1.
Platine War
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The Platine War was fought between the Argentine Confederation and an alliance consisting of the Empire of Brazil, Uruguay and the Argentine provinces of Entre Ríos and Corrientes. The war was part of a long-running interest disputes between Argentina and Brazil for influence over Uruguay and Paraguay, and hegemony over the Platine region, the conflict took place in Uruguay, on the Río de la Plata, and northeastern Argentina. Uruguays internal troubles, including the long-running Uruguayan Civil War, La Guerra Grande, were heavily influential factors leading to the Platine War, in 1850, the Platine region was politically unstable. Meanwhile, Uruguay struggled with its own civil war started after getting independent from the Brazilian Empire in 1828 after conclusion of Cisplatine War. Rosas backed the Uruguayan Blanco party in conflict, and further desired to extend Argentine borders to areas formerly occupied by the Spanish Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata. This meant asserting control over Uruguay, Paraguay, and Bolivia and this threatened Brazilian interests and sovereignty since the old Spanish Viceroyalty had also included territories which had long been incorporated into Brazilian province of Rio Grande do Sul. Brazil actively pursued ways to eliminate the threat from Rosas, in 1851, it allied with the Argentine breakaway provinces of Corrientes and Entre Rios, and the anti-Rosas Colorado party in Uruguay. Brazil next secured the flank by signing defensive alliances with Paraguay. Faced with an alliance against his regime, Rosas declared war on Brazil. Allied forces first advanced into Uruguayan territory, defeating the Rosas supporters from the Blanco party led by Manuel Oribe. Afterwards, the Allied army was divided, with the main arm advancing by land to engage Rosass main defenses, the Platine War ended in 1852 with the Allied victory at the Battle of Caseros, for some time establishing Brazilian hegemony over much of South America. The war ushered a period of economic and political stability in the Empire of Brazil, with Rosas gone, Argentina began a political process which would result in a more unified state. However, the end of the Platine war did not completely resolve issues within the Platine region, turmoil continued in subsequent years, with internal disputes among political factions in Uruguay, a long civil war in Argentina, and an emergent Paraguay asserting its claims. Two more major international wars followed during the two decades, sparked by territorial ambitions and conflicts over influence. Don Juan Manuel de Rosas became governor of Buenos Aires after the period of anarchy following the end of the Cisplatine War in 1828. In theory, Rosas only held as much power as governors of the other Argentine provinces, during his 20-year government, the country witnessed the resurgence of armed conflicts between the Unitarians and the Federalists. Rosas desired to recreate the former Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata and he aimed to build a powerful, republican state with Argentina placed at the center. The defunct Viceroyalty had shattered into several separate nations following the Argentine War of Independence at the beginning of the 19th century, Rosas first had to gather allies across the region who shared his vision
2.
Argentine Civil Wars
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The Argentine Civil Wars were a series of internecine wars that took place in Argentina from 1814 to 1880. These conflicts were separate from the Argentine War of Independence, though they first arose during this period. The main antagonists were, on a level, Buenos Aires Province and the other provinces of modern Argentina. Regionalism had long marked the relationship among the provinces of what today is Argentina. In addition, Rosas was granted the sum of public power, the Argentine Confederation thus functioned, albeit amid ongoing conflicts, until the 1852 Battle of Caseros, when Rosas was deposed and exiled. The secessionist state rejected the 1853 Constitution of Argentina, and promulgated its own the following year, the most contentious issue remained the Buenos Aires Customs, which remained under the control of the city government and was the chief source of public revenue. Nations with which the Confederation maintained foreign relations, moreover, kept all embassies in Buenos Aires, the election of the intransigent Valentín Alsina further exacerbated disputes, which culminated in the Battle of Cepeda. Buenos Aires forces, led by General Bartolomé Mitre, were defeated by those led by the President of Argentina, Mitre ultimately abrogated the Pact of San José, leading to renewed civil war. These hostilities culminated in the 1861 Battle of Pavón, and to victory on the part of Mitre, President Santiago Derqui, who had been backed by Urquiza, resigned on November 4,1861. Mitre, who despite victory reaffirmed his commitment to the 1860 constitutional amendments, was elected the republics first president in 1862 and he was defeated, however, and only President Avellanedas commutation spared his life. The 1880 election of the leader of Conquest of the Desert, General Julio Roca, university of North Carolina Press,1937. Buenos Aires, Editorial Peña Lillo,1971
3.
Argentina
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Argentina, officially the Argentine Republic, is a federal republic in the southern half of South America. With a mainland area of 2,780,400 km2, Argentina is the eighth-largest country in the world, the second largest in Latin America, and the largest Spanish-speaking one. The country is subdivided into provinces and one autonomous city, Buenos Aires. The provinces and the capital have their own constitutions, but exist under a federal system, Argentina claims sovereignty over part of Antarctica, the Falkland Islands, and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. The earliest recorded presence in the area of modern-day Argentina dates back to the Paleolithic period. The country has its roots in Spanish colonization of the region during the 16th century, Argentina rose as the successor state of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, a Spanish overseas viceroyalty founded in 1776. The country thereafter enjoyed relative peace and stability, with waves of European immigration radically reshaping its cultural. The almost-unparalleled increase in prosperity led to Argentina becoming the seventh wealthiest developed nation in the world by the early 20th century, Argentina retains its historic status as a middle power in international affairs, and is a prominent regional power in the Southern Cone and Latin America. Argentina has the second largest economy in South America, the third-largest in Latin America and is a member of the G-15 and it is the country with the second highest Human Development Index in Latin America with a rating of very high. Because of its stability, market size and growing high-tech sector, the description of the country by the word Argentina has to be found on a Venice map in 1536. In English the name Argentina probably comes from the Spanish language, however the naming itself is not Spanish, Argentina means in Italian of silver, silver coloured, probably borrowed from the Old French adjective argentine of silver > silver coloured already mentioned in the 12th century. The French word argentine is the form of argentin and derives of argent silver with the suffix -in. The Italian naming Argentina for the country implies Argentina Terra land of silver or Argentina costa coast of silver, in Italian, the adjective or the proper noun is often used in an autonomous way as a substantive and replaces it and it is said lArgentina. The name Argentina was probably first given by the Venitian and Genoese navigators, in Spanish and Portuguese, the words for silver are respectively plata and prata and of silver is said plateado and prateado. Argentina was first associated with the silver mountains legend, widespread among the first European explorers of the La Plata Basin. The first written use of the name in Spanish can be traced to La Argentina, a 1602 poem by Martín del Barco Centenera describing the region, the 1826 constitution included the first use of the name Argentine Republic in legal documents. The name Argentine Confederation was also used and was formalized in the Argentine Constitution of 1853. In 1860 a presidential decree settled the name as Argentine Republic
4.
