1.
Second Barons' War
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The Second Barons War was a civil war in England between the forces of a number of barons led by Simon de Montfort against Royalist forces led by Prince Edward, in the name of Henry III. As a result, a feud developed between de Montfort and Henry and their relationship reached a crisis in the 1250s, when de Montfort was put on trial for actions he took as lieutenant of Gascony, the last remaining Plantagenet lands across the English Channel. Henry also became embroiled in funding a war against the Hohenstaufen Dynasty in Sicily on behalf of Pope Innocent IV in return for the Hohenstaufen title King of Sicily for his second son Edmund. This made many barons fearful that Henry was following in the footsteps of his father King John and, like him, when Henrys treasury ran dry, Innocent withdrew the title, and in regranting it to Charles of Anjou in effect negated the sale. Simon de Montfort became leader of those who wanted to reassert the Magna Carta, Henry was forced to take part in the swearing of a collective oath to uphold the Provisions of Oxford. At the Battle of Lewes in 1264, Henry was defeated, while Henry was reduced to a figurehead king, de Montfort broadened parliamentary representation to include groups beyond the nobility, members from each county of England and many important towns. Henry and Edward continued under house arrest and his son, Simon, attempted a negotiated surrender but it was rejected by de Montfort loyalists. The impasse culminated in the six-month Siege of Kenilworth at which the King prevailed, de Montforts forces were permitted to leave the castle with their weapons and horses. Following this victory, savage retribution was exacted on the rebels, the casualties of the war are estimated at 15,000. 1261 – King Henry III of England obtains a papal bull releasing him from the Provisions of Oxford 1264 – Before May – The war officially begins. By the end of the battle, de Montforts forces capture both King Henry and his son, future King Edward I, making de Montfort the uncrowned king of England. 1265 –20 January – In Westminster, the first English parliament conducts its first meeting in the Palace of Westminster,1265 –28 May – Future King Edward I of England escapes captivity at the hands of Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester. 1266 –15 May – The Battle of Chesterfield is fought in Chesterfield,1266 – October – The war winds down as supporters of the slain Simon de Montfort make an offer of peace to the king in the Dictum of Kenilworth. 1267 – The war ends, as the rebels and King Henry III of England agree to terms as laid out in the Dictum of Kenilworth. R. Simon de Montfort, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press ISBN 0-521-37493-6 Carpenter, the reign of Henry III, London, Hambledon ISBN 1-85285-070-1 Simon de Montfort 2014
2.
Evesham
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Evesham is a market town and parish in the Wychavon district of Worcestershire, England with a population of 23,576, according to the 2011 census. It is located equidistant between Worcester, Cheltenham and Stratford-upon-Avon. It lies within the Vale of Evesham, an area comprising the flood plain of the River Avon, the town centre, situated within a meander of the river, is regularly subject to flooding. The 2007 floods were the most severe in recorded history, the town was founded around an 8th-century abbey, one of the largest in Europe, which was destroyed during the Dissolution of the Monasteries, with only Abbot Lichfields Bell Tower remaining. During the 13th century, one of the two battles of Englands Second Barons War took place near the town, marking the victory of Prince Edward who later became King Edward I. Evesham is derived from the Old English homme or ham, and Eof and it was originally named Homme or Haum and recorded as Eveshomme in 709 and Evesham in 1086. Some sources incorrectly cite holm as a source for the towns name, some sources incorrectly give the name of the swineherd as Eoves, but it should be Eof, as explained as long ago as 1920 by O. G. Knapp, It is impossible that Eoves should have been the Swineherds name for several reasons, but even if Eofes is older and more accurate than Eoves it cannot be the original form of the name. A moments reflection will show that if Evesham means the meadow of some person and this in modern English is nearly always denoted by s placed at the end of the word, the apostrophe showing that a vowel has dropped out of the termination. Anglo-Saxon had a selection of endings for the Genitive Case, but the one in –es belonged to what are called strong Masculine nouns. Eofes, therefore, would be the natural Genitive of a proper name. We may therefore take it as certain that the name of the Swineherd was not Eoves, Eofes, or even Eofa. And this is not a theoretical reconstruction, for Eof was actually a Saxon name. The form Eoves, though current for many centuries, is a mere blunder, the abbey was redeveloped and extended after the Norman Conquest, employing many tradesmen and significantly contributing to the growth of Evesham. Income for the abbey came from pilgrims to the abbey to celebrate the vision, as a result of Henry VIIIs dissolution of the monasteries, Evesham Abbey was dismantled in 1540 and sold as building stone, leaving little but the Lichfield Bell Tower. The abbey remains are a Scheduled Ancient Monument, and parts of the complex, Abbot Reginalds Wall. The abbeys coat of arms is used as the crest of Prince Henrys High School. It marked the victory of Prince Edward, who led the 8,000 strong army of his father Henry III, over the 6,000 men of de Montfort, and the beginning of the end of the rebellion
3.
Worcestershire
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Worcestershire is a county in the West Midlands of England. Between 1974 and 1998, it was merged with the county of Herefordshire as Hereford. The cathedral city of Worcester is the largest settlement and county town, other towns in the county include Redditch, Bromsgrove, Stourport-on-Severn, Droitwich, Evesham, Kidderminster, and Malvern. The north-east of Worcestershire includes part of the industrial West Midlands, the county is divided into six administrive districts, Worcester, Redditch, Wychavon, Malvern Hills, Wyre Forest, and Bromsgrove. The county borders Herefordshire, Shropshire, Staffordshire, West Midlands, Warwickshire, to the west, the county is bordered by the Malvern Hills and the spa town of Malvern. The south of the county is bordered by Gloucestershire and the edge of the Cotswolds. Two major rivers flow through the county, the Severn and the Avon, Worcestershire was the heartland of the early English kingdom of the Hwicce. It was absorbed by the Kingdom of Mercia during the 7th century and it was a separate ealdormanship briefly in the 10th century before forming part of the Earldom of Mercia in the 11th century. In the years leading up to the Norman conquest, the Church, supported by the cathedral, Evesham Abbey, Pershore Abbey, Malvern Priory, and other religious houses, increasingly dominated the county. The last known Anglo-Saxon sheriff of the county was Cyneweard of Laughern, on 4 August 1265, Simon de Montfort was killed in the Battle of Evesham in Worcestershire. In 1642, the Battle of Powick Bridge was the first major skirmish of the English Civil War, during the Middle Ages, much of the countys economy was based on the wool trade. Many areas of its forests, such as Feckenham Forest, Horewell Forest. Droitwich Spa, situated on large deposits of salt, was a centre of production from Roman times. These old industries have declined, to be replaced by other. The county is home to the worlds oldest continually published newspaper. Malvern was one of the centres of the 19th century rise in English spa towns due to Malvern water being believed to be very pure, containing nothing at all. The 2011 census found the population of Worcestershire to be 566,169, while this change is in line with the nationwide trend of White British peoples share of the population shrinking, Worcestershire is still much more ethnically homogeneous than the national average. In 2011 England as a whole was 79. 8% White British, the most notable were Dudley, Evenlode, and the area around Shipston-on-Stour
4.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
5.
Edward I of England
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Edward I, also known as Edward Longshanks and the Hammer of the Scots, was King of England from 1272 to 1307. He spent much of his reign reforming royal administration and common law, through an extensive legal inquiry, Edward investigated the tenure of various feudal liberties, while the law was reformed through a series of statutes regulating criminal and property law. Increasingly, however, Edwards attention was drawn towards military affairs, the first son of Henry III, Edward was involved early in the political intrigues of his fathers reign, which included an outright rebellion by the English barons. In 1259, he sided with a baronial reform movement. After reconciliation with his father, however, he remained throughout the subsequent armed conflict. After the Battle of Lewes, Edward was hostage to the rebellious barons, Montfort was defeated at the Battle of Evesham in 1265, and within two years the rebellion was extinguished. With England pacified, Edward joined the Ninth Crusade to the Holy Land, the crusade accomplished little, and Edward was on his way home in 1272 when he was informed that his father had died. Making a slow return, he reached England in 1274 and was crowned at Westminster on 19 August, after suppressing a minor rebellion in Wales in 1276–77, Edward responded to a second rebellion in 1282–83 with a full-scale war of conquest. After a successful campaign, Edward subjected Wales to English rule, built a series of castles and towns in the countryside, next, his efforts were directed towards Scotland. Initially invited to arbitrate a dispute, Edward claimed feudal suzerainty over the kingdom. In the war followed, the Scots persevered, even though the English seemed victorious at several points. At the same there were problems at home. In the mid-1290s, extensive military campaigns required high levels of taxation and these crises were initially averted, but issues remained unsettled. When the King died in 1307, he left to his son, Edward II, Edward I was a tall man for his era, hence the nickname Longshanks. He was temperamental, and this, along with his height, made him an intimidating man, nevertheless, he held the respect of his subjects for the way he embodied the medieval ideal of kingship, as a soldier, an administrator and a man of faith. The Edict remained in effect for the rest of the Middle Ages, Edward was born at the Palace of Westminster on the night of 17–18 June 1239, to King Henry III and Eleanor of Provence. Among his childhood friends was his cousin Henry of Almain, son of King Henrys brother Richard of Cornwall, Henry of Almain would remain a close companion of the prince, both through the civil war that followed, and later during the crusade. Edward was in the care of Hugh Giffard – father of the future Chancellor Godfrey Giffard – until Bartholomew Pecche took over at Giffards death in 1246, there were concerns about Edwards health as a child, and he fell ill in 1246,1247, and 1251
6.
