England in the Middle Ages
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England in the Middle Ages concerns the history of England during the medieval period, from the end of the 5th century through to the start of the Early Modern period in 1485. When England emerged from the collapse of the Roman Empire, the economy was in tatters, after several centuries of Germanic immigration, new identities and cultures began to emerge, developing into predatory kingdoms that competed for power. A rich artistic culture flourished under the Anglo-Saxons, producing epic poems such as Beowulf, the Anglo-Saxons converted to Christianity in the 7th century and a network of monasteries and convents were built across England. The Norman invasion of England in 1066 led to the defeat and replacement of the Anglo-Saxon elite with Norman and French nobles, William the Conqueror and his successors took over the existing state system, repressing local revolts and controlling the population through a network of castles. The new rulers introduced an approach to governing England, eradicating the practice of slavery. The position of women in society changed as laws regarding land, Englands population more than doubled during the 12th and 13th centuries, fuelling an expansion of the towns, cities and trade, helped by warmer temperatures across Northern Europe. A new wave of monasteries and friaries were established, while ecclesiastical reforms led to tensions between successive kings and archbishops, despite developments in Englands governance and legal system, infighting between the Anglo-Norman elite resulted in multiple civil wars and the loss of Normandy. Nearly 1,500 villages were deserted by their inhabitants and many men and women sought new opportunities in the towns, new technologies were introduced, and England produced some of the great medieval philosophers and natural scientists. English kings in the 14th and 15th centuries laid claim to the French throne, more social unrest broke out, followed by the Wars of the Roses, fought between rival factions in the English nobility. Henry VIIs victory in 1485 typically marks the end of the Middle Ages in England, at the start of the Middle Ages, England was a part of Britannia, a former province of the Roman Empire. The English economy had once dominated by imperial Roman spending on a large military establishment, which in turn helped to support a complex network of towns, roads. At the end of the 4th century, however, Roman forces had largely withdrawn. Germanic immigrants began to arrive in increasing numbers during the 5th century, initially peacefully, establishing small farms, in the 7th century, the kingdom of Mercia rose to prominence under the leadership of King Penda. Mercia invaded neighbouring lands until it loosely controlled around 50 regiones covering much of England, Mercia and the remaining kingdoms, led by their warrior elites, continued to compete for territory throughout the 8th century. Massive earthworks, such as the dyke built by Offa of Mercia, helped to defend key frontiers. Mercia and Northumbria fell in 875 and 876, and Alfred of Wessex was driven into exile in 878. Suppressing internal opposition to his rule, Alfred contained the invaders within a known as the Danelaw. The West Saxon rulers were now kings of the Angelcynn, that is of the whole English folk, with the death of Edgar, however, the royal succession became problematic
32.
Hertfordshire
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Hertfordshire is a county in southern England, bordered by Bedfordshire to the north, Cambridgeshire to the north-east, Essex to the east, Buckinghamshire to the west and Greater London to the south. For government statistical purposes, it is placed in the East of England region, in 2013, the county had a population of 1,140,700 living in an area of 634 square miles. Four towns have between 50,000 and 100,000 residents, Hemel Hempstead, Stevenage, Watford and St Albans. Hertford, once the market town for the medieval agricultural county derives its name from a hart. Elevations are high for the region in the north and west and these reach over 240m in the western projection around Tring which is in the Chilterns. The countys borders are approximately the watersheds of the Colne and Lea, hertfordshires undeveloped land is mainly agricultural and much is protected by green belt. The countys landmarks span many centuries, ranging from the Six Hills in the new town of Stevenage built by local inhabitants during the Roman period, Leavesden filmed much of the UK-based $7.7 Bn box office Harry Potter film series and has the countrys studio tour. Saint Alban, a Romano-British soldier, took the place of a Christian priest and was beheaded on Holywell Hill and his martyrs cross of a yellow saltire on a blue background is reflected in the flag and coat of arms of Hertfordshire. Hertfordshire is well-served with motorways and railways, providing access to London. The largest sector of the economy of the county is in services, Hertfordshire was the area assigned to a fortress constructed at Hertford under the rule of Edward the Elder in 913. Hertford is derived from the Anglo-Saxon heort ford, meaning deer crossing, the name Hertfordshire is first recorded in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in 1011. Deer feature in many county emblems, there is evidence of humans living in Hertfordshire from the Mesolithic period. It was first farmed during the Neolithic period and permanent habitation appeared at the beginning of the Bronze Age and this was followed by tribes settling in the area during the Iron Age. 293 the first recorded British martyrdom is believed to have taken place. Saint Alban, a Romano-British soldier, took the place of a Christian priest and was beheaded on Holywell Hill. His martyrs cross of a saltire on a blue background is reflected in the flag. He is the Patron Saint of Hertfordshire, with the departure of the Roman Legions in the early 5th century, the now unprotected territory was invaded and colonised by the Anglo-Saxons. By the 6th century the majority of the county was part of the East Saxon kingdom
33.