Corrientes Province
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Corrientes is a province in northeast Argentina, in the Mesopotamia region. It is surrounded by, Paraguay, the province of Misiones, Brazil, Uruguay, before the arrival of the Spanish conquest, the Kaingang, Charrua and Guaraní lived in a big area that also covered most of the current province of Corrientes. The city of Corrientes was founded on April 3,1588 by Juan Torres de Vera y Aragón as a mid-stop between Asunción and Buenos Aires, the city flourished thanks to the traffic from the route. Jesuits erected missions in the north of the province, where they dedicated themselves to the expansion of the faith, in the wars of independence from Spain, Corrientes joined Artigas Liga de los Pueblos Libres. The attack of Paraguayan forces on the province in 1865 marked the start of the War of the Triple Alliance, in 1919 the National University of the Littoral was founded, which in 1956 became the National University of the Northeast. Corrientes is legendary in the world of philately for the stamps it issued from 1856 to 1880. These are among the early or classic postage stamps of the world. As locally produced primitives, the early Corrientes stamps have long been prized by collectors, after 1880, stamps of Argentina were used. For much of the 19th and 20th centuries, politics in Corrientes were dominated by the Romero Feris family, during most of this time, the Romero Ferises created one of Argentinas most bloated government payrolls and suppressed dissent and efforts at even modest land reform. He was sentenced to 7 years in prison in May,2002, Corrientes had a significant impact in national politics in subsequent years. These differences led to the appearance that year of K Radicals – UCR governors, the northeastern tip of Corrientes Province was chosen as the site for Yacyretá Dam following an agreement between President Juan Perón and Paraguayan President Alfredo Stroessner in 1974. Yacyretá, whose 20-year-long construction and US$11 billion cost far exceeded initial estimates, is one of the largest hydroelectric dams in the world. Currently, an agreement is being pursued with Paraguay which would allow reservoir expansion works that could double the current installed electric capacity of 4,050 MW. Culture in Corrientes has been informed and influenced by its European and Guarani roots. Famous correntinos were independence hero General Don José de San Martín and Juan Bautista Cabral, tourist destinations in the Corrientes Province include the Iberá Wetlands and the Mburucuyá National Park. On 28 September 2004, Provincial Law No.5598 declared Guaraní to be a language of Corrientes. It was the first Argentine province to officialize a language other than Spanish, Corrientes is surrounded by two rivers – the Uruguay River to the east, and the Paraná River to the northwest – that contour the shape of the province. The low shore of the Paraná produces frequent floodings, after a specially destructive one in 1982, a protective system has been started with the construction of barriers
5.
Unitarian Party
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Unitarianists or Unitarians were the proponents of the concept of a unitary state in Buenos Aires during the civil wars which shortly followed the Declaration of Independence of Argentina in 1816. They were opposed to the Argentine Federalists, who wanted a federation of independent provinces and these were evident at least as early as the declaration of Argentine independence in 1816. The Unitarianists lost their power after the Battle of Cepeda. However, the Unitarianists were forced to sign a treaty with other provinces and this did not solve the conflicts between the Federalists and the Unitarians. Under President Bernardino Rivadavia, the Unitarianists gained control for a period of time. ”However, the constitution was rejected by provincial caudillos, military leaders. Forced to resign, the Government of Buenos Aires and the Foreign relations of the country were taken over by Federalist Manuel Dorrego. In 1829, Juan Manuel de Rosas, the leader of a troop of Federalists, became the Governor of Buenos Aires after defeating General Juan Lavalle, although Rosas was a Federalist, his following of the principles of Federalism has often been questioned. In 1830, the Unitarian League was created by General José María Paz in order to defeat the Federalists, the Federalists faced Paz and his troops on May 31,1831 and the Unitarianists were defeated after the Gauchos captured the Unitarianist commander. The Provinces of the Unitarian League gradually joining into the Federal Pact, although the Unitarians exiled in neighboring countries, the Civil War would continue for another two decades, the Unitarians being led by Lavalle, Paz, Lamadrid, and many others. With support from Corrientes Province and the Brazilian Empire, Justo José de Urquiza, Federalist caudillo of Entre Ríos Province, on May, the San Nicolás Agreement was signed by the provincial governors. The pact reinstated the 1831 Federal Pact original provisions for a constitutional convention, in 1859 Buenos Aires was forced to accept the federal constitution of 1853 after six years of secession, after Mitre was defeated at the 1859 Battle of Cepeda by Urquiza. However, the constitution was amended to allow Buenos Aires greater influence after the ensuing 1861 Battle of Pavón. Mitre was then chosen as President of a new national government, opposition to the Unitarianists continued until 1890 under the Córdoba League. History of Argentina United Provinces of South America Bernardino Rivadavia unitario Encyclopædia Britannica, crow, John A. he Epic of Latin America
6.
Colorado Party (Uruguay)
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The Colorado Party is a political party in Uruguay. It unites moderate and liberal groups, but also has some social groups as well. It was the dominant party of government almost without exception during the stabilisation of the Uruguayan republic, at the last 2004 national elections, the Colorado Party won 10 seats out of 99 in the Chamber of Deputies and 3 seats out of 31 in the Senate. Its presidential candidate, Guillermo Stirling, won the same 10. 4% of the popular vote, the Colorado Party was founded in Montevideo, Uruguay, on 17 September 1836. The party has historically been the most elected party in Uruguayan history with almost uninterrupted dominance during the 20th century, the Colorados were in office from 1865 to 1959, when they were defeated by the Partido Nacional in the 1958 elections. They returned to office after the 1966 elections and they won the first elections at the end of the military dictatorship, in 1984. They went on to win the 1994 and 1999 elections, from its birth until the last decades of the 20th century its traditional rival was the conservative Partido Nacional. Reasons for the weak results were many, but these include the economic crisis. Subsequently to his defeat in 2004, Guillermo Stirling endorsed Pedro Bordaberry Herráns Vamos Uruguay movement, Bordaberry Herrán became the presidential candidate for the 2009 presidential election, and placed third, with 17 percent of the vote, behind José Mujica and Luis Alberto Lacalle. Bordaberry Herrán placed third again in the 2014 presidential election, with 13% of the vote, Colorado Party National Party Contributions to liberal theory Liberalism worldwide List of liberal parties Liberal democracy Liberalism in Uruguay Fructuoso Rivera Pedro Bordaberry
7.
Empire of Brazil
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The Empire of Brazil was a 19th-century state that broadly comprised the territories which form modern Brazil and Uruguay. Its government was a parliamentary constitutional monarchy under the rule of Emperors Dom Pedro I. João VI later returned to Portugal, leaving his eldest son and heir, Pedro, to rule the Kingdom of Brazil as regent. On 7 September 1822, Pedro declared the independence of Brazil and, after waging a war against his fathers kingdom, was acclaimed on 12 October as Pedro I. The new country was huge but sparsely populated and ethnically diverse, the empires bicameral parliament was elected under comparatively democratic methods for the era, as were the provincial and local legislatures. This led to an ideological conflict between Pedro I and a sizable parliamentary faction over the role of the monarch in the government. The unsuccessful Cisplatine War against the neighboring United Provinces of the Río de la Plata in 1828 led to the secession of the province of Cisplatina. In 1826, despite his role in Brazilian independence, he became the king of Portugal, two years later, she was usurped by Pedro Is younger brother Miguel. Unable to deal with both Brazilian and Portuguese affairs, Pedro I abdicated his Brazilian throne on 7 April 1831, Pedro Is successor in Brazil was his five-year-old son, Pedro II. As the latter was still a minor, a regency was created. The power vacuum resulting from the absence of a monarch as the ultimate arbiter in political disputes led to regional civil wars between local factions. Brazil was victorious in three international conflicts under Pedro IIs rule, and the Empire prevailed in other international disputes. With prosperity and economic development came an influx of European immigration, including Protestants and Jews, slavery, which had initially been widespread, was restricted by successive legislation until its final abolition in 1888. Brazilian visual arts, literature and theater developed during time of progress. Although heavily influenced by European styles that ranged from Neoclassicism to Romanticism, the next in line to the throne was his daughter Isabel, but neither Pedro II nor the ruling classes considered a female monarch acceptable. Lacking any viable heir, the Empires political leaders saw no reason to defend the monarchy, the territory which would come to be known as Brazil was claimed by Portugal on 22 April 1500, when the navigator Pedro Álvares Cabral landed on its coast. Permanent settlement followed in 1532, and for the next 300 years the Portuguese slowly expanded westwards until they had reached all of the borders of modern Brazil. In 1808, the army of French Emperor Napoleon I invaded Portugal, forcing the Portuguese royal family—the House of Braganza and they re-established themselves in the Brazilian city of Rio de Janeiro, which became the unofficial seat of the Portuguese Empire
8.