Gilbert de Clare, 6th Earl of Hertford
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Gilbert de Clare, 6th Earl of Hertford, 7th Earl of Gloucester, 3rd Lord of Glamorgan, 9th Lord of Clare was a powerful English noble. Also known as Red Gilbert de Clare or The red earl and he held the Lordship of Glamorgan which was one of the most powerful and wealthy of the Welsh Marcher Lordships as well as over 200 English manors. Gilbert inherited his fathers estates in 1262 and he took on the titles, including Lord of Glamorgan, from 1263. Being under age at his fathers death, he was made a ward of Humphrey de Bohun, in April 1264, Gilbert de Clare led the massacre of the Jews at Canterbury, as Simon de Montfort had done in Leicester. Gilbert de Clare’s castles of Kingston and Tonbridge were taken by the King, Henry III. However, the King allowed de Clares Countess Alice de Lusignan, who was in the latter, to go free because she was his niece, but on 12 May de Clare and de Montfort were denounced as traitors. Two days later, just before the Battle of Lewes, on 14 May, Simon de Montfort knighted the Earl, the Earl commanded the central division of the Baronial army, which formed up on the Downs west of Lewes. When Prince Edward had left the field in pursuit of Montforts routed left wing, Henry took refuge in the Priory of St Pancras, and Gilbert accepted the surrender of the Earl of Cornwall, who had hidden in a windmill. Montfort and the Earl were now supreme and de Montfort in effect de facto King of England, on 20 October 1264, Gilbert and his associates were excommunicated by Pope Clement IV, and his lands placed under an interdict. In October 1265, as a reward for supporting Prince Edward, Gilbert was given the castle and title of Abergavenny and honour, at Michaelmas his disputes with Llewelyn the Last were submitted to arbitration, but without a final settlement. Meanwhile, he was building Caerphilly Castle into a fortress, during Edwards invasion of Wales in 1282, de Clare insisted on leading an attack into southern Wales. King Edward made de Clare the commander of the army invading Wales. However, de Clares army faced disaster after being defeated at the Battle of Llandeilo Fawr. Following this defeat, de Clare was relieved of his position as the commander and was replaced by William de Valence. They married in 1253, when Gilbert was ten years old and she was of high birth, being a niece of King Henry, but the marriage floundered. Gilbert and Alice separated in 1267, allegedly, Alices affections lay with her cousin, after his marriage to Alice de Lusignan was annulled in 1285, Gilbert married Joan of Acre, a daughter of King Edward I of England and his first wife Eleanor of Castile. King Edward sought to bind de Clare, and his assets, on 3 July 1290, the Earl gave a great banquet at Clerkenwell to celebrate his marriage of 30 April 1290 with Joan of Acre after waiting for the Pope to sanction the marriage. Edward then gave large estates to Gilbert, including one in Malvern, disputed hunting rights on these led to several armed conflicts with Humphrey de Bohun, 3rd Earl of Hereford, that Edward resolved
7.
Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester
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He led the rebellion against King Henry III of England during the Second Barons War of 1263–64, and subsequently became de facto ruler of England. During his rule, Montfort called two famous parliaments, the first stripped the King of unlimited authority, while the second included ordinary citizens from the towns. For this reason, Montfort is regarded today as one of the progenitors of modern parliamentary democracy, after a rule of just over a year, Montfort was killed by forces loyal to the King in the Battle of Evesham. Montfort was a son of Simon de Montfort, 5th Earl of Leicester, a French nobleman and crusader. His paternal grandmother was Amicia de Beaumont, the senior co-heiress to the Earldom of Leicester, the elder Simon had also acquired vast domains during the Albigensian Crusade, but was killed during the Siege of Toulouse in 1218 and his eldest son Amaury was not able to retain them. When Amaury was rebuffed in his attempt to get the earldom back, Henry was in no position to confront the powerful Earl of Chester, so Simon approached the older, childless man himself and convinced him to cede him the earldom. It would take nine years before Henry formally invested him with the title Earl of Leicester. Simon de Montfort shared various levels of consanguinuity and by-marriage connections with both English and French royal lineages, for instance, his ancestor Simon I de Montfort was father of Bertrade de Montfort who herself was a paternal great-grandmother of King Henry II. He was also descended from Henry I, as a younger son, Simon de Montfort attracted little public attention during his youth, and the date of birth remains unknown. He is first mentioned when his mother made a grant to him in 1217, as a boy, Montfort accompanied his parents during his fathers campaigns against the Cathars. He was with his mother at the Siege of Toulouse in 1218, in addition to Amaury, Simon had another older brother, Guy, who was killed at the siege of Castelnaudary in 1220. As a young man, Montfort probably took part in the Albigensian Crusades of the early 1220s and he and Amaury both took part in the Barons Crusade. In 1229 the two surviving brothers came to an arrangement with King Henry whereby Simon gave up his rights in France and Amaury gave up his rights in England. As Lord of Leicester, he expelled the small Jewish community from Leicester in 1231 and they moved to the eastern suburbs, which were controlled by Montforts great-aunt Margaret, Countess of Winchester. It was also a strategy to enhance his popularity in his new domains by banishing the practice of usury, Montfort became a favourite of King Henry III and even issued a charter as Earl of Leicester in 1236, despite having not yet been granted the title. In that same year Simon tried to get Joan, Countess of Flanders to marry him, the idea of an alliance between the rich County of Flanders and a close associate of Henry III of England did not sit well with the French crown. The French Queen Dowager Blanche of Castile convinced Joan to marry Thomas II of Savoy instead, in January 1238, Montfort married Eleanor of England, daughter of King John and Isabella of Angoulême and sister of King Henry III. While this marriage took place with the Kings approval, the act itself was performed secretly and without consulting the great barons, as a marriage of such importance warranted
8.
Peter de Montfort
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Peter de Montfort of Beaudesert Castle was an English magnate, soldier and diplomat. He is the first person recorded as having presided over Parliament as a parlour or prolocutor and he was one of those elected by the barons to represent them during the constitutional crisis with Henry III in 1258. He was later a supporter of Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester. Both he and Simon de Montfort were slain at the Battle of Evesham on 4 August 1265, Peter de Montfort was the son of Thurstan de Montfort by a daughter of William I de Cantilupe of Aston Cantilupe, Warwickshire, Steward of the Household to King John. It is thought to have been Peter de Montfort who walled the inner bailey in stone, in 1236 he made a pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostella in the company of another of his uncles, William II de Cantilupe. In 1242 he attended Henry III on an expedition to Poitou, at some earlier date, he took part in a prohibited tournament at Cambridge, as a result of which the King took his lands from him, they were restored in 1245. Beaudesert was only nine miles from Kenilworth, which from 1244 on was the base of Simon de Montfort, according to Carpenter, it was likely this proximity which drew Montfort into the Earls circle. He attested a number of the Earls charters, and in the autumn of 1248 was in his retinue while the Earl was Seneschal in Gascony. He had returned to England by 1251, when he was given custody of Horston Castle in Derbyshire, in April 1258 he and Simon de Montfort were among the seven magnates who revolted against Henry III. He and the Earl were also among the magnates who drew up plans for reform. In the autumn of 1259 he was with the King and Queen when they travelled to France to arrange a peace with Louis IX, in the same year he was named an executor of Simon de Montforts will. He took part with other barons in attacking Worcester, which fell on 28 February 1263 after several assaults, a temporary peace between the King and the barons was arranged in July of that year, and Montfort was given charge of Corfe Castle and Shirburn Castle. Simon de Montfort had left England after Henry IIIs return to power, in March 1264 civil war again broke out, and Peter de Montfort sided with Simon de Montfort against the King. On 5 April the castle was retaken by the King, and Peter de Montfort and his sons were taken prisoner and they were released after Simon de Montforts victory at the Battle of Lewes. During the subsequent dominance of Simon de Montfort, Peter de Montfort became one of a nine-member council forced upon the King in June 1264, thereafter he played a principal role in the government of the county. On 11 September he was appointed one of the envoys who negotiated the reformation of the English government in the presence of Louis IX of France, on 16 November he and his heirs were granted the manor of Garthorpe, Leicestershire. On 20 December he was granted custody of Whittington Castle and Hereford Castle and he accompanied Simon de Montfort when the latter journeyed into Wales, and was joint keeper of the royal seal during that time. He was with Simon de Montfort in his campaign, and was slain with him at the Battle of Evesham on 4 August 1265
9.
Battle of Lewes
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The Battle of Lewes was one of two main battles of the conflict known as the Second Barons War. It took place at Lewes in Sussex, on 14 May 1264 and it marked the high point of the career of Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester, and made him the uncrowned King of England. However Edward pursued his quarry off the battlefield and left Henrys men exposed, Henry was forced to launch an infantry attack up Offham Hill where he was defeated by the barons men, defending the hilltop. The royalists fled back to the castle and priory and the King was forced to sign the Mise of Lewes, Henry III was an unpopular monarch due to his autocratic style, displays of favouritism and his refusal to negotiate with his barons. The barons eventually imposed a constitutional reform known as the Provisions of Oxford upon Henry that called for a meeting led by Simon de Montfort to discuss matters of government. Henry sought to escape the restrictions of the provisions and applied to Louis IX of France to arbitrate in the dispute, Louis agreed with Henry and annulled the provisions. Montfort was angered by this and rebelled against the King along with barons in the Second Barons War. The war was not initially openly fought, each side toured the country to support for their army. By May the Kings force had reached Lewes where they intended to halt for a while to allow reinforcements to reach them. The King encamped at St. Pancras Priory with a force of infantry, de Montfort approached the King with the intention of negotiating a truce or failing that to draw him into open battle. The King rejected the negotiations and de Montfort moved his men from Fletching to Offam Hill, the royalist army was up to twice the size of de Montforts. The barons held the ground, overlooking Lewes and had ordered their men to wear white crosses as a distinguishing emblem. The baronial forces commenced the battle with a dawn attack on foragers sent out from the royalist forces. The King then made his move, Edward led a cavalry charge against Seagraves Londoners, placed on the left of the baronial line, that caused them to break and run to the village of Offham. Edward pursued his foe for some four miles, leaving the King unsupported, Henry was forced to launch an attack with his centre and right divisions straight up Offham Hill into the baronial line which awaited them at the defensive. Cornwalls division faltered almost immediately but Henrys men fought on until compelled to retreat by the arrival of de Montforts men that had held as the baronial reserve. The Kings men were forced down the hill and into Lewes where they engaged in a retreat to the castle. The King was forced to sign the so-called Mise of Lewes, though the document has not survived, it is clear that Henry was forced to accept the Provisions of Oxford, while Prince Edward remained a hostage of the barons
10.
