1.
American Civil War
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The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
2.
Currier and Ives
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Currier and Ives was a successful American printmaking firm headed by Nathaniel Currier and James Merritt Ives based in New York City from 1834 to 1907. The prolific firm produced prints from paintings by artists as black. Nathaniel Currier was born in Roxbury, Massachusetts on March 27,1813 and his parents Nathaniel and Hannah Currier were distant cousins who lived a humble and spartan life. Nathaniel worked a series of odd jobs to support the family and, at fifteen, he started became a lifelong career when he apprenticed in the Boston lithography shop of William. In 1833 at age twenty, he moved to Philadelphia to do work for M. E. D. Brown, an engraver and printer. Curriers early lithographs were issued under the name of Stodart & Currier, the two men specialized in job printing and made a variety of print products, including music manuscripts. Currier became dissatisfied with the economic return of their business venture. He set up alone, working as N. Currier, Lithographer until 1856. In 1835, he created a lithograph that illustrated a fire sweeping through New York Citys business district, the print of the Merchants Exchange sold thousands of copies in four days. He quickly gained a reputation as an accomplished lithographer, in 1840, he produced Awful Conflagration of the Steam Boat Lexington, which was so successful that he was given a weekly insert in the New York Sun. In this year, Curriers firm began to shift its focus from job printing to independent print publishing, the name Currier & Ives first appeared in 1857, when Currier invited the companys bookkeeper and accountant James Merritt Ives to become his partner. Ives was born on March 5,1824 in New York City and she was the sister-in-law of Nathaniels brother Charles Currier, and it was Charles who recommended Ives to his brother. Nathaniel Currier soon noticed Ivess dedication to his business, and his artistic knowledge, the younger man quickly became the general manager of the firm, handling the financial side of the business by modernizing the bookkeeping, reorganizing inventory, and streamlining the print process. Ives also helped Currier interview potential artists and craftsmen, in 1857, Currier made Ives a full partner. The firm Currier and Ives described itself as Publishers of Cheap, at least 7,500 lithographs were published in the firms 72 years of operation. Artists produced two to three new images every week for 64 years, producing more than a million prints by hand-colored lithography. For the original drawings, Currier & Ives employed or used the work of celebrated artists of the day including James E. Buttersworth, Charles R. Parsons, George Inness, Thomas Nast
3.
Stewart County, Tennessee
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Stewart County is a county located in the U. S. state of Tennessee. As of the 2010 census, the population was 13,324, Stewart County is home to Fort Donelson, the site of a Confederate stand against the Unions push up the Cumberland River during the Civil War. Stewart County was created in 1803 from a portion of Montgomery County, and was named for Duncan Stewart, during the Battle of Fort Donelson, the county seat, Dover, was burned by Union troops to prevent its capture by General Nathan B. Tobaccoport Saltpeter Cave was intensely mined for saltpeter, possibly during the War of 1812, Saltpeter is the main ingredient of gunpowder and was obtained by leaching the earth from the cave. This area fell under Union control in February 1862, early in the Civil War, according to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 493 square miles, of which 459 square miles is land and 34 square miles is water. The county lies in a section of the northwestern Highland Rim. The Cumberland River traverses the county, the Tennessee River provides the countys border with Henry County to the west. Federal and state agencies control nearly 44% of the land in the county, the population density was 27 people per square mile. There were 5,977 housing units at a density of 13 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 95. 27% White,1. 29% Black or African American,0. 61% Native American,1. 46% Asian,0. 05% Pacific Islander,0. 23% from other races, and 1. 10% from two or more races. 1. 00% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,23. 10% of all households were made up of individuals and 10. 80% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.49 and the family size was 2.91. In the county, the population was out with 23. 90% under the age of 18,7. 50% from 18 to 24,28. 40% from 25 to 44,25. 40% from 45 to 64. The median age was 39 years, for every 100 females there were 99.10 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 96.50 males, the median income for a household in the county was $32,316, and the median income for a family was $38,655. Males had an income of $31,106 versus $21,985 for females. The per capita income for the county was $16,302, about 10. 60% of families and 12. 40% of the population were below the poverty line, including 12. 90% of those under age 18 and 15. 60% of those age 65 or over. The county is part of Tennessees 8th congressional district, and traditionally votes Democratic, however, Stewart County has been trending Republican in recent presidential elections
4.