Argentine Confederation
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The Argentine Confederation is one of the official names of Argentina according to the Argentine Constitution, Article 35. It was the name of the country from 1831 to 1852, the governor of Buenos Aires Province managed foreign relations during this time. Under his rule, the Argentine Confederation resisted attacks by Brazil, Bolivia, Uruguay, France, Rosas was ousted from power in 1852 by Justo José de Urquiza, after the battle of Caseros. Urquiza convened the 1853 Constituent Assembly to write a national constitution, Buenos Aires resisted Urquiza and seceded from the Confederation in 1852, becoming the State of Buenos Aires, the province would return to Argentina in 1861. Modern Argentina is a subset of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata. Long after the independence, Argentina attacked and conquered areas of indigenous land. The May Revolution in Buenos Aires began the Argentine War of Independence, modern Bolivia and Paraguay were lost during the conflict and became new states. Uruguay was invaded and annexed by Brazil in 1816, until the Thirty-Three Orientals led an insurrection to rejoin the United Provinces and this began the War of Brazil, ended with the Treaty of Montevideo that made Uruguay a new state. When the Argentine forces returned to Buenos Aires, Juan Lavalle led a coup against the governor Manuel Dorrego. He executed him and began a campaign against all federals, supported by José María Paz in Córdoba, the rancher Juan Manuel de Rosas organized the resistance against Lavalle, forcing him out of government and restoring the Legislature. Paz organized the Unitarian League with the provinces that joined him, all the unitarian provinces were defeated and joined the Pact, and became the Argentine Confederation. Rosas declined a new term as governor after the victory over the unitarian league, Rosas left Buenos Aires and waged the first campaign in the desert in the south, to prevent further malones from the indigenous peoples. The campaign combined military actions and negotiations, and succeeded in preventing malones for several years, despite being absent, the political influence of Rosas in Buenos Aires was still strong, and his wife Encarnación Ezcurra was in charge of keeping good relations with the people of the city. On October 11,1833, the city was filled with announcements of a trial against The restorer of laws, the troops who were organized to fight the demonstration instead mutinied and joined it. The legislature finally gave up the trial, and a month later ousted Balcarce, still, the social unrest led many people to believe that only Rosas could secure order, and that Viamonte or Manuel Vicente Maza would be unable to do so. The murder of Facundo Quiroga in Córdoba increased this belief, so the legislature appointed him governor in 1835, Rosas faced a difficult military threat during first years of his second administration. First, the Peru–Bolivian Confederation in the North declared the War of the Confederation against Argentina, then, France made diplomatic requests which were denied by Rosas, and subsequently imposed a naval blockade as a result. France invaded Martín García island and deposed the Uruguayan president Manuel Oribe, appointing instead the loyal Fructuoso Rivera, Domingo Cullen, from Santa Fe, promoted the secession of all provinces, leaving Buenos Aires alone in the conflict
9.
Manuel Marques de Sousa, Count of Porto Alegre
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Manuel Marques de Sousa, Count of Porto Alegre, nicknamed the Gloved Centaur, was an army officer, politician, abolitionist and monarchist of the Empire of Brazil. Born into a family of military background, Porto Alegre joined the army in 1817 when he was little more than a child. His military initiation occurred in the conquest of the Banda Oriental, for most of the 1820s, he was embroiled in the Brazilian effort to keep Cisplatina as part of its territory, first during the struggle for Brazilian independence and then in the Cisplatine War. It would ultimately prove a futile attempt, as Cisplatina successfully separated from Brazil to become the independent nation of Uruguay in 1828, a few years later, in 1835, his native province of Rio Grande do Sul was engulfed in a secessionist rebellion, the Ragamuffin War. The conflict lasted for almost ten years, and the Count was leading military engagements for most of that time and he played a decisive role in saving the provincial capital from the Ragamuffin rebels, allowing forces loyal to the legitimate government to secure a key foothold. In 1852, he led a Brazilian division during the Platine War in an invasion of the Argentine Confederation that overthrew its dictator and he was awarded a noble title, eventually raised from baron to viscount and finally to count. In the postwar years, Porto Alegre turned his attention to politics, retiring from his career as a lieutenant general. He was an affiliate of the Liberal Party at the level and was elected to the legislature of Rio Grande do Sul. He also founded a party, the Progressive-Liberal Party—a coalition of Liberals like him. Porto Alegre later entered the house of the Brazilian parliament and was briefly Minister of War. When the Paraguayan War erupted in 1864, he returned to active duty, one of the main Brazilian commanders during the conflict, his participation was marked by important battlefield victories, as well as constant quarrels with his Argentine and Uruguayan allies. Upon his return from the war, Porto Alegre resumed his political career and he became an active advocate for the abolition of slavery and a patron in the fields of literature and science. His death came on 18 July 1875 while again serving in Parliament and he was highly esteemed until the downfall of the monarchy in 1889. Regarded as too closely associated with the regime, Porto Alegre slipped into obscurity. His reputation was rehabilitated to a certain degree by historians. Manuel Marques de Sousa was born on 13 June 1804 in Rio Grande, the town was located in Rio Grande do Sul, a southern captaincy of Brazil, then part of the Portuguese Colonial Empire. His parents were Manuel Marques de Sousa and Senhorinha Inácia da Silveira and he had four younger siblings, two sisters and two brothers. An archetypal leading family of Rio Grande do Sul, Marques de Sousas Portuguese-descended family was wealthy and influential, owning ranches and his father and his paternal grandfather, both also named Manuel Marques de Sousa, were seasoned soldiers who took part in the colonial wars
10.