Siege of Kenilworth
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The Siege of Kenilworth was a six-month siege on the Kenilworth Castle and a battle of the Second Barons War. The siege was a part of an English civil war fought from 1264 to 1267 by the forces of Simon de Montfort against the Royalist forces led by Prince Edward, the siege was one of few castle attacks to take place during the war. The forces of King Henry III had defeated the forces of Simon de Montfort at the Battle of Evesham in August 1265, de Montfort was killed during the engagement, and his son agreed to surrender that December at Northampton. De Montfort agreed to surrender Kenilworth, the refuge of the Baron loyalists, however, the forces at Kenilworth rejected these terms, first in December 1265, and again in March 1266, the second time by removing the hand of the Kings envoy. The Castle of Kenilworths structure was unique and contributed to the longevity of the siege, the castle was a formidable structure due to its heavy defences. The most notable defence was a dam to the south of the castle, across which a causeway led from the entrance to the bailey, behind the dam was an artificial lake along the south and west sides of the castle, protecting it from a land approach. Ditches along the side and a second pool on the east side of the causeway extended the water protection to surround the castle. The feudal summons for the siege was pushed back from December 1265, from that point on, the siege occurred in earnest. The castle’s garrison was large, over a thousand, usually estimated at twelve hundred men, the attack on Kenilworth Castle began on 21 June. It was the largest siege to occur in England. The royal forces tried all manners of devices, numerous stone-throwing devices, presumably trebuchets, were brought to the siege, as well as turres ligneas, or wooden towers. An ursus or bear was built, with compartments for archers. Barges were sent from Chester to attempt an attack via the lake, and accepted the terms of the Dictum of Kenilworth
11.
Edward I
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Edward I, also known as Edward Longshanks and the Hammer of the Scots, was King of England from 1272 to 1307. He spent much of his reign reforming royal administration and common law, through an extensive legal inquiry, Edward investigated the tenure of various feudal liberties, while the law was reformed through a series of statutes regulating criminal and property law. Increasingly, however, Edwards attention was drawn towards military affairs, the first son of Henry III, Edward was involved early in the political intrigues of his fathers reign, which included an outright rebellion by the English barons. In 1259, he sided with a baronial reform movement. After reconciliation with his father, however, he remained throughout the subsequent armed conflict. After the Battle of Lewes, Edward was hostage to the rebellious barons, Montfort was defeated at the Battle of Evesham in 1265, and within two years the rebellion was extinguished. With England pacified, Edward joined the Ninth Crusade to the Holy Land, the crusade accomplished little, and Edward was on his way home in 1272 when he was informed that his father had died. Making a slow return, he reached England in 1274 and was crowned at Westminster on 19 August, after suppressing a minor rebellion in Wales in 1276–77, Edward responded to a second rebellion in 1282–83 with a full-scale war of conquest. After a successful campaign, Edward subjected Wales to English rule, built a series of castles and towns in the countryside, next, his efforts were directed towards Scotland. Initially invited to arbitrate a dispute, Edward claimed feudal suzerainty over the kingdom. In the war followed, the Scots persevered, even though the English seemed victorious at several points. At the same there were problems at home. In the mid-1290s, extensive military campaigns required high levels of taxation and these crises were initially averted, but issues remained unsettled. When the King died in 1307, he left to his son, Edward II, Edward I was a tall man for his era, hence the nickname Longshanks. He was temperamental, and this, along with his height, made him an intimidating man, nevertheless, he held the respect of his subjects for the way he embodied the medieval ideal of kingship, as a soldier, an administrator and a man of faith. The Edict remained in effect for the rest of the Middle Ages, Edward was born at the Palace of Westminster on the night of 17–18 June 1239, to King Henry III and Eleanor of Provence. Among his childhood friends was his cousin Henry of Almain, son of King Henrys brother Richard of Cornwall, Henry of Almain would remain a close companion of the prince, both through the civil war that followed, and later during the crusade. Edward was in the care of Hugh Giffard – father of the future Chancellor Godfrey Giffard – until Bartholomew Pecche took over at Giffards death in 1246, there were concerns about Edwards health as a child, and he fell ill in 1246,1247, and 1251
12.
Henry III of England
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Henry III, also known as Henry of Winchester, was King of England, Lord of Ireland and Duke of Aquitaine from 1216 until his death. The son of King John and Isabella of Angoulême, Henry assumed the throne when he was nine in the middle of the First Barons War. Cardinal Guala declared the war against the barons to be a religious crusade and Henrys forces, led by William Marshal, defeated the rebels at the battles of Lincoln. Henry promised to abide by the Great Charter of 1225, which limited royal power and his early rule was dominated first by Hubert de Burgh and then Peter des Roches, who re-established royal authority after the war. In 1230 the King attempted to reconquer the provinces of France that had belonged to his father. A revolt led by William Marshals son, Richard, broke out in 1232, following the revolt, Henry ruled England personally, rather than governing through senior ministers. He travelled less than previous monarchs, investing heavily in a handful of his palaces and castles. He married Eleanor of Provence, with whom he had five children, in a fresh attempt to reclaim his familys lands in France, he invaded Poitou in 1242, leading to the disastrous Battle of Taillebourg. After this, Henry relied on diplomacy, cultivating an alliance with Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II. Henry supported his brother Richard in his bid to become King of the Romans in 1256 and he planned to go on crusade to the Levant, but was prevented from doing so by rebellions in Gascony. The baronial regime collapsed but Henry was unable to reform a stable government, in 1263 one of the more radical barons, Simon de Montfort, seized power, resulting in the Second Barons War. Henry persuaded Louis to support his cause and mobilised an army, the Battle of Lewes occurred in 1264, where Henry was defeated and taken prisoner. Henrys eldest son, Edward, escaped captivity to defeat de Montfort at the Battle of Evesham the following year. Henry initially enacted a harsh revenge on the rebels, but was persuaded by the Church to mollify his policies through the Dictum of Kenilworth. Reconstruction was slow and Henry had to acquiesce to various measures, including suppression of the Jews, to maintain baronial. Henry died in 1272, leaving Edward as his successor and he was buried in Westminster Abbey, which he had rebuilt in the second half of his reign, and was moved to his current tomb in 1290. Some miracles were declared after his death but he was not canonised, Henry was born in Winchester Castle on 1 October 1207. He was the eldest son of King John and Isabella of Angoulême, little is known of Henrys early life
13.
Dictum of Kenilworth
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The Dictum of Kenilworth, issued 31 October 1266, was a pronouncement designed to reconcile the rebels of the Barons War with the royal government of England. A group of rebels held out in the stronghold of Kenilworth Castle, however, a siege of the castle was started, but through papal intervention King Henry later entered on a more conciliatory path. A commission was appointed to draw up an arrangement that would be acceptable to both sides, the resulting Dictum of Kenilworth offered the rebels the right to buy back forfeited estates, at prices depending on their level of involvement in the rebellion. After initial resistance, the terms were eventually accepted, by the summer of 1267, the country was pacified, and this spirit of reconciliation would last until the 1290s. The Dictum of Kenilworth was later incorporated into the Statute of Marlborough, at the Battle of Lewes in 1264, the rebellious barons, led by Simon de Montfort, had defeated the royal army and taken King Henry III captive. For the next year, the reins of government were in Montforts hands, on 4 August 1265 Montfort faced an army led by Prince Edward and the powerful earl of Gloucester, who had recently defected to the royalist side, at the Battle of Evesham. The battle resulted in a royal victory, Montfort was killed. Part of the rebellious forces held out, however, and their stronghold was the virtually impregnable Kenilworth Castle, in the summer of 1266, a siege of the castle was initiated, but the effort proved futile. There were rumours that Montforts son Simon was planning an invasion of England from Normandy, and it was in this situation that the papal legate Ottobuono Fieschi exerted his influence, to make the king pursue a more conciliatory policy. In August, the king summoned a parliament at Kenilworth, where the siege was ongoing and he commissioned a number of earls, barons and bishops to draft a treaty of reconciliation. The commission was created by parliament appointing three bishops and three barons, who selected one more bishop, two earls, and three more barons. The final committee consisted of the bishops of Exeter, Bath and Wells, Worcester and St. Davids, the earls of Gloucester and Hereford and this committee was given until All Saints Day to come up with provisions for a settlement. The result, known as the Dictum of Kenilworth, was public on 31 October 1266. The primary point of the Dictum was the re-establishment of royal authority, the Provisions of Oxford, that had been forced on the king, were repudiated, and it was made clear that the appointment of ministers was entirely a royal prerogative. King Henry in turn reconfirmed Magna Carta and the Charter of the Forest, measures were taken to renounce the increasing veneration of the fallen Simon de Montfort, whom some were already starting to consider a martyr and a possible saint. The rebels had previously been disinherited, and their land taken into the kings hands. The Dictum instead extended a pardon, and restored land to their previous owners and it was traditional to value land at ten times its annual yield, and most of the rebels were subsequently fined at half of this amount, five times the annual yield of their lands. Robert Ferrers, Earl of Derby, was singled out in particular for his involvement in the rebellion
14.
