1.
Chilean War of Independence
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Traditionally, the beginning of the war is dated as September 18,1810. A declaration of independence was issued by Chile on February 12,1818 and formally recognized by Spain in 1844. The Chilean War of Independence was part of the more aroused Spanish American wars of independence, Independence did not have unanimous support among Chileans, who were divided between independentists and royalists. What started as a movement among elites against the colonial power. Traditionally, the process is divided into three stages, the Patria Vieja, 1810–1814, the Reconquista, 1814–1817, and the Patria Nueva, 1817–1823. In May 1808 the overthrow of Charles IV and Ferdinand VII, their replacement by Joseph Bonaparte, in the meantime, Chile was facing its own internal political problems. Governor Guzmán had suddenly died in February of that year and the crown had not been able to appoint a new governor before the invasion, since her father and brother were being held prisoners in France, she regarded herself as the heiress of her captured family. Allegedly among her plan was to send armies to occupy Buenos Aires and northern Argentina, brigadier García Carrasco was a man of crude and authoritarian manners, who managed in a very short time to alienate the criollo elites under his command. Already in Chile, as in most of Latin America, there had some independence agitation but minimal. In 1809, Governor García Carrasco himself was implicated in a flagrant case of corruption that managed to destroy remnants of moral authority he or his office had left. From that moment on the pressure for his removal began to build, in June 1810 news arrived from Buenos Aires that Napoleon Bonapartes forces had conquered Andalusia and laid siege to Cádiz, the last redoubt against the French on Spanish soil. Moreover, the Supreme Central Junta, which had governed the Empire for the past two years, had abolished itself in favor of a Regency Council, among those arrested were José Antonio de Rojas, Juan Antonio Ovalle and Bernardo de Vera y Pintado. Inspired by the May Revolution in Argentina, the movement had also propagated through the criollo elite. They resented the illegal arrests and, together with the news that Cádiz was all that was left of a free Spain, count Toro Zambrano was, by all standards, a very unorthodox selection. He was an old man already and moreover a criollo as opposed to a peninsular. Immediately after his appointment in July, the juntistas began to lobby him in order to obtain the formation of a junta. In August the Royal Appeals Court took a loyalty oath to the Regency Council in front of a massive audience. After vacillating for some time over which party to follow, Toro Zambrano finally agreed to hold an open Cabildo meeting in Santiago to discuss the issue, the date was set for September 18,1810 at 11 AM
Chilean War of Independence
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Romanticized painting of the 1814
Battle of Rancagua by
Pedro Subercaseaux
Chilean War of Independence
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Mateo de Toro Zambrano
Chilean War of Independence
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Opening session of the
First Junta
Chilean War of Independence
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Juan Martínez de Rozas
2.
Argentine War of Independence
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On July 9,1816, an assembly met in San Miguel de Tucumán, declared full independence with provisions for a national constitution. The territory of modern Argentina was part of the Spanish Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, with its city in Buenos Aires. Modern Uruguay, Paraguay and Bolivia were also part of the viceroyalty, the vast area of the territory and slow communications led most populated areas to become isolated from each other. The wealthiest regions of the viceroyalty were in Upper Peru, Salta and Córdoba had closer ties with Upper Peru than with Buenos Aires. Similarly, Mendoza in the west had closer ties with the Captaincy General of Chile, Paraguay was isolated from all other regions. This created a rivalry between the Criollos, people born in America, and the peninsulares, people arrived from Europe. The ideas of the American and French Revolutions, and the Age of Enlightenment, the full prohibition imposed by Spain to trade with other nations was also seen as damaging to the viceroyaltys economy. The population of Buenos Aires was highly militarized during the British invasions of the Río de la Plata, Buenos Aires was captured in 1806, and then liberated by Santiago de Liniers with forces from Montevideo. Fearing a counter-attack, all the population of Buenos Aires capable of bearing arms was arranged in military bodies, a new British attack in 1807 captured Montevideo, but was defeated in Buenos Aires, and forced to leave the viceroyalty. The transfer of the Portuguese Court to Brazil generated military concern and it was feared that the British would launch a third attack, this time allied with Portugal. However, no military conflict took place, as when the Peninsular War started Britain, Javier de Elío created a Junta in Montevideo and Martín de Álzaga sought to make a similar move by organizing a mutiny in Buenos Aires, but the local military forces intervened and thwarted it. Spain appointed a new viceroy, Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros, and Liniers handed the government to him without resistance, the military conflict in Spain worsened by 1810. The city of Seville had been invaded by French armies, which were already dominating most of the Iberian Peninsula, the Junta of Seville was disestablished, and several members fled to Cádiz, the last portion of Spain still resisting. They established a Council of Regency, with political tendencies closer to absolutism than the former Junta and this began the May Revolution in Buenos Aires, as soon as the news was known. The military gave their support to the request, forcing Cisneros to accept, the discussion ruled the removal of viceroy Cisneros and his replacement with a government junta, but the cabildo attempted to keep Cisneros in power by appointing him president of such junta. Further demonstrations ensued, and the Junta was forced to resign immediately and it was replaced by a new one, the Primera Junta. Buenos Aires requested the other cities in the viceroyalty to acknowledge the new Junta, the precise purpose of these deputies, join the Junta or create a congress, was unclear at the time and generated political disputes later. The Junta was initially resisted by all the locations around Buenos Aires, Córdoba, Montevideo, Paraguay
Argentine War of Independence
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From top and left:
Crossing of the Andes,
Battle of Salta,
22 May 1810 Open Cabildo,
Battle of San Lorenzo,
Battle of Suipacha,
1813 Assembly,
Shooting of Liniers,
Jujuy Exodus.
Argentine War of Independence
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The
May Revolution forced the viceroy to resign. He was replaced by a government Junta, the
Primera Junta.
Argentine War of Independence
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San Martín wrapped in the flag.
Argentine War of Independence
–
Political ideas
3.