Henry County, Tennessee
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Henry County is a county located in the U. S. state of Tennessee. As of the 2010 census, the population was 32,330, the county is named for the Virginia orator Patrick Henry. Henry County comprises the Paris, TN Micropolitan Statistical Area, according to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 593 square miles, of which 562 square miles is land and 31 square miles is water. The population density was 55 people per square mile, there were 15,783 housing units at an average density of 28 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 89. 21% White,8. 96% Black or African American,0. 19% Native American,0. 28% Asian,0. 03% Pacific Islander,0. 39% from other races, and 0. 95% from two or more races. 1. 00% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,27. 00% of all households were made up of individuals and 12. 80% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.35 and the family size was 2.82. In the county, the population was out with 22. 20% under the age of 18,7. 60% from 18 to 24,26. 30% from 25 to 44,25. 70% from 45 to 64. The median age was 41 years, for every 100 females, there were 93.40 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.40 males, the median income for a household in the county was $30,169, and the median income for a family was $35,836. Males had an income of $27,849 versus $20,695 for females. The per capita income for the county was $15,855, about 10. 60% of families and 14. 30% of the population were below the poverty line, including 20. 10% of those under age 18 and 14. 30% of those age 65 or over
5.
Calloway County, Kentucky
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Calloway County is a county located in the U. S. state of Kentucky. As of the 2010 census, the population was 37,191, the county was founded in November 1822 and named for Colonel Richard Callaway, one of the founders of Boonesborough. Calloway County comprises the Murray, KY Micropolitan Statistical Area, as of July 18,2012 Calloway County is a moist county, the sale of alcohol in the county is prohibited, with the exception of the city of Murray. Calloway County has two school districts. Murray Independent Schools and Calloway County Schools, the Murray Independent Schools is made up of one elementary school, one middle school, and one high school. The Calloway County Schools are made up of one preschool, three schools, one middle school, and one high school. The elementary schools are called North Calloway Elementary, East Calloway Elementary, each elementary school has kids from grade kindergarten to fifth grade. The middle school has teens from grades sixth grade to eighth grade, and lastly the high school has teens from grades ninth to twelfth grade. Calloway County was created in 1822 from land taken from Hickman County, the courthouse was built in 1823. A fire at the courthouse in 1906 caused the almost complete destruction of the county records, Calloway county was named after Richard Callaway. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 411 square miles. The population density was 88 per square mile, there were 16,069 housing units at an average density of 42 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 93. 48% White,3. 56% Black or African American,0. 20% Native American,1. 33% Asian,0. 03% Pacific Islander,0. 46% from other races, and 0. 93% from two or more races. 1. 38% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,29. 70% of all households were made up of individuals and 11. 40% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.25 and the family size was 2.79. The age distribution was 18. 70% under the age of 18,19. 80% from 18 to 24,24. 60% from 25 to 44,21. 90% from 45 to 64, the median age was 34 years. The relatively large 18-to-24 population is due to the presence of Murray State University. For every 100 females there were 93.20 males, for every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.00 males
6.
Union (American Civil War)
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The Union was opposed by 11 southern slave states that formed the Confederate States, or the Confederacy. All of the Unions states provided soldiers for the U. S. Army, the Border states played a major role as a supply base for the Union invasion of the Confederacy. The Northeast provided the resources for a mechanized war producing large quantities of munitions and supplies. The Midwest provided soldiers, food, horses, financial support, Army hospitals were set up across the Union. Most states had Republican governors who energetically supported the war effort, the Democratic Party strongly supported the war in 1861 but in 1862 was split between the War Democrats and the anti-war element led by the Copperheads. The Democrats made major gains in 1862 in state elections. They lost ground in 1863, especially in Ohio, in 1864 the Republicans campaigned under the National Union Party banner, which attracted many War Democrats and soldiers and scored a landslide victory for Lincoln and his entire ticket. The war years were quite prosperous except where serious fighting and guerrilla warfare took place along the southern border, prosperity was stimulated by heavy government spending and the creation of an entirely new national banking system. The Union states invested a great deal of money and effort in organizing psychological and social support for soldiers wives, widows, orphans, and for the soldiers themselves. Most soldiers were volunteers, although after 1862 many volunteered to escape the draft, Draft resistance was notable in some larger cities, especially New York City with its massive anti-draft riots of 1863 and in some remote districts such as the coal mining areas of Pennsylvania. In the context of the American Civil War, the Union is sometimes referred to as the North, both then and now, as opposed to the Confederacy, which was the South. The Union never recognized the legitimacy of the Confederacys secession and maintained at all times that it remained entirely a part of the United States of America, in foreign affairs the Union was the only side recognized by all other nations, none of which officially recognized the Confederate government. The term Union occurs in the first governing document of the United States, the subsequent Constitution of 1787 was issued and ratified in the name not of the states, but of We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union. Union, for the United States of America, is repeated in such clauses as the Admission to the Union clause in Article IV. Even before the war started, the preserve the Union was commonplace. Using the term Union to apply to the non-secessionist side carried a connotation of legitimacy as the continuation of the political entity. In comparison to the Confederacy, the Union had a large industrialized and urbanized area, additionally, the Union states had a manpower advantage of 5 to 2 at the start of the war. Year by year, the Confederacy shrank and lost control of increasing quantities of resources, meanwhile, the Union turned its growing potential advantage into a much stronger military force
7.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
8.
