1.
First Punic War
–
The First Punic War was the first of three wars fought between Ancient Carthage and the Roman Republic. For more than 20 years, the two struggled for supremacy, primarily on the Mediterranean island of Sicily and its surrounding waters. The war signaled the beginning of a transformation in the western Mediterranean. Carthage began the war as the great sea-power of the western Mediterranean, while Rome had, the series of wars between Rome and Carthage took the name Punic from the Latin name for the Carthaginians, Punici. This is derived from Phoenicis, and it refers to the Carthaginian heritage as Phoenician colonists, a Carthaginian name for the conflicts does not survive in any records. Rome had recently emerged as the leading city-state in the Italian Peninsula, over the past one hundred years, Rome had come into conflict, and defeated rivals on the Italian peninsula, then incorporated them into the Roman political world. By the beginning of the First Punic War, the Romans had secured the whole of the Italian peninsula and it originated as a Phoenician colony in Africa, near modern Tunis. At the height of power, just before the First Punic War, North African peoples such as the Berbers in the area around Carthage were loosely associated with Carthage. In the midst of the First Punic War some tribes would rebel against Carthage, the rich, strategically influential, and well-fortified Greek colony of Syracuse was politically independent of Rome and Carthage. Hostilities of the First Punic War began with developments involving the Romans, Carthaginians, at the same time, a group of Roman troops made up of Campanian citizens without the vote also seized control of Rhegium, lying across the Straits of Messina on the mainland of Italy. In 270 BC, the Romans regained control of Rhegium and severely punished the survivors of the revolt, in Sicily, the Mamertines ravaged the countryside and collided with the expanding regional empire of the independent city of Syracuse. Hiero II, tyrant of Syracuse, defeated the Mamertines near Mylae on the Longanus River, following their defeat, the Mamertines appealed to both Rome and Carthage for assistance. The Carthaginians acted first, approached Hiero to take no further action, however, the rivalry between Rome and Carthage had grown since the war with Pyrrhus and that alliance was simply no longer feasible. According to the historian Polybius, considerable debate took place in Rome on the question as to whether to accept the Mamertines appeal for help, however, many were also unwilling to see Carthaginian power in Sicily expand even further. Leaving them at Messana would give the Carthaginians a free hand to deal with Syracuse, after the Syracusans had been defeated, the Carthaginian takeover of Sicily would essentially be complete. Sicily is a volcanic island, with geographical obstacles and rough terrain making lines of communication difficult to maintain. For this reason, land warfare played a role in the First Punic War. Land operations were confined to small raids and skirmishes, with few pitched battles
First Punic War
–
Roman arrival and neutralization of Syracuse.
First Punic War
–
Western Mediterranean Sea in 264 BC. Rome is shown in red, Carthage in purple, and Syracuse in green.
First Punic War
–
Hamilcar's attack.
First Punic War
–
Continued Roman advance 260–256 BC.
2.
Sicily
–
Sicily is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. It is an autonomous Region of Italy, along with surrounding minor islands, Sicily is located in the central Mediterranean Sea, south of the Italian Peninsula, from which it is separated by the narrow Strait of Messina. Its most prominent landmark is Mount Etna, the tallest active volcano in Europe, the island has a typical Mediterranean climate. The earliest archaeological evidence of activity on the island dates from as early as 12,000 BC. It became part of Italy in 1860 following the Expedition of the Thousand, a revolt led by Giuseppe Garibaldi during the Italian unification, Sicily was given special status as an autonomous region after the Italian constitutional referendum of 1946. Sicily has a rich and unique culture, especially regard to the arts, music, literature, cuisine. It is also home to important archaeological and ancient sites, such as the Necropolis of Pantalica, the Valley of the Temples, Sicily has a roughly triangular shape, earning it the name Trinacria. To the east, it is separated from the Italian mainland by the Strait of Messina, about 3 km wide in the north, and about 16 km wide in the southern part. The northern and southern coasts are each about 280 km long measured as a line, while the eastern coast measures around 180 km. The total area of the island is 25,711 km2, the terrain of inland Sicily is mostly hilly and is intensively cultivated wherever possible. Along the northern coast, the ranges of Madonie,2,000 m, Nebrodi,1,800 m. The cone of Mount Etna dominates the eastern coast, in the southeast lie the lower Hyblaean Mountains,1,000 m. The mines of the Enna and Caltanissetta districts were part of a leading sulphur-producing area throughout the 19th century, Sicily and its surrounding small islands have some highly active volcanoes. Mount Etna is the largest active volcano in Europe and still casts black ash over the island with its ever-present eruptions and it currently stands 3,329 metres high, though this varies with summit eruptions, the mountain is 21 m lower now than it was in 1981. It is the highest mountain in Italy south of the Alps, Etna covers an area of 1,190 km2 with a basal circumference of 140 km. This makes it by far the largest of the three volcanoes in Italy, being about two and a half times the height of the next largest, Mount Vesuvius. In Greek Mythology, the deadly monster Typhon was trapped under the mountain by Zeus, Mount Etna is widely regarded as a cultural symbol and icon of Sicily. The Aeolian Islands in the Tyrrhenian Sea, to the northeast of mainland Sicily form a volcanic complex, the three volcanoes of Vulcano, Vulcanello and Lipari are also currently active, although the latter is usually dormant
Sicily
–
Mount Etna rising over suburbs of Catania
Sicily
–
Sicily Sicilia
Sicily
–
Sicilian landscape
Sicily
–
Location of the
Salso
3.
Carthage (state)
–
Carthage was the Phoenician city-state of Carthage and during the 7th to 3rd centuries BC, included its sphere of influence, the Carthaginian Empire. The empire extended over much of the coast of North Africa as well as encompassing substantial parts of coastal Iberia, Carthage was founded in 814 BC. At the height of the prominence it served as a major hub of trade. The city also had to deal with potentially hostile Berbers, the inhabitants of the area where Carthage was built. In 146 BC, after the third and final Punic War, Roman forces destroyed, redesigned, nearly all of the other Phoenician city-states and former Carthaginian dependencies subsequently fell into Roman hands. According to Roman sources, Phoenician colonists from modern-day Lebanon, led by Dido, Queen Elissa was an exiled princess of the ancient Phoenician city of Tyre. At its peak, the metropolis she founded, Carthage, came to be called the city, ruling 300 other cities around the western Mediterranean Sea. Elissas brother, Pygmalion of Tyre, had murdered Elissas husband, Elissa escaped the tyranny of her own country, founding the new city of Carthage and subsequently its later dominions. Details of her life are sketchy and confusing, but the following can be deduced from various sources, according to Justin, Princess Elissa was the daughter of King Belus II of Tyre. When he died, the throne was jointly bequeathed to her brother, Pygmalion and she married her uncle Acerbas, also known as Sychaeus, the High Priest of Melqart, a man with both authority and wealth comparable to the king. This led to increased rivalry between the elite and the monarchy. Pygmalion was a tyrant, lover of both gold and intrigue, who desired the authority and fortune enjoyed by Acerbas, Pygmalion assassinated Acerbas in the temple and kept the misdeed concealed from his sister for a long time, deceiving her with lies about her husbands death. At the same time, the people of Tyre called for a single sovereign, in the Roman epic of Virgil, the Aeneid, Queen Dido, the Greek name for Elissa, is first introduced as a highly esteemed character. In just seven years, since their exodus from Tyre, the Carthaginians have rebuilt a successful kingdom under her rule and her subjects adore her and present her with a festival of praise. Her character is perceived by Virgil as even more noble when she offers asylum to Aeneas and his men, who have recently escaped from Troy. A spirit in the form of the god, Mercury, sent by Jupiter, reminds Aeneas that his mission is not to stay in Carthage with his new-found love, Dido. Virgil ends his legend of Dido with the story that, when Aeneas tells Dido, her heart broken, as she lay dying, she predicted eternal strife between Aeneas people and her own, rise up from my bones, avenging spirit she says, an invocation of Hannibal. The settlements at Crete and Sicily were in conflict with the Greeks
Carthage (state)
–
Carthage and its dependencies in 264 BC
Carthage (state)
–
Mediterranean sea nations in 323 BC.