Henry VI of England
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Henry VI was King of England from 1422 to 1461 and again from 1470 to 1471, and disputed King of France from 1422 to 1453. Henry inherited the long-running Hundred Years War, where Charles VII contested his claim to the French throne. Henry married Charless niece, Margaret of Anjou, partially in the hope of achieving peace in 1445, the war recommenced, with France taking the upper hand, by 1453, Calais was Henrys only remaining territory on the continent. Henry experienced a breakdown after the failure of the war. Civil war broke out in 1460, leading to a period of dynastic conflict known as the Wars of the Roses. Henry was taken prisoner by Richard of York at Northampton on 10 July 1460 but was rescued that December by forces loyal to Margaret and he was deposed on 29 March 1461 following the victory at Towton by Richards son, who took the throne as Edward IV. Henry suffered another breakdown and, despite Margaret continuing to lead a resistance to Edward, he was captured by Edwards forces in 1465 and imprisoned in the Tower of London. Richard Neville, the Earl of Warwick, restored Henry to the throne in 1470, Henry died in the Tower during the night of 21 May 1471, possibly killed on the orders of Edward. He was buried at Chertsey Abbey, before being moved to Windsor Castle in 1484, miracles were attributed to Henry after his death, and he was informally regarded as a saint and martyr until the 16th century. He left a legacy of educational institutions, having founded Eton College, Kings College and All Souls College, William Shakespeare wrote a trilogy of plays about his life, depicting him as weak-willed and easily influenced by his wife, Margaret. Henry was the child and heir of King Henry V. He was born on 6 December 1421 at Windsor Castle and he succeeded to the throne as King of England at the age of nine months upon his fathers death on 31 August 1422, he was the youngest person ever to succeed to the English throne. A few weeks later on 21 October 1422 in accordance with the Treaty of Troyes of 1420 and his mother, Catherine of Valois, was then 20 years old. As Charles VIs daughter, she was viewed with suspicion by English nobles and was prevented from playing a full role in her sons upbringing. On 28 September 1423, the nobles swore loyalty to Henry VI and they summoned Parliament in the Kings name and established a regency council to govern until the King should come of age. One of Henry Vs surviving brothers, John, Duke of Bedford, was appointed regent of the realm and was in charge of the ongoing war in France. During Bedfords absence, the government of England was headed by Henry Vs other surviving brother, Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester and his duties were limited to keeping the peace and summoning Parliament. Henry Vs half-uncle Henry Beaufort, Bishop of Winchester, had an important place on the Council, after the Duke of Bedford died in 1435, the Duke of Gloucester claimed the Regency himself, but was contested in this by the other members of the Council
34.