Confederate States of America
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The Confederate States, officially the Confederate States of America, commonly referred to as the Confederacy, was a breakaway country of 11 secessionist slave states existing from 1861 to 1865. It was never recognized as an Independent country, although it achieved belligerent status by Britain. A new Confederate government was established in February 1861 before Lincoln took office in March, after the Civil War began in April, four slave states of the Upper South – Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina – also declared their secession and joined the Confederacy. The government of the United States rejected the claims of secession, the Civil War began with the April 12,1861, Confederate attack upon Fort Sumter, a Union fort in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. In spring 1865, after four years of fighting which led to an estimated 620,000 military deaths, all the Confederate forces surrendered. Jefferson Davis later lamented that the Confederacy had disappeared in 1865, Missouri and Kentucky were represented by partisan factions from those states, while the legitimate governments of those two states retained formal adherence to the Union. Also fighting for the Confederacy were two of the Five Civilized Tribes located in Indian Territory and a new, but uncontrolled, Confederate Territory of Arizona. Efforts by certain factions in Maryland to secede were halted by federal imposition of law, while Delaware, though of divided loyalty. A Unionist government in parts of Virginia organized the new state of West Virginia. With the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1,1863, the Union made abolition of slavery a war goal, as Union forces moved southward, large numbers of plantation slaves were freed. Many joined the Union lines, enrolling in service as soldiers, teamsters and laborers, the most notable advance was Shermans March to the Sea in late 1864. Much of the Confederacys infrastructure was destroyed, including telegraphs, railroads, plantations in the path of Shermans forces were severely damaged. Internal movement became increasingly difficult for Southerners, weakening the economy and these losses created an insurmountable disadvantage in men, materiel, and finance. Public support for Confederate President Jefferson Daviss administration eroded over time due to repeated military reverses, economic hardships, after four years of campaigning, Richmond was captured by Union forces in April 1865. Shortly afterward, Confederate General Robert E. Lee surrendered to Union General Ulysses S. Grant, President Davis was captured on May 10,1865, and jailed in preparation for a treason trial that was ultimately never held. The U. S. government began a process known as Reconstruction which attempted to resolve the political and constitutional issues of the Civil War. By 1877, the Compromise of 1877 ended Reconstruction in the former Confederate states, Confederate veterans had been temporarily disenfranchised by Reconstruction policy. The prewar South had many areas, the war left the entire region economically devastated by military action, ruined infrastructure
9.
Ulysses S. Grant
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Ulysses S. Grant was the 18th President of the United States. As Commanding General, Grant worked closely with President Abraham Lincoln to lead the Union Army to victory over the Confederacy in the American Civil War and he implemented Congressional Reconstruction, often at odds with President Andrew Johnson. His presidency has often criticized for tolerating corruption and for the severe economic depression in his second term. Grant graduated in 1843 from the United States Military Academy at West Point, after the war he married Julia Boggs Dent in 1848, their marriage producing four children. Grant initially retired from the Army in 1854 and he struggled financially in civilian life. When the Civil War began in 1861, he rejoined the U. S. Army, in 1862, Grant took control of Kentucky and most of Tennessee, and led Union forces to victory in the Battle of Shiloh, earning a reputation as an aggressive commander. He incorporated displaced African American slaves into the Union war effort, in July 1863, after a series of coordinated battles, Grant defeated Confederate armies and seized Vicksburg, giving the Union control of the Mississippi River and dividing the Confederacy in two. After his victories in the Chattanooga Campaign, Lincoln promoted him to lieutenant general, Grant confronted Robert E. Lee in a series of bloody battles, trapping Lees army in their defense of Richmond. Grant coordinated a series of devastating campaigns in other theaters, as well, in April 1865, Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox, effectively ending the war. Historians have hailed Grants military genius, and his strategies are featured in history textbooks. After the Civil War, Grant led the armys supervision of Reconstruction in the former Confederate states and he also used the army to build the Republican Party in the South. After the disenfranchisement of some former Confederates, Republicans gained majorities, in his second term, the Republican coalitions in the South splintered and were defeated one by one as redeemers regained control using coercion and violence. In May 1875, Grant authorized his Secretary of Treasury Benjamin Bristow to shut down and his peace policy with the Indians initially reduced frontier violence, but is best known for the Great Sioux War of 1876. Grant responded to charges of corruption in executive offices more than any other 19th Century president and he appointed the first Civil Service Commission and signed legislation ending the corrupt moiety system. In foreign policy, Grant sought to trade and influence while remaining at peace with the world. His administration successfully resolved the Alabama claims by the Treaty of Washington with Great Britain, Grant avoided war with Spain over the Virginius Affair, but Congress rejected his attempted annexation of the Dominican Republic. His administration implemented a standard and sought to strengthen the dollar. Grant left office in 1877 and embarked on a two-year diplomatic world tour that captured the nations attention, in 1880, Grant was unsuccessful in obtaining the Republican presidential nomination for a third term
10.