Carthage (state)
–
Trireme mosaic from Carthage,
Bardo Museum, Tunis.
4.
Roman Republic
–
It was during this period that Romes control expanded from the citys immediate surroundings to hegemony over the entire Mediterranean world. During the first two centuries of its existence, the Roman Republic expanded through a combination of conquest and alliance, by the following century, it included North Africa, most of the Iberian Peninsula, and what is now southern France. Two centuries after that, towards the end of the 1st century BC, it included the rest of modern France, Greece, and much of the eastern Mediterranean. By this time, internal tensions led to a series of wars, culminating with the assassination of Julius Caesar. The exact date of transition can be a matter of interpretation, Roman government was headed by two consuls, elected annually by the citizens and advised by a senate composed of appointed magistrates. Over time, the laws that gave exclusive rights to Romes highest offices were repealed or weakened. The leaders of the Republic developed a tradition and morality requiring public service and patronage in peace and war, making military. Many of Romes legal and legislative structures can still be observed throughout Europe and much of the world in modern nation states, the exact causes and motivations for Romes military conflicts and expansions during the republic are subject to wide debate. While they can be seen as motivated by outright aggression and imperialism and they argue that Romes expansion was driven by short-term defensive and inter-state factors, and the new contingencies that these decisions created. In its early history, as Rome successfully defended itself against foreign threats in central and then northern Italy, with some important exceptions, successful wars in early republican Rome generally led not to annexation or military occupation, but to the restoration of the way things were. But the defeated city would be weakened and thus able to resist Romanizing influences. It was also able to defend itself against its non-Roman enemies. It was, therefore, more likely to seek an alliance of protection with Rome and this growing coalition expanded the potential enemies that Rome might face, and moved Rome closer to confrontation with major powers. The result was more alliance-seeking, on the part of both the Roman confederacy and city-states seeking membership within that confederacy. While there were exceptions to this, it was not until after the Second Punic War that these alliances started to harden into something more like an empire and this shift mainly took place in parts of the west, such as the southern Italian towns that sided with Hannibal. In contrast, Roman expansion into Spain and Gaul occurred as a mix of alliance-seeking, in the 2nd century BC, Roman involvement in the Greek east remained a matter of alliance-seeking, but this time in the face of major powers that could rival Rome. This had some important similarities to the events in Italy centuries earlier, with some major exceptions of outright military rule, the Roman Republic remained an alliance of independent city-states and kingdoms until it transitioned into the Roman Empire. It was not until the time of the Roman Empire that the entire Roman world was organized into provinces under explicit Roman control
Roman Republic
–
Route of Pyrrhus of Epirus
Roman Republic
–
Roman consul accompanied by two
lictors
Roman Republic
–
Gaius Gracchus, tribune of the people, presiding over the
Plebeian Council
Roman Republic
–
A Roman
denarius struck in 56 BC showing on one side the bust of the
Goddess Diana, and on the reverse the Roman general
Lucius Cornelius Sulla is offered an olive branch by his ally
Bocchus I as the captive
Jugurtha kneels beside Sulla with his hands bound.
5.
Battle of Messana
–
The Battle of Messana in 265–264 BC was the first military clash between the Roman Republic and Carthage. It marked the start of the First Punic War, in that period, and after the recent successes in southern Italy, Sicily became of increasing strategic importance to Rome. However, the people who had suffered grievously from the wars that had just ended and were in dire need of rehabilitation of every kind, were inclined to listen to the consuls. When his decree had been passed by the people, one of the consuls, Appius Claudius, was appointed to command an expedition, after this, the Mamertines forced the Punic garrison out of Messana and invited the Roman force into the city. The Carthaginians crucified the garrison commander, Hanno, on his return to Carthage for what was regarded as his cowardice, the Romans quickly defeated the Syracusans, then moved against the Carthaginians. The light infantry skirmished but soon fell back, the Roman and Carthaginian infantry engaged in the center, while the cavalry fought on the flanks. However, the Romans gained the hand, and the Carthaginians retreated. Not to be confused with the Battle of Messene, part of the Greek-Punic Wars, Mamertines Syracuse, Sicily The General History of Polybius by Polybius, translator James Hampton
Battle of Messana
–
Route taken by
Punic army in order to reach
Messana.
6.
Battle of Agrigentum
–
The Battle of Agrigentum was the first pitched battle of the First Punic War and the first large-scale military confrontation between Carthage and the Roman Republic. The battle was fought after a siege which started in 262 BC. Agrigentum is a city on the island of Sicily, two and a half miles from the southern coast and it is on a plateau, surrounded by steep slopes on all sides except the west. The city was protected by the Hypsas River to the west, the natural barriers meant the only way to attack the city was from the west, making the city easily defensible. The city commanded a main route along the southern coast and also routes leading northwards and eastwards to other cities and they then used the city as a base of operations for raiding neighboring cities. Hiero II, then leader of Syracuse, campaigned against the Mamertines, a Carthaginian commander in Sicily responded and sent a small force to garrison Messana’s citadel. Hiero II did not want openly to attack the Carthaginians and invite a war, Carthage had already been trying to control Sicily for centuries, and their main opposition had been the Greek colonies spread around the island. Syracuse, the wealthiest and most powerful of the Greek colonies in Sicily, had always been Carthages main opposition, additionally, Messana could be an excellent staging area if the Carthaginians wanted to invade Italy and attack Rome. While the Romans had been expanding their territory for over a century. Carthages control of a route into Italy threatened Romes newly conquered territory in southern Italy as well as Rome itself. In 264 BC, the Roman Senate voted to send an expedition to Sicily under the command of Appius Claudius Caudex, whether the Centuriate Assembly of Rome formally declared war is disputed. The Romans intended to send two legions to Sicily in 262 BC, probably willing to negotiate peace with Carthage. Since 264 BC, when they had declared war on Carthage, the Carthaginians also made conciliatory gestures at the start of the war, but in 262 BC, they started to increase their forces in Sicily. Once the Carthaginians started increasing their forces on the island, the Romans sent consuls there, the consuls were the generals of the Roman army, and with the consuls traveled several legions. The Carthaginians hired Ligurian, Celtic, and Spanish mercenaries to induce their enemies in Sicily to attack the Romans on the half of the island which the Romans controlled, Agrigentum at this point became the main base for the Carthaginians. The Carthaginians began sending forces to Sardinia using sea power, and it seems that they were going to use the island as a base for attacks on Italy. The Roman consuls, Lucius Postumius Megellus and Quintus Mamilius Vitulus focused their forces on Agrigentum, the consuls had a combined force of 40,000 men. Hannibal refused to fight outside the city walls, which the Romans might have seen as a sign of weakness, the Romans then set up their camp about a mile from the city and harvested the crops from the area
Battle of Agrigentum
–
Map of central
Mediterranean Sea, showing location of
Agrigentum (modern
Agrigento)
7.