Burgundian Netherlands
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The area comprised large parts of present-day Belgium and the Netherlands, as well as Luxembourg and parts of northern France. A fair share of these territories were inherited by the Burgundian dukes, together they initiated an era of Burgundian governance in the Low Countries. His son, the last Burgundian duke Charles the Bold, in 1473 annexed the Duchy of Guelders, the Valois era would last until 1477, when Duke Charles the Bold died at the Battle of Nancy leaving no male heir. The territorial Duchy of Burgundy reverted to the French crown according to Salic law, the Imperial fiefs passed to the Austrian House of Habsburg through Charles daughter Mary of Burgundy and her husband Archduke Maximilian of Habsburg, son of Emperor Frederick III. Maximilian however regarded the Burgundian Netherlands including Flanders and Artois as the domains of his wife and himself. The conflict culminated at the Battle of Guinegate in 1479, though Maximilian was victorious, he was only able to gain the County of Flanders according to the 1482 Treaty of Arras after his wife Mary had suddenly died, while France retained Artois. In her testament, Mary of Burgundy had bequested the Burgundian heritage to her and Maximilians son and his father, dissatisfied with the terms of the Arras agreement, continued to campaign the seized French territories. Attempts at enlarging personal control by the dukes resulted in revolts among the independent towns, Philip the Good extended his personal control to the southeast, bringing Brussels, Namur, and Liège under his control. He channeled the traditional independence of the cities through such mechanisms as the first Estates-General, the first Estates General of the Burgundian territories met in the City Hall of Bruges on 9 January 1464. Up to 1464, the Duke only maintained ties with each of the provincial States separately, convening an Estates General in which all provincial Estates were represented was part of Philip the Goods policy of centralisation. They were suppressed by Maximilians forces under the command of Duke Albert of Saxony at a battle at Heemskerk, early Netherlandish Painting, Its Origins and Character. Metropolitan Museum, Burgundian Netherlands, Court Life Metropolitan Museum, Burgundian Netherlands, Private Life
35.
Charles the Bold
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Charles the Bold, baptised Charles Martin, was Duke of Burgundy from 1467 to 1477. He was the last Duke of Burgundy from the House of Valois and is also known as Charles the Rash. His early death at the Battle of Nancy at the hands of Swiss mercenaries fighting for René II, Charles the Bold was born in Dijon, the son of Philip the Good and Isabella of Portugal. Before the death of his father in 1467, he bore the title of Count of Charolais, afterwards, he assumed all of his fathers titles, including that of Grand Duke of the West. He was also made a Knight of the Golden Fleece just twenty days after his birth, invested by Charles I, Count of Nevers, Charles was brought up under the direction of Jean dAuxy and early showed great application alike to academic studies and warlike exercises. His fathers court was the most extravagant in Europe at the time, in 1440, at the age of seven, Charles was married to Catherine, daughter of King Charles VII of France and sister of the Dauphin. She was five years older than her husband, and she died in 1446 at the age of 18, in 1454, at the age of 21, Charles married a second time. He wanted to marry a daughter of his distant cousin Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York and his father chose Isabella of Bourbon, who was three years younger than he was. Isabella was the daughter of Philip the Goods sister Agnes and a distant cousin of Charles VII of France. Their daughter Mary of Burgundy was Charles only surviving child, she inherited all the Burgundian domains before her marriage to Maximilian of Hapsburg, the son of Holy Roman Emperor Frederick III. Charles was on terms with his brother-in-law Louis, the Dauphin of France. For his third wife, Charles was offered the hand of Louis XIs daughter Anne, the wife he ultimately chose, however, was his second cousin Margaret of York. Upon the death of his father in 1467, Charles was no longer bound by the terms of the Treaty of Arras, and he decided to ally himself with Burgundys old ally England. Louis did his best to prevent or delay the marriage with Margaret, but in the summer of 1468, it was celebrated sumptuously at Bruges, the couple had no children, but Margaret devoted herself to her stepdaughter Mary. After Marys death many years later, she kept Marys two infant children as long as she was allowed. On 12 April 1465, Philip relinquished control of the government of his domains to Charles, who spent the next summer prosecuting the War of the Public Weal against Louis XI. Charles was left master of the field at the Battle of Montlhéry on 13 July 1465, during the negotiations for the treaty, his wife Isabella died suddenly at Les Quesnoy on 25 September, making a political marriage suddenly possible. As part of the treaty, Louis promised him the hand of his infant daughter Anne, with the territories of Champagne and Ponthieu as a dowry, in the meanwhile, Charles obtained the surrender of Ponthieu
36.