Andrew Hull Foote
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Andrew Hull Foote was an American naval officer who was noted for his service in the American Civil War and also for his contributions to several naval reforms in the years prior to the war. When the war came, he was appointed to command of the Western Gunboat Flotilla, in that position, he led the gunboats in the Battle of Fort Henry. For his services with the Western Gunboat Flotilla, Foote was among the first naval officers to be promoted to the rank of rear admiral. Foote was born at New Haven, Connecticut, the son of Senator Samuel A. Foot, as a child Foote was not known as a good student, but showed a keen interest in one day going to sea. His father compromised and had him entered at the United States Military Academy at West Point, six months later in 1822, he left West Point and accepted an appointment as a midshipman in the United States Navy. Between 1822 and 1843, Foote saw service in the Caribbean, Pacific and he first began as a midshipman on the USS Grampus. In 1830, he was commissioned a lieutenant, and was stationed in the Mediterranean, in 1837, Foote circumnavigated the globe in the USS John Adams. After serving on sea, Foote was put in charge of the Philadelphia Naval Asylum, after serving on land he went back to sea, and organized a Temperance Society aboard the USS Cumberland. This group developed into a movement that resulted in ending the policy of supplying grog to U. S. Naval personnel, from 1849 to 1851, Foote commanded the USS Perry, cruising the waters off the African coast. He was active in suppressing the trade there. This experience persuaded him to support the cause of abolition, and in 1854, he published a 390 page book, Africa and he also became a frequent speaker on the Abolitionist circuit. Foote was promoted to Commander in 1856, and took command of the USS Portsmouth in the East India Squadron, with this command, Foote was assigned the mission of observing British operations against Canton, China, during the Second Opium War. This eventually resulted in his being attacked from Chinese shore batteries, Foote led a landing party that seized the barrier forts along the Pearl River in reprisal for the attack. This led to an occupation by the U. S. Navy of Chinese territory. Foote returned to the Continental United States in 1858, and took command of the Brooklyn Navy Yard, in Brooklyn, New York, when the American Civil War began in 1861, Foote was in command of the New York Navy Yard. On June 29,1861 Foote was promoted to Captain, even though Foote was an officer in the United State Navy, the Western Flotilla was under the jurisdiction of the Union Army. In early February 1862, now holding the rank of Flag Officer, despite heavy damage to one of the gunboats, Foote was able to quickly subdue the fort. Several days later Grant and Foote moved against Fort Donelson on the Cumberland River, hoping for a repeat of the success at Fort Henry, General Grant urged Foote to attack the forts river batteries
11.