Earl of Leicester
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The title Earl of Leicester was created in the 12th century in the Peerage of England, and is currently a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom, created in 1837. The title was first created for Robert de Beaumont, but he always used his French title of Count of Meulan. Three generations of his descendants, all also named Robert, called themselves Earls of Leicester, the Beaumont male line ended with the death of the Fourth Earl. His property was split between his two sisters, with Simon IV de Montfort, the son of the eldest sister, acquiring Leicester, de Montfort however was never formally recognized as earl, due to the antipathy between France and England at that time. His second son, Simon V de Montfort, did succeed in taking possession of the earldom and he is the Simon de Montfort who became so prominent during the reign of Henry III. He was killed at the Battle of Evesham in 1265, and his lands, in 1267 the title was created a second time and granted to the kings youngest son Edmund Crouchback. In 1276 he also became Earl of Lancaster, and the titles became united, crouchbacks son Thomas lost the earldom when he was executed for treason in 1322, but a few years later it was restored to his younger brother Henry. Henrys son Henry of Grosmont left only two daughters, and his estate was divided between them, the eldest daughter Matilda receiving the earldom, which was held by her husband William V of Holland. Matilda, however, soon died, and the passed to John of Gaunt, husband of her younger sister, Blanche. Both the dukedom and the earldom were inherited by John of Gaunts son, Henry Bolingbroke, the properties associated with the earldom became part of what was later called the Duchy of Lancaster. In 1564 the earldom was created for Queen Elizabeth Is favourite. Since Dudley died without heirs, the title became extinct at his death, the title was again created in 1618 for Robert Sidney, his nephew. Along with the earldom Robert Sidney was granted the title of Viscount Lisle on 4 May 1605. The Sidneys retained the titles until the death of the seventh Earl in 1743, the title of earl was then recreated for Thomas Coke, but it became extinct when he, too, died without heirs. Townshend was a female-line great-great-great-grandson of Lady Lucy Sydney, daughter of the second Earl of the 1618 creation, the earldom became extinct yet again upon the death of his son, the third Marquess and second Earl, in 1855. The Coke family is descended from the judge and politician Sir Edward Coke. His great-great-great-grandson Thomas Coke was a landowner, politician and patron of arts, Lord Leicester began the construction of Holkham Hall in Norfolk. He married Margaret Tufton, 19th Baroness de Clifford and their only child Edward Coke, Viscount Coke, predeceased both his parents, without issue
15.
Kingdom of England
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In the early 11th century the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, united by Æthelstan, became part of the North Sea Empire of Cnut the Great, a personal union between England, Denmark and Norway. The completion of the conquest of Wales by Edward I in 1284 put Wales under the control of the English crown, from the accession of James I in 1603, the Stuart dynasty ruled England in personal union with Scotland and Ireland. Under the Stuarts, the kingdom plunged into war, which culminated in the execution of Charles I in 1649. The monarchy returned in 1660, but the Civil War had established the precedent that an English monarch cannot govern without the consent of Parliament and this concept became legally established as part of the Glorious Revolution of 1688. From this time the kingdom of England, as well as its state the United Kingdom. On 1 May 1707, under the terms of the Acts of Union 1707, the Anglo-Saxons referred to themselves as the Engle or the Angelcynn, originally names of the Angles. They called their land Engla land, meaning land of the English, by Æthelweard Latinized Anglia, from an original Anglia vetus, the name Engla land became England by haplology during the Middle English period. The Latin name was Anglia or Anglorum terra, the Old French, by the 14th century, England was also used in reference to the entire island of Great Britain. The standard title for all monarchs from Æthelstan until the time of King John was Rex Anglorum, Canute the Great, a Dane, was the first king to call himself King of England. In the Norman period Rex Anglorum remained standard, with use of Rex Anglie. The Empress Matilda styled herself Domina Anglorum, from the time of King John onwards all other titles were eschewed in favour of Rex or Regina Anglie. In 1604 James VI and I, who had inherited the English throne the previous year, the English and Scottish parliaments, however, did not recognise this title until the Acts of Union of 1707. The kingdom of England emerged from the unification of the early medieval Anglo-Saxon kingdoms known as the Heptarchy, East Anglia, Mercia, Northumbria, Kent, Essex, Sussex. The Viking invasions of the 9th century upset the balance of power between the English kingdoms, and native Anglo-Saxon life in general, the English lands were unified in the 10th century in a reconquest completed by King Æthelstan in 927 CE. During the Heptarchy, the most powerful king among the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms might become acknowledged as Bretwalda, the decline of Mercia allowed Wessex to become more powerful. It absorbed the kingdoms of Kent and Sussex in 825, the kings of Wessex became increasingly dominant over the other kingdoms of England during the 9th century. In 827, Northumbria submitted to Egbert of Wessex at Dore, in 886, Alfred the Great retook London, which he apparently regarded as a turning point in his reign. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle says that all of the English people not subject to the Danes submitted themselves to King Alfred, asser added that Alfred, king of the Anglo-Saxons, restored the city of London splendidly
16.
Richard, 1st Earl of Cornwall
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Richard, second son of John, King of England, was the nominal Count of Poitou, Earl of Cornwall and King of Germany. He was born 5 January 1209 at Winchester Castle, the son of John, King of England. Richards revenues from Cornwall helped make him one of the wealthiest men in Europe, though he campaigned on King Henrys behalf in Poitou and Brittany, and served as regent three times, relations were often strained between the brothers in the early years of Henrys reign. Richard rebelled against him three times, and had to be bought off with lavish gifts, in 1225 Richard traded with Gervase de Tintagel, swapping the land of Merthen for Tintagel Castle. It has been suggested that a castle was built on the site by Richard in 1233 to establish a connection with the Arthurian legends that were associated by Geoffrey of Monmouth with the area. The castle was built in a more old-fashioned style for the time to make it more ancient. Richard hoped that, in way, he could gain the Cornish peoples trust. The castle itself held no real strategic value, sidney Toy, however, has suggested an earlier period of construction for the castle. Richard became stepfather to Isabels six children from her first husband, in that same year he acquired his main residence, Wallingford Castle in Berkshire, and spent much money on developing it. He had other favoured properties at Marlow and Cippenham in Buckinghamshire, Isabel and Richard had four children, of whom only their son, Henry of Almain, survived to adulthood. Richard opposed Simon de Montfort, and rose in rebellion in 1238 to protest against the marriage of his sister, Eleanor, once again he was placated with rich gifts. When Isabel was on her deathbed in 1240, she asked to be buried next to her first husband at Tewkesbury, as a pious gesture, however, he sent her heart to Tewkesbury. Later that year Richard departed for the Holy Land, leading the second host of crusaders to arrive during the Barons Crusade and he fought no battles but managed to negotiate for the release of prisoners and the burials of crusaders killed at a battle in Gaza in November 1239. He also refortified Ascalon, which had been demolished by Saladin, on his return from the Holy Land, Richard visited his sister Isabella, the empress of Frederick II. After the birth of Prince Edward in 1239, provisions were made in case of the kings death, to keep him from becoming discontented King Henry and Queen Eleanor brought up the idea of a marriage with Eleanors sister Sanchia shortly after his return on 28 January 1242. On his journey to the Holy Land, Richard had met her in Provence, Richard and Sanchia married at Westminster in November 1243. This marriage tied him closely to the royal party, Eleanor and Sanchias youngest sister Beatrice would marry Charles I of Naples, while their oldest sister Margaret had married Louis IX of France. The marriages of the kings of France and England, and their two brothers to the four sisters from Provence improved the relationship between the two countries, which led up to the Treaty of Paris, Richard was appointed count of Poitou some time before August 1225
17.
Robert de Ferrers, 6th Earl of Derby
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Robert de Ferrers, 6th Earl of Derby was an English nobleman. In 1249, at the age of 10, he married the seven-year-old Mary, daughter of Hugh XI of Lusignan Count of La Marche and this arranged marriage is an indication of Henrys high regard for Roberts father. William died in 1254, so that Robert became a knight and he and his estates became a ward of Prince Edward. In 1257, Edward sold the wardship to the queen and Peter of Savoy for 6000 marks, Robert came of age in 1260 and took possession of the vast estates he inherited. The first of these passed to him from his Norman ancestors, in addition, he received Chartley Castle in Staffordshire, and all Lancashire between the Ribble and the Mersey. This came from the estate of Ranulph de Blondeville, 4th Earl of Chester, whose sister, by careful management, the estate had become worth around £1500, which meant that the Ferrers family was among the wealthiest in the country. However the estate was crippled by charges arising from Williams death, firstly a third of its worth was accounted for by his mothers dower, which included the major asset of Chartley. Nearly half was supporting a debt of around £800 incurred by his father, to pay this he had taken a further loan, possibly from Jewish financiers in Worcester. Finally there was provision for his brother William and his wife Mary and it would seem that before taking his inheritance his only income had been the maritagium bestowed by King Henry. Unlike his predecessors, Robert was impetuous and violent, in part, perhaps and he was also unreliable and lacking in political sophistication. Almost as soon as he took control of his estate, he attacked the priory of Tutbury, in the early years, Robert had taken little interest in politics, perhaps because of his preoccupation with the estate. Nevertheless, he was acquainted with the reforms that were being pursued, and with Richard de Clare, Earl of Gloucester, and Simon de Montfort, friends of the family. When Montfort returned to England in 1263 to begin a rebellion against the king became known as the Second Barons War, Robert had to take sides. He is on record during May and June as taking the Three Castles—Grosmont, Skenfrith, and Whitecastle in South Wales, when in January 1264, Louis IX of France declared the Provisions of Oxford unlawful and invalid, further unrest followed. Robert first attacked Worcester in February 1264, sacking the Jewish quarter, plundering the religious and private houses and he carried away the bonds recording his loans, effectively ameliorating his debt problem. He then went on to join Simon de Montforts forces at Gloucester Castle, to Roberts extreme annoyance, Edward escaped, having made a truce with Henry de Montfort, Simons son. It would seem that the motives of Ferrers were less about support for reform than they were about hatred of Edward. The origins of this may well have been in the Ferrers familys long held claims on the estate of Peverel Castle through the marriage of Margaret Peverel to Robert the second earl
18.