Duke of Burgundy
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Under the Ancien Régime, the Duke of Burgundy was the premier lay peer of the kingdom of France. Beginning with Robert II of France, the title was held by the Capetians and it was granted to Roberts younger son, Robert, who founded the House of Burgundy. When the senior line of the House of Burgundy became extinct, John granted the duchy as an appanage for his younger son, Philip the Bold. The Valois Dukes of Burgundy became dangerous rivals to the line of the House of Valois. When the male line of the Valois Dukes of Burgundy became extinct, today, the title is used by the House of Bourbon as a revived courtesy title. His descendants and their relatives by marriage ruled the duchy until its annexation over a century later by the French crown, their suzerain. Richard the Justiciar Rudolph, then King of France Hugh the Black Gilbert Otto Eudes Henry the Great Otto William In 1004, Burgundy was annexed by the king, Otto William continued to rule what would come to be called the Free County of Burgundy. His descendants formed another House of Ivrea, Robert Henry Robert, son of Robert II of France, received the Duchy as a peace settlement, having disputed the succession to the throne of France with his brother Henry. John II of France, the second Valois king, successfully claimed the Duchy after the death of Philip, John then passed the duchy to his youngest son Philip as an apanage. In 1477, the territory of the Duchy of Burgundy was annexed by France, in the same year, Mary married Maximilian, Archduke of Austria, giving the Habsburgs control of the remainder of the Burgundian Inheritance. They often used the term Burgundy to refer to it, until the late 18th century, at the same time, various members of the French royal family, most notably Louis, Dauphin of France, the father of Louis XV of France, also used the title. Duchess of Burgundy Kingdom of Burgundy King of Burgundy Duchy of Burgundy County of Burgundy Count of Burgundy Dukes of Burgundy family tree Calmette, the Golden Age of Burgundy, the Magnificent Dukes and Their Courts. Les Origines du Duché de Bourgogne
37.
Tower of London
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The Tower of London, officially Her Majestys Royal Palace and Fortress of the Tower of London, is a historic castle located on the north bank of the River Thames in central London. It lies within the London Borough of Tower Hamlets, separated from the edge of the square mile of the City of London by the open space known as Tower Hill. It was founded towards the end of 1066 as part of the Norman Conquest of England. The White Tower, which gives the castle its name, was built by William the Conqueror in 1078 and was a resented symbol of oppression. The castle was used as a prison from 1100 until 1952, a grand palace early in its history, it served as a royal residence. As a whole, the Tower is a complex of buildings set within two concentric rings of defensive walls and a moat. There were several phases of expansion, mainly under Kings Richard the Lionheart, Henry III, the general layout established by the late 13th century remains despite later activity on the site. The Tower of London has played a prominent role in English history and it was besieged several times, and controlling it has been important to controlling the country. The Tower has served variously as an armoury, a treasury, a menagerie, the home of the Royal Mint, a record office. From the early 14th century until the reign of Charles II, in the absence of the monarch, the Constable of the Tower is in charge of the castle. This was a powerful and trusted position in the medieval period, in the late 15th century, the castle was the prison of the Princes in the Tower. Under the Tudors, the Tower became used less as a royal residence and this use has led to the phrase sent to the Tower. Executions were more commonly held on the notorious Tower Hill to the north of the castle, in the latter half of the 19th century, institutions such as the Royal Mint moved out of the castle to other locations, leaving many buildings empty. Anthony Salvin and John Taylor took the opportunity to restore the Tower to what was felt to be its medieval appearance, in the First and Second World Wars, the Tower was again used as a prison and witnessed the executions of 12 men for espionage. After the Second World War, damage caused during the Blitz was repaired, today, the Tower of London is one of the countrys most popular tourist attractions. Under the ceremonial charge of the Constable of the Tower, it is cared for by the charity Historic Royal Palaces and is protected as a World Heritage Site. The Tower was orientated with its strongest and most impressive defences overlooking Saxon London and it would have visually dominated the surrounding area and stood out to traffic on the River Thames. The castle is made up of three wards, or enclosures, the innermost ward contains the White Tower and is the earliest phase of the castle
38.
