1.
Mexican-American War
–
It followed in the wake of the 1845 U. S. annexation of Texas, which Mexico considered part of its territory in spite of its de facto secession in the 1836 Texas Revolution. After its independence in 1821 and brief experiment with monarchy, Mexico became a republic in 1824 and it was characterized by considerable instability, leaving it ill-prepared for conflict when war broke out in 1846. In 1845, Texas agreed to an offer of annexation by the U. S. Congress, and became the 28th state on December 29 that year. In 1845, James K. Polk, the newly-elected U. S. president, when that offer was rejected, American forces commanded by Major General Zachary Taylor were moved into the disputed territory. They were then attacked by Mexican forces, who killed 12 U. S. soldiers and these same Mexican troops later laid siege to an American fort along the Rio Grande. This led to the war and the loss of much of Mexicos northern territory. The U. S. army, under the command of Major General Winfield Scott, captured the capital, Mexico City, marching from the port of Veracruz. The 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ended the war and specified its major consequence, the U. S. agreed to pay $15 million compensation for the physical damage of the war. In addition, the United States assumed $3.25 million of debt owed by the Mexican government to U. S. citizens, Mexico acknowledged the loss of Texas and thereafter cited the Rio Grande as its national border with the United States. The territorial expansion of the United States toward the Pacific coast had been the goal of US President James K. Polk, at first, the war was highly controversial in the United States, with the Whig Party, anti-imperialists, and anti-slavery elements strongly opposed. Critics in the United States pointed to the casualties suffered by U. S. forces. The war intensified the debate over slavery in the United States, in Mexico, the war came in the middle of political turmoil, which increased into chaos during the conflict. Border left many Mexican citizens separated from their national government, for the indigenous peoples who had never accepted Mexican rule, the change in border meant conflicts with a new outside power. The northern area of Mexico was sparsely settled and not well controlled politically by the government based in Mexico City, after independence from Spain in 1821, Mexico contended with internal struggles that sometimes verged on civil war and the northern frontier was not a high priority. In the sparsely settled interior of northern Mexico, the end of Spanish rule was marked by the end of financing for presidios, there were conflicts between indigenous people in the northern region as well. The Comanche were particularly successful in expanding their territory in the Comanche–Mexico Wars, the Apache–Mexico Wars also made Mexicos north a violent place, with no effective political control. The Apache raids left thousands of people dead through out northern Mexico, when the United States Army entered northern Mexico in 1846 they found demoralized Mexican settlers. There was little resistance to US forces from the civilian population, hostile activity from indigenous people also made communications and trade between the interior of Mexico and provinces such as Alta California and New Mexico difficult
Mexican-American War
–
Clockwise from top left U.S. soldiers engaging the retreating Mexican force during the
Battle of Resaca de la Palma, American victory
at Churubusco outside Mexico City, U.S. marines
storming Chapultepec castle under a large American flag,
Winfield Scott entering
Plaza de la Constitución after the
Fall of Mexico City.
Mexican-American War
Mexican-American War
Mexican-American War
2.
Mexico City
–
Mexico City, or City of Mexico, is the capital and most populous city of Mexico. As an alpha global city, Mexico City is one of the most important financial centers in the Americas and it is located in the Valley of Mexico, a large valley in the high plateaus at the center of Mexico, at an altitude of 2,240 metres. The city consists of sixteen municipalities, the 2009 estimated population for the city proper was approximately 8.84 million people, with a land area of 1,485 square kilometres. The Greater Mexico City has a domestic product of US$411 billion in 2011. The city was responsible for generating 15. 8% of Mexicos Gross Domestic Product, as a stand-alone country, in 2013, Mexico City would be the fifth-largest economy in Latin America—five times as large as Costa Ricas and about the same size as Perus. Mexico’s capital is both the oldest capital city in the Americas and one of two founded by Amerindians, the other being Quito. In 1524, the municipality of Mexico City was established, known as México Tenochtitlán, Mexico City served as the political, administrative and financial center of a major part of the Spanish colonial empire. After independence from Spain was achieved, the district was created in 1824. Ever since, the left-wing Party of the Democratic Revolution has controlled both of them, in recent years, the local government has passed a wave of liberal policies, such as abortion on request, a limited form of euthanasia, no-fault divorce, and same-sex marriage. On January 29,2016, it ceased to be called the Federal District and is now in transition to become the countrys 32nd federal entity, giving it a level of autonomy comparable to that of a state. Because of a clause in the Mexican Constitution, however, as the seat of the powers of the federation, it can never become a state, the city of Mexico-Tenochtitlan was founded by the Mexica people in 1325. According to legend, the Mexicas principal god, Huitzilopochtli indicated the site where they were to build their home by presenting an eagle perched on a cactus with a snake in its beak. Between 1325 and 1521, Tenochtitlan grew in size and strength, eventually dominating the other city-states around Lake Texcoco, when the Spaniards arrived, the Aztec Empire had reached much of Mesoamerica, touching both the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean. After landing in Veracruz, Spanish explorer Hernán Cortés advanced upon Tenochtitlan with the aid of many of the native peoples. Cortés put Moctezuma under house arrest, hoping to rule through him, the Aztecs thought the Spaniards were permanently gone, and they elected a new king, Cuitláhuac, but he soon died, the next king was Cuauhtémoc. Cortés began a siege of Tenochtitlan in May 1521, for three months, the city suffered from the lack of food and water as well as the spread of smallpox brought by the Europeans. Cortés and his allies landed their forces in the south of the island, the Spaniards practically razed Tenochtitlan during the final siege of the conquest. Cortés first settled in Coyoacán, but decided to rebuild the Aztec site to erase all traces of the old order and he did not establish a territory under his own personal rule, but remained loyal to the Spanish crown
Mexico City
–
From above
Torre Latinoamericana,
Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral,
Anillo Periférico,
World Trade Center Mexico City,
Angel of Independence,
Chapultepec Castle,
St. Regis Hotel Tower and
Torre Mayor, Skyline of
Paseo de la Reforma and
Palacio de Bellas Artes.
Mexico City
–
Tenochtitlan, the Aztec capital.
Mexico City
–
The ruins of the
Templo Mayor.
Mexico City
–
The
Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral was built by the Spaniards over the ruins of the main Aztec temple.
3.
Mexican Federal District
–
Mexico City, or City of Mexico, is the capital and most populous city of Mexico. As an alpha global city, Mexico City is one of the most important financial centers in the Americas and it is located in the Valley of Mexico, a large valley in the high plateaus at the center of Mexico, at an altitude of 2,240 metres. The city consists of sixteen municipalities, the 2009 estimated population for the city proper was approximately 8.84 million people, with a land area of 1,485 square kilometres. The Greater Mexico City has a domestic product of US$411 billion in 2011. The city was responsible for generating 15. 8% of Mexicos Gross Domestic Product, as a stand-alone country, in 2013, Mexico City would be the fifth-largest economy in Latin America—five times as large as Costa Ricas and about the same size as Perus. Mexico’s capital is both the oldest capital city in the Americas and one of two founded by Amerindians, the other being Quito. In 1524, the municipality of Mexico City was established, known as México Tenochtitlán, Mexico City served as the political, administrative and financial center of a major part of the Spanish colonial empire. After independence from Spain was achieved, the district was created in 1824. Ever since, the left-wing Party of the Democratic Revolution has controlled both of them, in recent years, the local government has passed a wave of liberal policies, such as abortion on request, a limited form of euthanasia, no-fault divorce, and same-sex marriage. On January 29,2016, it ceased to be called the Federal District and is now in transition to become the countrys 32nd federal entity, giving it a level of autonomy comparable to that of a state. Because of a clause in the Mexican Constitution, however, as the seat of the powers of the federation, it can never become a state, the city of Mexico-Tenochtitlan was founded by the Mexica people in 1325. According to legend, the Mexicas principal god, Huitzilopochtli indicated the site where they were to build their home by presenting an eagle perched on a cactus with a snake in its beak. Between 1325 and 1521, Tenochtitlan grew in size and strength, eventually dominating the other city-states around Lake Texcoco, when the Spaniards arrived, the Aztec Empire had reached much of Mesoamerica, touching both the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean. After landing in Veracruz, Spanish explorer Hernán Cortés advanced upon Tenochtitlan with the aid of many of the native peoples. Cortés put Moctezuma under house arrest, hoping to rule through him, the Aztecs thought the Spaniards were permanently gone, and they elected a new king, Cuitláhuac, but he soon died, the next king was Cuauhtémoc. Cortés began a siege of Tenochtitlan in May 1521, for three months, the city suffered from the lack of food and water as well as the spread of smallpox brought by the Europeans. Cortés and his allies landed their forces in the south of the island, the Spaniards practically razed Tenochtitlan during the final siege of the conquest. Cortés first settled in Coyoacán, but decided to rebuild the Aztec site to erase all traces of the old order and he did not establish a territory under his own personal rule, but remained loyal to the Spanish crown
Mexican Federal District
–
From above
Torre Latinoamericana,
Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral,
Anillo Periférico,
World Trade Center Mexico City,
Angel of Independence,
Chapultepec Castle,
St. Regis Hotel Tower and
Torre Mayor, Skyline of
Paseo de la Reforma and
Palacio de Bellas Artes.