Battle of the Lipari Islands
–
The Battle of the Lipari Islands or Lipara was the first encounter between the fleets of Carthage and the Roman Republic during the First Punic War. The Carthaginian victory was a result of an ambush, rather than a fixed battle, after the land successes in Sicily such as the conquest of Agrigentum, the Romans felt confident enough to build and equip a fleet that would allow them to control the Mediterranean Sea. The Republic ordered, built and drilled the crews of a fleet of about 150 quinqueremes and triremes in a two months. The patrician Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio was given the command of the first 17 ships produced and sailed to Messana to prepare for the fleets arrival, while Scipio was at the strait, he received information that the garrison of Lipara was willing to defect to the Roman side. What happened next is described as a treacherous act of the Carthaginians. Though at sea most likely to let the crews gain some experience, boodes led about 20 ships to block the Romans inside the harbour. Scipio and his men offered little resistance, the inexperienced crews panicked and fled and the consul himself was captured. His credulity earned him the pejorative cognomen Asina, which means donkey in Latin and this cognomen was all the more insulting because asina was the feminine form of the word donkey, as opposed to the masculine form asinus. The Lipara incident did not put an end to the First Punic War or Scipio Asinas career, shortly afterwards, the junior consul, Gaius Duilius, avenged the humiliation by winning the battle of Mylae at the head of the rest of the fleet
Battle of the Lipari Islands
–
the
Lipari islands, also known as the
Aeolian Islands
8.
Battle of Mylae
–
The Battle of Mylae took place in 260 BC during the First Punic War and was the first real naval battle between Carthage and the Roman Republic. This battle was key in the Roman victory of Mylae as well as Sicily itself and it also marked Romes first naval triumph and also the first use of the corvus in battle. Inspired by success in the battle of Agrigentum, the Romans sought to win all of Sicily, in order to challenge the already prominent Carthaginian naval forces, Rome built a fleet of one hundred quinqueremes and twenty triremes. However, this may have been an exaggeration, as the Romans had also borrowed Greek quinqueremes previously in 264, Rome’s two consuls of 260 were Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Asina and Gaius Duilius. It had been decided that the former would handle the fleet and this was the same Hannibal who had retreated after the conquest of Agrigentum, but not the famous Hannibal who would much later invade Italy during the Second Punic War. After Scipio Asinas surrender, the fleet was placed in the hands of Duilius. The Romans recognized their weakness in naval power and tactics, especially after the incident of the Lipari Islands, with this in mind they constructed the corvus, a plank to link ships together at sea. The inventor of the corvus is unknown, but it could have been a Syracusan, such as Archimedes. This device would be attached to the prow of Roman ships on an axle, so that it could be swung around. In this way the Romans could still use of their superior soldiers by loading them across the corvus. Duilius met Hannibal off northern Mylae in 260, polybius states that the Carthaginians had 130 ships, but does not give an exact figure for the Romans. The loss of 17 ships at the Lipari Islands from a total of 120 ships suggests that Rome had 103 remaining. However, it is possible that this number was larger than 103, thanks to captured ships, the Carthaginians anticipated victory, especially because of their superior experience at sea. The corvi helped the Romans seize the first 30 Carthaginian ships that got close enough, to avoid the corvi, the Carthaginians were forced to navigate around them and approach the Romans from behind, or from the side. The corvi were usually able to pivot and grapple most oncoming ships. Once an additional 20 of the Carthaginian ships had been hooked and lost to the Romans, Hannibal retreated with his surviving ships, instead of following the remaining Carthaginians at sea, Duilius sailed to Sicily to retrieve control of the troops. There he saved the city of Segesta, which had been under siege from the Carthaginian infantry commander Hamilcar, modern historians have wondered at Duilius decision not to immediately follow up with another naval attack, but Hannibals remaining 80 ships were probably still too strong for Rome to conquer. Success at Mylae allowed the Romans to pursue Hannibal at Sardinia, at this point Hannibal was arrested by his own men back in Carthage and crucified for his incompetence
Battle of Mylae
–
Location of Mylae (Milazzo) on the coast of northern Sicily
9.
Battle of Tyndaris
–
The Battle of Tyndaris was a naval battle of the First Punic War that took place off Tyndaris in 257 BC. Tyndaris was a Sicilian town founded as a Greek colony in 396 BC located on the ground overlooking the Tyrrhenian Sea in the Gulf of Patti. Hiero II, the tyrant of Syracuse, allowed Tyndaris to become a base for the Carthaginians, the battle took place in the waters between Tyndaris and the Aeolian Islands, with Gaius Atilius Regulus in command of the Roman fleet. Subsequently, the fell to Rome. Gaius Atilius Regulus fleet was anchored off Tyndaris when he observed the Carthaginian fleet sailing past and he gave orders for the main body of his ships to follow the leading ships. He then took a guard of ten ships and sailed towards the Carthaginians. The Carthaginians noticed that the guard had managed to outdistance the main body of the Roman fleet. Taking the initiative, the Carthaginians turned and engaged the Roman squadron, meanwhile, the rest of the Roman fleet arrived and formed a line. The Romans then engaged the Carthaginians, sinking eight and capturing ten of their ships, the remainder of the Carthaginian ships retreated the Aeolian Islands. This naval engagement was followed by the battle of Cape Ecnomus
Battle of Tyndaris
–
First Punic War
10.
Battle of Cape Ecnomus
–
The Battle of Cape Ecnomus or Eknomos was a naval battle, fought off Cape Ecnomus, between the fleets of Carthage and the Roman Republic, during the First Punic War. Due to the number of ships and crews involved, this battle was one of the largest naval battles of the ancient Mediterranean world, following the conquest of Agrigentum, the Roman Republic decided to build a fleet to threaten Carthages supremacy in the Mediterranean Sea. Romes initial disadvantage in experience was compensated for by the use of the corvus in the ships prows, the resulting series of Roman victories in naval battles such as Mylae, inspired an attempt to invade the Carthaginian lands in North Africa. Such an operation demanded a number of ships to transport the legions. Therefore, Rome built a fleet, of about 200 ships. The two consuls for the year, Marcus Atilius Regulus and Lucius Manlius Vulso Longus, were given command of the fleet, by this time, Roman naval tactics had improved. The fleet advanced along the Sicilian coast in battle formation, with the ships deployed in three squadrons. Squadrons I and II, commanded by the consuls, led the way arrayed in a wedge, the bulk of the transport ships were right behind them and the third squadron protected the rear. The Carthaginians expected them and the two met in the southern coast of Sicily off Mount Ecnomus. Carthages fleet was disposed in the long line, with the centre commanded by Hamilcar. The right flank commanded by the Hanno defeated in Agrigentum was slightly advanced, facing the foe, the two Roman leading squadrons advanced on the Carthaginian centre. Admiral Hamilcar then faked a retreat to allow the creation of a gap between the Roman vanguard and the ships that were his main target. Following this manoeuvre, both Carthaginian flanks advanced on the left behind, attacking from the side to avoid the effect of the corvus boarding mechanism. The transports were forced against the Sicilian coast and the reinforcements forced to enter the battle to face Hannos attack, the Carthaginian centre was defeated after a long fight and escaped the battle scene. Then the two leading Roman squadrons turned to relieve the situation in the rear, consul Vulsos first squadron pursued the Carthaginian left, which was pushing the transports to disaster, and Regulus ships, with the third squadron, launched an attack against Hanno. Without the support of the rest of their fleet, the Carthaginians were heavily defeated, as a consequence of this battle, about half of the Carthaginian fleet was captured or sunk. Following the battle, the Romans landed in Sicily for repairs, the prows of the captured Carthaginian ships were sent to Rome to adorn the rostra of the Forum, according to the tradition initiated at Mylae. Not long afterwards, the Roman army landed in Africa and began its expedition against Carthage led by Atilius Regulus
Battle of Cape Ecnomus
–
This article includes a
list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient
inline citations. Please help to
improve this article by
introducing more precise citations. (September 2014)
11.