Lloyd Tilghman
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Lloyd Tilghman was a Confederate general in the American Civil War. A railroad construction engineer by background, he was selected by the Confederate government to build two forts to defend the Tennessee and Cumberland rivers. The location of Fort Henry on the Tennessee was vulnerable to flooding, but Tilghman was slow to spot this, and his surrender of the fort to U. S. Grant in February 1862 was regarded as a disgrace. Taken prisoner and exchanged, he commanded a brigade in the Vicksburg campaign, and was killed by a shell at the Battle of Champion Hill, where he was widely praised for gallantry. Tilghman was born in Rich Neck Manor, Claiborne, Maryland to James Tilghman who was the great-grandson of Matthew Tilghman and he attended the United States Military Academy and graduated near the bottom of his class in 1836. He was commissioned a second lieutenant in the 1st U. S. Dragoons. He worked as an engineer on a number of railroads in the South and in Panama, except for a period in which he returned to the Army as a captain in the Maryland and Washington. In 1852, he took up residence in Paducah, Kentucky, Tilghman was commissioned colonel of the 3rd Kentucky Infantry on July 5,1861, shortly after the start of the American Civil War. He was promoted to general in the Confederate States Army on October 18. However, the Richmond government pointed out Tilghmans engineering background and he was chosen for the task. The original sites for Forts Henry and Donelson were selected by general, Daniel S. Donelson. The geographic placement of Fort Henry was extremely poor, sited on a floodplain of the Tennessee River, but Tilghman did not object to its location until it was too late. He also was desultory in managing its construction and that of the small Fort Heiman, located on the Kentucky bank of the Tennessee. He did manage to do a creditable job on the construction of Fort Donelson. On February 6,1862, an army under Brig. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant and gunboats under Flag Officer Andrew H. Foote attacked Fort Henry and Tilghman was forced to surrender. Tilghman was imprisoned as a prisoner of war at Fort Warren in Boston and was not released until August 15, when he was exchanged for Union general John F. Reynolds. Returning to the field in the fall of 1862, Tilghman became a commander in Mansfield Lovells division of Earl Van Dorns Army of the West. In the Vicksburg Campaign of 1863, he was hit in the chest by a shell fragment and he is buried in Woodlawn Cemetery, The Bronx, New York City
12.
Prisoner of war
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A prisoner of war is a person, whether combatant or non-combatant, who is held in custody by a belligerent power during or immediately after an armed conflict. The earliest recorded usage of the prisoner of war dates to 1660. The first Roman gladiators were prisoners of war and were named according to their ethnic roots such as Samnite, Thracian, typically, little distinction was made between enemy combatants and enemy civilians, although women and children were more likely to be spared. Sometimes, the purpose of a battle, if not a war, was to capture women, a known as raptio. Typically women had no rights, and were legally as chattel. For this he was eventually canonized, during Childerics siege and blockade of Paris in 464, the nun Geneviève pleaded with the Frankish king for the welfare of prisoners of war and met with a favourable response. Later, Clovis I liberated captives after Genevieve urged him to do so, many French prisoners of war were killed during the Battle of Agincourt in 1415. In the later Middle Ages, a number of religious wars aimed to not only defeat, in Christian Europe, the extermination of heretics was considered desirable. Examples include the 13th century Albigensian Crusade and the Northern Crusades, likewise, the inhabitants of conquered cities were frequently massacred during the Crusades against the Muslims in the 11th and 12th centuries. Noblemen could hope to be ransomed, their families would have to send to their captors large sums of wealth commensurate with the status of the captive. In feudal Japan there was no custom of ransoming prisoners of war, in Termez, on the Oxus, all the people, both men and women, were driven out onto the plain, and divided in accordance with their usual custom, then they were all slain. The Aztecs were constantly at war with neighbouring tribes and groups, for the re-consecration of Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan in 1487, between 10,000 and 80,400 persons were sacrificed. During the early Muslim conquests, Muslims routinely captured large number of prisoners, aside from those who converted, most were ransomed or enslaved. Christians who were captured during the Crusades, were either killed or sold into slavery if they could not pay a ransom. The freeing of prisoners was highly recommended as a charitable act, there also evolved the right of parole, French for discourse, in which a captured officer surrendered his sword and gave his word as a gentleman in exchange for privileges. If he swore not to escape, he could gain better accommodations, if he swore to cease hostilities against the nation who held him captive, he could be repatriated or exchanged but could not serve against his former captors in a military capacity. Early historical narratives of captured colonial Europeans, including perspectives of literate women captured by the peoples of North America. The writings of Mary Rowlandson, captured in the fighting of King Philips War, are an example
13.