Mexican Federal District
–
Tenochtitlan, the Aztec capital.
Mexican Federal District
–
The ruins of the
Templo Mayor.
Mexican Federal District
–
The
Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral was built by the Spaniards over the ruins of the main Aztec temple.
4.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
United States
–
Native Americans meeting with Europeans, 1764
United States
–
Flag
United States
–
The signing of the
Mayflower Compact, 1620.
United States
–
The
Declaration of Independence: the
Committee of Five presenting their draft to the
Second Continental Congress in 1776
5.
Winfield Scott
–
Winfield Scott was a United States Army general and unsuccessful presidential candidate of the Whig Party in 1852. He served as Commanding General of the United States Army for twenty years, a national hero after the Mexican–American War, he served as military governor of Mexico City. Such was his stature that, in 1852, the Whig Party passed over its own incumbent President of the United States, Millard Fillmore, at six feet five inches in height, he remains the tallest man ever nominated by a major party. He was educated by tutors and in the schools, and briefly attended the College of William. He then studied law in the office of attorney David Robinson, Scott attained admission to the bar, and made a brief attempt to practice law. He also gained his military experience as a corporal of cavalry in the Virginia militia near Petersburg in 1807. He was subsequently commissioned as a captain in the Light Artillery in May 1808, Scotts early career in the army was tumultuous. Scotts commission was suspended for one year, and after returning to duty, Scott earned the nickname Old Fuss and Feathers for his insistence on military bearing, courtesy, appearance and discipline. In his own campaigns after reaching high rank, Scott preferred to use a core of Army regulars augmented by volunteers whenever possible, Scott perennially concerned himself with the welfare of his men, as demonstrated by his quarrel with Wilkinson over the New Orleans bivouac site. In another instance, when cholera broke out at a post under his command, the army promoted Scott to lieutenant colonel of the 2nd Artillery Regiment in July 1812. Scott served primarily on the Niagara Campaign front in the War of 1812 and he took command of an American landing party during the Battle of Queenston Heights on October 13,1812. The British held Scott as a prisoner of war, the British considered Irish-American prisoners of war British subjects and traitors and executed 13 such Americans captured at Queenstown Heights. The British paroled and released Scott in a prisoner exchange, upon release, Scott returned to Washington to pressure the Senate to take punitive action against British prisoners of war in retaliation for the British executions of Irish-American soldiers. The Senate wrote a bill after this urging, but President James Madison believed the execution of prisoners of war unworthy of civilized nations. Scott was promoted to colonel in March 1813, Scott planned and led the capture of Fort George, Upper Canada, on the Niagara River. By crossing the Niagara and landing on the Lake Ontario shore, Colonel Scott was wounded in this battle, which is considered among the best-planned and best-executed U. S. operations of the war. Scott was promoted to general on March 19,1814. He was only 27 years old at the time, one of the youngest generals in the history of the U. S. Army, Scott commanded the 1st Brigade, and was instrumental in the American success at the Battle of Chippawa on July 5,1814
Winfield Scott
–
Scott in 1862
Winfield Scott
–
Scott during the War of 1812
Winfield Scott
–
Winfield Scott, 1835 portrait by
George Catlin
Winfield Scott
–
Statue of Winfield Scott on
Scott Circle in Washington, D.C.
6.
US Army
–
The United States Army is the largest branch of the United States Armed Forces and performs land-based military operations. After the Revolutionary War, the Congress of the Confederation created the United States Army on 3 June 1784, the United States Army considers itself descended from the Continental Army, and dates its institutional inception from the origin of that armed force in 1775. As a uniformed service, the Army is part of the Department of the Army. As a branch of the forces, the mission of the U. S. The branch participates in conflicts worldwide and is the major ground-based offensive and defensive force of the United States, the United States Army serves as the land-based branch of the U. S. Section 3062 of Title 10, U. S, the army was initially led by men who had served in the British Army or colonial militias and who brought much of British military heritage with them. As the Revolutionary War progressed, French aid, resources, a number of European soldiers came on their own to help, such as Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben, who taught Prussian Army tactics and organizational skills. The army fought numerous pitched battles and in the South in 1780–81 sometimes used the Fabian strategy and hit-and-run tactics, hitting where the British were weakest, to wear down their forces. Washington led victories against the British at Trenton and Princeton, but lost a series of battles in the New York and New Jersey campaign in 1776, with a decisive victory at Yorktown, and the help of the French, the Continental Army prevailed against the British. After the war, though, the Continental Army was quickly given land certificates, State militias became the new nations sole ground army, with the exception of a regiment to guard the Western Frontier and one battery of artillery guarding West Points arsenal. However, because of continuing conflict with Native Americans, it was realized that it was necessary to field a trained standing army. The War of 1812, the second and last war between the United States and Great Britain, had mixed results. After taking control of Lake Erie in 1813, the U. S. Army seized parts of western Upper Canada, burned York and defeated Tecumseh, which caused his Western Confederacy to collapse. Following U. S. victories in the Canadian province of Upper Canada, British troops, were able to capture and burn Washington, which was defended by militia, in 1814. Two weeks after a treaty was signed, Andrew Jackson defeated the British in the Battle of New Orleans and Siege of Fort St. Philip, U. S. troops and sailors captured HMS Cyane, Levant, and Penguin in the final engagements of the war. Per the treaty, both sides, the United States and Great Britain, returned to the status quo. Both navies kept the warships they had seized during the conflict, the armys major campaign against the Indians was fought in Florida against Seminoles. It took long wars to defeat the Seminoles and move them to Oklahoma
US Army
–
Storming of Redoubt #10 in the
Siege of Yorktown during the
American Revolutionary War prompted the British government to begin negotiations, resulting in the
Treaty of Paris and British recognition of the United States of America.
US Army
–
Emblem of the United States Department of the Army
US Army
–
General
Andrew Jackson stands on the parapet of his makeshift defenses as his troops repulse attacking
Highlanders during the
defense of New Orleans, the final major battle of the War of 1812
US Army
–
The
Battle of Gettysburg, the turning point of the American Civil War
7.
Marine Corps
–
Marine forces evolved to specialize in the skills and capabilities required for amphibious warfare. In the earliest day of naval warfare, there was little distinction between sailors and soldiers on a warship, in ancient China, the first well-known naval battles took place during the Warring States period, where kings ruling regional states battled against one another. Chinese naval warfare in ancient period featured grapple-and-hook, as well as ramming tactics with ships called stomach strikers. The Roman Navys two fleet legions, I Adiutrix and II Adiutrix, were among the first distinct naval infantry units, Marines of Italy was created as Fanti da Mar in 1550 in the Republic of Venice. The third oldest marine corps in the world was founded as the Terço of the Navy of the Crown of Portugal in 1618, predecessor to the modern Portuguese Marine Corps. The word marine is from the English adjective marine, meaning of the sea, via French marin, of the sea from Latin marinus itself from mare, from Proto-Indo-European *móri. The word marine was used for the forces of England. Typically, foreign equivalents are called naval infantry or coastal infantry, the word marine/marina means navy in many European languages such as Dutch, French, Italian, German, Spanish, Danish and Norwegian. Marine units primarily deploy from warships using boats, landing craft, hovercraft, specialist units are also trained in combat diving/combat swimming and parachuting. As well as operations, marine troops are also used in a variety of other. The Argentine Marine Corps is a part of the Argentine Navy, Argentine marines have the same rank insignia and titles as the rest of the navy. It is composed of a marine force, a southern marine force, a river operations battalion. The Argentine Marine Corps dates from 1827 when an infantry battalion was raised. This was expanded in 1880 but seven years later the corps was merged with the existing coast artillery, a series of reorganizations followed until responsibility for coastal defense was passed to the Argentine Army in 1898. Between 1935 and 1938 the marines reappeared in the form of five battalions of Marine Infantry, in 1968 the Infanteria de Marina was reorganized as a separate corps distinct from both Navy and Army. The 5th Battalion of the Argentine Marines fought in the Falklands War, the Bolivian Naval Force includes about 2,000 naval infantry personnel and marines. These are organised in the Almirante Grau Battalion, located at Tiquina on Lake Titicaca, the Corps of Naval Fusiliers, with about 15,000 men, is subordinate to the Brazilian Navy. The marine corps is composed of a brigade and some guard
Marine Corps
–
Peruvian Naval Infantry conducting exercises on the
Amazon River.