Siege of Aspis
–
The Siege of Aspis, which was the first fighting on African land during the First Punic War, was fought in 255 BC between Carthage and the Roman Republic. After defeating the Carthaginian navy sent to them from reaching Africa at the battle of Cape Ecnomus. The Romans moved to besiege Aspis by building a trench and palisade to defend their ships, Carthage was not yet prepared to fight on land and the city fell after the garrison made a short resistance. By taking Clupea, the Romans controlled the area of land opposite to Carthage and they then decamped with all their forces, and marched through the country to waste and plunder it. After defeating the Carthaginians, the Romans dispatched most of their back to Rome except for a number of 15,000 infantry and 500 cavalry. The rest of the army, under the command of Marcus Atilius Regulus, moving inland and plundering on their way, they stopped at the city of Adys. The resulting siege of Adys gave the Carthaginians time to gather an army, only to have that army defeated at the Battle of Adys
Siege of Aspis
–
First Punic War
12.
Battle of Adys
–
The Battle of Adys was fought in 255 BC between Carthage and a Roman army led by Marcus Atilius Regulus. Regulus inflicted a defeat upon the Carthaginians, who then sued for peace. However, the First Punic War would continue because the terms offered by Regulus were so harsh that the people of Carthage resolved to keep fighting, in 256 BC, a Roman army under consuls Lucius Manlius Vulso and Marcus Atilius Regulus invaded the Carthaginian homeland in Africa. The Roman army soon forced the capitulation of Clupea, a town 40 miles east of Carthage, Regulus, on the other hand, was to stay with 15,000 infantry and 500 cavalry. By now, Carthage had recalled the general Hamilcar and his 5,000 Infantry and 500 cavalry from Sicily to join with generals Bostar, the army consisted of mercenaries, African light infantry, militia, cavalry, and elephants. The combined Carthaginian force set about organizing the defences of Adis, a city 40 miles southeast of Carthage, despite possessing superior cavalry and elephants, the Carthaginians took up position on a hill overlooking the plain of Adis. The lack of training and decentralized command structure reflected poorly for the effectiveness of the army, the Carthaginians determined to resist and not allow further destruction by the Romans. Unknown to the Carthaginians, the Romans quickly deployed their force around the hill under cover of darkness, the Carthaginians held their ground in a stalemate for a while, and even pushed back a Roman legion. This gap in the battle lines allowed for the unchallenged elephants, but eventually the Carthaginians were crushed and fled the site. The Romans pursued for some time, and then looted the enemy camp, encountering no resistance, the Roman army continued on a march to Carthage, stopping at Tunis. This defeat caused great turmoil in Carthage, the Numidians rose up against their overlords and refugees from the countryside flooded the city. This great population increase coupled with a ravaged countryside led to a food crisis, despite these threats, Regulus and his army of two legions had little chance of reducing the city without reinforcements. Worse, his consulship would soon be up and he would not receive the glory for ending the war, negotiations ensued between the parties with Regulus demanding that Carthage cede Sicily, Corsica and Sardinia, renounce their navy, pay an indemnity, and sign a vassal-like treaty. The opening move of the Carthaginians to create a position on the hill could have ultimately helped their position. The base was sound, but the natural features neutralized the most potent element of the Carthaginians land forces, their cavalry, consequently, the Roman army saw an opportunity to exploit their heavy infantry to smash the trapped enemy
Battle of Adys
–
First Punic War
13.
Battle of Tunis
–
The Battle of Bagradas, also known as the Battle of Tunis, was a battle between the Roman Republic and Carthage occurred in the spring of 255 BC during the First Punic War. The battle ended in a Carthaginian victory, the mercenary Spartan general Xanthippus was hired by the city of Carthage following heavy-handed negotiations by Rome. He made the Romans fight on ground, which allowed him to maximize the effect of the excellent Carthaginian cavalry. The Roman army under Marcus Atilius Regulus was based at Tunis, faced by the resurgent Carthaginian army Regulus was keen to gain another victory rather than risk the chance that someone else would get the glory of eventual victory. All we have from the sources is Polybius report that Regulus had 15,000 Infantry and 500 Cavalry when he returned home, the Carthaginians had 12,000 infantry,4,000 cavalry, and 100 war elephants. The Romans had 15,000 infantry and 500 cavalry, the Romans were formed in their normal formation, with the legionary infantry in the centre and the outnumbered cavalry on the flanks. The Carthaginians started the battle with an attack by the elephants and this tied up the main force of Roman infantry. The Roman cavalry, outnumbered eight to one, was quickly defeated, only on their left did the Romans have any success, when 2,000 troops, possibly allied troops, defeated the mercenaries facing them, and chased them back past their camp. Finally, the Carthaginian cavalry charged the already shaken Romans from both sides, destroying what cohesion was left, only the 2,000 troops successful earlier in the battle escaped to be rescued by the Roman fleet. The Romans lost 12,000 men killed and 500 men captured, some later Roman writers claim that his eyelids were cut off and he was trampled to death by an enraged elephant. However Polybius does not mention it and Diodorus, implies he died from natural causes. The defeat, and serious disasters in storms at sea, ended any chance that Rome would defeat Carthage in Africa, http, //penelope. uchicago. edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Polybius/1*. html Polybios, Histories, Book 19
Battle of Tunis
–
Battle of Badradas
14.
Battle of Panormus
–
The Battle of Panormus was fought in 251 BC between a Roman consular army led by Lucius Caecilius Metellus and Carthaginians led by Hasdrubal during the First Punic War. The resulting Roman victory allowed for Panormus to remain in Roman control for the remainder of the war. Towards the end of 252 BC or early 251 BC, Carthage had put down a Libyan revolt in Africa and sent an army under the command of Hasdrubal, son of Hanno the Great, to Sicily. Hasdrubal was present at the Battle of Tunis, along with the Greek mercenary general Xanthippus, according to Polybius, Hasdrubal roamed the region of western Sicily around the cities of Lilybaeum and Selinus for two years unopposed by the Romans who kept to high ground. However, Hasdrubal decided to attack a Roman consular army under the command of Consul Lucius Caecilius Metellus, Hasdrubal marched his men and elephants through the Orethus valley towards Panormus. This operation seemed reasonable because the consular army was on its way to Rome. Metellus ordered his troops to harass the Carthaginian vanguard and discharge their javelins into the elephants. In order to do this, the Roman light troops took cover in the ditches that surrounded the city, the commander of the Carthaginian elephants, believing the resistance to be weak, advanced to scatter the light troops. The elephants were now exposed and javelins and missiles discharged upon them both the city walls and the entrenched light troops caused them to panic and charge into their own ranks. At this point, Metellus and his legions were stationed outside of a city gate facing the Carthaginian left, at the fleeing of the elephants, Metellus ordered the legions to charge the Carthaginian left flank. This manoeuvre broke the Carthaginian line and routed their army, however, the Romans did not pursue the fleeing army but rather captured the remainder of the elephants, who were later slaughtered in the circus in Rome. As was custom after a defeat, Hasdrubal was recalled to Carthage to be executed and his successor, Adhubal, decided Selinus could no longer be garrisoned and had the town destroyed. With the exception of Hamilcar Barcas guerrilla warfare, this marked the end of significant Carthaginian land campaigning in Sicily. New York, St. Martins Press,1990
Battle of Panormus
–
First Punic War
15.