Santiago, Chile
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Santiago de Chile, or simply Santiago, is the capital and largest city of Chile as well as one of the largest cities in the Americas. It is the center of Chiles largest and the most densely populated conurbation, the city is entirely located in the countrys central valley, at an elevation of 520 m above mean sea level. Founded in 1541, Santiago has been the city of Chile since colonial times. The city has a core of 19th century neoclassical architecture and winding side-streets, dotted by art deco, neo-gothic. Santiagos cityscape is shaped by several hills and the fast-flowing Mapocho River. The Andes Mountains can be seen from most points in the city and these mountains contribute to a considerable smog problem, particularly during winter. The city outskirts are surrounded by vineyards and Santiago is within a few hours of both the mountains and the Pacific Ocean, Santiago is the cultural, political and financial center of Chile and is home to the regional headquarters of many multinational corporations. The Chilean executive and judiciary are located in Santiago, but Congress meets mostly in nearby Valparaíso, Santiago is named after the biblical figure St. James. In Chile, there are entities which bear the name of Santiago that are often confused. The Commune of Santiago, sometimes referred to as downtown or Central Santiago, is a division that comprises roughly the area occupied by the city during its colonial period. The city and regions demonym is santiaguinos and santiaguinas, according to certain archaeological investigations, it is believed that the first human groups of the X millennium settled in the Santiago basin. The groups were mainly nomadic hunter-gatherers, who traveled from the coast to the interior in search of guanacos during the time of the Andean snowmelt. The villages established in the belonging to picunches groups or promaucaes, were subject to the Inca Empire throughout the late fifteenth century. The Incas settled in the valley of mitimaes, the main installation settled in the center of the present city, with strengths as Huaca de Chena, the area would have served as a basis for the failed Inca expeditions southward road junction as the Inca Trail. Having been sent by Francisco Pizarro from Peru and having made the journey from Cuzco. The hosts of Valdivia camped by the river in the slopes of the Tupahue hill, the natives accepted and even recommended the foundation of the town on a small island between two branches of the river next to a small hill called Huelén. On 12 February 1541, Valdivia officially founded the city of Santiago del Nuevo Extremo in honor of St. James, patron saint of Spain, near the Huelén, renamed by the conqueror as St. Lucia. Following colonial rule, Valdivia entrusted the layout of the new town to master builder Pedro de Gamboa, in the center of the city, Gamboa designed a Plaza Mayor, around which various plots for the Cathedral and the governors house were selected
Santiago, Chile
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Collage of Santiago, left to right, top to bottom: Cerro Santa Lucía, panoramic view of Santiago,
La Moneda, Statue of the Immaculate Conception, Torre Entel,
National Museum of Fine Arts and
National Library of Chile, Torre Telefónica,
Santiago Metropolitan Cathedral and
Santiago Metro.
Santiago, Chile
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Municipality of
Santiago Commune
Santiago, Chile
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1541 founding of Santiago. Painting by
Pedro Lira
Santiago, Chile
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Inés de Suárez, successfully defending Santiago against a
Mapuche attack in 1541
4.
Army of the Andes
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The Army of the Andes was a military force created by the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata and mustered by general José de San Martín in his campaign to free Chile from the Spanish Empire. In 1817, it crossed the Andes Mountains from the Argentine province of Cuyo, the exact number of the army varies between different sources, some have put the number as low as 3500, while others have it being as high as 6000 men. The army consisted of Argentines and Chileans, and included some 1200 auxiliaries to help in provisioning and supply, as well as a complement of artillery. While the army was made up of a less than experienced military force, San Martín intended to lead, with discipline and equipment. Because this second pass was more negotiable, the artillery was taken in the second column and these two divisions were the main body of the Army, but there were smaller detachments sent to the north and south as flanking wings. The smaller division to the north was composed of some 130 infantry as well as a group of Chilean expatriates, to the south was a group under the command of the Chilean Ramón Freire Serrano. After their 25-day journey across the Andes, the Army of the Andes successfully met royalist forces in the Battle of Chacabuco, after his refusal, OHiggins was finally elected. This new army fought the counterattack of royalist Army of Osorio at battles of Cancha Rayada, the number of black soldiers in the army of San Martin were numerous and grouped to form the majority of 7th, 8th and 11th Infantry Regiments. According to military doctrine of San Martin, colored soldiers would serve better in the infantry branch among the three arms of the army of the Andes, blacks represented two thirds of soldiers of the Army of the Andes. They were estimated at between 2,000 and 3,000 Argentine freedmen who crossed the Andes to Chile in 1817 with San Martin, black troops were mainly recruited from slaves which Lynch estimates a figure of 1,554 slaves. Of those 2,500 black soldiers who began the crossing of the Andes, in all of these black regiments commissioned officers should be white under Argentine law. But San Martin sought to change the rules so that at least the black soldiers reached grades corporals, later both regiments 7 and 8 will be unified in Peru in the black regiment of the Río de la Plata. Appleton and company Scheina, Robert, Latin America’s Wars, The Age of the Caudillo, 1791-1899, Brassey’s, ISBN 1-57488-450-6
Army of the Andes
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7º Regiment
Army of the Andes
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Flag of the Army of the Andes
5.