Margaret of Anjou
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Margaret of Anjou was the wife of King Henry VI of England. As such, she was Queen of England from 1445 to 1461, born in the Duchy of Lorraine into the House of Valois-Anjou, Margaret was the second eldest daughter of René of Anjou and Isabella, Duchess of Lorraine. She was one of the figures in the series of dynastic civil wars known as the Wars of the Roses. Owing to her husbands frequent bouts of insanity, Margaret ruled the kingdom in his place, Margaret was taken prisoner by the victorious Yorkists after the Lancastrian defeat at Tewkesbury. In 1475, she was ransomed by her cousin, King Louis XI of France and she went to live in France as a poor relation of the French king, and she died there at the age of 52. Margaret was born on 23 March 1430 at Pont-à-Mousson in Lorraine, a fief of the Holy Roman Empire east of France ruled by a branch of the French kings. Margaret was the daughter of René of Anjou and of Isabella. She had five brothers and four sisters, as well as three half-siblings from her fathers relationships with mistresses. Her father, popularly known as Good King René, was duke of Anjou and titular king of Naples, Sicily and Jerusalem, he has described as a man of many crowns. Her mother took care of her education and may have arranged for her to have lessons with the scholar Antoine de la Sale, in childhood Margaret was known as la petite créature. On 23 April 1445, Margaret married King Henry VI of England, Henry at the time also claimed the Kingdom of France and controlled various parts of northern France. The English government, fearing a negative reaction, kept this provision secret from the English public. Margaret was crowned Queen Consort of England on 30 May 1445 at Westminster Abbey by John Stafford and she was described as beautiful, and furthermore already a woman, passionate and proud and strong-willed. Those that anticipated the return of English claims to French territory believed that she already understood her duty to protect the interests of the Crown fervently. Thus by family example and her own personality, she was fully capable of becoming the champion of the Crown. Henry, who was interested in religion and learning than in military matters, was not a successful king. He had reigned since he was only a few months old, when he married Margaret, his mental condition was already unstable and by the birth of their only son, Edward of Westminster, Prince of Wales, he had suffered a complete breakdown. Rumours were rife that he was incapable of begetting a child, many have speculated that either Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset, or James Butler, 5th Earl of Ormond, both staunch allies of Margaret, was the young princes actual father
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Edward of Westminster, Prince of Wales
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Edward of Westminster, also known as Edward of Lancaster, was the only son of King Henry VI of England and Margaret of Anjou. He was killed at the Battle of Tewkesbury, making him the heir apparent to the English throne to die in battle. Edward was born at the Palace of Westminster, London, the son of King Henry VI of England and his wife. At the time, there was strife between Henrys supporters and those of Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York, who had a claim to the throne and challenged the authority of Henrys officers of state. Henry was suffering from illness, and there were widespread rumours that the prince was the result of an affair between his mother and one of her loyal supporters. Edward was invested as Prince of Wales at Windsor Castle in 1454, in 1460, King Henry was captured by the supporters of the Duke of York at the Battle of Northampton and taken to London. Queen Margaret and Edward had meanwhile fled through Cheshire, by Margarets later account, she induced outlaws and pillagers to aid her by pledging them to recognise the seven-year-old Edward as rightful heir to the crown. They subsequently reached safety in Wales and journeyed to Scotland, where Margaret raised support, after York was killed at the Battle of Wakefield, the large army which Margaret had gathered advanced south. They defeated the army of Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick, one of Yorks most prominent supporters, Warwick brought the captive King Henry in the train of his army, and he was found abandoned on the battlefield. Two of Warwicks knights, William Bonville, 1st Baron Bonville, and Sir Thomas Kyriell, the day after the battle, Margaret asked Edward what death the two knights should suffer. Edward readily replied that their heads should be cut off, Margaret hesitated to advance on London with her unruly army, and subsequently retreated. They were routed at the Battle of