Army of the Tennessee
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The Army of the Tennessee was a Union army in the Western Theater of the American Civil War, named for the Tennessee River. It should not be confused with the similarly named Army of Tennessee, Gen. Ulysses S. Grant in the Unions District of West Tennessee. In April 1862, Grants troops survived a severe test in the bloody Battle of Shiloh. In October 1862, Grants command was reconfigured and elevated to status, as the Department of the Tennessee. Grant commanded these forces until after his critically important victory at Vicksburg in July 1863 and it should suffice to note that the nucleus around which was to gather the. Army of the Tennessee first took shape in 1861–1862, while Grant was headquartered at Cairo and those troops continued under Grant in his next command, the distinct District of West Tennessee, they were then sometimes, and perhaps most appropriately, called the Army of West Tennessee. During the course of the war, elements of the Army of the Tennessee performed many tasks, and it is not feasible to chronicle every such development here, even at the corps level. Rather, this article traces the main thrust of the armys development, at any given time, substantial numbers of troops were engaged in activities not discussed here. For example, in April 1863, less than half of Grants departmental strength was directly engaged in the Vicksburg Campaign, one of Grants wartime aides, John A. Rawlins, later stated that rom this time. Commenced the growth and organization of the Army of the Tennessee, paducah promptly became a separate Union command under Brig. Gen. Charles F. Smith, who soon occupied Smithland, Kentucky, at the junction of the Cumberland River and the Ohio. Grants own first engagement came on November 7 at Belmont, Missouri, Grants casualties in this first battle totaled about 500, Confederate casualties were similar. While Grant had suffered a repulse, he won favorable press coverage and this battle, reports Rawlins, confirmed General Grant in his views that he should give battle whenever he had what he thought a sufficient number of men. Also in November, John Fremont lost his command at St. Louis, to be replaced by Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck, on December 20, Grants command was reconfigured to include C. F. Smiths and renamed the District of Cairo, from that perch, in February 1862, Grant led the Union campaign against Fort Henry, on the Tennessee River, and Fort Donelson, on the Cumberland River. His troops for this campaign eventually numbered approximately 27,000 men, Smith, and Brig. Gen. Lewis Wallace. Grant initially moved up the Tennessee River to Fort Henry with only two divisions, McClernands and Smiths. On February 6, even before he could organize his force for attack, additional Union regiments arrived at Fort Donelson by water, these were formed into the new 3rd Division under Lew Wallace. The Battle of Fort Donelson began on February 13 and, after sharp fighting, another historian notes that Grants troops had performed prodigies of valor and endurance during the campaign and had learned from it that hard fighting would bring success
14.
Mississippi River Squadron
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The Mississippi River Squadron was the Union brown-water naval squadron that operated on the western rivers during the American Civil War. It was initially created as a part of the Union Army, although it was commanded by naval officers and it received its final designation when it was transferred to the Union Navy at the beginning of October 1862. The squadron was created on May 16,1861, and was controlled by the Union Army until September 30,1862, John Rodgers was the first commander of the squadron and was responsible for the construction and organization of the fleet. Flag Officer Andrew H. Foote relieved Rodgers and encouraged the army commander in the west, Major General Henry W. Halleck, operating in conjunction with Ulysses S. Grants Army of the District of Cairo, Foote subdued Fort Henry before Grants troops could take their positions. Foote led the squadron in the attack on Fort Donelson and then joined with Maj. Gen. John Popes Army of the Mississippi for a joint attack on Island No.10 on the Mississippi River. Charles H. Davis relieved Foote and proceeded to take Fort Pillow on the Mississippi, the U. S. Ram Fleet, commanded by Colonel Charles Ellet, Jr. accompanied the squadron during the Battle of Memphis. After the capture of Memphis the squadron was transferred to the control of the U. S. Navy, the transfer included the Ram Fleet, by then reconstituted as the Mississippi Marine Brigade. Davis aided Grants first and unsuccessful campaign against Vicksburg, rear Admiral David D. Porter relieved Davis in command and led the squadron at Arkansas Post and during the successful Vicksburg Campaign and siege of the city. Porter led the squadron during the disastrous Red River Campaign of 1864, the engineering abilities of Colonel Joseph Bailey, who supervised the construction of Baileys Dam, helped save the fleet. Lee was in command until the squadron was discontinued on August 14,1865, Mississippi Marine Brigade Eicher, John H. and Eicher, David J
15.