Spain
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By population, Spain is the sixth largest in Europe and the fifth in the European Union. Spains capital and largest city is Madrid, other urban areas include Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Bilbao. Modern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago, in the Middle Ages, the area was conquered by Germanic tribes and later by the Moors. Spain is a democracy organised in the form of a government under a constitutional monarchy. It is a power and a major developed country with the worlds fourteenth largest economy by nominal GDP. Jesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the span is the Phoenician word spy. Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean the land where metals are forged, two 15th-century Spanish Jewish scholars, Don Isaac Abravanel and Solomon ibn Verga, gave an explanation now considered folkloric. Both men wrote in two different published works that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship by Phiros who was confederate with the king of Babylon when he laid siege to Jerusalem. This man was a Grecian by birth, but who had given a kingdom in Spain. He became related by marriage to Espan, the nephew of king Heracles, Heracles later renounced his throne in preference for his native Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, from whom the country of España took its name. Based upon their testimonies, this eponym would have already been in use in Spain by c.350 BCE, Iberia enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians, Basques and Celts. Early on its coastal areas were settled by Phoenicians who founded Western Europe´s most ancient cities Cadiz, Phoenician influence expanded as much of the Peninsula was eventually incorporated into the Carthaginian Empire, becoming a major theater of the Punic Wars against the expanding Roman Empire. After an arduous conquest, the peninsula came fully under Roman Rule, during the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule but later, much of it was conquered by Moorish invaders from North Africa. In a process took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the peninsula. The last Moorish kingdom fell in the same year Columbus reached the Americas, a global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe, the leading world power for a century and a half, and the largest overseas empire for three centuries. Continued wars and other problems led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic invasions of Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire, eventually democracy was peacefully restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a renaissance and steady economic growth
Spain
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Lady of Elche
Spain
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Flag
Spain
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Altamira Cave paintings, in
Cantabria.
Spain
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Celtic castro in
A Guarda,
Galicia.
6.
Royalist (Spanish American Revolution)
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The creation of juntas in Spanish America in 1810 was a direct reaction to developments in Spain during the previous two years. In 1808 Ferdinand VII had been convinced to abdicate by Napoleon in his favor, the Supreme Central Junta had led a resistance to Josephs government and the French occupation of Spain, but suffered a series of reverses resulting in the loss of the northern half of the country. On February 1,1810, French troops took Seville and gained control of most of Andalusia, the Supreme Junta retreated to Cadiz and dissolved itself in favor of a Regency Council of Spain and the Indies. As news of this arrived throughout Spanish America during the three weeks to nine months—depending on time it took goods and people to travel from Spain—political fault lines appeared. It is important to note that, at first, the claimed to carry out their actions in the name of the deposed king. Juntas were successfully established in Venezuela, Río de la Plata and New Granada, in the months following the establishment of the Regency, it became clear that Spain was not lost, and furthermore the government was effectively reconstituting itself. The Regency successfully convened the Cortes Generales, the parliament of the Spanish Monarchy. The Regency and Cortes began issuing orders to, and appointing and those who supported the new government came to be called royalists. Those that supported the idea of maintaining independent juntas called themselves patriots, as the Cortes instituted liberal reforms and worked on drafting a constitution, a new division appeared among royalists. Conservatives did not want to see any innovations in government, while liberals supported them and these differences would become more acute after the restoration of Ferdinand VII, because the king opted to support the conservative position. Regional rivalry also played an important role in the wars that broke out in Spanish America as a result of the juntas. The disappearance of a central, imperial authority—and in some cases of even a local, viceregal authority —initiated a prolonged period of balkanization in many regions of Spanish America. It was not clear which political units which should replace the empire, more often than not, juntas sought to maintain a provinces independence from the capital of the former viceroyalty or captaincy general, as much as from the Peninsula itself. Armed conflicts broke out between the provinces over the question of some provinces were to be subordinate to others in the manner that they had been under the crown. This phenomenon was particularly evident in New Granada and Río de la Plata and this rivalry also lead some regions to adopt the opposing political cause from their rivals. The creation of juntas in Río de la Plata allowed Peru to regain control of Upper Peru for the duration of the wars. Ferdinand justified his actions by stating that the Constitution and other changes had made by a Cortes assembled in his absence. He also declared all of the juntas and constitutions written in Spanish America invalid and restored the former law codes, most Spanish Americans were moderates who decided to wait and see what would come out of the restoration of normalcy
Royalist (Spanish American Revolution)
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New Spain,
Guatemala,
Cuba &
Puerto Rico Félix María Calleja
Royalist (Spanish American Revolution)
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Royalist territories in Western South America after the
Battle of Chacabuco of 1818.
Chiloé and
Valdivia were royalist enclaves accessible only by sea.
Royalist (Spanish American Revolution)
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New Granada,
Venezuela &
Quito Pablo Morillo
Royalist (Spanish American Revolution)
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Río de la Plata, Montevideo & Paraguay Santiago de Liniers
7.
Rafael Maroto
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Rafael Maroto Yserns was a Spanish general, known both for his involvement on the Spanish side in the wars of independence in South America and on the Carlist side in the First Carlist War. Maroto was born in the town of Lorca in the Region of Murcia, Spain, to Margarita Isern, a native of Barcelona, and Rafael Maroto, a native of Zamora. His father was a captain who held several important positions in civilian life. Maroto was baptized in the San Cristóbal parish church, where his baptismal certificate was preserved, during his childhood, he lived on the Calle Mayor of the Barrio de San Cristóbal, across from Plaza de la Estrella. He married Antonia Cortés García, a Chilean, in 1816, Antonia and two of his daughters died in a shipwreck in 1830 en route to Chile. At the age of 18, Maroto took part in the conflicts and campaigns of Manuel de Godoy and he also fought in the Spanish War of Independence, in which he was wounded and made a prisoner in Zaragoza. He then received a position in Peru and later fought in the war against the pro-independence Chileans, however, he was defeated by General José de San Martín in the Battle of Chacabuco. At the age of 11, Maroto left for Cartagena in the province of Murcia where he joined as a minor subordinate cadet in the Asturias Infantry Regiment in 1794 and he was promoted to second lieutenant on June 15,1798. The English had disembarked to the Heights of Grana and the campaigns ran from August 25 to August 26,1800, for the merit he demonstrated in these operations, Maroto was awarded a Shield of Honor. He continued on, adding two years in the Navy of the Department of Ferrol, and later he returned to the Asturias Regiment, on October 15,1806 he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant. Maroto also fought as a soldier in the Spanish War of Independence against Napoleons army, the French attacked the plaza of Valencia on June 28,1808. Maroto defended the city with the batteries that he had at his position, in Santa Catalina, forced to surrender to the enemy after a heroic defense, he was recognized with distinction to the mother country and was awarded a Shield of Honor. On November 23 he took part in the Battle of Tudela in Navarre, on December 24, Monte Torrero and Casa Blanca—suburbs of Zaragoza—were attacked, and shortly after Maroto used bayonets in order to dislodge the enemy that had taken them. With the grade of captain, Maroto participated also in the Siege of Zaragoza in 1809 and he gained control of Pilar, the batteries of San José, Puerta Quemada and Tenerías. He made forays from these batteries, often receiving gunfire, when the city of Zaragoza was captured, Maroto was made a prisoner of war by the French, but managed to escape. For his heroic acts in Zaragoza he received a Shield of Distinction that held the motto Recompensa del valor y patriotismo and he was declared a benemérito de la patria en grado heroico y eminente, roughly Distinction of the Fatherland, in Heroic and Distinguished Degree. On March 9 he was promoted to lieutenant colonel, in 1811 he was assigned to the Infantry Regiment of the line in Valencia. On October 24 and 25, he occupied the defense of the attacks against Puzol, Heights of Sagunto Castle, on October 25,1812, he defended the lines of Grao, Monte Olivet, Cuarte, the line of Valencia, and the square of the city
Rafael Maroto
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Rafael Maroto with his niece Margarita Borgoño, painting by
Raymond Monvoisin
Rafael Maroto
–
The
Battle of Rancagua in which Maroto participated in the taking of the plaza.