Juan Manuel de Rosas
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Juan Manuel de Rosas, nicknamed Restorer of the Laws, was a politician and army officer who ruled Buenos Aires Province and briefly the Argentine Confederation. Although born into a family, Rosas independently amassed a personal fortune. Rosas enlisted his workers in a militia, as was common for rural proprietors. Victorious in warfare, personally influential, and with vast landholdings and he eventually reached the rank of brigadier general, the highest in the Argentine army, and became the undisputed leader of the Federalist Party. In December 1829, Rosas became governor of the province of Buenos Aires, in 1831, he signed the Federal Pact, recognising provincial autonomy and creating the Argentine Confederation. When his term of office ended in 1832, Rosas departed to the frontier to wage war on the indigenous peoples, after his supporters launched a coup in Buenos Aires, Rosas was asked to return and once again took office as governor. Rosas reestablished his dictatorship and formed the repressive Mazorca, an armed parapolice that killed thousands of citizens, elections became a farce, and the legislature and judiciary became docile instruments of his will. Rosas created a cult of personality and his regime became totalitarian in nature, Rosas faced many threats to his power during the late 1830s and early 1840s. Rosas persevered and extended his influence in the provinces, exercising control over them through direct and indirect means. By 1848, he had extended his power beyond the borders of Buenos Aires and was ruler of all of Argentina, Rosas also attempted to annex the neighbouring nations of Uruguay and Paraguay. When the Empire of Brazil began aiding Uruguay in its struggle against Argentina, Rosas declared war in August 1851 and this short conflict ended with the defeat of Rosas and his flight to Britain. His last years were spent in living as a tenant farmer until his death in 1877. Rosas garnered a public perception among Argentines as a brutal tyrant. In 1989, his remains were repatriated by the government in an attempt to promote unity, seeking forgiveness for him. Rosas remains a figure in Argentina in the 21st century. Juan Manuel José Domingo Ortiz de Rosas was born on 30 March 1793 at his familys house in Buenos Aires. He was the first child of León Ortiz de Rosas and Agustina López de Osornio, León Ortiz was the son of an immigrant from the Spanish Province of Burgos. A military officer with a career, León Ortiz had married into a wealthy Criollo family
11.
Buenos Aires Province
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Buenos Aires is the largest and most populous Argentinian province. It takes the name from the city of Buenos Aires, which used to be the capital until it was federalized in 1880. The current capital of the province is the city of La Plata, the entire province is part of the Pampas geographical region. The province has a population of about 15.6 million people, nearly 10 million people live in Greater Buenos Aires, the metropolitan area surrounding the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires. The area of the province,307,571 km2, makes it the largest in Argentina with around 11% of the total area. The inhabitants of the province before the 16th century advent of Spanish colonisation were aboriginal peoples such as the Charrúas and their culture was lost over the next 350 years. They were subjected to Eurasian plagues from which few survived, the survivors joined other tribes or have been mostly absorbed by Argentinas European ethnic majority. Pedro de Mendoza founded Santa María del Buen Ayre in 1536, even though the first contact with the aboriginals was peaceful, it soon became hostile. The city was evacuated in 1541, Juan de Garay re-founded the settlement in 1580 as Santísima Trinidad y Puerto Santa María de los Buenos Aires. Amidst ongoing conflict with the aboriginals, the cattle farms extended from Buenos Aires, jesuits unsuccessfully tried to peacefully assimilate the aboriginals into the European culture brought by the Spanish conquistadores. A certain balance was found at the end of the 18th century, the end to this situation came in 1879 with the Conquest of the Desert in which the aboriginals where almost completely exterminated. After the independence from Spain in 1816, the city and province of Buenos Aires became the focus of an intermittent Argentine Civil War with other provinces. A Federal Pact secured by Governor Juan Manuel de Rosas in 1831 led to the establishment of the Argentine Confederation and to his gaining the sum of public power, which provided a tenuous unity. Ongoing disputes regarding the influence of Buenos Aires, between Federalists and Unitarians, and over the Port of Buenos Aires fueled periodic hostilities, the province was declared independent on September 11,1852, as the State of Buenos Aires. Concessions gained in the 1859 Pact of San José de Flores, intermittent conflicts with the nation did not truly cease until 1880, when the city of Buenos Aires was formally federalized and, thus, administratively separated from the province. La Plata was founded in 1882 by Governor Dardo Rocha for the purpose of becoming the provincial capital, the equivalent of a billion dollars of British investment and pro-development, education and immigration policies pursued at the national level subsequently spurred dramatic economic growth. Driven by European immigration and improved health, the population, like Argentinas, nearly doubled to one million by 1895. Rail lines connected nearly every town and hamlet in the province by 1914 and this era of accelerated development was cut short by the Wall Street Crash of 1929, which caused a sharp drop in commodity prices and led to a halt in the flow of investment funds between nations
12.
Caudillo
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A caudillo is a type of personalist leader wielding political power. There is no definition of caudillo, which is often used interchangeably with dictator. The term is associated with Spain, and with Spanish America after virtually all of that region won independence in the early nineteenth century. The term is used pejoratively by critics of a regime. However, Spains General Francisco Franco proudly took the title as his own, during, Spanish censors during his rule went after publishers who applied the term to Latin American strongmen. Caudillos exercise of power is a form considered authoritarian, most societies have had personalist leaders at times, but Latin America has had many more, the majority of whom were not self-described caudillos. However, scholars have applied the term to a variety of Latin American leaders, the roots of caudillismo may be tied to the framework of rule in medieval and early modern Spain during the Reconquest from the Moors. During the colonial era, the Spanish crown asserted its power, historian John Lynch argues that the rise of caudillos in Spanish America is rooted not in the distant Spanish past but in the immediate context of the Spanish American wars of independence. Those wars threw off colonial rule and left a vacuum in the early nineteenth century. Caudillos were very influential in the history of Spanish America and have a legacy that has influenced political movements in the modern era, since Spanish American independence in the early nineteenth century, the region has been noted for its number of caudillos and the duration of their rule. Brazils transition to independence was the establishment of the Brazilian Empire, weak nation-states in Spanish America fostered the continuation of caudillismo from the late nineteenth century into the twentieth century. The formation of Mexicos Institutional Revolutionary Party in 1929 effectively ended caudillismo there, men characterized as caudillos have ruled in Cuba, Panama, the Dominican Republic, Paraguay, Argentina, and Chile. Caudillos have been the subject of literature in Spanish America, Latin America is not unique in having strong leaders emerge during times of turmoil. Historian John Lynch states that “Before 1810 the caudillo was unknown… The caudillo entered history as a local hero whom larger events promoted to a military chieftain. ”He gained in power by his success as a military leader. In a rural area that lacked any institutions of the state, and where the environment was one of violence and anarchy and his local control as a strongman needed to be maintained by assuring the loyalty of his followers, so his bestowing material rewards reinforced his own position. Caudillos could also maintain their position by protecting the interests of regional elites, a local strongman who built a regional base could aspire to becoming a national caudillo, taking control of the state. In this situation, caudillos could bestow patronage on a large retinue of clients, in general, caudillos’ power benefited elites. But these strongmen were also mediators between elites and the classes, recruiting them into the power base, but also restraining them from achieving power themselves
13.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
14.