Army of Central Kentucky
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The Army of Central Kentucky was a military organization within Department No.2. Originally called the Army Corps of Central Kentucky, it was created in the fall of 1861 as a subsection of Department No. 2, and continued in existence until the end of March 1862 when it was absorbed and merged into the Army of Mississippi, which was then re-organized as the Army of Tennessee on November 20,1862. Brig. Gen. Buckner assumed command of all forces in central Kentucky during September 1861 after having first served as a major general, the forces were organized into two divisions with a reserve force. Later a third division under Brig. Gen. John B, after Gen. Albert Sidney Johnston took command, Buckner continued to command a division of the Army of Central Kentucky at Bowling Green and Fort Donelson, where he surrendered. After being exchanged in August 1862, Buckner was promoted to major general, Gen. Johnston was in command of the Army of Central Kentucky from October 28,1861, until March 29,1862, with the exception of a two-week temporary command by Hardee in December. The area of operation for this army was designated as the part of Tennessee north of the Cumberland River, on December 26,1861, part of the Army of the Kanawha was added. On March 29,1862, the army at about 23,000 men strong was merged into the Army of the Mississippi in preparation for the Battle of Shiloh, maj. Gen. Hardee took temporary command of the army from December 4 to December 18,1861. New York, McKay,1959, revised 1988, Eicher, John H. and Eicher, David J. Civil War High Commands, Stanford University Press,2001, ISBN 0-8047-3641-3
16.
Battle of Fort Donelson
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The Battle of Fort Donelson was fought from February 12–16,1862, in the Western Theater of the American Civil War. The Union capture of the Confederate fort near the Tennessee–Kentucky border opened the Cumberland River, an important avenue for the invasion of the South. The Unions success also elevated Brig. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant from an obscure and largely unproven leader to the rank of major general, the battle followed the Union capture of Fort Henry on February 6. Grant moved his army 12 miles overland to Fort Donelson on February 12 and 13, on February 15, with the fort surrounded, the Confederates, commanded by Brig. Gen. John B. Floyd, launched an attack against the right flank of Grants army in an attempt to open an escape route to Nashville. Grant, who was away from the battlefield at the start of the attack, arrived to rally his men, despite achieving partial success and opening the way for a retreat, Floyd lost his nerve and ordered his men back to the fort. The battle of Fort Donelson, which began on February 12, took place shortly after the surrender of Fort Henry, Tennessee, on February 6,1862. Fort Henry had been a key position in the center of a line defending Tennessee, about 2,500 of Fort Henrys Confederate defenders escaped before its surrender by marching the 12 miles east to Fort Donelson. With the surrender of Fort Henry, the Confederates faced some difficult choices, Grants army now divided Confederate Gen. Albert Sidney Johnstons two main forces, P. G. T. Beauregard at Columbus, Kentucky, with 12,000 men, Fort Donelson had only about 5,000 men. Johnston was apprehensive about the ease with which Union gunboats defeated Fort Henry and he was more concerned about the threat from Buell than he was from Grant, and suspected the river operations might simply be a diversion. Johnston decided upon a course of action that forfeited the initiative across most of his defensive line, Johnston wanted to give command of Fort Donelson to Beauregard, who had performed ably at Bull Run, but the latter declined because of a throat ailment. Instead, the responsibility went to Brig. Gen. John B, Floyd, who had just arrived following an unsuccessful assignment under Robert E. Lee in western Virginia. Floyd was a man in the North for alleged graft. Floyds background was political, not military, but he was nevertheless the senior general on the Cumberland River. On the Union side, Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck, Halleck had authorized Grant to capture Fort Henry, but now he felt that continuing to Fort Donelson was risky. Despite Grants success to date, Halleck had little confidence in him, Halleck attempted to convince his own rival, Don Carlos Buell, to take command of the campaign to get his additional forces engaged. Despite Johnstons high regard for Buell, the Union general was as passive as Grant was aggressive
17.