Rafael Maroto
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Women fleeing in Guetaria from the Siege of Bilbao
Rafael Maroto
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Artistic recreation of the executions of Estella. Published for the first time in the work Galería Militar Contemporánea (1846)
8.
Crossing of the Andes
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The ultimate objective was the liberation of Chile from Spanish rule with Argentine forces. Led by José de San Martín, the crossing took 21 days, the idea of crossing the Andes was already developed by secret lodges seeking the independence of South America, and was part of the Maitland Plan designed by Thomas Maitland. San Martín learned of it during his time in Britain. After becoming aware of the difficulty of attacking the royalist stronghold of Lima across Upper Peru, the Captaincy General of Chile had removed their governor in 1810, and replaced him with the First Government Junta, starting a period of Chilean history known as Patria Vieja. However, they would be defeated in 1814 during the battle of Rancagua, Bernardo OHiggins and other Chilean leaders had fled to Mendoza during the new royalist government, which led to OHiggins being part of the Army of the Andes as well as the Argentine soldiers. The city of Mendoza, during this time frame, became a headquarters during the pre-crossing. The citizens of Mendoza assisted their troops by manufacturing gunpowder and ammunition and they also learned to make cannons. The main food of the army was a meal called valdiviano. It was prepared with dry meat or charqui, sliced raw onion and they had designated soldiers who carried the food. On the morning of January 19,1817, San Martin and his army set out from their base camp El Plumerillo, San Martin crossed with 4,000 men, only to end up losing 1/3 of them. It was a blow to the troop. The number of auxiliaries reached 1,200, for the crossing, San Martin split his army into two divisions, The main division, which traveled through the pass of Los Patos, was led by San Martin, Miguel Estanislao Soler and Bernardo O’Higgins. The secondary troop, which traveled through the more southern Uspallata, was led by Juan Gregorio de Las Heras. On February 13,1817, San Martín, O’Higgins, and their army successfully entered Santiago, Chile, after crossing 500 kilometers of mountain range, thus, the Battle of Chacabuco began. Liberators, Latin Americas Struggle For Independence, 1810–1830
Crossing of the Andes
–
Generals
José de San Martín (left) and
Bernardo O'Higgins (right) crossing the
Andes.
Crossing of the Andes
–
Political ideas
Crossing of the Andes
–
Patriots
Crossing of the Andes
–
Primera Junta
9.
Second Battle of Cancha Rayada
–
The Second Battle of Cancha Rayada, was fought in Chile between South American patriots and Spanish royalists, during the South American wars of independence. The result was a defeat for the rebels, who took their revenge at the Battle of Maipú, Argentine general José de San Martín, fearing an attack on his flank, ordered a change of position of the troops. Knowing their disadvantage in number and cavalry, the Spanish General Osorio was not eager to engage in battle either, however, after a suggestion from Colonel José Ordóñez a confrontation was decided upon, under Ordoñez command. The Spanish attacked at 19,30, when the last thing the patriots expected was a battle, the surprise attack happened before the patriot army had re-positioned itself, and was a directed at the battalion under General Bernardo OHiggins command, near San Martíns position. Soon, the vanguard soldiers dispersed, leaving OHiggins in a bad position, his horse was shot dead, in an uncharacteristic move, instead of ordering retreat San Martín held the position, which made more patriot soldiers flee under enemy fire, leaving their weapons and supplies behind. After the initial disorder, however, he ordered retreat, Colonel Juan Gregorio de Las Heras took command, and led the men during the retreat, while trying to recover as much artillery and weapons as possible. San Martín and OHiggins were being chased by royalist forces. By March 21, the patriot forces of around three and half thousand men reunited in San Fernando, while news of the defeat reached Santiago. Rumors of deaths of OHiggins and San Martín were spreading, Im reuniting the troops right now, with happy results, as Im already counting 4,000 men from Curicó to Pelequén. The battle resulted in around 150 killed, and two hundred taken prisoner, several hundred had deserted, the whole artillery of the Argentine side was lost along with considerable numbers of horses, mules, and weapons from both the Chilean and Argentine parts of the army. Historia de Chile Chillán Viejo, Chile Julio Mario Luqui-Lagleyze[Luqui-Lagleyze, Julio Mario, por el rey, la fe y la patria, el Ejército Realista del Perú en la independencia sudamericana, 1810-1825. Madrid, Ministerio de Defensa de España, Secretaría General Técnica, memorias para la historia de las armas españolas en el Perú. Latin Americas Wars, The age of the caudillo, 1791-1899
Second Battle of Cancha Rayada
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Political career
Second Battle of Cancha Rayada
–
Second Battle of Cancha Rayada
10.