History of Argentina
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Prehistory in the present territory of Argentina began with the first human settlements on the southern tip of Patagonia around 13,000 years ago. Written history began with the arrival of Spanish chroniclers in the expedition of Juan Díaz de Solís in 1516 to the Río de la Plata, which marks the beginning of Spanish domination in this region. With the declaration of independence on July 9,1816 and the defeat of the Spanish Empire in 1824. The area now known as Argentina was relatively sparsely populated until the period of European colonization, the earliest traces of human life are dated from the Paleolithic period, and there are further signs in the Mesolithic and Neolithic. However, large areas of the interior and Piedmont were apparently depopulated during a dry period between 4000 and 2000 B. C. The second group could be found in the Pampa and south of Patagonia, and the one included the Charrúas and Minuane people. The Guaraníes had expanded across large areas of South America, the Toba nation and the Diaguita which included the Calchaqui and the Quilmes lived in the North and the Comechingones in what is today the province of Cordoba. The Charrua, yaros, Bohanes and Chanás were located in the territory of Entre Ríos. Europeans first arrived in the region with the 1502 Portuguese voyage of Gonçalo Coelho and they also traveled as far south as the Gulf of San Matias at 42ºS, on the northern shores of Patagonia. The Spanish, led by Juan Díaz de Solís, visited the territory which is now Argentina in 1516, in 1536 Pedro de Mendoza established a small settlement at the modern location of Buenos Aires, which was abandoned in 1541. A second one was established in 1580 by Juan de Garay and those regions were part of the Viceroyalty of Peru, whose capital was Lima, and settlers arrived from that city. Unlike the other regions of South America, the colonization of the Río de la Plata estuary was not influenced by any gold rush, the Spanish raised the status of this region by establishing the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata in 1776. This viceroyalty consisted of todays Argentina, Uruguay, and Paraguay, the viceroyalty was, however, short-lived due to lack of internal cohesion among its many regions and lack of Spanish support. Ships from Spain became scarce again after the Spanish defeat at the battle of Trafalgar, the British tried to invade Buenos Aires and Montevideo in 1806 and 1807, but were defeated both times by Santiago de Liniers. Those victories, achieved without help from mainland Spain, boosted the confidence of the city, the beginning of the Peninsular War in Spain and the capture of the Spanish king Ferdinand VII created great concern all around the viceroyalty. It was thought that, without a King, people in America should rule themselves and this idea led to multiple attempts to remove the local authorities at Chuquisaca, La Paz, Montevideo and Buenos Aires, all of which were short-lived. A new successful attempt, the May Revolution of 1810, took place when it was reported all of Spain, with the exception of Cádiz. The May Revolution ousted the viceroy, other forms of government, such as a constitutional monarchy or a Regency were briefly considered
15.
Constitution of Argentina
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The Constitution of Argentina is the basic governing document of Argentina, and the primary source of existing law in Argentina. Its first version was written in 1853 by a Constitutional Assembly gathered in Santa Fe, and it was then reformed in 1860,1866,1898,1949,1957, and the current version is the reformed text of 1994. The first attempt to divide political power in Argentina was during the government created after the May Revolution, many revolutionary leaders, led by Mariano Moreno, wanted to declare independence immediately and to make a constitution in order to build an independent state. In October 1811, the Junta Grande, which succeeded the Primera Junta, enacted the Regulation for the Division of Power, nevertheless, the freedom of press and the Decree on Individual Security were accepted by November. In 1813, the General Constitutional Assembly was intended to declare a constitution, in 1819 and 1826 were declared two constitutions that eventually failed because of the disagreement between Federals and Centralists. Many other constitutional pacts existed between 1820 and 1853, the most important of them are, the Treaty of Pilar, the Treaty of the Cuadrilátero, the Federal Pact, the Palermo Protocol, and the Treaty of San Nicolás. When Rosas was defeated, in 1852, the Treaty of San Nicolás finally called the Constitutional Congress that, in Santa Fe, on May 1,1853, consequently, the Province of Buenos Aires left the Argentine Confederation until 1859. The first constitutional amendment to the original 1853 text was performed in 1860 after Buenos Aires rejoined the Argentine Confederation and it consisted of several changes to many of the original articles. Another important inclusion was the constitutional recognizing of Buenos Aires exclusive rights guaranteed by the Treaty of San Nicolás. The following reform was done in 1866 and established that exportation and importation taxes would be destined to the National Treasury indefinitely, in 1898, another minor constitutional amendment was approved. It allowed a flexible ratio for proportional apportionment in the Chamber of Deputies. During Juan Domingo Peróns government the Argentine Constitution of 1949 was successfully passed and this also was included into the principles stated on the Preamble. Also, it permitted the indefinite reelection of the president and this reform does not include 1949s, implicitly annulling it so the text was based on the 1898 one. The only changes done were to include a summary of Peróns social articles known as article 14 bis and to establish the necessity to have a Labour, in 1972, a Constitutional Amendment done by the military government led by general Alejandro A. Lanusse reformed the 1957 text. This had to last until 1977 but its application could be extended until 1981 if no Constitutional Convention in 1976 decided either to accept it or reject it definitively. This amendment was not fully applied by the government of Perón in his third term nor by his wife Isabel Perón acting as President after his death. Some changes were related to the size of Senate and one-term reelection of president and vice-president, also reduced presidential, senatorial and deputies terms all to four years. The last version of the Argentine Constitution was done by Carlos Saúl Menem in 1994 and it included many of the modifications from the 1972 amendment as the growth of the Senate size, one-term presidential reelection and reduction of its term to four years
16.
President of Argentina
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The President of the Argentine Nation, usually known as the President of Argentina, is both head of state and head of government of Argentina. Under the national Constitution, the President is also the executive of the federal government. Through Argentine history, the office of the Head of State has undergone many changes, current President Mauricio Macri was sworn into office on 10 December 2015. The Constitution of Argentina, along with constitutional amendments, establishes the requirements, powers, and responsibilities of the president and term of office. The origins of Argentina as a nation can be traced to 1776, the Head of State continued to be the King, but he was represented locally by the Viceroy. These Viceroys were seldom natives of the country, by the May Revolution of May 25,1810, the first Argentine autonomous government, known as the Primera Junta, was formed in Buenos Aires. It was later known as the Junta Grande when representatives from the provinces joined and this power was vested in one man when the position of Supreme Director was created by the 1813 National Assembly. The Supreme Directors became Heads of State after Independence was declared on 9 July 1816, in 1819, Congress declared Independence and composed a Constitution. This established a figure, named Supreme Director, who was vested with presidential powers. This constitution gave the Supreme Director the power of appointing Governors of the provinces, due to political circumstances, this constitution never came into force, and the central power was dissolved, leaving the country as a federation of provinces. A new constitution was drafted in 1826 and this constitution was the first to create a President, although this office retained the powers described in the 1819 constitution. This constitution did come into force, resulting in the election of the first President, because of the Cisplatine War, Rivadavia resigned after a short time, and the office was dissolved shortly after. A civil war between unitarios and federales ensued in the following decades, in this time, there was no central authority, and the closest to that was the Chairman of Foreign Relations, typically the Governor of the Province of Buenos Aires. The last to bear this title was Juan Manuel de Rosas, in 1852, Rosas was deposed, and a constitutional convention was summoned. This constitution, still in force, established a federal government. The term was fixed as six years, with no possibility of reelection, the first elected President under the constitution was Justo José de Urquiza, but Buenos Aires seceded from the Argentine Confederation as the State of Buenos Aires. Bartolomé Mitre was the first president of the country, when Buenos Aires rejoined the Confederation. In 1930, and again in 1943,1955,1962,1966 and 1976, in 1966 and 1976, federal government was undertaken by a military junta, where power was shared by the chiefs of the armed forces
17.