Marine Corps
–
Spanish and U.S. marines march together in a change of command ceremony at
Naval Station Rota, Spain in July 2002.
Marine Corps
–
Ancient Greek trireme
Marine Corps
–
U.S. Marines conducting a live fire training exercise aboard an amphibious assault ship.
8.
Blockade of Veracruz
–
The Blockade of Veracruz was a conflict during the Mexican-American War. The blockade of Veracruz was extremely important in the Mexican-American War in stopping the trade of contraband, secretary of the Navy George Bancroft instructed Commodore Conners Home Squadron to exercise all the rights that belong to you as commander-in-chief of a belligerent squadron. On 14 May 1846, Conner proclaimed Veracruz, Alvarado, Tampico, Conner sent the sloop-of-war St. Marys to Tampico, the paddle frigate Mississippi to Veracruz, and the sloop-of-war Falmouth to Alvarado
Blockade of Veracruz
–
American forces landing at Veracruz in 1847.
9.
Siege of Veracruz
–
The Battle of Veracruz was a 20-day siege of the key Mexican beachhead seaport of Veracruz, during the Mexican-American War. Lasting from March 9–29,1847, it began with the first large-scale amphibious assault conducted by United States military forces, U. S. forces then marched inland to Mexico City. After the battles of Monterrey and Buena Vista, much of Zachary Taylors Army of Occupation was transferred to the command of Major General Winfield Scott in support of the upcoming campaign. That campaign, determined by Scott and other Washington officials, would be a Veracruz landing, Veracruz was considered to be the strongest fortress in North America at the time. Puebla Libres, Orizaba, Veracruz, Oaxaca and Tehuantepec national guards, Fort San Juan de Ulúa – offshore on the Gallega Reef. Gen. Jose Durán with 1,030 men and 135 guns, artillery, Puebla and Jamiltepec activo battalions, companies of Tuxpan, Tampico, see Orders of Battle Mexican War. The Americans arrived at Anton Lizardo, Veracruz in early March, Scott agreed with Conners suggestion for a landing site at Collado Beach,3 mi south of Veracruz. The 1st Regular Division under Worth was chosen to make the landing first, followed by Pattersons volunteers, Conners Mosquito Fleet moved to within 90 yd of the beach to supply covering fire if necessary. By 12,15 pm on 9 March, this force was off Collado Beach, just before the main force touched the beach, a gig dashed ahead, and General Worth with his staff jumped ashore. Worths whole division landed without firing or receiving a single shot, by 11 pm, Scotts entire army had been brought ashore without a single man lost, and the first large scale amphibious landing conducted by the U. S. military was a success. Once ashore Pattersons division began marching northward to effect a complete envelopment of the city, one of Pattersons brigades under Gideon Pillow drove off a Mexican cavalry at Malibrán, cutting off the Alvarado road and the citys water supply. Quitman and Shields managed to drive off cavalry attempting to prevent the investment, by 13 March, the U. S. had completed a 7 mi siege line from Collado in the south to Playa Vergara in the north. On 17 March, siege lines were dug for Scotts siege artillery, sufficient for taking the city, the besiegers were plagued by sorties from the city, and Col. Juan Aguayo used the cover of a storm to slip his Alvarado garrison into Veracruz. Perry, Conners successor, returned from Norfolk, Virginia after making repairs on the USS Mississippi, perry and Conner met with Scott regarding the Navys role in the siege, and offered six guns that were to be manned by sailors from the ships. The naval battery was constructed under the direction of Captain Robert E. Lee 700 yd from the city walls. On March 22, Morales declined a surrender demand from Scott, the Naval batterys heavy cannonballs easily broke the coral walls. Congreve rockets were fired into the defenses and the fire forced the abandonment of Fort Santiago as Mexican morale began to drop. On March 24, Persifor F. Smiths brigade captured a Mexican soldier with reports that Antonio López de Santa Anna was marching an army from Mexico City to the relief of Veracruz
Siege of Veracruz
–
Scott's siege guns were in place on ground outside the city
Siege of Veracruz
–
Collado beach is on the right
Siege of Veracruz
–
The amphibious assault on Veracruz
Siege of Veracruz
–
Attack of the Gun Boats, San Juan de Ulloa, after a sketch by J. M. Ladd, USN
10.
Battle of Cerro Gordo
–
The Battle of Cerro Gordo, or Battle of Sierra Gordo, was an engagement that took place during the Mexican-American War on April 18,1847. The battle saw Winfield Scotts United States troops out-flank and drive Antonio López de Santa Annas larger Mexican army from a defensive position. After United States forces captured the port of Veracruz on 29 March 1847 and these included several batteries under the command of brigadier generals Luis Pinzon, Jose Maria Jararo, and Romulo Diaz de la Vega. Scotts leading division, commanded by David E. Twiggs, reached the Cerro Gordo Pass on 12 April. On 12 April, Lieutenant Pierre G. T. Beauregard, of the United States Army Corps of Engineers, the Personal Memoirs of Ulysses S. These reconnaissances were made under the supervision of Captain Robert E. Lee and other officers, all of whom attained rank and these had been opened under cover of night, without attracting the notice of the enemy. The engineers, who had directed the opening, led the way, in like manner the guns were drawn by hand up the opposite slope. Twiggs division took the hill on 17 April, advancing up the slopes to El Telegrafo, Santa Anna reinforced El Telegrafo with Brigadier General Ciriaco Vasquezs 2d Light, 4th, and 11th Infantry. Captain Edward J. Steptoe set up his battery on Atalaya Hill, at 7,00 am on 18 April, Twiggs directed William S. Harneys brigade to move against the front of El Telegrafo while Bennett C. The combination easily took the hill, killing General Vasquez, magruder turned the Mexican guns on the retreating Mexicans. Simultaneously, James Shields brigade attacked the Mexican camp and took possession of the Jalapa road, once they realized they were surrounded, the Mexican commanders on the three hills surrendered and by 10,00 am, the remaining Mexican forces fled. Scott moved on to Jalapa, and William J. Worths division took San Carlos Fortress on 22 April, Scott then occupied Puebla on 15 May, before departing for Mexico City on 7 August. Cerro Gordo County, Iowa, Cerro Gordo, North Carolina and Cerro Gordo, Illinois take their names from the battle, much as Resaca, the 1, 000-strong Artega Brigade, consisting of the Pueblo Activos and National Guard battalions, arrived at the end of the battle. Saint Patricks Battalion The Encyclopedia of Military History, Dupuy and Dupuy, apuntes para la historia de la guerra entre México y los Estados Unidos. The Other Side, Or, Notes for the History of the War between Mexico and the United States, translated and edited in the United States by Albert C, ramsey, New York, John Wiley,1850. Annual Reports,1894 War Department lists trophy guns as, 1–8 pounder bronze, 2–6 pounders, celebrations for Battle of Cerro Gordo, Washington D. C. 1847, Shapell Manuscript Foundation A Continent Divided, The U. S, – Mexico War, Center for Greater Southwestern Studies, the University of Texas at Arlington
Battle of Cerro Gordo
–
The Battle of Cerro Gordo by Carl Nebel.
Battle of Cerro Gordo
–
An American ambush was discovered at the start of the battle. However, Mexican lines soon collapsed.
Battle of Cerro Gordo
–
Eastern portion of field. (
Justin H. Smith 's War with Mexico).
Battle of Cerro Gordo
–
Western portion of field. (Justin H. Smith's The War with Mexico).
11.