General
–
A general officer is an officer of high rank in the army, and in some nations air forces or marines. The term general is used in two ways, as the title for all grades of general officer and as a specific rank. It originates in the 16th century, as a shortening of captain general, the adjective general had been affixed to officer designations since the late medieval period to indicate relative superiority or an extended jurisdiction. Today, the title of General is known in countries as a four-star rank. However different countries use different systems of stars for senior ranks and it has a NATO code of OF-9 and is the highest rank currently in use in a number of armies. The various grades of general officer are at the top of the rank structure. Lower-ranking officers in military forces are typically known as field officers or field-grade officers. There are two systems of general ranks used worldwide. In addition there is a system, the Arab system of ranks. Variations of one form, the old European system, were used throughout Europe. It is used in the United Kingdom, from which it spread to the Commonwealth. The other is derived from the French Revolution, where ranks are named according to the unit they command. The system used either a general or a colonel general rank. The rank of marshal was used by some countries as the highest rank. Many countries actually used two brigade command ranks, which is why some countries now use two stars as their brigade general insignia, mexico and Argentina still use two brigade command ranks. As a lieutenant outranks a sergeant major, confusion arises because a lieutenant is outranked by a major. Originally the serjeant major was, exclusively, the commander of the infantry, junior only to the captain general, the distinction of serjeant major general only applied after serjeant majors were introduced as a rank of field officer. Serjeant was eventually dropped from both titles, creating the modern rank titles
General
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Shang Jiang (
Republic of China Army)
General
–
General de Exército (
Brazilian Army)
General
–
Kenraali (collar and sleeve) (
Finnish Army)
General
–
Heneral (
Philippine Army)
11.
Captain (land)
–
The army rank of captain is a commissioned officer rank historically corresponding to the command of a company of soldiers. The rank is used by some air forces and marine forces. Today, a captain is typically either the commander or second-in-command of a company or artillery battery, in the Chinese Peoples Liberation Army, a captain may also command a company, or be the second-in-command of a battalion. In NATO countries, the rank of captain is described by the code OF-2 and is one rank above an OF-1, the rank of captain is generally considered to be the highest rank a soldier can achieve while remaining in the field. The rank of captain should not be confused with the rank of captain or with the British-influenced air force rank of group captain. The term ultimately goes back to Late Latin capitaneus meaning chief, prominent, in Middle English adopted as capitayn in the 14th century, the military rank of captain was in use from the 1560s, referring to an officer who commands a company. The naval sense, an officer who commands a man-of-war, is earlier, from the 1550s. He would in turn receive money from another nobleman to serve as his lieutenant, the funding to provide for the troops came from the monarch or his government, the captain had to be responsible for it. If he was not, or was otherwise court-martialed, he would be dismissed, otherwise, the only pension for the captain was selling the right to another nobleman when he was ready to retire. In most countries, the air force is the junior service, many, such as the United States Air Force, use a rank structure and insignia similar to those of the army. However, the United Kingdoms Royal Air Force, many other Commonwealth air forces, a group captain is OF-5 and was derived from the naval rank of captain. In the unified system of the Canadian Forces, the air force rank titles are pearl grey, a variety of images illustrative of different forces insignia for captain are shown below, Captain Captain Senior captain Staff captain
Captain (land)
–
Belgian Land Component
12.
Captaincy General of Chile
–
The General Captaincy of Chile or Gobernación de Chile, was a colony of the Spanish Empire from 1541 to 1818, the year in which it declared itself independent, becoming the Republic of Chile. It had a number of governors over its history and technically one king, Felipe II. The General Captaincy of Chile was incorporated to the Crown of Castile as were all the other Spanish possessions in the New World, the General Captaincy of Chile was first known as New Extremadura and then as Indian Flanders. The Captaincy was a part of the Viceroyalty of Perú, the administrative apparatus of the General Captaincy of Chile was subordinate to the Council of the Indies and the Laws of the Indies, like the other Spanish colonial possessions. The day-to-day work was handled mostly by viceroys and governors, who represented the kings will, in 1536 Diego de Almagro formed the first expedition to explore the territories to the south of the Inca Empire, which had been granted to him as the Governorship of New Toledo. After Almargos death, Pedro de Valdivia solicited and was granted in 1539 the right to explore, Valdivia founded the city of Santiago del Nuevo Extremo and a few months later its cabildo appointed him governor and Captain General of New Extremadura on June 11,1541. In 1553 Valdivia also founded a series of forts for protection of the areas, San Felipe de Araucan, San Juan Bautista de Purén. After Valdivias death that year, these last forts, Villarica. They were recovered following the war with Lautaro and Caupolicán, martín García Óñez de Loyola founded a last city south of the Bio Bio River, Santa Cruz de Coya, in 1595. In the 17th century, the Spanish colony of Chile saw a rearrangement of its population center, the colony went from being a gold exporter with potential for expanding to the Strait of Magellan to being one of the Spanish Empires most problematic and poor in natural resources. The Spanish Empire had to divert silver from Potosí to finance a standing army in Chile to fight in the Arauco War, since the raids of Francis Drake in Chilean waters more seaborne assaults followed in the 17th century, mostly from Dutch corsairs. Thus, the governor was given command of the local military and this arrangement was seen in many places of the Spanish Empire. Chile also has the distinction of being the one region of the Spanish Empire that technically had a king, Philip II. In 1554, the Infante Philip married Queen Mary I of England, in order to bring him up to an equal rank with the Queen, he was named the King of Chile by his father, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. Additionally he received the Kingdom of Naples, a possession of the Crown of Aragon, for all practical purposes, the title had no effect on Chiles administration, continuing its practical identity as a gobernación and reino in the Spanish Empire. After Philip became King of Spain in 1556, the title simply merged back to the held by the Spanish king. The greatest set back the Spanish settlements suffered was the Disaster of Curalaba in 1598, all cities south of the Biobío River with the exception of Castro were destroyed. The river became La Frontera the de facto border between Spanish and Native areas for the next century, Chile gained two intendancies, Santiago and Concepción in 1786 and became a Bourbon-style Captaincy General in 1789
Captaincy General of Chile
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Illustration of the
Arauco War in
Jerónimo de Vivar 's book Crónica y relación copiosa y verdadera de los reynos de Chile (1558).