Towton a few weeks later, Margaret and Edward fled once again, to Scotland. For the next three years, Margaret inspired several revolts in the northernmost counties of England, but was forced to sail to France. After several years in exile, Margaret took the best opportunity that presented itself, King Louis XI of France wanted to start a war with Burgundy, allies of the Yorkist King Edward IV. He believed if he allied himself to restoring Lancastrian rule they would help him conquer Burgundy, as a compliment to his new allies Louis made young Edward godfather to his son Charles. Prince Edward was married to Anne Neville, Warwicks younger daughter, in December 1470, Warwick returned to England and deposed Edward IV, with the help of Edward IVs younger brother, the Duke of Clarence. Edward IV fled into exile to Burgundy with his youngest brother the Duke of Gloucester, Edward and Margaret lingered behind in France until April 1471. However, Edward IV had already raised an army, returned to England, on the same day Margaret and Edward landed in England, Edward IV defeated and killed Warwick at the Battle of Barnet
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Bona of Savoy
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Bona of Savoy, Duchess of Milan was the second spouse of Galeazzo Maria Sforza, Duke of Milan and a member of the noble Italian House of Savoy. She served as regent of Milan during the minority of her son 1476–1481, born in Avigliana, Turin, Bona was a daughter of Louis, Duke of Savoy and Anne de Lusignan of Cyprus. She was one of nineteen children and her many siblings included, Amadeus IX of Savoy, Philip II, Duke of Savoy, Louis of Savoy, Count of Geneva, Marguerite of Savoy and Charlotte of Savoy, who married King Louis XI. In 1464, Bona was to have been betrothed to Edward IV of England and she married Galeazzo Maria Sforza on 9 May 1468. Hermes Maria Sforza, Marquis of Tortona, bianca Maria Sforza, in January 1474, married firstly Philibert I, Duke of Savoy, on 16 March 1494, married secondly, Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I, she had no issue by her two husbands. Anna Maria Sforza, married Alfonso I dEste, later Duke of Ferrara, bonas husband was assassinated, on 26 December 1476 at the age of 32 by three young noblemen on the porch of the cathedral church of San Stefano in Milan. Galeazzo was succeeded after his 10-year reign by his 7-year-old son Gian Galeazzo Sforza under the regency of Bona, but dissensions soon arose between the regent and her brother-in-law, Ludovico Maria Sforza, nicknamed Il Moro. In the first encounter Bona and her chief counsellor, Cicco Simonetta, were victorious, in order to obtain his re-admission, Ludovico, took advantage of the rivalry between Tassino and Simonetta. The fall and execution of Simonetta followed, from 1479 the real government of Milan lay in the hands of Ludovico, whose power was further secured in 1480, when he seized his nephew Gian, deprived him of the duchy and assumed control. Consequently, Bona was obliged to leave Milan and Ludovico was left to rule unchallenged, Bona of Savoy commissioned the Sforza Book of Hours manuscript, which was painted in about 1490 by a famous court artist, Giovan Pietro Birago. She used the book, which contained devotional texts and is considered to be one of the most outstanding treasures of the Italian Renaissance
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Louis XI of France
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Louis XI, called the Prudent, was a monarch of the House of Valois who ruled as King of France from 1461 to 1483. He succeeded his father Charles VII. Louis was a devious, the king forgave his rebellious vassals, including Louis, to whom he entrusted the management of the Dauphiné, then a province in southeastern France. Louiss ceaseless intrigues, however, led his father to him from court. From the Dauphiné, Louis led his own political establishment and married Charlotte of Savoy, daughter of Louis, Duke of Savoy, against the will of his father. Charles VII sent an army to compel his son to his will, but Louis fled to Burgundy, where he was hosted by Philip the Good, when Charles VII died in 1461, Louis left the Burgundian court to take possession of his kingdom. His taste for intrigue and his diplomatic activity earned him the nicknames the Cunning. In 1472, the subsequent Duke of Burgundy, Charles the Bold, however, Louis was able to isolate Charles from his English allies by signing the Treaty of Picquigny with Edward IV of England. The treaty formally ended the Hundred Years War, with the death of Charles the Bold at the Battle of Nancy in 1477, the dynasty of the dukes of Burgundy died out. Louis took advantage of the situation to seize numerous Burgundian territories, including Burgundy proper, without direct foreign threats, Louis