Battle of Contreras
–
The Battle of Contreras, also known as the Battle of Padierna, took place on 19–20 August 1847, in the final encounters of the Mexican-American War. In the Battle of Churubusco, fighting continued the following day, Scott moved on the south side of Lake Chalco on 15 Aug. advancing to San Agustin. Santa Anna had about 30,000 men defending the city, including 7,000 from Gabriel Valencias Army of the North, which was located near Contreras by 17 Aug. Intending to flank San Antonio, Scott ordered Capt. Robert E. Lee to build a road across the Pedregal lava field so he could enfilade San Antonio to the north of San Agustin, Pillow then brought in his artillery, under the command of Capt. Magruder, Lt. Franklin D. Callender, and Lt. Jesse L. Reno, when told of the American movement across the Pedregal, Valencia exclaimed, No. In the mean time Col. Truman B, ransoms 9th Infantry and Lt. Col. Milledge L. Bonhams 12th moved forward on the American right to within 200 yards of Valencias camp by nightfall. Scott sent General James Shields brigade to Pillow who sent it after Cadwalader, santa Anna moved with Brigadier General Francisco Perezs 3,000 man brigade to San Angel, just north of the fighting. Night brought a cold rain and the end of fighting for the day, during the night, Lt. Zealous Bates Tower discovered a ravine running southwest from San Geronimo to the rear of Valencias camp, which Smith planned to use for a dawn attack the next morning. Lee volunteered to cross the Pedregal during the night so Scott could coordinate a diversion using Twiggs, Twiggs did so at 5 AM, just as Smith struck Valencia from the rear. Within seventeen minutes, Valencia and his force fled to San Angel, the U. S. forces captured 22 pieces of artillery and four generals. The battle culminated at the outskirts of Mexico City, at Padierna, among the neighborhoods of San Ángel, Contreras, apuntes Para la Historia de la Guerra entre Mexico y los Estados Unidos Mexico City. La batalla de Padierna Nevin, David, the Other Side New York, John Wiley,1850. - Mexico War, Center for Greater Southwestern Studies, the University of Texas at Arlington
Battle of Contreras
–
"The Battle of Contreras" by Carl Nebel. Oil on canvas, 1851.
Battle of Contreras
–
Environs south of Mexico City
Battle of Contreras
–
Disposition of forces.
12.
Battle of Churubusco
–
The Battle of Churubusco took place on August 20,1847, while Santa Annas army was in retreat from the Battle of Contreras, Mexican–American War. After defeating the Mexican army at Churubusco, the U. S. Army was only 5 miles away from Mexico City, following their defeats at Contreras Santa Anna ordered Major General Nicolás Bravo with the Army of the Center to retreat from San Antonio to Churubusco. Scott sent David Twiggs and Gideon Johnson Pillows divisions from San Angel to Coyoacán, during retreat from San Antonio, the Mexican defenders, were struck in flank by Clarkes Brigade. Garland moved forward as the Mexicans withdrew from San Antonio and captured a general, scott ordered an attack on the convent. In addition to the walls of the convent, the defenses included a series of incomplete trenches the Mexicans had begun digging prior to the attack. Some elements of the Tlapa and Lagos Battalions arrived as reinforcements, three cannon were placed on the right, two in the center, and the remaining two on the left. Independencia was assigned to defend the walls, the right flank leading to the bridge, the unfortified south and north sides. The Bravos and the San Patricios were stationed on the left, in support along the Rio Churubusco was the Perez Brigade,2,500 men Worths division took on the tete-de-pont, while Twiggs the convent. Rincons gunners were able to force Taylors battery to withdraw, the attack by Franklin Pierce and James Shields, crossing the river on the Coyoacan-Mixcoac road in an attempt to cut off the Mexican retreat, was also stopped. However, Worth turned the Mexican left and crossed the river, capt. Duncan then set up a battery to attack the convent. Two of the Mexican cannons had melted and a third had fallen from its mount, lieutenant Colonel Francisco Peñúñuri of Independencia led a handful of men in a bayonet charge and was defeated. He and Captain Luis Martínez de Castro, who had accompanied him, were killed in the battle, officers from the Bravos attempted to raise the white flag over the convent walls on three occasions. Captain James Milton Smith finally stopped the fighting by putting up a white handkerchief, the Americans captured 192 prisoners and 3 pieces of artillery at the tete de pont. They captured 1,259 prisoners, including 3 generals and the San Patricios leader Lt. Col. Francisco Rosenda Moreno and they captured another 380 prisoners further up the road. Scott did not continue the pursuit into Mexico City. willing to leave something to this republic. I halted our victorious corps at the gates of the city, a brigade of volunteers from New York was billeted to the convent, remaining there until September 7. Parts of the battle were portrayed in the mini-series North and South, saint Patricks Battalion Balbontin, Manuel Recuerdos de la invasion norte-americana, 1846-1848. Annual Reports 1894, War Department lists trophy guns as, 1-16 pounder bronze, 4-8 pounders, 4-6 pounders, - Mexico War, Center for Greater Southwestern Studies, the University of Texas at Arlington
Battle of Churubusco
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"Battle of Churubusco" by J. Cameron, published by
Nathaniel Currier.
Battle of Churubusco
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Environs south of Mexico City
Battle of Churubusco
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Churubusco
Battle of Churubusco
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Battle of Churubusco, during the Mexican–American War, painting by Carl Nebel.
13.
Battle for Mexico City
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The Battle for Mexico City refers to the series of engagements from September 8 to September 15,1847, in the general vicinity of Mexico City during the Mexican-American War. Included are major actions at the battles of Molino del Rey and Chapultepec, the U. S. Army under Winfield Scott scored a major success that ended the war. The major objective of American operations in central Mexico had been the capture of Mexico City, after capturing the port of Veracruz in March, General Winfield Scott was able to secure a base and move inland and defeat a large Mexican force at the Battle of Cerro Gordo. After routing the Mexicans at the Battle of Churubusco, Scotts army was five miles away from its objective of Mexico City. Although defeated at Cerro Gordo and Churubusco, General Santa Annas army remained intact, on September 8, the fight for Mexico City began. Scott believed that a cannon foundry was located at the Molino del Rey, Scott sent the 1st Division under William J. Worth to seize and destroy the foundry. Worth wished to include Chapultepec Castle in his attack, and when Scott refused, in the ensuing battle, both sides suffered heavy casualties, and Worth drove the Mexicans from the mill, separating them from the forces at Chapultepec. The battle produced no significant military gains for the U. S, the main assault on the city came a few days later on September 12. Mexico City was guarded in part by Chapultepec Castle, which was being used as a military academy, Scott preceded infantry assault with an all day artillery barrage on September 12. The next day, September 13, the 4th Division, under John A. Quitman, spearheaded the attack against Chapultepec, future Confederate generals George E. Pickett and James Longstreet participated in the attack. Serving in the Mexican defense were the cadets later immortalized as Los Niños Héroes, the Mexican forces fell back from Chapultepec and retreated within the city. Gen. Pérez, 11th Infantry & remnants of Light Regts. ) from the city during the night, Quitman sent Lieutenant Pierre Beauregard to arrange the surrender of the ciudadela. Beauregard and Mansfield Lovell were met by a Mexican officer who asked for a receipt for the captured ciudadela, Beauregard exclaimed that we give receipts at the point of their swords. Scott gave the honor of entering the city to Quitmans Division. The conquering army was less than impressing, the troops wore ragged and bloodstained uniforms, Quitman marched into the Zócalo plaza in the center of the city in front of the National Palace where the formal surrender took place. As Worths division entered the city the leading unit was John Garlands brigade, stragglers from the Mexican army left in the city after Santa Annas withdrawal climbed to the roofs of houses and began shooting at the American soldiers. General Garland was hit in the chest with the first shot, before he evacuated, Santa Anna released 30,000 prisoners into the streets of the city, and these rooftop shots provoked the prisoners into similar acts. Worth did manage to get the sniping under control, William S. Harneys dragoons escorted General Scott into the city wearing his immaculate dress uniform and was greeted by patriotic music
Battle for Mexico City
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The American assault on Chapultepec Castle.
Battle for Mexico City
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Molino del Rey is on the left. "O" depicts a Mexican battery, "P" an American battery, and "R" is Steptoe's battery.
Battle for Mexico City
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James Walker,
Storming of Chapultepec (1847)
Battle for Mexico City
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This
Carl Nebel painting depicts
Winfield Scott entering the
Plaza de la Constitución; the
Metropolitan Cathedral is in the background.
14.
Battle of Molino del Rey
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The Battle of Molino del Rey was one of the bloodiest engagements of the Mexican-American War as part of the Battle for Mexico City. It was fought in September 1847 between Mexican forces under General Antonio Léon against an American force under Major General Winfield Scott at El Molino del Rey near Mexico City. The Americans made little progress in this battle, but the Mexican forces were unable to hold them long enough to prevent the capture of Mexico City one week later. On 6 September 1847, Scott ended the following the Battle of Churubusco as negotiations broke down. On 7 Sept. a large number of Mexican horsemen were observed around a group of low, massive stone buildings known as El Molino del Rey or Kings Mill. Spread across the distance of point, they were about 1,000 yards west of the Castle at Chapultepec. A large grove of trees separated the Mill from the castle, while the castles batteries covered the area, Scott ordered General Worth to attack and take the Mill, break up the factory, and destroy any munitions found. General Juan Álvarezs 4,000 cavalry waited in reserve at the Hacienda Morales, the National Guard Battalions of Liberty, Union, Querétaro, and Mina, were commanded by General Leon, and the brigade of troops were commanded by General Joaquin Rangel. The 2nd light battalion, that of the Fijo the Mejico, the 4th light battalion and 11th regiment of the line, were commanded by General Francisco Perez. In the grove of Chapultepec, was the reserve 1st and 3d light battalions. At 5,45 AM, on 8 September, Worth sent a column of 500 men. Behind them he placed Colonel Charles F. Smiths light battalion and George Cadwaladers brigade in the center, and to their right was Garlands brigade, on the left, attacking the Casa Mata, was Colonel James Duncans battery and a brigade commanded by Colonel James S. McIntosh. Major Edwin Vose Sumner commanded three squadrons of dragoons on the left flank, Captain Benjamin Hugers heavy guns provided support. Major Wrights force came under artillery fire, which drove them back. Lt. Col. Miguel Maria Echeagarays 3d Light Infantry launced a counterattack, similarly, McIntoshs men withdrew in the face of a counterattack, but Duncans guns forced Perezs men to withdraw from Casa Mata. Worth sent the Voltigeur Regiment and the 11th Infantry into the assault, General Leon and Col. Lucas Balderas were killed. The Casa Mata caught fire and blew up near noon, causing casualties, but by 1 PM. Col. Hitchcock called the battle a Pyrrhic victory for the Americans, Scott still needed an assault path into the city, despite the destruction of Molino del Rey
Battle of Molino del Rey
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A painting of the battle.