Earl of Derby
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Earl of Derby is a title in the Peerage of England. The title was first adopted by Robert de Ferrers, 1st Earl of Derby under a creation of 1139 and it continued with the Ferrers family until the 6th Earl forfeited his property toward the end of the reign of Henry III and died in 1279. Most of the Ferrers property and, by a creation in 1337, the title merged in the Crown upon Henry IVs accession to the throne. It was created again for the Stanley family in 1485, Lord Derbys subsidiary titles are Baron Stanley of Bickerstaffe in the County Palatine of Lancaster, and Baron Stanley of Preston, in the County Palatine of Lancaster. The courtesy title of the heir apparent is Lord Stanley and they were at times one of the richest landowning families in England. The family seat is Knowsley Hall, near Liverpool, Merseyside, Ferrières in Normandy, the hometown of the de Ferrers family, was an important centre for iron and takes it name from the iron ore mines used during the Gallo-Roman period. Lord of Longueville, Normandy, and a Domesday Commissioner, he built Tutbury Castle, the Ferrers, lords of the barony of Ferrières in Normandy, were accompanied to England by three other families who were their underlords in France, the Curzons, the Baskervilles and the Levetts. Robert de Ferrers, 2nd Earl of Ferrières was created Earl of Derby by King Stephen in 1138 for his valiant conduct at the Battle of Northallerton and he was married to Hawise de Vitre and died in 1139. His son Robert de Ferrers, 2nd Earl of Derby became the earl and was married to Margaret Peverel. He founded Darley Abbey and Merevale Abbey and his son William de Ferrers, 3rd Earl of Derby was married to Sybil de Braose. He rebelled against King Henry II and was imprisoned at Caen and he died in the Crusades at the Siege of Acre. He was succeeded by his son William de Ferrers, 4th Earl of Derby who married Agnes de Kevelioc, daughter of Hugh de Kevelioc, through one line the descent of the Earls of Derby eventually gave rise to the Earls Ferrers. Laurence Shirley, 4th Earl Ferrers, was the only peer of the realm to be hanged for murder, another familial line takes in the Baron Ferrers of Chartley descent. The large estates which were taken from Robert in 1266 were given by Henry III to his son, Edmund Crouchback, John of Gaunt’s son and successor was Henry Bolingbroke, who acceded to the throne as Henry IV in 1399. The title Earl of Derby merged into the Crown, the Stanley family was descended from Ligulf of Aldithley, who was also the ancestor of the Audleys. One of his descendants married an heiress whose marriage portion included Stoneley, Sir Thomas Stanley served as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland and represented Lancashire in the House of Commons. In 1456 he was summoned to the House of Lords as Lord Stanley and his eldest son Thomas Stanley, 2nd Baron Stanley, married Lady Margaret Beaufort, the mother of King Henry VII, and also Eleanor Nevill. The title of Earl of Derby was conferred on him in 1485 by his stepson Henry VII after the Battle of Bosworth Field where Thomas decided not to support King Richard III
19.
Tower of London
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The Tower of London, officially Her Majestys Royal Palace and Fortress of the Tower of London, is a historic castle located on the north bank of the River Thames in central London. It lies within the London Borough of Tower Hamlets, separated from the edge of the square mile of the City of London by the open space known as Tower Hill. It was founded towards the end of 1066 as part of the Norman Conquest of England. The White Tower, which gives the castle its name, was built by William the Conqueror in 1078 and was a resented symbol of oppression. The castle was used as a prison from 1100 until 1952, a grand palace early in its history, it served as a royal residence. As a whole, the Tower is a complex of buildings set within two concentric rings of defensive walls and a moat. There were several phases of expansion, mainly under Kings Richard the Lionheart, Henry III, the general layout established by the late 13th century remains despite later activity on the site. The Tower of London has played a prominent role in English history and it was besieged several times, and controlling it has been important to controlling the country. The Tower has served variously as an armoury, a treasury, a menagerie, the home of the Royal Mint, a record office. From the early 14th century until the reign of Charles II, in the absence of the monarch, the Constable of the Tower is in charge of the castle. This was a powerful and trusted position in the medieval period, in the late 15th century, the castle was the prison of the Princes in the Tower. Under the Tudors, the Tower became used less as a royal residence and this use has led to the phrase sent to the Tower. Executions were more commonly held on the notorious Tower Hill to the north of the castle, in the latter half of the 19th century, institutions such as the Royal Mint moved out of the castle to other locations, leaving many buildings empty. Anthony Salvin and John Taylor took the opportunity to restore the Tower to what was felt to be its medieval appearance, in the First and Second World Wars, the Tower was again used as a prison and witnessed the executions of 12 men for espionage. After the Second World War, damage caused during the Blitz was repaired, today, the Tower of London is one of the countrys most popular tourist attractions. Under the ceremonial charge of the Constable of the Tower, it is cared for by the charity Historic Royal Palaces and is protected as a World Heritage Site. The Tower was orientated with its strongest and most impressive defences overlooking Saxon London and it would have visually dominated the surrounding area and stood out to traffic on the River Thames. The castle is made up of three wards, or enclosures, the innermost ward contains the White Tower and is the earliest phase of the castle
20.
Welsh Marches
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The Welsh Marches is an imprecisely defined area along and around the border between England and Wales in the United Kingdom. The precise meaning of the term has varied at different periods, in modern usage, the Marches is often used to describe those English counties which lie along the border with Wales, particularly Shropshire and Herefordshire, and sometimes adjoining areas of Wales. Over the next few centuries, the Angles, Saxons and others gradually conquered and settled in eastern and southern Britain, the kingdom of Mercia, under Penda, became established around Lichfield, and initially established strong alliances with the Welsh kings. However, his successors sought to expand Mercia further westwards into what is now Cheshire, Shropshire and Herefordshire. Campaigns and raids from Powys then led, possibly around about AD820, to the building of Wats Dyke, the Dyke still exists, and can best be seen at Knighton, close to the modern border between England and Wales. In the centuries which followed, Offas Dyke largely remained the frontier between the Welsh and English, by the mid-eleventh century, Wales was united under Gruffudd ap Llywelyn of Gwynedd, until his death in 1063. The process took a century and was never permanently effective, the term March of Wales was first used in the Domesday Book of 1086. Over the next four centuries, Norman lords established mostly small marcher lordships between the Dee and Severn, and further west, military adventurers went to Wales from Normandy and elsewhere and after raiding an area of Wales, then fortified it and granted land to some of their supporters. One example was Bernard de Neufmarché, responsible for conquering and pacifying the Welsh kingdom of Brycheiniog, the precise dates and means of formation of the lordships varied, as did their size. By about AD1100 the March covered the areas which would later become Monmouthshire and much of Flintshire, Montgomeryshire, Radnorshire, Brecknockshire, Glamorgan, ultimately, this amounted to about two-thirds of Wales. During the period, the Marches were a society in every sense. Hundreds of small castles were built in the area in the 12th and 13th centuries, predominantly by Norman lords as assertions of power as well as defences against Welsh raiders. The area still contains Britains densest concentration of motte-and-bailey castles, the Marcher lords encouraged immigration from all the Norman-Angevin realms, and encouraged trade from fair haven ports like Cardiff. Peasants went to Wales in large numbers, Henry I encouraged Bretons, Flemings, Normans, many new towns were established, some such as Chepstow, Monmouth, Ludlow and Newtown becoming successful trading centres, and these tended also to be a focus of English settlement. At the same time, the Welsh continued to attack English soil, the Norman lords each had similar rights to the Welsh princes. The lordships were geographically compact and jurisdictionally separate one from another, Marcher lords ruled their lands by their own law—sicut regale as Gilbert de Clare, 7th Earl of Gloucester stated— whereas in England fief-holders were directly accountable to the king. However, Welsh law was used in the Marches in preference to English law. The Statute of Rhuddlan in 1284 followed the conquest of the Principality by Edward I of England
21.
Llywelyn ap Gruffudd
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The son of Gruffudd ap Llywelyn Fawr and grandson of Llywelyn the Great, he was the last sovereign prince of Wales before its conquest by Edward I of England. Llywelyn was the second of the four sons of Gruffudd, the eldest son of Llywelyn the Great, and Senana ferch Caradog, the eldest was Owain Goch ap Gruffudd and Llywelyn had two younger brothers, Dafydd ap Gruffudd and Rhodri ap Gruffudd. Llywelyn is thought to have been born around 1222 or 1223 and he is first heard of holding lands in the Vale of Clwyd around 1244. Following his grandfathers death in 1240, Llywelyns uncle, Dafydd ap Llywelyn, Llywelyns father, Gruffudd, and his brother, Owain, were initially kept prisoner by Dafydd, then transferred into the custody of King Henry III of England. Gruffudd died in 1244, from a fall trying to escape from his cell at the top of the Tower of London. The window from which he attempted to escape the Tower was bricked up and this freed Dafydd ap Llywelyns hand as King Henry could no longer use Gruffudd against him, and war broke out between him and King Henry in 1245. Llywelyn supported his uncle in the fighting that followed. Llywelyn and Owain came to terms with King Henry and in 1247, the terms they were forced to accept restricted them to Gwynedd Uwch Conwy, the part of Gwynedd west of the River Conwy, which was divided between them. Gwynedd Is Conwy, east of the river, was taken over by King Henry, when Dafydd ap Gruffudd came of age, King Henry accepted his homage and announced his intention to give him part of the already reduced Gwynedd. Llywelyn refused to accept this, and Owain and Dafydd formed an alliance against him and this led to the Battle of Bryn Derwin in June 1255. Llywelyn defeated Owain and Dafydd and captured them, thereby becoming sole ruler of Gwynedd Uwch Conwy, Llywelyn now looked to expand his area of control. The population of Gwynedd Is Conwy resented English rule, an appeal was made to Llywelyn, who, that November, crossed the River Conwy with an army, accompanied by his brother, Dafydd, whom he had released from prison. Rhys Fychan now accepted Llywelyn as overlord, but this caused problems for Llywelyn, Llywelyn restored his lands to Rhys, but the kings envoys approached Maredudd and offered him Rhyss lands if he would change sides. Maredudd paid homage to Henry in late 1257, by early 1258, Llywelyn was using the title Prince of Wales, first used in an agreement between Llywelyn and his supporters and the Scottish nobility associated with the Comyn family. The English Crown refused to recognise this title however, and in 1263, Llywelyns brother, Dafydd, on 12 December 1263 in the commote of Ystumanner, Gruffydd ap Gwenwynwyn did homage and swore fealty to Llywelyn. In return he was made a lord and the lands taken from him by Llywelyn about six years earlier were restored to him. In England, Simon de Montfort defeated the supporters at the Battle of Lewes in 1264, capturing the king. Llywelyn began negotiations with de Montfort, and in 1265, offered him 30,000 marks in exchange for a permanent peace, de Montfort was to die at the Battle of Evesham in 1265, a battle in which Llywelyn took no part
22.