Siege of Lilybaeum (250 BC)
–
The battle resulted in a Roman retreat from the siege after the destruction of their fleet at Drepana. After their victory at the Battle of Panormus of the previous year, to this end, a new fleet was commissioned to be made up of 240 ships. The two consuls that year were sent to Sicily at the head of four legions, the Roman forces were likely made up of up to 100,000 men, including the crews of galleys and the auxiliary troops that normally accompanied the legions. Caius Atilius Regulus Serranus and Lucius Manlius Vulso Longus both had significant military experience having previously served as consuls. The Romans arrived at Lilybaeum and began their siege of the city, building works around the city including rams, walls, trenches, catapults. They further attempted to mine underneath the city walls and to block the port with their fleet. The Carthaginian force was up to point, based almost exclusively on a force of 10,000 mercenaries inside the city. Historically, Carthage had typically relied on mercenary armies and did not maintain its own standing army, the Carthaginian command gained knowledge of this plot and the traitors were not allowed to return to the city once they entered the Roman camp. The loyalty of the mercenaries was thereafter not in question. The fleet that brought these reinforcements sailed to the Carthaginian base at modern day Trapani and were able to run the Roman blockade of Lilybaeum to bring supplies to the town. After a storm destroyed the Roman defensive works protecting their siege craft and this damage could have been repaired with time, but a second blow befell the Roman camp. The following year, new and non battle tested consuls arrived at the siege with reinforcements,93 of their ships were captured by the Carthaginian navy, with a mere 30 Roman ships escaping destruction or capture. Publius Claudius Pulcher was disgraced and called back to Rome where he was fined for his incompetence, shortly after the defeat at Drepana, another Roman fleet under the second new consul, Lucius Junius C. f. C. n. Pullus, was destroyed by the Carthaginians, the Romans attempted to reroute all trade away from the city in an effort to isolate Drepana. In response, Carthage designated Hamilcar Barca, the Carthaginian chief of Sicily in 247 BC to concentrate his forces elsewhere on the island, attempts to take Lilybaeum by the Romans did not stop until their decisive victory at the Battle of the Aegates Islands in 241 BC. This defeat finally forced Carthage to negotiate a peace on Roman terms, one of the terms that Carthage was obliged to agree to was the complete abandonment of Sicily which included Lilybaeum. Greek and Roman Oared Warships, 399-30 B. C
Siege of Lilybaeum (250 BC)
–
Sicily circa 241 BC after the decisive Battle of the Aegates Islands.
16.
Battle of the Aegates
–
The Battle of the Aegates was fought off the Aegadian Islands, off the western coast of the island of Sicily on 10 March 241 BC. It was the naval battle fought between the fleets of Carthage and the Roman Republic during the First Punic War. The result was a decisive Roman victory which forced an end to the protracted conflict, the years preceding the battle were relatively quiet within the First Punic War. Rome lacked a fleet — the ships it had possessed at the beginning of the war had largely destroyed in the Battle of Drepana. However, Carthage took little advantage of this situation, hostilities between Roman and Carthaginian forces gradually stalled, becoming concentrated in small-scale land operations in Sicily. This resolution notwithstanding, after 20 years of war the finances of the Republic were in a calamitous state, the result was a fleet of approximately 200 quinqueremes, built, equipped, and crewed without government expense. The new fleet was completed in 242 BC and entrusted to the consul Gaius Lutatius Catulus, the reversals of fortune and difficulties suffered in past naval defeats provided invaluable acquired experience. The Roman ships were now more resistant to weather conditions. Catulus and Falto also endeavoured to drill the crews in manoeuvres and exercises before leaving secure waters, the result was a fleet at the peak of condition and fighting ability. In Carthage, meanwhile, the news of enemy activity was not left unanswered, a new Carthaginian fleet was also built, numbering about 250 warships, and launched in the Mediterranean under the command of Hanno. Catulus resumed the siege of the two Sicilian ports of Lilybaeum and Drepana, and by blockading the harbours cut the connection to Carthage, the intent was seemingly to cut Hamilcar Barcas supply and communication lines. For the rest of the year Catulus waited for the Carthaginian response, the senate granted him a proconsulship for 241 BC. The Carthaginian fleet arrived to relieve the blockade the following year, Hanno called a halt near the Aegates Islands to wait for a favourable breeze that would speed him to Lilybaeum. However, the Carthaginian fleet was spotted by Roman scouts and Catulus abandoned the blockade to meet his enemy, on the morning of March 10, the wind favoured the Carthaginians and Hanno immediately set sail. Catulus measured the risk of attacking with the wind in his bow versus the risk of letting Hanno reach Sicily to relieve Hamilcar Barca, despite unfavourable conditions, the proconsul decided to intercept the Carthaginians and ordered his fleet to prepare for battle. He had the Roman ships stripped of their masts, sails, Catulus himself was unable to join the actual battle because of injuries suffered in an earlier engagement, so in the actual battle the ships were commanded by his second in command, Falto. In the ensuing battle the Romans enjoyed a far greater mobility, since their vessels were carrying only the necessities, while the Carthaginians were burdened with men, equipment. The Carthaginian crews were also hurriedly levied and inexperienced, the Romans quickly gained the upper hand, using their ships greater manoeuvrability to ram the enemy vessels
Battle of the Aegates
–
Location of the Aegadian Islands
17.