Battle of Molino del Rey
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Disposition of forces.
Battle of Molino del Rey
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Contemporary lithograph portraying the "Blowing up the Foundry by the Victorious American Army under General Worth."
15.
Thornton Affair
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The much larger Mexican force defeated the Americans in the opening of hostilities, and was the primary justification for U. S. President James K. Polks call to Congress to declare war. Although the United States had annexed Texas, both the US and Mexico claimed the area between the Nueces River and the Rio Grande, Arista promptly ordered General Anastasio Torrejon to cross the Rio Grande fourteen miles upstream at La Palangana. Taylor received two reports on 24 April of Mexicans crossing the Rio Grande, the first crossing below his camp, Taylor ordered Captain Croghan Ker to investigate downriver and Captain Seth B. Thornton with two Dragoon companies to investigate upriver, Ker found nothing but Thornton rode into an ambush and his 80-man force was quickly overwhelmed by Torrejons 1600, resulting in the capture of those not immediately killed. Thorntons guide brought news of the hostilities to Taylor and was followed by a cart from Torrejon containing the six wounded, in the fierce encounter,11 of Thorntons men were killed and 6 wounded, while the rest were taken prisoner. Torrejon continued on to the Matamoros-Point Isabel road, surprising Samuel H. Walkers Texas Rangers on 28 April, before continuing on to Longoreno to cover the crossing of the main Mexican army. Following the Battle of Palo Alto and the Battle of Resaca de la Palma, Arista and Taylor agreed to an exchange which resulted in the release of Thornton, Hardee. Thornton was later killed in an engagement outside Mexico City, but now, after reiterated menaces, Mexico has passed the boundary of the United States, has invaded our territory and shed American blood upon the American soil. She has proclaimed that hostilities have commenced, and that the two nations are now at war. Opposition also existed in the United States, with one senator declaring that the affair had been as much an act of aggression on our part as is a mans pointing a pistol at anothers breast. The ensuing Mexican–American War was waged from 1846 to 1848 with the loss of thousands of lives
Thornton Affair
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Rancho de Carricitos
16.
Siege of Fort Texas
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The Siege of Fort Texas marked the beginning of active campaigning by the armies of the United States and Mexico during the Mexican-American War. Major Jacob Brown should not to be confused with the War of 1812 General Jacob Brown, the fort was garrisoned by 500 men under Major Jacob Brown, including the 7th Infantry, Capt. Allen Lowds four 18 pounders, and Lt. Braxton Braggs field battery. The largest cannon was a 12 pounder, at daylight on 3 May 1846, Mexican forces started the bombardment of Fort Texas, but were silenced by the American response, although the Mexican artillery down the river was more successful. Lowd attempted to set fire to Matamoros with hot shot, Mexican fire stopped at 7,30 PM, the Americans at 11 PM. On 4 May, Mexican guns and a mortar were placed on the bank of the Rio Grande and on 5 May General Pedro de Ampudia arrived with 1,230 men. Captain Edgar S. Hawkins took command of Fort Texas when Major Brown was mortally wounded on 6 May at ten oclock. As soon as it became clear Taylor was leaving Fort Polk, Arista moved his army from his camp at Tanques del Ramiereno to block Taylors path leading to the battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma. Though the confrontation at Fort Texas lasted six days, with periods of heavy cannon fire, only two U. S. soldiers died in the bombardment. Major Brown was struck in the leg by a cannonball on May 6 and survived for several days only to die on May 9, despite his wound, Major Brown had helped maintain troop morale throughout the siege, thus contributing to the success of the defense of the Fort. Mexican leaders reported two killed and two wounded from American artillery fire during the siege, the effect of artillery fire on the civilian population of Matamoros is unknown. Battles of the Mexican-American War Mexican-American War List of conflicts in the United States Saint Patricks Battalion Brooks, a Complete History of The Mexican War Handbook of Texas Online, Fort Brown, Alcaraz, Ramon. Apuntes para La Historia De La Guerra Estes Mexico y los Estados-Unidos Tipografia De Manuel Payno Mexico 1848 A Continent Divided, - Mexico War, Center for Greater Southwestern Studies, the University of Texas at Arlington
Siege of Fort Texas
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Disposition of American and Mexican forces
Siege of Fort Texas
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Major Jacob Brown with his sword, commanding the defenders of Fort Texas, one of which is holding a sign stating, "Death or Victory".
17.
Battle of Palo Alto
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The Battle of Palo Alto was the first major battle of the Mexican–American War and was fought on May 8,1846, on disputed ground five miles from the modern-day city of Brownsville, Texas. On April 30, following the Thornton Affair, Mexican General Mariano Aristas troops began to cross the Rio Grande, on May 3, the troops began to besiege the American outpost at Fort Texas. Taylor marched his Army of Occupation south to relieve the siege, Arista, upon learning of his approach, diverted many of his units away from the siege to meet Taylors force. The battle took place on May 8, three days before the declaration of war on Mexico by the United States. Arista ordered two cavalry charges, first against the American right flank and later against the left, the American victory is widely attributed to superior artillery. The U. S. light artillery was more mobile. That evening, Arista was forced to further south. The armies would clash again the day at the Battle of Resaca de la Palma. On April 30, following the Thornton Affair, Arista started crossing the Rio Grande at Longoreno with his army, first with General Pedro de Ampudias 1st Brigade. Taylor prepared Fort Texas to withstand a siege while he moved most of his forces to protect his supply base at Fort Polk. Fort Texas was garrisoned by Taylor with 500 men under Major Jacob Brown, including the 7th Infantry, Capt. Allen Lowds four 18-pounders, Taylor started his return to Fort Texas on May 7 with 2,228 men plus his 200-wagon supply train. General Arista immediately left his camp at the Tanques del Ramireno with his army with the intention of blocking Taylor, Ampudias brigade left the Fort Texas siege to join him. Taylors scouts sighted the Mexican force at noon on the 8th, behind this line was Col. Cayetano Monteros light cavalry. Mays dragoon squadron guarded the flank and Capt. Croghan Ker guarded the train. Taylor halted his columns and formed a line behind his batteries when the Mexican artillery started firing at 2 PM, the American artillery was very effective while the Mexican artillery often fell short. Arista ordered Torrejons cavalry to attack the American right, but progress was slow, a fire started from a cannon burning wad which halted fighting for an hour as the smoke paralleled the lines. Arista pulled back 1,000 yards on his left and Taylor advanced accordingly, may failed to turn the Mexican left before the artillery duel resumed. Childs artillery battalion formed a square to repel another Torrejon cavalry charge, duncans battery stopped Arista from turning the American left and then advanced with the 8th Infantry and Kers dragoons to drive the Mexican right from the field
Battle of Palo Alto
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Painting by
Carl Nebel
Battle of Palo Alto
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Battle of Palo Alto site
Battle of Palo Alto
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Engraving memorializing the fatal wounding of Maj. Samuel Ringgold in the battle
Battle of Palo Alto
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Monument to the Battle of Palo Alto at
West Point
18.