Prince of Wales
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Prince of Wales was a title granted to princes born in Wales from the 12th century onwards, the term replaced the use of the word king. Since the 13th century, the title is granted to the apparent to the English or British monarch. The title is granted to the heir apparent as a personal honour or dignity. The title Earl of Chester is always given in conjunction with that of Prince of Wales, the Prince of Wales usually has other titles and honours. The wife of the Prince of Wales is entitled to the title Princess of Wales, Prince Charless first wife, Diana, used that title but his second wife, Camilla, uses only the title Duchess of Cornwall because the other title has become so popularly associated with Diana. The Prince of Wales is the heir apparent of the monarch of the United Kingdom, no formal public role or responsibility has been legislated by Parliament or otherwise delegated to him by law or custom, either as heir apparent or as Prince of Wales. He has also represented the Queen and the United Kingdom overseas at state, for most of the post-Roman period, Wales was divided into several smaller states. Before the Norman conquest of England, the most powerful Welsh ruler at any time was generally known as King of the Britons. In the 12th and 13th centuries, this evolved into Prince of Wales. In Latin, the new title was Princeps Walliae, and in Welsh it was Tywysog Cymru, the literal translation of Tywysog is leader. Only a handful of native princes had their claim to the overlordship of Wales recognised by the English Crown, the first known to have used such a title was Owain Gwynedd, adopting the title Prince of the Welsh around 1165 after earlier using rex Waliae. In 1240, the title was inherited by his son Dafydd ap Llywelyn. Instead he styled himself as Prince of Wales around 1244, the first Welsh prince to do so, in 1246, his nephew Llywelyn ap Gruffudd succeeded to the throne of Gwynedd, and used the style as early as 1258. In 1267, with the signing of the Treaty of Montgomery, three Welshmen, however, claimed the title of Prince of Wales after 1283. The first was Madog ap Llywelyn, a member of the house of Gwynedd and his revolt was suppressed, however, after the Battle of Maes Moydog in March 1295, and the prince was imprisoned in London. It is Owain Glyndŵr, however, whom many Welsh people regard as being the last native Prince, on 16 September 1400, he was proclaimed Prince of Wales by his supporters, and held parliaments at Harlech Castle and elsewhere during his revolt, which encompassed all of Wales. It was not until 1409 that his revolt in quest of Welsh independence was suppressed by Henry IV. However, the story may well be apocryphal, as it can only be traced to the 16th century, and, in the time of Edward I, the English aristocracy spoke Norman French, not English
23.
Gloucester
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Gloucester is a city and district in southwest England, the county city of Gloucestershire. Gloucester lies close to the Welsh border, on the River Severn, Gloucester was founded in AD97 by the Romans under Emperor Nerva as Colonia Glevum Nervensis, and was granted its first charter in 1155 by King Henry II. Economically, the city is dominated by the industries, and has a strong financial and business sector. The origins of the name Gloucester can be traced to Caerloyw in the modern Welsh, there are various appellations in history such as Caer Glow, Gleawecastre, Gleucestre as an early British settlement is not confirmed by direct evidence. However, Gloucester was the Roman municipality of Colonia Nervia Glevensium, or Glevum, parts of the walls can be traced, and a number of remains and coins have been found, though inscriptions are scarce. In Historia Brittonum, an account of the early rulers of Britain, Vortigerns grandfather. Part of the foundations of Roman Gloucester can be today in Eastgate Street, while Roman tombstones. After the withdrawal on the Roman Empire in the late 4th Century the town returned to the control of Celtic Dubonni tribe. By the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Gloucester is shown as part of Wessex from the Battle of Deorham in 577 until 584, Gloucester was captured by the Saxons in 577. In the early 10th century the remains of Saint Oswald were brought to a church in Gloucester. The core street layout is thought to date back to the reign of Ethelfleda in late Saxon times. In 1051 Edward the Confessor held court at Gloucester and was threatened there by a led by Godwin, Earl of Wessex. A unique coin, dated to 1077–80, was discovered, just north of the city and it features the name of the moneyer Silacwine and its place of minting. The Portable Antiquities Scheme said that, until the coin was discovered, after the Norman Conquest, William Rufus made Robert Fitzhamon the first baron or overlord of Gloucester. Fitzhamon had a base at Cardiff Castle, and for the succeeding years the history of Gloucester was closely linked to that of Cardiff. During the Anarchy, Gloucester was a centre of support for the Empress Matilda who was supported in her claim to the throne by her half-brother, Fitzhamons grandson, Robert, 1st Earl of Gloucester. The story of the Anarchy is vividly told in a series of paintings by William Burges at the Castle. King Henry II granted Gloucester its first charter in 1155, which gave the burgesses the same liberties as the citizens of London, a a second charter of Henry II gave them freedom of passage on the River Severn
24.
Simon VI de Montfort
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Simon de Montfort the younger or Simon VI de Montfort was the second son of Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester and Eleanor of England. His father and his elder brother Henry were killed at the Battle of Evesham in August 1265. The younger Simon had been slow to bring his forces from London, and had them and their banners captured by Prince Edward. The younger Simon came to Evesham just in time to see his fathers head atop a pike, the younger Simon tried to raise a rebellion in Lincolnshire, but this had petered out by Christmas. He and his younger brother Guy escaped to France and Italy, in 1271 they discovered and murdered their cousin Henry of Almain at the church in Viterbo, Simon died later that year from Tuscan fever at Siena, cursed by God, a wanderer and a fugitive
25.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
26.
Kenilworth
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Kenilworth is a town and civil parish in Warwickshire, England, about 5 miles south-west of the centre of Coventry,5 miles north of Warwick and 90 miles north-west of London. The town is on Finham Brook, a tributary of the River Sowe, the 2011 Census recorded a parish population of 22,413. Kenilworth is notable for the ruins of Kenilworth Castle. Other sights include the ruins of Kenilworth Abbey in Abbey Fields park, St Nicholas Parish Church, a settlement existed at Kenilworth by the time of the Domesday Book of 1086, which records it as Chinewrde meaning farm of a woman named Cynehild. Geoffrey de Clinton initiated the building of an Augustinian priory in 1122, the priory was raised to the rank of abbey in 1450 and suppressed in the Dissolution of the Monasteries in the 1530s. Thereafter the abbey grounds next to the castle, were common land in exchange for common land that Robert Dudley. Only a few walls and a barn of the original abbey survive. Just off Coventry Road in Kenilworth is a called the Parliament Piece. This Parliament led to the Dictum of Kenilworth, a settlement that offered the rebels a way of recovering the lands that the Crown had seized from them, One copy of the Dictum is endorsed in castris apud Kenilworth — in the camp at Kenilworth. Members of the public have access to Parliament Piece, which is owned by the Open Spaces Society. Geoffrey de Clinton had a park created near Kenilworth. In 1488 Ralph, abbot of Kenilworth Abbey had 40 acres of land near Redfern northwest of the town emparked as Duck Park, by about 1540 there were eight deer parks near Kenilworth. Two were near Rudfen, as well as Duck Park there was a 30-acre park that was called Little Park in 1581, was owned by Robert Briscoe in 1649 and was still called Briscoes Park in 1785. One of the eight deer parks, The Chase, can still be traced, in about 1414 Henry V had le plesans en marais — The Pleasuance in the Marsh — built about 0.5 miles west of the castle. This was a banqueting house surrounded by a moated earthwork about 600 feet by about 500 feet that 15th century kings used instead of the castles state apartments. In the 16th century Henry VIII had the house demolished. The mere was drained in 1649 but The Pleasance earthworks survive and are a Scheduled Monument, elizabeth I visited Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester at Kenilworth Castle several times, the last of which was in 1575. Dudley entertained the Queen with pageants and banquets that cost some £1,000 per day, presenting diversions, Warwick District Council owns and manages land across the Coventry Road at Tainters Hill
27.
River Avon, Warwickshire
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The River Avon or Avon /ˈeɪvən/ is a river in central England. Flowing generally southwestwards, it is a major tributary of the River Severn. It is also known as the Warwickshire Avon or Shakespeares Avon, beginning in Northamptonshire, the river flows through or adjoining the counties of Leicestershire, Northamptonshire, Warwickshire, Worcestershire and Gloucestershire, near the Cotswold Hills area. Notable towns it flows through include Rugby, Stratford-upon-Avon, Evesham, Pershore and Tewkesbury and it has traditionally been divided since 1719 into the Lower Avon, below Evesham, and the Upper Avon, from Evesham to above Stratford-upon-Avon. Improvements to aid navigation began in 1635, and a series of locks and weirs made it possible to reach Stratford, the Upper Avon was tortuous and prone to flooding, and was abandoned as a means of navigation in 1877. The Lower Avon struggled on, and never closed, although it was only navigable below Pershore by 1945. Restoration of the river as a navigable waterway began in 1950. The upper river was a daunting task, as most of the locks. Work began in 1965 on the construction of nine new locks and 17 miles of river, using volunteer labour. The Avon connects with the Stratford-upon-Avon Canal in the centre of Stratford, plans to extend the navigable river to provide a link with the Grand Union Canal at either Warwick or Leamington Spa have met with some opposition. Avon derives from the British language abona, river, which survives as a number of other English and Scottish river names. The source of the Avon is from a spring near the village of Naseby in Northamptonshire, for the first few miles of its length between Welford and the Dow Bridge on Watling Street, it forms the border between Northamptonshire and Leicestershire. On this section, it has been dammed to create Stanford Reservoir, the river has a total length of 85 miles and a catchment size of 1,032 square miles. The Avons tributaries include the Rivers Leam, Stour, Sowe, Dene, Arrow, Swift, Isbourne and Swilgate as well as many minor streams, a long distance footpath has been created which follows the river from its source to the River Severn at Tewkesbury. The route is marketed as Shakespeares Avon Way, and is 88 miles long and it uses existing footpaths and tracks to stay as close to the river as is reasonably possible. Before the last Ice Age about 50,000 years ago, during the Wolstonian glacial period, ice advanced into the Midlands from the north, east and west blocking the flow of the Avon to its former confluence with the Trent. The waters were thus trapped, on the north, east and west by the glacier, and by the Cotswolds to the south, resulting in the formation of a glacial lake. At its maximum, it is considered that this glacial lake covered the whole of Warwickshire and was over 200 feet deep
28.