Captaincy General of Chile
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Flag of the Spanish Empire
Captaincy General of Chile
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" Baile del Santiago antiguo " by
Pedro Subercaseaux. Chile's colonial high society were made up by landowners and government officials.
Captaincy General of Chile
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World Map by Abraham Ortelius (1570), where appears the Terra Australis Incognita.
13.
Viceroyalty of Peru
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The Viceroyalty of Peru was a Spanish colonial administrative district, created in 1542, that originally contained most of Spanish-ruled South America, governed from the capital of Lima. The Viceroyalty of Peru was one of the two Spanish Viceroyalties in the Americas from the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries, the Spanish did not resist the Portuguese expansion of Brazil across the meridian established by the Treaty of Tordesillas. The treaty was rendered meaningless between 1580 and 1640 while Spain controlled Portugal, eventually, the viceroyalty would dissolve, as with much of the Spanish empire, when challenged by national independence movements at the beginning of the nineteenth century. From September 2,1564 to November 26,1569 he was viceroy of Peru. In 1542, the Spanish created the Viceroyalty of New Castile, in 1544, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V named Blasco Núñez Vela Perus first viceroy, but the viceroyalty was not organized until the arrival of Viceroy Francisco Álvarez de Toledo. Toledo made a tour of inspection of the colony. He improved the safety in the viceroyalty with fortifications, bridges, still, Luis Jerónimo de Cabrera, 4th Count of Chinchón sent out the third expedition to explore the Amazon River, under Cristóbal de Acuña. Many Pacific islands were visited by Spanish ships in the sixteenth century and these included New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands and the Marquesas Islands by Álvaro de Mendaña de Neira. These groups had the advantage of remote geography and river access from the mouth of the Amazon, meanwhile, the Spanish were barred by their laws from slaving of indigenous people, leaving them without a commercial interest deep in the interior of the basin. One famous attack upon a Spanish mission in 1628 resulted in the enslavement of 60,000 indigenous people, in fact as time passed they were used as a self funding occupation force by the Portuguese authorities in what was effectively a low level war of territorial conquest. In 1617, Francisco de Borja y Aragón divided the government of Río de la Plata into two, Buenos Aires and Paraguay, both dependencies of the Viceroyalty of Peru. Viceroy Borja y Aragón also established the Tribunal del Consulado, a special court, Diego Fernández de Córdoba, Marquis of Guadalcázar reformed the fiscal system and stopped the interfamily rivalry that was bloodying the domain. Fernández de Cabrera suppressed an insurrection of the Uru and Mapuche Indians, viceroys had to protect the Pacific coast from French contraband and English and Dutch pirates. They expanded the naval forces, fortified the ports of Valdivia, Valparaíso, Arica and Callao and constructed city walls in Lima, nevertheless, the famous English privateer Henry Morgan took Chagres and captured and sacked the city of Panama in the early part of 1670. Also Peruvian forces repelled the attacks by Edward David, Charles Wager, the Peace of Utrecht allowed the British to send ships and merchandise to the fair at Portobello. In this period, revolts were common, around 1656, Pedro Bohórquez crowned himself Inca of the Calchaquí Indians, inciting the indigenous population to revolt. From 1665 until 1668, the rich mineowners José and Gaspar Salcedo revolted against the colonial government, the clergy were opposed to the nomination of prelates from Spain. Viceroy Diego Ladrón de Guevara had to take measures against an uprising of slaves at the hacienda of Huachipa de Lima, there were terrible earthquakes and epidemics, too
Viceroyalty of Peru
Viceroyalty of Peru
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Cross of Burgundy (Flag of the Viceroyalty of Peru)
Viceroyalty of Peru
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Francisco Álvarez de Toledo, Viceroy of Peru
Viceroyalty of Peru
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The Plaza Mayor and the
Cathedral of Lima
14.
Chile
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Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a South American country occupying a long, narrow strip of land between the Andes to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, Chilean territory includes the Pacific islands of Juan Fernández, Salas y Gómez, Desventuradas, and Easter Island in Oceania. Chile also claims about 1,250,000 square kilometres of Antarctica, the arid Atacama Desert in northern Chile contains great mineral wealth, principally copper. Southern Chile is rich in forests and grazing lands, and features a string of volcanoes and lakes, the southern coast is a labyrinth of fjords, inlets, canals, twisting peninsulas, and islands. Spain conquered and colonized Chile in the century, replacing Inca rule in northern and central Chile. After declaring its independence from Spain in 1818, Chile emerged in the 1830s as a relatively stable authoritarian republic, in the 1960s and 1970s the country experienced severe left-right political polarization and turmoil. The regime, headed by Augusto Pinochet, ended in 1990 after it lost a referendum in 1988 and was succeeded by a coalition which ruled through four presidencies until 2010. Chile is today one of South Americas most stable and prosperous nations and it leads Latin American nations in rankings of human development, competitiveness, income per capita, globalization, state of peace, economic freedom, and low perception of corruption. It also ranks high regionally in sustainability of the state, Chile is a founding member of the United Nations, the Union of South American Nations and the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States. There are various theories about the origin of the word Chile, another theory points to the similarity of the valley of the Aconcagua with that of the Casma Valley in Peru, where there was a town and valley named Chili. Another origin attributed to chilli is the onomatopoeic cheele-cheele—the Mapuche imitation of the warble of a locally known as trile. The Spanish conquistadors heard about this name from the Incas, ultimately, Almagro is credited with the universalization of the name Chile, after naming the Mapocho valley as such. The older spelling Chili was in use in English until at least 1900 before switching over to Chile, stone tool evidence indicates humans sporadically frequented the Monte Verde valley area as long as 18,500 years ago. About 10,000 years ago, migrating Native Americans settled in fertile valleys, settlement sites from very early human habitation include Monte Verde, Cueva del Milodon and the Pali Aike Craters lava tube. They fought against the Sapa Inca Tupac Yupanqui and his army, the result of the bloody three-day confrontation known as the Battle of the Maule was that the Inca conquest of the territories of Chile ended at the Maule river. The next Europeans to reach Chile were Diego de Almagro and his band of Spanish conquistadors, the Spanish encountered various cultures that supported themselves principally through slash-and-burn agriculture and hunting. The conquest of Chile began in earnest in 1540 and was carried out by Pedro de Valdivia, one of Francisco Pizarros lieutenants, who founded the city of Santiago on 12 February 1541. Although the Spanish did not find the gold and silver they sought, they recognized the agricultural potential of Chiles central valley
Chile
–
The
Mapuche people were the original inhabitants of southern and central Chile.