Lilybaeum
–
Marsala is an Italian town located in the Province of Trapani in the westernmost part of Sicily. Marsala is the most populated town in Trapani District and the fifth in Sicily, the town is famous for the docking of Garibaldi on 11 May 1860 and for its Marsala wine. A feature of the area is the Natural Reserve called Stagnone Lagoon — a marine area with salt ponds, Marsala is built on the ruins of the ancient Carthaginian city of Lilybaion, and includes in its territory the archaeological site of Motya island, an ancient Phoenician town. Situated at the western point of Sicily, the town was founded on Lilibeo Cape from where the Aegadian Islands. The territory of Marsala,241 square kilometres, has a cultural and landscape heritage, its area includes the Stagnone Lagoon. The city of Marsala had a population of about 86,000 until the end of 1970, when Petrosino, the area of Marsala is classified as a seismic zone 2. In the last 200 years three earthquakes of medium-high intensity were recorded,18 May 1828 – magnitude 5.1715 January 1968 – Belice earthquake which in Marsala reached VII Mercalli scale. 7 June 1981 – magnitude 4.60 with epicentre in Borgo Elefante in Mazara del Vallo, the weather is warm in summer with a maximum of 39 °C. Winters are rainy with temperatures between 10 °C and 17 °C, in 397 BCE the Phoenician colony of Motya on the southwestern coast of Sicily was invaded and destroyed by the Syracusan tyrant Dionysius I. The survivors founded a town on the mainland nearby that they called Lilybaion, The town that looks at Libya, on the site of modern-day Marsala. The First Punic War began here when the Punic army landed at Lilybaion in 265/264 BCE, then marched across Sicily to Messina, the Punic fortress Lilybaion was never conquered although it was besieged several times, e. g. by Pyrrhus of Epirus and by the Romans. In 241 BCE it was given to the Romans as part of the treaty ending the First Punic War. The commercial centre was enriched with mansions and public buildings and dubbed splendidissima urbs by Cicero, ravaged by Vandals during the 5th century CE, the town was annexed in the 6th century to Justinians Byzantine Empire. In this period the town was struck by dysentery, raided by pirates, the arrival of Arabic Berbers at the nearby Granitola mount in the 8th century entailed the resumption of commerce and the start of the rebirth of the town. The town was renamed Marsa ʿAlī ʿAlīs harbour or maybe, Marsa ʿāliyy, Big harbour, for the width of the ancient harbour, another possible derivation is Marsa Allāh, Gods harbour. Since the end of the 11th century, the area has been conquered by Swedish, Norman, Angevin, during this time, Marsala became wealthy, primarily through trade. However the blocking up of the harbour of Punta Alga, decreed by Emperor Charles V so as to stop Saracen forays, the development of Marsala wine at the end of the 18th century, headed by English merchants settled in Sicily, considerably improved local trade. This triggered an expansion in Marsala, including the funding of infrastructure projects such as the current harbour of Margitello
Lilybaeum
–
Salt evaporation ponds at Marsala
Lilybaeum
–
The Main Square - "Piazza della Repubblica", still called by inhabitants "Piazza Loggia"
Lilybaeum
–
The Natural Reserve of Stagnone: salt pans and one of the wind mills close to the wharf to Mothia
18.
Roman consul
–
A consul was the highest elected political office of the Roman Republic, and the consulship was considered the highest level of the cursus honorum. Each year, two consuls were elected together, to serve for a one-year term, the consuls alternated in holding imperium each month, and a consuls imperium extended over Rome, Italy, and the provinces. Originally, consuls were called praetors, referring to their duties as the military commanders. By at least 300 BC the title of Consul was being used, in Greek, the title was originally rendered as στρατηγός ὕπατος, strategos hypatos, and later simply as ὕπατος. The consul was believed by the Romans to date back to the establishment of the Republic in 509 BC. These remained in place until the office was abolished in 367/366 BC, consuls had extensive powers in peacetime, and in wartime often held the highest military command. Additional religious duties included certain rites which, as a sign of their formal importance, consuls also read auguries, an essential step before leading armies into the field. Two consuls were elected each year, serving together, each with power over the others actions. It is thought that only patricians were eligible for the consulship. Consuls were elected by the Comitia Centuriata, which had a bias in its voting structure which only increased over the years from its foundation. If a consul died during his term or was removed from office, a consul elected to start the year - called a consul ordinarius - held more prestige than a suffect consul, partly because the year would be named for ordinary consuls. The first plebeian consul, Lucius Sextius, was elected the following year and it is possible that only the chronology has been distorted, but it seems that one of the first consuls, Lucius Junius Brutus, came from a plebeian family. Another possible explanation is that during the 5th century social struggles, during times of war, the primary qualification for consul was military skill and reputation, but at all times the selection was politically charged. With the passage of time, the became the normal endpoint of the cursus honorum. When Lucius Cornelius Sulla regulated the cursus by law, the age of election to consul became. Beginning in the late Republic, after finishing a year, a former consul would usually serve a lucrative term as a proconsul. The most commonly chosen province for the proconsulship was Cisalpine Gaul, throughout the early years of the Principate although the consuls were still formally elected by the Comitia Centuriata, they were in fact nominated by the princeps. It was a post that would be occupied by a man halfway through his career, in his early thirties for a patrician, emperors frequently appointed themselves, or their protégés or relatives, consuls, even without regard to the age requirements
Roman consul
–
Flavius Anastasius Paulus Probus Sabinianus Pompeius Anastasius (consul 517 AD) in consular garb, holding a sceptre and the mappa, a piece of cloth used to signal the start of
chariot races at the
Hippodrome. Ivory panel from his
consular diptych.
Roman consul
–
Ancient Rome
19.
Roman mythology
–
Roman mythology is the body of traditional stories pertaining to ancient Romes legendary origins and religious system, as represented in the literature and visual arts of the Romans. Roman mythology may also refer to the study of these representations. The Romans usually treated their traditional narratives as historical, even when these have miraculous or supernatural elements, the stories are often concerned with politics and morality, and how an individuals personal integrity relates to his or her responsibility to the community or Roman state. When the stories illuminate Roman religious practices, they are concerned with ritual, augury. Romes early myths and legends also have a relationship with Etruscan religion. In particular, the versions of Greek myths in Ovids Metamorphoses, written during the reign of Augustus, because ritual played the central role in Roman religion that myth did for the Greeks, it is sometimes doubted that the Romans had much of a native mythology. This perception is a product of Romanticism and the scholarship of the 19th century. From the Renaissance to the 18th century, however, Roman myths were an inspiration particularly for European painting, the Roman tradition is rich in historical myths, or legends, concerning the foundation and rise of the city. These narratives focus on human actors, with only occasional intervention from deities, in Romes earliest period, history and myth have a mutual and complementary relationship. As T. P. Wiseman notes, The Roman stories still matter, as they mattered to Dante in 1300 and Shakespeare in 1600, what does it take to be a free citizen. Can a superpower still be a republic, how does well-meaning authority turn into murderous tyranny. Major sources for Roman myth include the Aeneid of Vergil and the first few books of Livys history as well as Dionysius s Roman Antiquities. Other important sources are the Fasti of Ovid, a six-book poem structured by the Roman religious calendar, scenes from Roman myth also appear in Roman wall painting, coins, and sculpture, particularly reliefs. The Aeneid and Livys early history are the best extant sources for Romes founding myths, material from Greek heroic legend was grafted onto this native stock at an early date. By extension, the Trojans were adopted as the ancestors of the Roman people. Rape of the Sabine women, explaining the importance of the Sabines in the formation of Roman culture, numa Pompilius, the Sabine second king of Rome who consorted with the nymph Egeria and established many of Romes legal and religious institutions. Servius Tullius, the king of Rome, whose mysterious origins were freely mythologized. The Tarpeian Rock, and why it was used for the execution of traitors, lucretia, whose self-sacrifice prompted the overthrow of the early Roman monarchy and led to the establishment of the Republic
Roman mythology
–
Romulus and Remus, the
Lupercal,
Father Tiber, and the
Palatine on a
relief from a pedestal dating to the reign of
Trajan (AD 98–117)
Roman mythology
–
In this wall painting from
Pompeii,
Venus looks on while the physician
Iapyx tends to the wound of her son,
Aeneas; the tearful boy is her grandson
Ascanius, also known as Iulus, legendary ancestor [
citation needed] of
Julius Caesar and the
Julio-Claudian dynasty
Roman mythology
–
Mucius Scaevola in the Presence of Lars Porsenna (early 1640s) by
Matthias Stom
Roman mythology
–
Capitoline Triad
20.