Brazil
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Brazil, officially the Federative Republic of Brazil, is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. As the worlds fifth-largest country by area and population, it is the largest country to have Portuguese as an official language. Its Amazon River basin includes a vast tropical forest, home to wildlife, a variety of ecological systems. This unique environmental heritage makes Brazil one of 17 megadiverse countries, Brazil was inhabited by numerous tribal nations prior to the landing in 1500 of explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral, who claimed the area for the Portuguese Empire. Brazil remained a Portuguese colony until 1808, when the capital of the empire was transferred from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro, in 1815, the colony was elevated to the rank of kingdom upon the formation of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. Independence was achieved in 1822 with the creation of the Empire of Brazil, a state governed under a constitutional monarchy. The ratification of the first constitution in 1824 led to the formation of a bicameral legislature, the country became a presidential republic in 1889 following a military coup détat. An authoritarian military junta came to power in 1964 and ruled until 1985, Brazils current constitution, formulated in 1988, defines it as a democratic federal republic. The federation is composed of the union of the Federal District, the 26 states, Brazils economy is the worlds ninth-largest by nominal GDP and seventh-largest by GDP as of 2015. A member of the BRICS group, Brazil until 2010 had one of the worlds fastest growing economies, with its economic reforms giving the country new international recognition. Brazils national development bank plays an important role for the economic growth. Brazil is a member of the United Nations, the G20, BRICS, Unasul, Mercosul, Organization of American States, Organization of Ibero-American States, CPLP. Brazil is a power in Latin America and a middle power in international affairs. One of the worlds major breadbaskets, Brazil has been the largest producer of coffee for the last 150 years and it is likely that the word Brazil comes from the Portuguese word for brazilwood, a tree that once grew plentifully along the Brazilian coast. In Portuguese, brazilwood is called pau-brasil, with the word brasil commonly given the etymology red like an ember, formed from Latin brasa and the suffix -il. As brazilwood produces a red dye, it was highly valued by the European cloth industry and was the earliest commercially exploited product from Brazil. The popular appellation eclipsed and eventually supplanted the official Portuguese name, early sailors sometimes also called it the Land of Parrots. In the Guarani language, a language of Paraguay, Brazil is called Pindorama
18.
Uruguay
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Uruguay, officially the Oriental Republic of Uruguay, is a country in the southeastern region of South America. It borders Argentina to its west and Brazil to its north and east, with the Río de la Plata to the south and the Atlantic Ocean to the southeast. Uruguay is home to an estimated 3.42 million people, of whom 1.8 million live in the area of its capital and largest city. With an area of approximately 176,000 square kilometres, Uruguay is geographically the second-smallest nation in South America, only larger in size than Suriname. Uruguay was inhabited by the Charrúa people for approximately 4000 years before the Portuguese established Colonia del Sacramento, one of the oldest European settlements in the region, in 1680. Montevideo was founded as a stronghold by the Spanish in the early 18th century. Uruguay won its independence between 1811 and 1828, following a struggle between Spain, Portugal, Argentina and Brazil. It remained subject to influence and intervention throughout the 19th century. Modern Uruguay is a constitutional republic, with a president who serves as both head of state and head of government. Uruguay is ranked first in Latin America in democracy, peace, lack of corruption, e-government, on a per-capita basis, Uruguay contributes more troops to United Nations peace-keeping missions than any other country. It ranks second in the region on economic freedom, income equality, per-capita income, Uruguay is the third-best country on the continent in terms of HDI, GDP growth, innovation and infrastructure. It is regarded as a country by the UN. Uruguay is also the third-best ranked in the world in e-Participation, Uruguay is an important global exporter of combed wool, rice, soybeans, frozen beef, malt and milk. Nearly 95% of Uruguays electricity comes from energy, mostly hydroelectric facilities. The Economist named Uruguay country of the year in 2013, acknowledging the innovative policy of legalizing the production, sale, the name of the namesake river comes from the Spanish pronunciation of the regional Guarani word for it. There are several interpretations, including bird-river, the name could also refer to a river snail called uruguá that was plentiful in the water. The only documented inhabitants of Uruguay before European colonization of the area were the Charrúa, the Portuguese discovered the region of present-day Uruguay in 1512. The Spanish arrived in present-day Uruguay in 1516, the indigenous peoples fierce resistance to conquest, combined with the absence of gold and silver, limited their settlement in the region during the 16th and 17th centuries
19.
Brazilian Army
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The Brazilian Army is the land arm of the Brazilian Armed Forces. The Brazilian Army has fought in several conflicts, mostly in South America during the 19th century. In the 20th century, it fought on the Allied side at World War I, most of its commanders were mercenaries and Portuguese officers loyal to Dom Pedro. During the 1850s and early 1860s, the Army along with Navy, entered in action against Argentinian and Uruguayan forces, the Brazilian success with such Gun Diplomacy, eventually lead to a shock of interests with another country with similar aspirations, the Paraguay in December,1864. On May 1,1865, Brazil, Uruguay and Argentina signed the Triple Alliance to defend themselves against aggression from Paraguay, which was ruled by the dictator Francisco López. López troops, after invading Brazilian territory through the state of Mato Grosso, many slaves had been incorporated into the Brazilian forces to face the increasingly serious situation. As a result of their performance during the conflict, the Armed Forces developed a strong sense against slavery. After five years of a terrible warfare, the Alliance led by Brazil defeated Lopez, in November 1889, after a long attrition with the monarchical regime deepened by the abolition of slavery, the army imposes the republic through a coup détat. During World War I the Brazilian government sent three small groups to Europe soon after declaring war upon Central Powers in October 1917. The first two units were from the army, one consisted of staff and the other of a sergeants-officers corps. In this period, the Army defeated the Constitutionalist Revolt in 1932, the Army also helped to formalize the dictatorship in 1937. In August 1942, after German and Italian submarines sunk Brazilian merchant ships, popular mobilization forced the Brazilian government to war on Fascist Italy. In July 1944, after almost two years of pressure and negotiations with US authorities, an expeditionary force was sent to join the Allied forces in the Italian campaign. With the defeat of right wing totalitarian regimes in World War II, Vargas is removed by the head of the army, General Dutra, who in 1946 won the Election dispute against Air Marshall, Eduardo Gomes. After the Vargas suicide, due to a crisis, army sectors led by Marshal Lott, ensured the inauguration of Juscelino Kubitscheks Term. This coup was the first of a series of coups détat in South America that replaced democratically elected governments with military regimes and these dictatorships dominated South America until the 1980s. Internationally, in 1965 the Brazilian Army joined forces with US Marines intervening in the Dominican Republic, in the mid 1970s, despite the dissent annulled, the leftist guerrillas defeated and the legal opposition tamed, repression was not reduced. In the destructive earthquake that occurred in Haiti on January 12,2010, the Brazilian Army has now about 1.250 troops in Haiti and will send 900 more until March 2010, to help the reconstruction of that country
20.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
21.
Martiniano Chilavert
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Martiniano Chilavert was a 19th-century Argentinian military officer who took in the part in the countrys civil wars between the Unitarians and the Federales. Originally an Unitarian opponent of Federalist leader of Juan Manuel de Rosas, Chilavert was motivated by Rosas resistance to the British and French and the other Unitarian leaders alliance with non-Argentines. The day after the day after the Battle of Caseros, he was shot without a trial on the orders of Justo José de Urquiza, saldías, A. Historia de la Confederación Argentina. Palacio, E. Historia de la Argentina, UZAL Francisco Hipólito El Fusilado de Caseros Ediciones La Bastilla Buenos Aires 1974
22.