Chile
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Flag
Chile
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Pedro de Valdivia
Chile
–
Bernardo O'Higgins, The Supreme Director of Chile.
15.
Colina, Chile
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Colina is a Chilean city and commune, capital of the Chacabuco Province, in the northern part of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, approximately 30 kilometers north of the Santiago Centro. According to the 2002 census of the National Statistics Institute, Colina spans an area of 52,769 km2 and has 77,815 inhabitants, of these,62,811 lived in urban areas and 15,004 in rural areas. The population grew by 47. 5% between the 1992 and 2002 censuses, as a commune, Colina is a third-level administrative division of Chile administered by a municipal council, headed by an alcalde who is directly elected every four years. The 2012-2016 alcalde is Mario Olavarría Rodríguez, belonging to Province of Chacabuco, whose actual governor is Mrs. Angélica Antimán. Within the electoral divisions of Chile, Colina is represented in the Chamber of Deputies by Mr. Patricio Melero, the commune is represented in the Senate by Guido Girardi Lavín and Jovino Novoa Vásquez as part of the 7th senatorial constituency. The Chamisero campus of the Lycée Antoine-de-Saint-Exupéry de Santiago is in Colina, the campus officially opened on May 21,2013 although the maternelle opened in February of that year
Colina, Chile
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Colina
Colina, Chile
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The highway and the main road to reach the area
16.
Lima
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Lima is the capital and the largest city of Peru. It is located in the valleys of the Chillón, Rímac and Lurín rivers, in the coastal part of the country. Together with the seaport of Callao, it forms an urban area known as the Lima Metropolitan Area. With a population of almost 10 million, Lima is the most populous area of Peru. Lima was founded by Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro on January 18,1535 and it became the capital and most important city in the Spanish Viceroyalty of Peru. Following the Peruvian War of Independence, it became the capital of the Republic of Peru, around one-third of the national population lives in the metropolitan area. Lima is home to one of the oldest higher-learning institutions in the New World, the National University of San Marcos, founded on May 12,1551 during the Spanish colonial regime, is the oldest continuously functioning university in the Americas. In October 2013 Lima was chosen to host the 2019 Pan American Games and it also hosted the December 2014 United Nations Climate Change Conference and the Miss Universe 1982 pageant. In October 2015 Lima hosted the 2015 Annual Meetings of the World Bank Group, according to early Spanish articles the Lima area was once called Itchyma, after its original inhabitants. However, even before the Inca occupation of the area in the 15th century and this oracle was eventually destroyed by the Spanish and replaced with a church, but the name persisted, the chronicles show Límac replacing Ychma as the common name for the area. Modern scholars speculate that the word Lima originated as the Spanish pronunciation of the native name Limaq, linguistic evidence seems to support this theory as spoken Spanish consistently rejects stop consonants in word-final position. Non-Peruvian Spanish speakers may mistakenly define the city name as the direct Spanish translation of lime, the city was founded in 1535 under the name City of the Kings because its foundation was decided on January 6, date of the feast of the Epiphany. This name quickly fell into disuse and Lima became the name of choice, on the oldest Spanish maps of Peru. The river that feeds Lima is called Rímac and many people assume that this is because its original Inca name is Talking River. However, the inhabitants of the valley were not Incas. This name is an innovation arising from an effort by the Cuzco nobility in colonial times to standardize the toponym so that it would conform to the phonology of Cuzco Quechua, later, as the original inhabitants died out and the local Quechua became extinct, the Cuzco pronunciation prevailed. Nowadays, Spanish-speaking locals do not see the connection between the name of their city and the name of the river runs through it. They often assume that the valley is named after the river, however, historically, the Flag of Lima has been known as the «Banner of Perus Kings City»
Lima
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Collage of Lima
Lima
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Flag
Lima
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Pachacamac was an important religious centre before the arrival of Spanish conquistadors
Lima
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Balconies were a major feature of Lima's architecture during the colonial period.
17.