Omen
–
An omen is a phenomenon that is believed to foretell the future, often signifying the advent of change. People in the ancient times believed that omens lie with a message from their gods. These omens include natural phenomena, for example an eclipse, abnormal births of animals and humans and they had specialists, the diviners, to interpret these omens. They would also use a method, for example, a clay model of a sheep liver. They would expect a binary answer, either yes or no answer and they did these to predict what would happen in the future and to take action to avoid disaster. Though the word omen is usually devoid of reference to the nature, hence being possibly either good or bad. The origin of the word is unknown, although it may be connected with the Latin word audire, the oldest source for this practice in the Ancient Near East came from Mesopotamia. This practice attested at the first half of the 2nd millennium B. C. and it was pursued by the Assyrian kings, Esarhaddon and his son. There were 3 methods to interpret omens, and they were hepatoscopy, lecanomancy, hepatoscopy is to observe irregularities and abnormalities on the appearance of the entrails of a sacrificial sheep and they were used most in royal services. Astrological omens were popular in Assyria, during the 7th century BC, diviners gained much influence by interpreting the omens and advising the king how to avoid the terrible fate during the reign of Esarhaddon. One of the things they would do in Assyria was to put a substitute king on the throne, and the true king would hide for a while. The substitute king was expected to take the consequences and when they believed the danger is over, they would execute the substitute king. The observations of omens were recorded into series, some of them dated back to the first half of the 2nd millennium BC, and these were arranged as conditional statement later. Such practice was found in Israel as well, compared to Israel, they used the methods listed above except, hepatoscopy. According to the Bible, God did not answer King Saul through dreams, or Urim and Thummim, or prophets, thus, showed that they have a similar belief and practice with their prophets, and dreams, and similar tool as Urim and Thummim. An oionos was defined in antiquity as the vulture, especially a prophetic bird. By careful observation of the cries and the way or direction it flew. They also saw lightning or thunder as omens, sent from Zeus, even since Homeric times, the Greeks paid special attention to these signs, when they saw vultures from the left, another symbol of Zeus, they considered it a bad omen
Omen
–
Examples of omens from the
Nuremberg Chronicle (1493): natural phenomena and unnatural births.
Omen
–
Star falling into the aurora over the
Kewaunee River.
Omen
–
Halley's Comet 's appearance in 1066 was recorded on the
Bayeux Tapestry. ISTI MIRANT STELLA literally means "These ones are looking in wonder at the star".
National Geographic translated it in a 1966 article about the tapestry as "These men wonder at the star."
21.
Polybius
–
Polybius was a Greek historian of the Hellenistic period noted for his work, The Histories, which covered the period of 264–146 BC in detail. The work describes the rise of the Roman Republic to the status of dominance in the ancient Mediterranean world, Polybius was born around 200 BC in Megalopolis, Arcadia, when it was an active member of the Achaean League. His father, Lycortas, was a prominent, land-owning politician, consequently, Polybius was able to observe first hand the political and military affairs of Megalopolis. He developed an interest in riding and hunting, diversions that later commended him to his Roman captors. In 182 BC, he was quite an honor when he was chosen to carry the funeral urn of Philopoemen. In either 169 BC or 170 BC, Polybius was elected hipparchus and his early political career was devoted largely towards maintaining the independence of Megalopolis. Polybius’ father, Lycortas, was a prominent advocate of neutrality during the Roman war against Perseus of Macedon. Lycortas attracted the suspicion of the Romans, and Polybius subsequently was one of the 1,000 Achaean nobles who were transported to Rome as hostages in 167 BC, Polybius remained on cordial terms with his former pupil Scipio Aemilianus and was among the members of the Scipionic Circle. Polybius remained a counselor to Scipio when he defeated the Carthaginians in the Third Punic War, following the destruction of Carthage, Polybius likely journeyed along the Atlantic coast of Africa, as well as Spain. After the destruction of Corinth in the year, Polybius returned to Greece. Polybius was charged with the task of organizing the new form of government in the Greek cities. He apparently interviewed veterans to clarify details of the events he was recording and was given access to archival material. Little is known of Polybius later life, he most likely accompanied Scipio to Spain and he later wrote about this war in a lost monograph. Polybius probably returned to Greece later in his life, as evidenced by the many existent inscriptions, polybius’ Histories cover the period from 264 BC to 146 BC. Its main focus is the period from 220 BC to 167 BC, describing Romes efforts in subduing its arch-enemy, Carthage, in Book VI, Polybius describes the political, military, and moral institutions that allowed the Romans to succeed. He describes the First and Second Punic Wars, in Book XII, Polybius discusses the worth of Timaeus’ account of the same period of history. He asserts Timaeus point of view is inaccurate, invalid, therefore, Polybiuss Histories is also useful in analyzing the different Hellenistic versions of history and of use as a credible illustration of actual events during the Hellenistic period. In the seventh volume of his Histories, Polybius defines the historians job as the analysis of documentation, the review of relevant geographical information, and political experience
Polybius
–
The Stele of Polybius, possible representation of the man
Polybius
–
Marcus Tullius Cicero
Polybius
–
Montesquieu
22.
Hannibal Gisco
–
Hannibal Gisco was a Carthaginian military commander in charge of both land armies and naval fleets during the First Punic War against Rome. His efforts proved unsuccessful and his eventual defeat in battle led to his downfall. The details of Hannibal Giscos early life and career are unknown, Hannibal Giscos first appearance in the sources is in 262 BC, as the general in command of the garrison besieged by the Romans in Agrigentum. Despite the tenacity shown by Gisco and his men for months and the arrival of reinforcements led by Hanno, Gisco managed to escape to Carthage in the late stages of the battle. Apparently, the defeat at Agrigentum did not bar Gisco from continuing leadership, in the following year,260 BC, Gisco returned as the admiral in charge of the Carthaginian fleet in the Straits of Messina. The Romans were about to launch their first-ever navy, and Carthage had determined that this innovation should be thwarted, Gisco defeated and captured the Roman consul Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Asina in the Lipari encounter, which earned Scipio the nickname Asina. However, this victory was robbed of practical meaning with the bulk of the Roman fleet continuing to maneuver in the surrounding waters. Later in 260 BC, Gisco was to engage this fleet, confident in Carthages superiority at sea, Gisco deployed his ships for the Battle of Mylae in the traditional long line arrangement. Although inexperienced in sea battle, the Romans, led by consul Gaius Duilius, heavily defeated the Carthaginian fleet, Hannibal was recalled, but his fall from favor lasted not very long. In 258, he was sent to Sardinia, which he had to defend against the Romans, however, he was no match for the Roman commander Gaius Sulpicius Paterculus, who defeated him. Having lost the confidence of his peers, Hannibal Gisco was subsequently executed for incompetence shortly afterwards, according to some references he was crucified by his own men
Hannibal Gisco
–
Adherbal (admiral)
23.