Battle of Resaca de la Palma
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United States troops were victorious and forced the Mexicans out of Texas. Recalling his forces besieging Fort Texas, he was established along the twelve foot deep and 200 foot wide resaca, covering the flanks in the rear were the Presidiales, the light cavalry, and the 7th and 8th Regiments, including batteries on the south bank. Taylor reached the area about 3 PM and ordered Capt. William W. Mackalls skirmishers, randolph Ridgelys battery along the road, with the 4th and 5th Infantry to the left and the remaining 4th and 3d Infantry on the right. Fighting was disorganized and uncoordinated due to the chaparral and the intense Mexican artillery fire. Taylor ordered a charge by Capt. Charles A, mays dragoon squadron with the objective of clearing the Mexican battery. Mays exchange with Ridgeley supposedly included, Hello Ridgely, where is that Battery, I am ordered to charge it. Hold on Charley, till I draw their fire and you see where they are. Mays charge however carried them well past the guns and although he captured General Romulo Diaz de la Vega, Taylor then ordered William G. Belknaps 5th and 8th Infantry to secure the guns, which they did. The Mexicans east of the road then retreated, west of the road, Capt. Robert C. Buchanan and members of the 4th Infantry, found a trail which turned the Mexican left flank, enabling them to take and hold the battery located there. They were able to defend the position from General Pedro de Ampudias counterattacks, the Mexican Army left behind a number of artillery pieces, Aristas writing desk and silver service, the colors of Mexicos lauded Tampico Battalion, and other baggage. Among the several captured Mexican artillery pieces were two 8-pounder bronze guns, two 6-pounder bronze guns, and four 4-pounder bronze guns, taylors army settled into their Fort Texas campsite as Taylor considered his next move, although he did exchange prisoners with Arista. Taylor crossed the Rio Grande on 18 May, Aristas army having abandoned their artillery, sick and wounded at Linares, the Resaca De La Palma Battlefield is in the city limits of present-day Brownsville, Texas, but is part of the Palo Alto Battlefield National Historical Park. The Battle of Resaca de la Palma inspired the name of Resaca, Georgia, battles of the Mexican-American War 1848 in Mexico List of conflicts in the United States Saint Patricks Battalion Bauer, K. Jack The Mexican War, 1846–1848 Grant, U. S. Personal Memoirs of U. S. Grant, Vol. I, pp 65–69, ISBN 0-940450-58-5 Appendix To The Congressional Globe, - Mexico War, Center for Greater Southwestern Studies, the University of Texas at Arlington
Battle of Resaca de la Palma
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General Taylor at the battle of Resaca de la Palma (Currier & Ives)
Battle of Resaca de la Palma
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Battle of Resaca de La Palma site
Battle of Resaca de la Palma
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Battle of Resaca de La Palma Texas historical marker
Battle of Resaca de la Palma
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Monument to the Battle of Resaca de la Palma on Flirtation Walk at West Point.
19.
Conquest of California
–
The California Campaign was marked by a series of small battles over 1846 and early 1847. When war was declared on 13 May 1846 between the United States and Mexico, it took almost three months for word of Congress declaration of war to reach the Pacific coast. U. S. consul Thomas O. United States Army Captain John C, Frémont, on a survey expedition of the U. S. Army Corps of Topographical Engineers with about 60 well-armed men, crossed the Sierra Nevada range in December 1845. They had crossed into the Oregon Territory in May 1846, when he received word that war between Mexico and the U. S. was imminent and they formed the California Republic, created the Bear Flag, and raised it over Sonoma. Eleven days later, troops led by Frémont, who had acted on his own authority, no government was ever organized, but the Bear Flag Revolt has become part of the states folklore. The present day California state flag is based on this original Bear Flag, prior to the Mexican–American War, preparations for a possible conflict led to the U. S. Pacific Squadron being extensively reinforced until it had half of the ships in the United States Navy. Their orders were, upon determining beyond a doubt that war had been declared, to capture the ports, two days later on 9 July, USS Portsmouth, which had been berthed at Sausalito, in the Battle of Yerba Buena captured Yerba Buena without firing a shot. On 15 July, Sloat transferred his command to Commodore Robert F. Stockton, in July, convincing news of a state of war between the U. S. and Mexico had reached Stockton. The 400 to 650 marines and bluejackets of Stocktons Pacific Squadron were the largest U. S. ground force in California, the rest of Stocktons men were needed to man his vessels. To supplement this remaining force, Commodore Stockton ordered Captain John C, Frémont, on the U. S. Armys Corps of Topographical Engineers survey, to secure 100 volunteers, in addition to the California Battalion that he had earlier organized. They were to act primarily as occupation forces to free up Stocktons marines, nearly all were occupied without a shot being fired. Some of the pueblos and ports were also rapidly occupied. Prior to the U. S. occupation, the population of Spanish and Mexican people in Alta California was approximately 1500 men and 6500 women and children, many lived in or near the small Pueblo of Los Angeles. In Southern California, Mexican General José Castro and Alta California Governor Pío Pico fled the Pueblo of Los Angeles before the arrival of American forces, on 13 August 1846, when Stocktons forces entered Los Angeles to no resistance, the nearly bloodless conquest of California seemed complete. The force of 36 that Stockton left in Los Angeles, however, was too small and, in addition, on 29 September in the Siege of Los Angeles, the independent Californios, under José María Flores leadership, forced the small American garrison to retire to the harbor. Stockton rescued Kearnys surrounded forces and, with their combined force totaling 660 troops, they moved northward from San Diego, on that day they fought the Californios in the Battle of Rio San Gabriel and the next day, in the Battle of La Mesa. The last significant body of Californios surrendered to American forces on 12 January 1847, the Treaty of Cahuenga was signed on January 13,1847, and essentially terminated hostilities in Alta California
Conquest of California
–
Map of
Mexico with
Alta California, 1847
Conquest of California
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A replica of the first "Bear Flag" now at El Presidio de Sonoma (Sonoma Barracks)
20.
Battle of Monterey
–
The Battle of Monterey, at Monterey, California, occurred on 7 July 1846, during the Mexican-American War. The United States captured the town unopposed, prior to the Mexican-American War the Californio forces had routed the Mexican-appointed Governor Manuel Micheltorena and most of his forces from Alta California. The main forces available to the United States in California were the about 400–500 bluejacket sailors, marines on board the five ships of the Pacific Squadron there. It took about 200 days, on average, for ships to travel the over-12,000 miles trip from the East coast around Cape Horn to get to California, more ships assigned to the Pacific Squadron would continue to arrive from 1846 to 1847. Sloat sailed on the frigate Savannah on 8 June, arriving Monterey on 1 July and they joined the sloop USS Cyane which was already there. There were U. S. fears that the British might try to annex California to satisfy British creditors, the British Pacific Stations ships off California were stronger in ships, guns and men. On 6 July, Sloat decided to seize Monterey and San Francisco, wondering if Captain Freemont will cooperate with us. Capt. William Mervine of the Cyane came ashore with a party from the Savannah at 7,30 AM on 7 July, seeking the surrender of the port from the Mexican commandant. Silva replied that he was not authorized to surrender the place, in fact Silva was in command of a nonexistent garrison. The Californio soldiers had left the towns defenses and gone to Los Angeles. They would have had no gunpowder to use in their few cannons even if they had stayed, at 10 AM225 sailors and marines from Sloats three warships landed. They formed before the Customs House where Purser Rodman M. Price read Sloats proclamation of a state of war between the US and Mexico and the annexation of California by the US. The only shots fired were a 21 gun salute to the new U. S. flag fired by each of the U. S. Navy ships in the harbor, the British ships observed but took no action. Sloat recognized Mexican real estate titles and church lands and he also established justices of the peace when the alcaldes resigned his office. Montgomery of the Portsmouth received Sloats message to seize Yerba Buena and by 8 AM on 9 July and he then replaced the Bear Flag with the American flag. The American flag was run up with a 21-gun salute, montgomery then sent Purser James H. Watmough to notify Fremont at Sonoma and Sutters Fort. Commodore Robert F. Stockton arrived Monterey Bay aboard the Congress on 15 July, the British ship of the line Collingwood arrived Monterrey on 23 July, and Juno arrived Yerba Buena on 11 July, but both ships did not interfere in the American activities. The Bear Flag revolutionaries were soon combined with John C, frémonts 60 man exploratory force to form the U. S. sponsored California Battalion under the command of Frémont
Battle of Monterey
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Officers of Commodore Sloat raise the U.S. flag over Monterey
21.