Francisco Ruiz-Tagle
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Francisco Antonio Pascual de la Ascensión Ruiz de Tagle y Portales was a Chilean political figure. In 1830, he was president of the country as Provisional President of Republic of Chile elected by Congress. He was born in Santiago, the son of Manuel Ruiz de Tagle y Jaraquemada, in his youth and according to the social norms of the time, he also became a militia officer in the Regimiento del Principe. He married Rosario Larraín Rojas and had nine children, the son of a royalist family, he was a tepid participant in the Chilean War of Independence, specially during the period of the first Government Juntas. After the Battle of Maipu, he became an ardent independentist, since 1811, he represented Los Andes in parliament. He was a member of the Government Junta, as a deputy, in 1822, became superintendent of police of Santiago. He was Finance Minister under Vice President Francisco Antonio Pinto, from July 28,1828 to July 16,1829, in the course of events leading to the Chilean Civil War of 1829, he was part of the Government Junta. Immediately that Ruiz-Tagle took over as president, the leaders of the liberal side were eliminated from the army roosters. This guaranteed the restart of the hostilities, diego Portales, cousin to Ruiz-Tagle, maneuvered to have the president removed. President Ruiz-Tagle and all the cabinet resigned only six weeks later on March 31, claiming health problems, under the administration of Manuel Bulnes, Ruiz-Tagle was nominated as privy council. He died on the Chacra Lo Matta of Las Condes on March 23,1860, a History of Chile, 1808-2002, Collier, S. Sater, W. F
Francisco Ruiz-Tagle
–
Francisco Ruiz-Tagle
18.
Patria Nueva
–
Not long after becoming the Supreme Director of Chile, OHiggins sent the Aguila, a ship captured in the port of Valparaiso, to rescue Chile and patriots stranded on the Juan Fernández Islands. OHiggins formed an army to face the Spanish Empire forces hidden in the port of Talcahuano and the montoneras and he created the Vindication Tribunal, a legal apparatus that granted patriots the right to reclaim goods taken by the Spanish during the Reconquest. He also ordered the exile of priests advocating for continued fealty to the Spanish throne, the independent people waited in Talca for the royalists, but the royalists took another path. San Martin and OHiggins were caught by surprise, in Santiago fear had spread with the defeat of the Ejército de los Andes and the Chilean army. Many people in Santiago were already going into self-imposed exile again in Mendoza, rumors of the deaths of OHiggins and San Martin spread rapidly. In these circumstances, in the cabild of the March 23, Manuel Rodríguez yelled We still have our homeland, and proclaimed himself the supreme director. He created a squadron called Húsares de la Muerte and it attracted many carreristas, swearing to die before seeing the homeland in the hands of Spain again. Knowing this, OHiggins went back to Santiago against medical advice, both were welcomed with cannon shots on the sunrise of March 24. Despite having signed the Declaration of Independence, Chile and Argentina experienced unstable independence attributable to the presence of the Royalists in Peru, San Martín continued his planned invasion of Peru with the added support of OHiggins. In 1822, San Martin retired from the campaign, resigning as Protector of Peru, simon Bolivar took his place, backed by the Colombian government, and continued to fight for Perus independence. Cochrane would settle the decisive blow to the Royalists in Chile when, in 1820, he seized the Valdivian Fort System, Cochrane succeeded in the Capture of Valdivia using a surprise land assault. After the capture of Valdivia, Lord Cochrane left Colonel Jorge Beauchef as commander, on March 6,1820, Colonel Beauchef overcame the royalists during the battle of El Toro. From Valdivia, Cochrane went to Chiloe and he failed in a ground attack on Ancud and was forced to retreat. After the battle of El Toro, he began to consolidate his armys presence in the southern Chilean region, excluding Chiloé
Patria Nueva
–
The flag of the transition of Chile was adopted from May 26 until October 17, 1817
19.
Chilean Independence
–
Traditionally, the beginning of the war is dated as September 18,1810. A declaration of independence was issued by Chile on February 12,1818 and formally recognized by Spain in 1844. The Chilean War of Independence was part of the more aroused Spanish American wars of independence, Independence did not have unanimous support among Chileans, who were divided between independentists and royalists. What started as a movement among elites against the colonial power. Traditionally, the process is divided into three stages, the Patria Vieja, 1810–1814, the Reconquista, 1814–1817, and the Patria Nueva, 1817–1823. In May 1808 the overthrow of Charles IV and Ferdinand VII, their replacement by Joseph Bonaparte, in the meantime, Chile was facing its own internal political problems. Governor Guzmán had suddenly died in February of that year and the crown had not been able to appoint a new governor before the invasion, since her father and brother were being held prisoners in France, she regarded herself as the heiress of her captured family. Allegedly among her plan was to send armies to occupy Buenos Aires and northern Argentina, brigadier García Carrasco was a man of crude and authoritarian manners, who managed in a very short time to alienate the criollo elites under his command. Already in Chile, as in most of Latin America, there had some independence agitation but minimal. In 1809, Governor García Carrasco himself was implicated in a flagrant case of corruption that managed to destroy remnants of moral authority he or his office had left. From that moment on the pressure for his removal began to build, in June 1810 news arrived from Buenos Aires that Napoleon Bonapartes forces had conquered Andalusia and laid siege to Cádiz, the last redoubt against the French on Spanish soil. Moreover, the Supreme Central Junta, which had governed the Empire for the past two years, had abolished itself in favor of a Regency Council, among those arrested were José Antonio de Rojas, Juan Antonio Ovalle and Bernardo de Vera y Pintado. Inspired by the May Revolution in Argentina, the movement had also propagated through the criollo elite. They resented the illegal arrests and, together with the news that Cádiz was all that was left of a free Spain, count Toro Zambrano was, by all standards, a very unorthodox selection. He was an old man already and moreover a criollo as opposed to a peninsular. Immediately after his appointment in July, the juntistas began to lobby him in order to obtain the formation of a junta. In August the Royal Appeals Court took a loyalty oath to the Regency Council in front of a massive audience. After vacillating for some time over which party to follow, Toro Zambrano finally agreed to hold an open Cabildo meeting in Santiago to discuss the issue, the date was set for September 18,1810 at 11 AM
Chilean Independence
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Romanticized painting of the 1814
Battle of Rancagua by
Pedro Subercaseaux
Chilean Independence
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Mateo de Toro Zambrano
Chilean Independence
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Opening session of the
First Junta
Chilean Independence
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Juan Martínez de Rozas
20.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
–
A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
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