Wales
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Wales is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and the island of Great Britain. It is bordered by England to the east, the Irish Sea to the north and west, and it had a population in 2011 of 3,063,456 and has a total area of 20,779 km2. Wales has over 1,680 miles of coastline and is mountainous, with its higher peaks in the north and central areas, including Snowdon. The country lies within the temperate zone and has a changeable. Welsh national identity emerged among the Celtic Britons after the Roman withdrawal from Britain in the 5th century, Llywelyn ap Gruffudds death in 1282 marked the completion of Edward I of Englands conquest of Wales, though Owain Glyndŵr briefly restored independence to Wales in the early 15th century. The whole of Wales was annexed by England and incorporated within the English legal system under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542, distinctive Welsh politics developed in the 19th century. Welsh Liberalism, exemplified in the early 20th century by Lloyd George, was displaced by the growth of socialism, Welsh national feeling grew over the century, Plaid Cymru was formed in 1925 and the Welsh Language Society in 1962. Established under the Government of Wales Act 1998, the National Assembly for Wales holds responsibility for a range of devolved policy matters, two-thirds of the population live in south Wales, mainly in and around Cardiff, Swansea and Newport, and in the nearby valleys. Now that the countrys traditional extractive and heavy industries have gone or are in decline, Wales economy depends on the sector, light and service industries. Wales 2010 gross value added was £45.5 billion, over 560,000 Welsh language speakers live in Wales, and the language is spoken by a majority of the population in parts of the north and west. From the late 19th century onwards, Wales acquired its popular image as the land of song, Rugby union is seen as a symbol of Welsh identity and an expression of national consciousness. The Old English-speaking Anglo-Saxons came to use the term Wælisc when referring to the Celtic Britons in particular, the modern names for some Continental European lands and peoples have a similar etymology. The modern Welsh name for themselves is Cymry, and Cymru is the Welsh name for Wales and these words are descended from the Brythonic word combrogi, meaning fellow-countrymen. The use of the word Cymry as a self-designation derives from the location in the post-Roman Era of the Welsh people in modern Wales as well as in northern England and southern Scotland. It emphasised that the Welsh in modern Wales and in the Hen Ogledd were one people, in particular, the term was not applied to the Cornish or the Breton peoples, who are of similar heritage, culture, and language to the Welsh. The word came into use as a self-description probably before the 7th century and it is attested in a praise poem to Cadwallon ap Cadfan c. 633. Thereafter Cymry prevailed as a reference to the Welsh, until c.1560 the word was spelt Kymry or Cymry, regardless of whether it referred to the people or their homeland. The Latinised forms of names, Cambrian, Cambric and Cambria, survive as lesser-used alternative names for Wales, Welsh
29.
Henry de Montfort
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Sir Henry de Montfort was the son of Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester, and with his father played an important role in the struggle of the barons against King Henry III. Henrys father was Simon de Montfort, the leader of the English Barons in the Second Barons War. Simon was the son of Simon de Montfort, 5th Earl of Leicester. Becoming a favorite of Henry III, the younger Simon de Montfort received permission to marry the kings sister Eleanor of England, in gratitude for the Kings permission and support, the first son was named Henry in his honor. In January 1264, Henry was one of the deputies sent to represent the barons at the Mise of Amiens, when the Mise was set aside he commanded a body of troops despatched to secure the Welsh border. On 28 February, he stormed and sacked Worcester, and soon afterwards took Gloucester, with his brother Guy de Montfort, he led the van at the battle of Lewes,14 May 1264. After the victory, on 28 May, he was constable of Dover Castle, Warden of the Cinque Ports. When the siege of Gloucester began in 1263, Henry de Montfort and Humphrey de Bohun, holding the King and Prince Edward as prisoners, Henry then accompanied his father to Evesham, where they intended to rendezvous with Henrys younger brother, Simon the younger de Montfort. Instead they met Prince Edward, who had ambushed the younger de Montforts army and then marched under its stolen Montfort banners to lure Henry, the final act was played out in a monstrous summer storm, such a downpour of rain, such thunder and lightning. The darkness was so profound, that though it was dinner-time those who sat down to eat could scarcely see the food before them. The first of the nobles to fall in battle was Henry de Montfort, first born son and heir, in view of his father, perished. Thus the whole weight of the battle fell upon the earl of Leicester and he stood the shock like a strong tower, but, surrounded by few followers, and overcome by numbers, he fell, and thus terminated an hereditary prowess, rendered famous by many glorious deeds. Henrys brother Simon arrived at Evesham in time to see their fathers head mounted on a spear, another brother, Guy de Montfort, was captured during the battle and imprisoned. Guy later escaped and joined the younger Simon in flight to Europe and they found fortune in the service of Charles of Anjou, and later avenged the father and brothers deaths by killing Henry of Almain, the nephew of the King, and their own cousin. This act taking place in a church, the brothers were excommunicated, as Count of Nola, Guy had two daughters, becoming in time an ancestor to several European Royal Families, including the British. Another brother Amaury de Montfort also fled to Italy, a cleric, he worked in the papacy before accompanying his sister Eleanor de Montfort to Wales for her marriage to Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, Prince of Wales. Captured by pirates in the employ of King Edward, the siblings were eventually released, Eleanor died on 19 June 1282 giving birth to Gwenllian of Wales. Amaury returned to the continent, worked as a cleric, attribution This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Norgate, Kate
30.
Roger de Leybourne
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Sir Roger de Leybourne was an English soldier and landowner. He was the son of another Sir Roger de Leybourne and his wife Eleanor, in 1199 when the elder Roger was still a minor his wardship was sold to Thornham for 300 marks. The elder Roger then joined the rebels at the start of the First Barons War in 1215, being captured in November at the siege of Rochester Castle, paying 250 marks for his release. After the death of the elder Roger some time before 1251 his son inherited seven Knights fees in Kent and Oxfordshire, as well as substantial debts, to atone for his crime he took the cross, and was pardoned by the king. In 1253 he was given the lands of Roger Connell in Kent, in 1257 he served in the army of Lord Edward as part of his campaign in Wales, and became part of an influential group of his supporters. He joined Edward in autumn 1259 when he allied with Simon de Montfort and he was part of Edwards retinue in 1260 when he and the Earl of Gloucester attempted to take London, and was one of those pardoned when Edward patched up his relationship with Henry III. In 1263 he along with other Marcher Lords arrested Peter of Aigueblanche, Bishop of Hertford, and seized Hereford, Gloucester and they were joined by Simon de Montfort, beginning the Second Barons War. They marched into Kent, attacking the Cinque Ports, by August 1263 the Marcher Lords were in negotiations with Edward, having been unnerved by de Montfords plan to ally with the Welsh, and they swore an oath to the king on the 18th. From this point onwards Leybourne was a servant of the king. In September he was made Steward of the Kings Household, Keeper of Kent, Surrey and Sussex, in October 1263 he was one of those who sealed the agreement between Henry and Louis IX, and travelled with the king to France at the end of the year. During the second half of the conflict with de Montfort Leybourne fought at the Battle of Northampton and as a defender at the siege of Rochester Castle, where he was badly wounded. He fought at the Battle of Lewes with the marcher lords. When they failed to do so de Montfort sent an expedition to defeat them, which failed. In December 1264 he was given a safe conduct to visit the king, Leybourne subsequently fought at the Battle of Evesham, reportedly saving the kings life, and for the two years of conflict after Evesham served as Edwards principal lieutenant. In August 1265 he was keeper of Westmorland, in October he was given custody of Carlisle Castle, made High Sheriff of Cumberland. In November he fought the rebels in Kent, and in January 1266 he recaptured Sandwich, along with Edward he besieged and captured Winchelsea, fighting off rebels across the Thames in May. He was knighted in September, with the king ordering that he should be received everywhere ‘with due honour as the kings knight’ and he was also a member of the kings council, and appointed custodian of Nottingham Castle. During this period he was rewarded by the king with large amounts of land, including the village of Leeds, Kent, where he built a castle
31.
Parliament of England
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The Parliament of England was the legislature of the Kingdom of England. Over the centuries, the English Parliament progressively limited the power of the English monarchy which arguably culminated in the English Civil War, the Act of Union 1707 merged the English Parliament with the Parliament of Scotland to form the Parliament of Great Britain. When the Parliament of Ireland was abolished in 1801, its members were merged into what was now called the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Under a monarchical system of government, monarchs usually must consult, early kings of England had no standing army or police, and so depended on the support of powerful subjects. The monarchy had agents in every part of the country, however, under the feudal system that evolved in England following the Norman Conquest of 1066, the laws of the Crown could not have been upheld without the support of the nobility and the clergy. The former had economic and military bases of their own through major ownership of land. The Church was virtually a law unto itself in this period as it had its own system of law courts. In order to seek consultation and consent from the nobility and the clergy on major decisions. A typical Great Council would consist of archbishops, bishops, abbots, barons and earls, when this system of consultation and consent broke down, it often became impossible for government to function effectively. The most prominent instances of prior to the reign of Henry III are the disagreements between Thomas Becket and Henry II and between King John and the barons. Becket, who served as Archbishop of Canterbury between 1162 and 1170, was murdered following a long running dispute with Henry II over the jurisdiction of the Church. John, who was king from 1199 to 1216, aroused such hostility from many leading noblemen that they forced him to agree to Magna Carta in 1215, johns refusal to adhere to this charter led to civil war. The Great Council evolved into the Parliament of England, the term itself came into use during the early 13th century, deriving from the Latin and French words for discussion and speaking. The word first appears in documents in the 1230s. As a result of the work by historians G. O. Sayles and H. G. Richardson, during the 13th and 14th centuries, the kings began to call Knights of the Shire to meet when the monarch saw it as necessary. A notable example of this was in 1254 when sheriffs of counties were instructed to send Knights of the Shire to parliament to advise the king on finance, initially, parliaments were mostly summoned when the king needed to raise money through taxes. Following the Magna Carta this became a convention and this was due in no small part to the fact that King John died in 1216 and was succeeded by his young son Henry III. Leading peers and clergy governed on Henrys behalf until he came of age, among other things, they made sure that Magna Carta would be reaffirmed by the young king
32.