Battle of Dominguez Rancho
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The Battle of Dominguez Rancho or The Battle of the Old Womans Gun was a military engagement of the Mexican–American War. The battle took place within Manuel Dominguezs 75, 000-acre Rancho San Pedro. After receiving word of the Siege of Los Angeles, Commodore Robert F. Stockton sent US Navy Captain William Mervine, arriving on October 6, Mervine set out on October 7 with sailors, marines and bear flaggers to recapture the town. Mervines march was planned with little knowledge of the enemy. His troops were armed with an assortment of muskets, cutlasses and pikes, they brought no horses, when the Americans had occupied Los Angeles in August, residents had hidden some weapons by burying them. General José Flores force, equipped with lances, knives and old firearms that had hidden, was nearly as poorly armed. This old brass four-pounder, used ceremonially, had buried in the garden of Inocencia Reyes. It was dug up and mounted on a horse-drawn limber, Mervine and his troops set out on October 7 and reached Dominguez Rancho, where they camped for the night, within view of an advance detachment of Flores troops. There was more or less firing during the night, with no other effect than that of keeping Mervines party on the alert, setting off at daylight, the Americans advanced just to the north of Dominguez Rancho. Señora Reyes four-pounder was placed on the trail that the Americans needed to use. Ropes were lashed to the limber to pull the gun into the brush for reloading, the Californio horsemen deployed at a safe distance from the trail on the enemys flanks. When the Americans came within 400 yards, the cannon was fired and quickly pulled back into the brush, Mervines forces were helpless on foot against an enemy they could neither see nor count. Realizing they could not reach Los Angeles, Mervine had little choice except to retreat, the battle lasted less than an hour, five hours later Mervines forces were back on their ship in San Pedro Bay. Four of the seriously wounded Americans died and were buried on an island in San Pedro Bay called Isla de los Muertos. Mervines troops reboarded the Savannah, and after a few days, Dominguez Rancho Adobe Rancho San Pedro List of conflicts in the United States Battles of the Mexican–American War A History of California, The American Period. 512 pages California History, Bancroft - http, //web. archive. org/web/20120102074700/http, //www. 1st-hand-history. org, 80/Hhb/HHBindex. htm
Battle of Dominguez Rancho
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Battle of Dominguez Rancho
22.
Battle of Natividad
–
San Juan Bautista was the marshaling area for Lieutenant Colonel John C. An American scouting party was attacked by a force of mounted Mexican Californios on Rancho La Natividad in the Salinas Valley, the Californios were attempting to capture some horses being herded by the Americans. A battle ensued in which the Californio force killed four Americans, the American volunteers were buried on the Gomez Rancho. The Californios reported no deaths but 5 wounded, the Americans reported several Californios dead and several wounded. As the Californios retreated the Americans did not give chase, the Walla Walla and Delaware Indian detachment fighting with the Americans fought aggressively and bravely displaying two scalps they had taken during the conflict. The Treaty of Cahuenga signed by Frémont and Andrés Pico in January 1847 ended all hostilities in California, was inserted to protect several members of the Californios fighting in this fight who were in clear violation of their paroles they had given to keep the peace and not undertake hostilities. The site of the battle is now registered as California Historical Landmark #651
Battle of Natividad
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Battle of Natividad historic marker
23.
Battle of San Pasqual
–
The series of military skirmishes ended with both sides claiming victory, and the victor of the battle is still debated. On December 6 and December 7,1846, General Stephen W, after U. S. reinforcements arrived, Kearnys troops were able to reach San Diego. Kearnys force, guided by Carson, reached Warners Ranch in California on 2 Dec. in a weakened condition. They had just completed a 2,000 mile march, the longest march in U. S. Army history, emory - Chief Topographical Engineer, Corps of Topographical Engineers Lieutenant William H. Dunne, Private David Streeter, Private James Osbourne, Dr. Erasmus Darwin French Company C, west, Private George Ashmead, Private Joseph T. Campbell, Private John Dunlop, Private William Dalton, Private William C. Lucky, Private Samuel F. Repoll, Private Joseph B, fremonts 300 men moving south from Monterey, and sent another 100 men to watch Stocktons base at San Diego, but Flores kept the bulk of his men at Los Angeles. Captain Archibald Gillespie with 39 men, met Kearny on 5 Dec. with a message from Stockton requesting Kearny confront Flores men outside San Diego, the total American force now amounted to 179 men. Charles Weber disclosed its location to Gillespie, later, Major Andrés Pico, after a failed search for a detachment of U. S. soldiers, joined forces with the captains and took command. These Californios led a force consisting of landowners, sons of landowners, ramon Carillo, Capt. Jose Maria Cota, Capt. Nicolas Hermosillo, Capt. Jose Alipaz, Capt, ramon O. Suna General Andres Pico, Don Leandro Osuna, Capt. Juan Bautista Moreno, Capt. Tomás A. Sanchez, Capt. Pablo Vejar, Capt. Manuel Vejar A dragoon patrol under Lieutenant Thomas C. Hammond, guided by Rafael Machado, the son of Don José Manuel Machado, reconnoitered Capt. Andres Picos force along the road at San Pasqual. While Machado sneaked into the camp, Lt. Hammond became suspicious he was being set up for an ambush and rode the dragoons into the camp, where they spoke with an Indian they found sleeping in a hut. With Capt. Alipaz, Captain Leonardo Cota and José María Ibarra chased the dragoons to the top of the ridge with the battle cry of. Viva California. Pico was alerted, and the Californio camp prepared for the U. S. Army dragoons, having lost the element of surprise, at midnight Kearny ordered an immediate advance. Men, muskets, pistols and equipment were wet and cold, early in the morning of December 6,1846, the column proceeded by twos across the ridge between Santa Maria and San Pasqual. During the descent, while it was dark and with a low-lying fog. Captain Abraham R. Johnstons advance guard, while still three-quarters of a mile from Picos forces, was ordered by Kearny to Trot. which Johnston misunderstood as Gallop, forty of the best mounted pulled far ahead of the main body of the force. The mules pulling the howitzers bolted, taking one of the guns with them, Picos mounted force remained ahead of the pursuing U. S. forces
Battle of San Pasqual
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Captain Archibald Gillespie of the Marines was attacked by lancers, front and rear, at San Pascual
Battle of San Pasqual
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A map of the battle site.
Battle of San Pasqual
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Battle of San Pasqual painting
24.
Battle of Rio San Gabriel
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After the Battle of San Pasqual, the battered Army of the West, commanded by General Stephen W. Kearny, went to the headquarters of Commodore Robert F. Stockton at San Diego, California. Stocktons next objective was to recapture Pueblo de Los Angeles, Stocktons force, which included six cannons this time, left San Diego on 28-29 December. Kearny and Stockton initially disputed the right of command, Stockton had a larger force and was familiar with the area, so Kearny did not initially dispute Stocktons command of the campaign to recapture Los Angeles. U. S. scouts discovered the Mexican position at a key ford along the San Gabriel River on January 7,1847, approaching from the south, Stockton and Kearny planned a crossing for the next day. The U. S. forces were formed into a square with the artillery. Kearny ordered the artillery unlimbered to cover the crossing, but Stockton countered the order, at 2 PM, the Americans formed into a square when two miles from the river with the baggage and cattle in the middle, and sent skirmishers ahead. Flores attacked the square with horses, which failed, plus his makeshift ammunition, the U. S. officers and men manhandled their cannon across while the forward quarter of the square took cover on the river edge. Stockton personally helped unlimber and direct the artillery, which silenced both Californio cannons, Kearny led and commanded the assault force while Stockton stayed with the guns. The left flank of the square took a Californio riverbank position, then the whole square charged forward shouting New Orleans, New Orleans, in honor of Andrew Jacksons victory against Great Britain there that day thirty-one years before. The charge took the heights, and Flores withdrew his smaller force, the battle had lasted an hour and a half, and the battle was decisive in the campaign for control of Los Angeles, and Alta California. General Kearnys official report of the battle, Headquarters Army of the West, Ciudad de Los Angeles, Upper California, SIR, -- I have the honor to report, that at the request of Commodore R. F. Lieutenant Emory, topographical engineers, acted as assistant adjutant-general and our loss in the actions of the 8th and 9th instant was small, being one private killed and two officers and eleven privates wounded. The enemy mounted on horses and being the best riders in the world, carried off their killed and wounded. There they defeated Flores troops at the Battle of La Mesa, on January 10 the U. S. forces reoccupied Los Angeles, and Archibald Gillespie was able to raise the same U. S. Flag over the house which he was forced to bring down a year before during the Siege of Los Angeles, after Los Angeles and the whole of southern California was secured, the command issue between Stockton and Kearny heated up once again. Stockton, who had been the military governor of California, later granted that post to his aide. Kearny, based on his more recent orders from the War Department, Kearny left California on 31 May 1847 for St. Louis, with Fremont, whom he would prefer charges. The site of the battle is now registered as California Historical Landmark #385, the memorial, marked by a plaque flanked by two cannons, is located at the corner of Washington Blvd. and Bluff Rd. in Montebello
Battle of Rio San Gabriel
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J.M. Cutts' The Conquest of California and New Mexico, 1847
25.