was able to eliminate his rebellious vassals, expand royal power, and strengthen the economic development of his country. He died in 1483 and was succeeded by his son Charles VIII, Louis was born in Bourges on 3 July 1423, the son of King Charles VII of France. At the time of the Hundred Years War, the English held northern France, including the city of Paris, and Charles VII was restricted to the centre and south of the country. Louis was the grandson of Yolande of Aragon, who was a force in the family for driving the English out of France. Just a few weeks after Louiss christening at the Cathedral of St. Étienne on 4 July 1423, shortly thereafter, a combined Anglo-Burgundian army threatened Bourges itself. Duke Philip II was the reigning Duke of Burgundy while he was king, phillip was an uncle of King Charles VI, and he actually served on a council of regents for King Charles. The Dukes of Anjou, Berry, and Bourbon, all uncles of Charles VI, all effective power in France actually lay with this council of dukes. In its position of independence from the French throne, Burgundy had grown in size, during the Hundred Years War, the Burgundians allied themselves with England against the French crown. Indeed, the Burgundians were responsible for the capture of Joan of Arc, Joan later led troops in other victories at the Battle of Jargeau and the Battle of Patay. Nevertheless, Louis grew up aware of the weakness of the French nation
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County of Burgundy
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It should not be confused with the more westerly Duchy of Burgundy, a fiefdom of Francia since 843. The area once formed part of the Kingdom of the Burgundians, in 982, Otto-William, son of Adalbert of Lombardy, Count at Mâcon in the Duchy of Burgundy, received the County of Burgundy from his mother, Gerberga of Dijon. In 1002, Otto-William also claimed the Duchy of Burgundy upon the death of his stepfather Duke Henry I. However, the duchy was seized as a fief by King Robert II of France two years later, and he was only able to maintain rule over the Arelat county with his residence at Dole. The development of commercial routes across the Jura and the development of salt mines assured the prosperity of the county, guy of Burgundy, brother of Renaud II, later became pope and negotiated the Concordat of Worms with Emperor Henry V. In the 12th century, Imperial protection allowed for the development of Besançon, Burgundy was from then on called Franche-Comté, the free county. Upon Emperor Fredericks death in 1190, his younger son Otto I, received the county of Burgundy and assumed the rare title of an archcount. He was succeeded by his daughter, Beatrice II, and her husband Otto I, Duke of Merania, they were in turn followed by their son, Otto III, Count of Burgundy, and their daughter, Adelaide. The authority of the counts was re-established only by the marriage of Hugh of Chalon with Adelaide, however, this did not prevent a younger son, John of Chalon-Arlay, from taking control of the vassal states. Otto IV, son of Hugh and Adelaide, was the last of the counts of Burgundy. He married first the daughter of the Count of Bar, then the grandniece of King Louis IX of France and this marriage brought the county under French influence. The daughters of Otto IV and Mahaut, Jeanne and Blanche, married respectively Philip V and Charles IV of France, Jeanne became Queen of France after having been one of the heroines in the Tour de Nesle Affair. In that same affair Blanche was found guilty of adultery and was imprisoned for the rest of her life and these events are retold in the French historical novel series Les Rois maudits by Maurice Druon. By marrying their daughter and heir Joan, Duke Eudes IV of Burgundy reunited the duchy, in 1382 she bequeathed her estates to her son Count Louis II of Flanders. The county and the duchy were again ruled in personal union by his descendants from the House of Valois-Burgundy until the death of Duke Charles the Bold at the 1477 Battle of Nancy. His cousin King Louis XI of France immediately occupied the county, fiercely opposed by Archduke Maximilian I of Habsburg, with the Netherlands, the County of Burgundy was held by Habsburg Spain until it was finally incorporated into France by the Treaty of Nijmegen in 1678. List of counts of Burgundy Kingdom of Burgundy Kings of Burgundy Duchy of Burgundy Duke of Burgundy Dukes of Burgundy family tree The History Files, Frankish Kingdom of Burgundy
House of York
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Edward IV
Richard, Duke of Gloucester
William, Lord Hastings
Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick †
John Neville, Marquess of Montagu †
Henry Holland, Duke of Exeter (POW)
John de Vere, Earl of Oxford
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