Southampton
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Southampton, on the south coast of England, is the largest city in the ceremonial county of Hampshire. It is 75 miles south-west of London and 19 miles north-west of Portsmouth, Southampton is a major port and the closest city to the New Forest. It lies at the northernmost point of Southampton Water at the confluence of the Rivers Test and Itchen, the city, which is a unitary authority, has an estimated population of 253,651. The citys name is abbreviated in writing to Soton or Soton. Significant employers in the city include the University of Southampton, Southampton Solent University, Southampton Airport, Ordnance Survey, BBC South, Southampton has a large shopping centre and retail park, Westquay. In 2014, the city approved a follow-up from the Westquay park, WestQuay Watermark. This built-up area is part of the area known as South Hampshire. With a population of over 1.5 million this makes the one of the United Kingdoms most populous metropolitan areas. Archaeological finds suggest that the area has been inhabited since the stone age, following the Roman invasion of Britain in AD43 and the conquering of the local Britons in 70 AD the fortress settlement of Clausentum was established. It was an important trading port and defensive outpost of Winchester, Clausentum was defended by a wall and two ditches and is thought to have contained a bath house. Clausentum was not abandoned until around 410, the Anglo-Saxons formed a new, larger, settlement across the Itchen centred on what is now the St Marys area of the city. The settlement was known as Hamwic, which evolved into Hamtun, archaeological excavations of this site have uncovered one of the best collections of Saxon artefacts in Europe. It is from this town that the county of Hampshire gets its name, viking raids from 840 onwards contributed to the decline of Hamwic in the 9th century, and by the 10th century a fortified settlement, which became medieval Southampton, had been established. Following the Norman Conquest in 1066, Southampton became the port of transit between the then capital of England, Winchester, and Normandy. By the 13th century Southampton had become a port, particularly involved in the import of French wine in exchange for English cloth. The Franciscan friary in Southampton was founded circa 1233, the friars constructed a water supply system in 1290, which carried water from Conduit Head some 1.7 kilometres to the site of the friary inside the town walls. Further remains can be observed at Conduit House on Commercial Road, the friars granted use of the water to the town in 1310. The town was sacked in 1338 by French, Genoese and Monegasque ships, on visiting Southampton in 1339, Edward III ordered that walls be built to close the town
23.
Ad interim
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The Latin phrase ad interim means in the meantime or temporarily. A diplomatic officer who acts in place of an ambassador is called chargé daffaires ad interim, examples from classic literature, The abbreviation a. i. is used in job titles
24.
Federales (Argentina)
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The Federales supported the autonomy of the provincial governments and the distribution of external commerce taxes among the provinces. These were evident at least as early as the declaration of Argentine independence in 1816, the Unitarios lost their controlling power after the Battle of Cepeda, which was followed by several months of anarchy. However, the Unitarios were forced to sign a treaty with other provinces and this did not solve the conflicts between the Federalists and the Unitarians. Under president Bernardino Rivadavia, the Unitarians gained control for a period of time. ”However, the constitution was rejected by provincial caudillos, military leaders. In 1829, the Unitarian League was created by General José María Paz in order to defeat the Federalists, the Federalist governments of Buenos Aires, Santa Fe, Entre Ríos and Corrientes, united under the Federal Pact, confronted Paz and his troops on May 31,1831. The Unitarios were defeated after Paz was captured by the troops of Santa Fe Governor, also in 1829, Juan Manuel de Rosas, the boss of a troop of Gaucho Federalists, became governor of Buenos Aires after defeating General Lavalle, who was then forced into exile. Although Rosas was a Federalist, he kept the customs receipts of Buenos Aires under the control of the city. Afterward, a series of wars ensued that lasted nearly two decades. Juan Lavalle attempted to take action against Rosas, but was defeated at the Battle of Márquez Bridge in 1829. With support from other provinces, Justo José de Urquiza, caudillo of Entre Ríos Province and that May, the San Nicolás Agreement was signed by the provincial governors. The pact reinstated the treaty signed in 1831 by Argentina and the interior provinces, in 1853, the Unitarios of Buenos Aires broke away from the interior provinces after Urquiza nationalized customs receipts and allowed free flow of trade on the Parana and Uruguay rivers. In 1859, Buenos Aires was forced to accept the constitution of 1853 after six years of secession. This was because on October 23, Mitre was defeated at Cepeda by Urquiza, however, the federal constitution was “amended to allow Buenos Aires greater influence. ”After the Battle of Pavón, Mitre was chosen president of a new national government. Opposition to the Unitarios continued until 1890 under the Córdoba League, history of Argentina José Gervasio Artigas Liga Federal Pacto Federal Argentine Confederation Unitario Encyclopædia Britannica
25.
Manuel Dorrego
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Manuel Dorrego was an Argentine statesman and soldier. He was governor of Buenos Aires in 1820, and then again from 1827 to 1828, Dorrego was born in Buenos Aires on June 11,1787 to José Antonio do Rego, a Portuguese merchant, and to María de la Ascensión Salas. He enrolled in the Real Colegio de San Carlos in 1803 and he supported the early steps of the Chilean War of Independence in 1810, which led to the removal of the Spanish colonial authorities and the establishment of the first Chilean Government Junta. He moved to the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata and he fought in the battles of Tucumán and Salta, being injured in both. He was sanctioned by Belgrano for promoting a duel, as a result, he did not take part in the battles of Vilcapugio and Ayohuma, two defeats of the Army of the North, and Belgrano regretted later the absence of Dorrego from them. Dorrego opposed the Luso-Brazilian invasion of the Banda Oriental, encouraged by Juan Martín de Pueyrredón to counter the influence of José Gervasio Artigas and he was exiled by Pueyrredón, and stayed some time in Baltimore. He studied federalism in the United States, and thought that each state of a country should have some autonomy, during this times he wrote the Cartas apologéticas, criticizing the support of Pueyrredón to the Luso-Brazilian invasion. He returned to Buenos Aires in 1819, following the departure of Pueyrredón and he was appointed as interim governor, and fought against the armies of Alvear, Carrera and Estanislao López. Still, he was resisted in the city, and the appointment as governor was given to Martín Rodríguez instead. He was banished again, and moved to Upper Peru and he met Simón Bolívar in Quito, and supported his ideas of unifying all the continent into a giant federation. Dorrego returned to Buenos Aires a short time afterwards and worked in the legislature of Buenos Aires in the 1826 Constituent Assembly and he strongly supported a federal system of government and criticized the qualified suffrage. However, the 1826 Constitution promoted a strong centralized government and qualified suffrage, Dorrego opposed the government of the unitarian Bernardino Rivadavia, who was appointed as the first president of Argentina, and voiced his criticism in the newspaper El Tribuno. Resisted by all the provinces, Rivadavia resigned as president, no longer having a national head of state, the legislature appointed Dorrego as governor of the Buenos Aires province. He took measures to support the poor, promote a federal organization of the country, the Argentine troops were discontented with Dorrego because he accepted the conditions imposed by the British diplomacy despite their military victories in the conflict. Encouraged by the Unitarian party, Juan Lavalle led a coup against Dorrego on December 1,1828, Dorrego left the city and organized his forces in the countryside. He was defeated, and then executed by Lavalle, Argentine Civil War Manuel Dorrego national institute Galasso, Norberto
26.