Hamilcar Barca
–
Hamilcar Barca or Barcas was a Carthaginian general and statesman, leader of the Barcid family, and father of Hannibal, Hasdrubal and Mago. He was also father-in-law to Hasdrubal the Fair, the name Hamilcar was a common name for Carthaginian men. The name brq means thunderbolt in the Punic language and is equivalent to the epithet or cognomen Keraunos, common among many contemporary Greek commanders. Hamilcar commanded the Carthaginian land forces in Sicily from 247 BC to 241 BC and he kept his army intact and led a successful guerrilla war against the Romans in Sicily. Hamilcar retired to Africa after the treaty in 241 BC. When the Mercenary War burst out in 240 BC, Hamilcar was recalled to command and was instrumental in concluding that conflict successfully. Hamilcar commanded the Carthaginian expedition to Spain in 237 BC, and he may have been responsible for creating the strategy which his son Hannibal implemented in the Second Punic War to bring the Roman Republic close to defeat. Little is known about the origins or history of the Barca family prior to the Punic Wars, quoting Tony Bath, The Barca family, which originally came from Cyrene, was a powerful one but not at that time among the first families of Carthage. Lance Serge states that Hamilcars family was part of the aristocracy of Carthage. Hamilcar was a man of 28 when he received the Sicilian command in 247 BC. By this time he had three daughters, and his son Hannibal was born during the same year, the Carthaginian state was led by the landed aristocracy at the time, and they preferred to expand into Africa instead of pursuing an aggressive policy in Sicily. Hanno The Great was in charge of operations in Africa since 248 BC and had conquered territory by 241 BC. Carthage at this time was feeling the strain of the prolonged conflict, in addition to maintaining a fleet and soldiers in Sicily, they were also fighting the Libyans and Numidians in Africa. As a result, Hamilcar was given a small army. The Carthaginian leadership probably thought Rome had been defeated and invested little manpower in Sicily, Hamilcar, upon taking command in the summer of 247 BC, punished the rebellious mercenaries by murdering some of them at night and drowning the rest at sea, and dismissing many to Africa. With a reduced army and fleet, Hamilcar commenced his operations, Romans had divided their forces, Consul L. Caelius Metellus was near Lilybaeum, while Numerius Fabius Buteo was besieging Drepanum at that time. Hamilcar probably fought a battle at Drepanum, but there is cause to doubt this. He also set about improving the spirit of the army, and succeeded in creating a highly disciplined, while Hamilcar won no large-scale battle or recaptured any cities lost to the Romans, he waged a relentless campaign against the enemy, and caused a constant drain on Roman resources
Hamilcar Barca
–
Adherbal (admiral)
Hamilcar Barca
–
Hamilcar Barca’s probable base near Panormus in 247 BC. A generic representation, not to exact scale and not all information shown.
24.
Hannibal
–
Hannibal Barca, was a Carthaginian general, considered one of the greatest military commanders in history. His father Hamilcar Barca was the leading Carthaginian commander during the First Punic War and his younger brothers were Mago and Hasdrubal, and he was brother-in-law to Hasdrubal the Fair. One of his most famous achievements was at the outbreak of the Second Punic War, when he marched an army which included war elephants from Iberia over the Pyrenees, Hannibal occupied much of Italy for 15 years but was unable to march on Rome. An enemy counter-invasion of North Africa forced him to return to Carthage, after the war, Hannibal successfully ran for the office of sufet. During this time, he lived at the Seleucid court, where he acted as advisor to Antiochus III the Great in his war against Rome. Antiochus met defeat at the Battle of Magnesia and was forced to accept Romes terms and his flight ended in the court of Bithynia, where he achieved an outstanding naval victory against a fleet from Pergamon. He was afterwards betrayed to the Romans and committed suicide by poisoning himself, military historian Theodore Ayrault Dodge called Hannibal the father of strategy, because his greatest enemy, Rome, came to adopt elements of his military tactics in its own strategic arsenal. This praise has earned him a reputation in the modern world. The English form of the name is derived from the Latin, Greek historians rendered the name as Anníbas Bárkas. Hannibals name was recorded in Carthaginian sources as ḤNBʻL and its precise vocalization remains a matter of debate. Suggested readings include Ḥannibaʻl or Ḥannibaʻal, meaning grace of Baʻal, Baal is gracious, or Baal has been gracious, or Ḥannobaʻal, Barca was the surname of his aristocratic family, meaning shining or lightning. It is thus equivalent to the Arabic name Barq or the Hebrew name Barak or the ancient Greek epithet keraunos, in English, his clan are sometimes collectively known as the Barcids. As with Greek and Roman practice, patronymics were a part of Carthaginian nomenclature. Hannibal was one of the sons of Hamilcar Barca, a Carthaginian leader and he was born in what is present day Tunisia. He had several sisters and two brothers, Hasdrubal and Mago and his brothers-in-law were Hasdrubal the Fair and the Numidian king Naravas. He was still a child when his sisters married, and his brothers-in-law were close associates during his fathers struggles in the Mercenary War, in light of Hamilcar Barcas cognomen, historians refer to Hamilcars family as the Barcids. However, there is debate as to whether the cognomen Barca was applied to Hamilcar alone or was hereditary within his family, if the latter, then Hannibal and his brothers also bore the name Barca. After Carthages defeat in the First Punic War, Hamilcar set out to improve his familys, with that in mind and supported by Gades, Hamilcar began the subjugation of the tribes of the Iberian Peninsula
Hannibal
–
A marble bust, reputedly of Hannibal, originally found at the ancient city-state of Capua in Italy (some historians are uncertain of the authenticity of the portrait).
Hannibal
–
Hannibal and his men crossing the
Alps.
Hannibal
–
Hannibal counting the signet rings of Roman nobles killed during the battle, statue by
Sébastien Slodtz, 1704,
Louvre.
Hannibal
–
Scipio Africanus
25.
Roman dictator
–
A dictator was a magistrate of the Roman Republic, entrusted with the full authority of the state to deal with a military emergency or to undertake a specific duty. All other magistrates were subordinate to his imperium, and the right of the tribunes to veto his actions or of the people to appeal from them was extremely limited. The office was abolished after the death of Caesar. With the abolition of the Roman monarchy in 509 BC, the imperium, or executive power, in time they would come to be known as consuls, although probably not until the creation of a third, junior praetor in 367 BC. Neither consul was superior to the other, and the decisions of one could be appealed to the other, according to most authorities, the first dictator was Titus Lartius, who appointed Spurius Cassius his magister equitum. His lieutenant, the magister equitum, was the master of the horse, however, the use of dictator to refer to the magister populi seems to have been widespread from a very early period. The appointment of a dictator involved three steps, first, the Senate would issue a decree known as a senatus consultum, technically, a senatus consultum was advisory, and did not have the force of law, but in practice it was nearly always followed. Either consul could nominate a dictator, if both consuls were available, the dictator was chosen by agreement, if they could not agree, the consuls would draw lots for the responsibility. Finally, the Comitia Curiata would be called upon to confer imperium on the dictator through the passage of a law known as a lex de imperio. A dictator could be nominated for different reasons, or causa and these reasons could be combined, but are not always recorded or clearly stated in ancient authorities, and must instead be inferred. In the earlier period it was customary to nominate someone whom the consul considered the best available military commander, often this was a former consul, however, from 360 BC onward, the dictators were usually consulares. Normally there was only one dictator at a time, although a new dictator could be appointed following the resignation of another. A dictator could be compelled to resign his office without accomplishing his task or serving out his term if there were found to be a fault in the auspices under which he had been nominated. Like other curule magistrates, the dictator was entitled to the toga praetexta, in a notable exception to the Roman reluctance to reconstitute the symbols of the kings, the lictors of the dictator never removed the axes from their fasces, even within the pomerium. Symbolizing their power over life and death, the axes of a dictators lictors set him apart from all other magistrates, in an extraordinary sign of deference, the lictors of other magistrates could not bear fasces at all when appearing before the dictator. As the kings had been accustomed to appear on horseback, this right was forbidden to the dictator, unless he first received permission from the comitia. In addition to holding a command and carrying out the actions decreed by the Senate. The full extent of the power was considerable, but not unlimited
Roman dictator
–
Roman Dictator
Fabius Maximus
Roman dictator
–
Ancient Rome
Roman dictator
–
Roman Dictator
Lucius Cornelius Sulla
26.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
–
A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