Battle of La Mesa
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The Battle of La Mesa of the Mexican–American War occurred on 9 January 1847, in present-day Vernon, California, the day after the Battle of Rio San Gabriel during the California Campaign. Not finding any Californians at Pio Picos ranch, the Americans crossed the plain between the San Gabriel River and the Los Angeles River called La Mesa. They encountered Flores 300-strong force of Californio militia, including artillery, near where the city of Vernon now stands, the Californian guns were ineffective, while the American guns responded from their square as the Americans advanced. Flores extended his line and brought up two more guns, stockton halted and formed his guns into a single battery. After fifteen minutes, Stocktons fire drove the Californian artillery from effective range, Flores sent his lancers against the American left flank but were driven back and most deserted, allowing the Americans to advance into Los Angeles. The battle was the last armed resistance to the American advance in California, the conquest and annexation of Alta California was settled with the signing of the Treaty of Cahuenga by US Army Lieutenant-Colonel John C. Frémont and Californio General Andrés Pico on January 13,1847, the site of the battle is now registered as California Historical Landmark #167. The marker is located at 4490 Exchange Avenue at Downey Road in Vernon, list of conflicts in the United States Battles of the Mexican–American War Captain John Strother Griffin, physician during the battle Bancroft, Hubert Howe. The Works of Hubert Howe Bancroft, San Francisco, A. L. Bancroft & Co
Battle of La Mesa
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Battle of La Mesa
26.
Capture of Santa Fe
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No shots were fired during the capturing of Santa Fe. United States Army General Stephen W. Kearny had moved southwest from Fort Leavenworth, Kearnys orders were to secure the New Mexico territory and Alta California. Armijo set up a position in Apache Canyon, a narrow pass about 10 miles southeast of the city, however, on August 14, before the American army was even in view, he decided not to fight. When Pino, Chaves, and some of the militiamen insisted on fighting, the New Mexican army retreated to Santa Fe, and Armijo fled to Chihuahua. Kearny and his troops encountered no Mexican forces when they arrived on August 15, Kearny and his force entered Santa Fe and claimed the New Mexico Territory for the United States without a shot being fired. From Santa Fe, Kearny sent Colonel Alexander Doniphan further south into Mexico, Kearny declared himself the military governor of the New Mexico Territory on August 18 and established a civilian government. He then took the remainder of his army west to Alta California, battles of the Mexican-American War List of battles fought in New Mexico Interpreted from- H. Bailey Carroll, The Texan Santa Fé Trail. Hubert Howe Bancroft, History of the North Mexican States and Texas, published in 1889 Kearnys orders Library of Congress
Capture of Santa Fe
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Doniphan's map
27.
Capture of Tucson (1846)
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The Capture of Tucson was an uncontested United States entry into the Mexican city of Tucson, Sonora, now the present day Tucson, Arizona. The would-be combatants were provisional Mexican Army troops and the American Armys Mormon Battalion, Tucson temporarily fell in December 1846 without resistance but was immediately reoccupied two days later by the Mexican forces once the US troops moved on. The Mexican-American War began after Thorntons Defeat in 1846, the mission assigned to the Mormon Battalion was to create a continuous wagon road from Santa Fe to San Diego - the first into southern California. The American force, of around 500 riflemen and officers, were commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Philip St. George Cooke, only an effective force of 360 took part in the trek across the Arizona desert. Marching towards Tucson in November 1846, the Mormon Battalion fought their only battle and it was against wild cattle which attacked them near the San Pedro River. The Mexican force consisted of around 200 men, most likely infantry and cavalry plus two small cannons, as well as an unknown force of men from the garrisons of Tubac, Santa Cruz. The Mexican Captain Antonio Comaduron had received three days warning of the approaching Americans. Each side took prisoners, then released them as tokens of good faith. Tensions were running high and getting higher as Cookes force approached, realizing he was outnumbered, Captain Comaduron decided to withdraw without fighting. He also advised many civilians to abandon Tucson with him, the Mexican forces retreated to San Xavier about 8 1/2 miles southwest of Tucson. On December 16,1846, the US Army unit arrived at the end of Tucson. But we will take the course before us and overcome all resistance. No fighting occurred as the army entered Tucson, passed along the west wall of the Mexican military compound. The Americans began to assure the frightened and staring population of their friendly intentions, many of the Mormon men were interested in trading for food and clothing. One man related later that a twenty-eight star American flag temporarily flew over Tucson for the first time though neither Cooke nor any other journalist makes any mention of it. The author remembers, with gratitude, the silver-haired Mexican. Dipped up his water, and. with cheerful countenance, delivered the refreshing and he has doubtless, long since, been gathered to his fathers, if so, peace to his ashes. Surely, I was athirst, and he gave me drink, Lieutenant Colonel Cookes soldiers had been low on food, so the Mexicans bartered meat and bread for cloth, buttons and pins, but only a little food was transferred to the Mormons through trade
Capture of Tucson (1846)
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The Mormon battalion in the Sonoran Desert of south central Arizona.
Capture of Tucson (1846)
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Philip Cooke in his general's uniform during the
American Civil War.
28.
Battle of El Brazito
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The Battle of El Brazito took place on December 25,1846 between the United States Army and the Mexican Army during the Mexican-American War. En route to Chihuahua, Doniphans regiment was attacked by a Mexican army about thirty miles from El Paso del Norte, about 9 miles south of Las Cruces, New Mexico, since it was Christmas, Doniphan had halted his mens march at 1 PM that day. However, they spotted the dust cloud of a Mexican scouting party to the south, the Mexican Commander in parley demanded the Americans surrender. He and his men used the delay to fully form their battle line. The Mexicans then made an assault on the American position. Doniphan ordered his troops to hold their fire until the Mexicans came within easy range, at 50 yards the Americans opened fire with their rifles and muskets. Their fire was accurate and the Mexican regulars broke and fled. Mexican lancers next attacked Doniphans wagon train, but was driven off by the teamsters, the Mexican force retreated under the command of Capt. Rafael Carabaja after Ponce was wounded, abandoning their howitzer, which Lt. Nicholas B, line was formed on foot, when a black flag was received with an insolent demand. Colonel Doniphan restrained his men from shooting the bearer down, the enemy’s line, nearly half cavalry, and including a howitzer, opened fire at four hundred yards, and still advanced, and had fired three rounds, before fire was returned within effective range. Victory seems to have decided by a charge of Captain Reid with twenty cavalry which he had managed to mount. The enemy fled, with loss of forty-three killed and one hundred and fifty wounded, our loss seven wounded, Doniphans men reached El Paso on 27 Dec. where they seized five tons of powder,500 arms,400 lances and four artillery pieces. Major Meriwether Lewis Clark, Sr. arrived on 5 Feb. with about 100 men, Doniphan led his forces southward on 8 Feb. headed to Chihuahua
Battle of El Brazito
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Doniphan's map
Battle of El Brazito
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Location of El Brazito
Battle of El Brazito
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Las Cruces and surrounding terrain from space.
29.
Battle of Embudo Pass
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The Battle of Embudo Pass was part of the Taos Revolt, a popular insurrection against the American armys occupation of northern New Mexico. It took place on January 29,1847, during the Mexican-American War, Price marched to La Joya, where sixty to eighty insurgents were posted on either side of the canyon. Finding the road by Embudo impractical for artillery or wagons, Price detached three companies under Captain John H. K, Burgwin, Captain Ceran St. Vrain and Lieutenant B. F. White, amounting to 180 men. Capt. Burgwin discovered the insurgents at El Embudo, near present-day Dixon, New Mexico, the action was commenced by Capt. St. Vrain, who, dismounting his men, ascended the mountain on the left doing much execution, flanking parties were thrown out on either side, commanded respectively by Lieut. White, 2d regiment Missouri mounted volunteers, and by Lieutenants Mellvaine and Taylor and these parties ascended the hill rapidly, and the enemy soon began to retire in the direction of Embudo, bounding along the steep and rugged sides of the mountains with a speed that defied pursuit. The firing at the pass of Embudo had been heard at La Joya and he now arrived, and rendered excellent service by relieving Lieutenant White whose men were much fatigued. Lieutenants Mellvaine and Taylor were also recalled, and Lieutenant Ingalls was directed to lead a party on the right slope. Prices forces then marched on to Taos where they engaged in the Siege of Pueblo de Taos, local tradition states that a series of crosses were chipped into several large rocks marking the spots where defenders were killed. These can still be seen today, New Mexico Resistance to U. S. Occupation, published in The Contested Homeland, A Chicano History of New Mexico, Albuquerque, University of New Mexico Press,2000 Cooke, Philip St. George. The Conquest of New Mexico and California, an Historical and Personal Narrative
Battle of Embudo Pass
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Sketch of battle site by United States Army Corps of Engineers cartographer JG Bruff.
Battle of Embudo Pass
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Embudo Pass, 2010
Battle of Embudo Pass
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Crosses, or Descansos, at the site.
United States
Mexico