Facundo Quiroga
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Juan Facundo Quiroga was an Argentine caudillo who supported federalism at the time when the country was still in formation. Quiroga was born in San Antonio, La Rioja, the son of a traditional and he was sent at a young age to San Juan to be educated. Early in his life, he became a child. During his wandering in the desert between San Juan and La Rioja, he encountered and killed a cougar, earning him the nickname El Tigre de los Llanos, after the May Revolution proclaimed the self-rule of the country, Quiroga tried to enter the independentist army. He travelled to San Luis to enter the Granaderos a Caballo Regiment and he was imprisoned and eventually expelled due to his bad temper. He moved back to La Rioja and became a businessman until 1820 and that year the central government of Buenos Aires fell, and the province became autonomous. Quiroga entered the army and quickly rose to its command. After the Cisplatine war, the officers of the army deposed the federalist governments in an attempt to restore the centralised rule of Buenos Aires. General José María Paz took over its province of Córdoba and his officers campaigned through the interior provinces, Quiroga tried to oppose them, but without success, and after defeat in the Battle of La Tablada, he went into self-imposed exile in Buenos Aires. From there, where the coup was defeated, Quiroga led an army towards Córdoba but was defeated in the Battle of Oncativo by Pazs more disciplined forces. He took his campaign north along the Andean provinces, until he finally defeated General Gregorio Aráoz de Lamadrid and he was advised that there were plans to murder him on his way back, but Quiroga, disregarding the advice, returned to Buenos Aires through the same way. At Barranca Yaco, a place between Córdoba and Santiago del Estero, a party of gunmen stopped the carriage in which he travelled. Quiroga, confident in his charisma and that his presence and resolution would discourage the attackers, appeared through the carriage door and shouted at the gunmen. Their leader, Santos Pérez, however, shot him dead, the political crime created a huge crisis in all the Confederation, forcing Maza to resign, and led to the establishment of Rosas government. They were hanged along with Santos Pérez in Buenos Aires, in 1845, Domingo F. Quiroga is buried in La Recoleta Cemetery in Buenos Aires
27.
Alejandro Heredia
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Alejandro Heredia was an Argentine soldier and politician. He fought in the war of independence, and in the subsequent civil war and he was governor and caudillo of Tucumán Province. Alejandro Heredia was born in San Miguel de Tucumán in 1788 and he studied at the National University of Córdoba, gaining a Doctorate in Law. A well-educated man, he studied literature and later taught Latin to his protege. After the May Revolution of 1810, when Buenos Aires declared independence from Spain, General Manuel Belgrano dispatched him on a diplomatic mission to talk with the royalist general José Manuel de Goyeneche. As a soldier, he distinguished himself as a lieutenant in the Battle of Tucumán, then fought in the Battle of Salta, after this event, Heredia was sent to Salta Province, to be under the command of Martín Miguel de Güemes, Governor of Salta. In 1824 he represented Tucumán at the National Constitution Congress in Buenos Aires, at the congress sessions he was noted for his Federalist views. Under the constitutional code he was granted extraordinary powers and he put an end to various abuses that Quiroga had introduced. In 1834, during the national government of Manuel Vicente Maza. Maza consulted with Juan Manuel de Rosas, then sent Quiroga, former caudillo of La Rioja, before Quiroga could complete his mission, he learned that Latorre had been defeated and killed. On January 231836 General Francisco Javier López invaded Tucumán Province with a force of troops from Salta, Heredia attacked and defeated López on the banks of the Rio Famaillá. Two days later Javier López and his secretary Angel López were shot, colonel Juan Balmaceda was allowed to live, but was deported to Santiago del Estero. On 28 January, Alejandro Heredia concluded a pact with Catamarca Province, signed by Napoleón Boneti for Catamarca, Heredia now became the central figure in the north, giving the governorship of Salta to his brother Felipe Heredia. On 18 April 1836 the Tucumán House of Representatives re-elected Heredia as governor, during Heredias rule as governor, an office achieved by popular vote, he was a man of progress and order. According to Manuel Borda Lizondo he was the most cultured and progressive of the governors of Tucumán between 1810 and 1853, and his government ranked highest among all its neighbors. He believed in the possibility of fusing the Federalist and Unitarian parties in his province, in 1837, Juan Manuel de Rosass government declared war on the Peru–Bolivian Confederation under the command of Andrés de Santa Cruz. In May 1837 Alejandro Heredia was appointed commanding general of the Argentine army operations, Rosas was concerned about the growing power of the Confederation in the north, and also wanted to crush anti-Federalist exiles in Bolivia. Heredia launched an invasion of Bolivia with his own forces and reinforcements sent by Rosas, but his army was defeated at the Battle of Montenegro
28.
Bernardino Rivadavia
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Bernardino de la Trinidad González Rivadavia y Rivadavia was the first president of Argentina, then called the United Provinces of Rio de la Plata, from February 8,1826 to June 27,1827. He was educated at the Royal College of San Carlos, during the British Invasions he served as Third Lieutenant of the Galicia Volunteers. He participated in the open Cabildo on May 22,1810 voting for the deposition of the viceroy and he had a strong influence on the First Triumvirate and shortly after he served as Minister of Government and Foreign Affairs of the Province of Buenos Aires. Argentinas Constitution of 1826 was promulgated later, but was rejected by the provinces, strongly contested by his political party, Rivadavia resigned and was succeeded by Vicente López y Planes. Rivadavia retired to Spain, where he died in 1845 and his remains were repatriated to Argentina in 1857, receiving honors as Captain General. Today his remains rest in a located in Plaza Miserere, adjacent to Rivadavia Avenue. His military appointment was rejected by Mariano Moreno, Rivadavia was active in both the Argentine resistance to the British invasion of 1806 and in the May Revolution movement for Argentine Independence in 1810. In 1811, Rivadavia became the member of the governing triumvirate as Secretary of the Treasury and Secretary of War. Until its fall in October 1812, this government focused on creating a central government, moderating relations with Spain. By 1814 the Spanish King Ferdinand VII had returned to the throne and started the Absolutist Restauration, manuel Belgrano and Rivadavia were sent to Europe to seek support for the United Provinces from both Spain and Britain. They sought to promote the crowning of Francisco de Paula, son of Charles IV of Spain, as regent of the United Provinces, the diplomatic mission was a failure, both in Spain and in Britain. He visited France as well, and returned to Buenos Aires in 1821, during his stay in Britain, Rivadavia saw the growing development of the Industrial Revolution, and the rise of Romanticism. He sought to promote a development in Buenos Aires. He convinced Aimé Bonpland to visit the country, but few other invitations were accepted, in June 1821, he was named minister of government to Buenos Aires by governor Martín Rodríguez. Over the next five years, he exerted a strong influence, to make the former look more European, Rivadavia constructed large avenues, schools, paved and lighted streets. He founded the University of Buenos Aires, as well as the Theater, Geology, and Medicine Academies and he persuaded the legislature to authorize a one-million pound loan for public works that were never undertaken. The provincial bonds were sold in London through the Baring Brothers Bank, local, the borrowed money was in turn lent to these businessmen, who never repaid it. Of the original million pounds the Buenos Aires government received only £552,700, the provinces foreign debt was transferred to the nation in 1825, its final repayment being made in 1904
Entre Ríos Province (Argentina)
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