Winchester
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Winchester is a city and the county town of Hampshire, England. The city lies at the heart of the wider City of Winchester, a government district. It is situated 61 miles south-west of London and 13.6 miles from Southampton, at the time of the 2011 Census, Winchester had a population of 45,184. The wider City of Winchester district which includes such as Alresford. Winchester developed from the Roman town of Venta Belgarum, which in turn developed from an Iron Age oppidum. Winchesters major landmark is Winchester Cathedral, one of the largest cathedrals in Europe, with the distinction of having the longest nave and overall length of all Gothic cathedrals in Europe. The city is home to the University of Winchester and Winchester College, the area around Winchester has been inhabited since prehistoric times, with three Iron Age hillforts, Orams Arbour, St. Catherines Hill, and Worthy Down all in the nearby vicinity. In the Late Iron Age, an urban settlement type developed, known as an oppidum. It was overrun by the confederation of Gaulish tribes known as the Belgae sometime during the first century BCE and it seems to have been known as Wentā or Venta, from the Brittonic for town or meeting place. After the Roman conquest of Britain, the settlement served as the capital of the Belgae and was distinguished as Venta Belgarum, Venta of the Belgae. Although in the years of the Roman province it was of subsidiary importance to Silchester and Chichester. At the beginning of the century, Winchester was given protective stone walls. At around this time the city covered an area of 144 acres, there was a limited suburban area outside the walls. Like many other Roman towns however, Winchester began to decline in the fourth century. Ford identifies the community as the Cair Guinntguic listed by Nennius among the 28 cities of Britain in his History of the Britains, amid the Saxon invasions of Britain, cemeteries dating to the 6th and 7th centuries suggest a revival of settlement. The city became known as Wintan-ceastre in Old English, in 648, King Cenwalh of Wessex erected the Church of SS Peter and Paul, later known as the Old Minster. This became a cathedral in the 660s when the West Saxon bishopric was transferred from Dorchester-on-Thames, the citys first mint appears to date from this period. In the early tenth century there were two new establishments, the convent of Nunnaminster, founded by Alfreds widow Ealhswith
33.
Lincolnshire
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Lincolnshire is a county in the east of England. It also borders Northamptonshire in the south for just 20 yards, Englands shortest county boundary, the county town is Lincoln, where the county council has its headquarters. The ceremonial county of Lincolnshire is composed of the county of Lincolnshire. Therefore, part of the county is in the Yorkshire and the Humber region of England. The county is the second-largest of the English ceremonial counties and one that is predominantly agricultural in land use, the county is fifth largest of the two-tier counties, as the unitary authorities of North Lincolnshire and North East Lincolnshire are not included. The county can be broken down into a number of geographical sub-regions including, Lincolnshire derived from the merging of the territory of the ancient Kingdom of Lindsey with that controlled by the Danelaw borough of Stamford. For some time the county was called Lindsey, and it is recorded as such in the 11th-century Domesday Book. In 1888 when county councils were set up, Lindsey, Holland and these survived until 1974, when Holland, Kesteven, and most of Lindsey were unified into Lincolnshire. A local government reform in 1996 abolished Humberside, and the south of the Humber was allocated to the unitary authorities of North Lincolnshire. These two areas became part of Lincolnshire for ceremonial such as the Lord-Lieutenancy, but are not covered by the Lincolnshire police and are in the Yorkshire. The remaining districts of Lincolnshire are Boston, East Lindsey, Lincoln, North Kesteven, South Holland, South Kesteven and they are part of the East Midlands region. Lincolnshire is home to Woolsthorpe Manor, birthplace and home of Sir Isaac Newton and he attended The Kings School, Grantham and its library has preserved his signature, applied to a window sill when he was a teenager. Lincolnshire is an area, growing large amounts of wheat, barley, sugar beet. In South Lincolnshire, where the soil is rich in nutrients, some of the most common crops include potatoes, cabbages, cauliflowers. Most such companies are long gone, and Lincolnshire is no longer an engineering centre, however, as a result of the current economic climate some food production facilities have closed down, this has caused some reduction in the levels of migrant workers. The large number of people from Portugal is still obvious in the town of Boston. A coalition of Conservatives, Liberal Democrats and Independents currently controls Lincolnshire County Council, the Conservative Party comfortably controlled the County Council following the 2009 local elections, in which they increased their majority to 43 seats. The Labour Party lost a total of 15 seats including 7 in Lincoln, the Lincolnshire Independents gained a total of four seats, although one of their number moved to the Conservative group during 2010, increasing the number of Conservative seats to 61
34.
Kenilworth Castle
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Kenilworth Castle is located in the town of the same name in Warwickshire, England. Kenilworth has also played an important historical role, Kenilworth was also the scene of the removal of Edward II from the English throne, the French insult to Henry V in 1414, and the Earl of Leicesters lavish reception of Elizabeth I in 1575. The castle was built several centuries. Founded in the 1120s around a powerful Norman great tower, the castle was enlarged by King John at the beginning of the 13th century. Huge water defences were created by damming the streams. John of Gaunt spent lavishly in the late 14th century, turning the castle into a palace fortress designed in the latest perpendicular style. The Earl of Leicester then expanded the castle again, constructing new Tudor buildings. Kenilworth was partly destroyed by Parliamentary forces in 1649 to prevent it being used as a military stronghold, ruined, only two of its buildings remain habitable today. The castle became a tourist destination from the 18th century onwards, English Heritage has managed the castle since 1984. The castle is classed as a Grade I listed building and as a Scheduled Monument, the castle is built almost entirely from local new red sandstone. To the south-east of the castle lie the Brays, a corruption of the French word braie. Only earthworks and fragments of masonry remain of what was an extensive 13th-century barbican structure including a stone wall, the area now forms part of the car park for the castle. Beyond the Brays are the ruins of the Gallery Tower, a second gatehouse remodelled in the 15th century, the Gallery Tower originally guarded the 152-metre long, narrow walled-causeway that still runs from the Brays to the main castle. This causeway was called the Tiltyard, as it was used for tilting, or jousting, the Tiltyard causeway acted both as a dam and as part of the barbican defences. To the east of the Tiltyard is an area of marshy ground, originally flooded and called the Lower Pool. The Great Mere is now drained and forms a meadow, but would originally have been a lake covering around 100 acres. The outer bailey of Kenilworth Castle is usually entered through Mortimers Tower, today a modest ruin but originally a Norman stone gatehouse, the north side of the outer bailey wall was almost entirely destroyed during the slighting. The 12th-century great tower occupies the knoll itself and forms the north-east corner of the bailey, ruined during the slighting, the great tower is notable for its huge corner turrets, essentially hugely exaggerated Norman pilaster buttresses
35.
Henry de Bracton
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Henry of Bracton, also Henry de Bracton, also Henrici Bracton, or Henry Bratton also Henry Bretton was an English cleric and jurist. He is famous now for his writings on law, particularly De Legibus et Consuetudinibus Angliae and his ideas on mens rea, according to Bracton, it was only through the examination of a combination of action and intention that the commission of a criminal act could be established. He also wrote on kingship, arguing that a ruler should be called king only if he obtained and exercised power in a lawful manner, Plucknett describes Bracton in this way, Two generations after Ranulf de Glanvill we come to the flower and crown of English jurisprudence – Bracton. Bracton was born around 1210 in Devon and had a deal of preferment in the Church. He either derived from Bratton Fleming or Bratton Clovelly and it was only after his death that the family name appears as Bracton, during his life, he was known as Bratton, or Bretton. This originally may have been Bradton, meaning Broad Town, Bracton first appeared as a justice in 1245. From 1248 until his death in 1268 he was employed as a justice of the assize in the southwestern counties, especially Somerset, Devon. He was a member of the coram rege, also called the coram ipso rege and he retired from this in 1257, shortly before the meeting of the Mad Parliament in 1258 at Oxford. It is unknown whether his retirement was related to politics and his leaving coincided with the onset of the notorious Second Barons War in 1264. At that time Bracton was ordered to restore to the Treasury the large store of plea rolls that had been in his possession and he was also forced to surrender the large number of rolls from his predecessors Martin Pateshull and William Raleigh, also known as William de Raley. It cannot be determined whether he disgraced the King or the barons in this affair, the practical result was that his major work, De Legibus et Consuetudinibus Angliae, was left unfinished. Even so, it exists in four large volumes today and he continued to follow the assizes in the southwest until 1267. Bracton apparently had access to the highest stations of Church and State, in 1259 he became the rector of the Devonshire parish of Combe-in-Teignhead and in 1261, the rector of Bideford. In 1264 he was made the archdeacon of Barnstaple and in the same year, in 1245 he enjoyed a dispensation enabling him to hold three ecclesiastical benefices. He was buried in the nave of Exeter Cathedral, in front of an altar bearing his name and he had established a chantry for his soul that was endowed from the revenues of the Manor of Thorverton. Bracton chose the words of Ulpian to describe the legal profession, Ius dicitur ars boni et aequi, cuius merito quis nos sacerdotes appellat, Ulpian was an influential Roman jurist in the second century, whose writings were revered in medieval Europe. Bracton felt himself to be, metaphorically, a priest of the law, a priest forever in the order of Ulpian, Two legal predecessors directly influenced Bracton. The first was Martin de Pateshull, one of John of Englands clerks, who became justice of the bench in 1217, Pateshull was archdeacon of Norwich Cathedral and dean of St. Pauls Cathedral
36.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