Battle of Shiloh
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The Battle of Shiloh, also known as the Battle of Pittsburg Landing, was a major battle in the Western Theater of the American Civil War, fought April 6–7,1862, in southwestern Tennessee. A Union force known as the Army of the Tennessee under Major General Ulysses S. T. Beauregard, launched an attack on Grants army from its base in Corinth. Johnston was killed in action during the fighting, Beauregard, who succeeded to command of the army. Overnight Grant was reinforced by one of his own divisions stationed further north and was joined by three divisions from another Union army under Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell. This allowed them to launch a counterattack the next morning which completely reversed the Confederate gains of the previous day. On April 6, the first day of the battle, the Confederates struck with the intention of driving the Union defenders away from the river, Johnston hoped to defeat Grants army before the anticipated arrival of General Buells Army of the Ohio. The Confederate battle lines became confused during the fighting, and Grants men instead fell back to the northeast. A Union position on a sunken road, nicknamed the Hornets Nest. Benjamin Prentisss and William H. L. Wallaces divisions, provided critical time for the remainder of the Union line to stabilize under the protection of artillery batteries. Wallace was mortally wounded when the position collapsed, while several regiments from the two divisions were surrounded and surrendered. General Johnston was shot in the leg and bled to death while leading an attack. Beauregard, his second in command, acknowledged how tired the army was from the days exertions, Confederate forces were forced to retreat from the area, ending their hopes of blocking the Union advance into northern Mississippi. Smiths orders were to lead raids intended to capture or damage the railroads in southwestern Tennessee, Brig. Gen. William T. Shermans troops arrived from Paducah, Kentucky, to conduct a similar mission to break the railroads near Eastport, Mississippi. Halleck also ordered Grant to advance his Army of West Tennessee on an invasion up the Tennessee River, Grant left Fort Henry and headed upriver, arriving at Savannah, Tennessee, on March 14, and established his headquarters on the east bank of the river. Grants troops set up camp farther upriver, five divisions at Pittsburg Landing, Tennessee, meanwhile, Hallecks command was enlarged through consolidation of Grants and Buells armies and renamed the Department of the Mississippi. With Buells Army of the Ohio under his command, Halleck ordered Buell to concentrate with Grant at Savannah, Buell began a march with much of his army from Nashville, Tennessee, and headed southwest toward Savannah. The railroad was a supply line connecting the Mississippi River at Memphis, Tennessee to Richmond. Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant developed a reputation during the war for being concerned with his own plans than with those of the enemy
18.
Middle Tennessee
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Middle Tennessee is a distinct portion of the state of Tennessee, delineated according to state law as the 41 counties in the Middle Grand Division of Tennessee. Middle Tennessee is characterized by rolling hills and fertile stream valleys and its principal city, Nashville, is the state capital. Other major sizeable cities in Middle Tennessee include Clarksville and Murfreesboro, geographically it is composed predominantly of the Nashville Basin and the Highland Rim, although the western portion of the Cumberland Plateau also extends into Middle Tennessee. Unlike the geographic designations of regions of most U. S. states, Middle Tennessee, West Tennessee, and East Tennessee are the states three Grand Divisions. According to the Tennessee State Constitution, no more than two of the supreme courts five justices can come from any one Grand Division. The Supreme Court rotates meeting in courthouses in each of the three divisions, the Supreme Court building for Middle Tennessee is in Nashville. A similar rule applies to other commissions and boards, in order to prevent a geographic bias. Middle Tennessee is the largest in area and least densely populated of the three Grand Divisions, at the 2000 census it had 2,069,976 inhabitants living in its 41 counties, which have a combined land area of 17,009.41 square miles. Its population was 36.38 percent of the states total and its population density was 121.696 inhabitants per square mile at the census
19.
Brigadier general (United States)
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In the United States Armed Forces, brigadier general is a one-star general officer with the pay grade of O-7 in the U. S. Army, U. S. Marine Corps, and U. S. Air Force. Brigadier general ranks above a colonel and below major general, the rank of brigadier general is equivalent to the rank of rear admiral in the other uniformed services. The rank of brigadier general has existed in the U. S. military since the inception of the Continental Army in June 1775, later, on June 18,1780, it was prescribed that brigadier generals would instead wear a single silver star on each epaulette. At first, brigadier generals were infantry officers who commanded a brigade, however, over the course of the 19th and 20th centuries, the responsibilities of the rank expanded significantly. During the period from March 16,1802, to January 11,1812, foreseeing the need for an expanded general staff in case of war, which seemed imminent, Congress restored the rank of major general in January 1812. The first brigadier general in the U. S. Marine Corps was Commandant Archibald Henderson, the insignia for a brigadier general is one silver star worn on the shoulder or collar, and has not changed since the creation of the rank two centuries ago. Since the Mexican-American War, however, the rank of colonel has been the normal rank appointed to command a brigade that is organic to a division. In an infantry brigade not organic to a division, a brigadier general serves as the units commander, an Air Force brigadier general typically commands a large wing. Additionally, one-star officers of all services may serve as staff officers in large military organizations. U. S. Code of law explicitly limits the number of general officers who may be on active duty. The total of active duty general officers is capped at 230 for the Army,60 for the Marine Corps, the President or Secretary of Defense may increase the number of general slots in one branch, so long as they subtract an equal number from another. Some of these slots are reserved by statute, for promotion to the permanent grade of brigadier general, eligible officers are screened by a promotion board consisting of general officers from their branch of service. This promotion board then generates a list of officers it recommends for promotion to general rank and this list is then sent to the service secretary and the joint chiefs for review before it can be sent to the President, through the defense secretary, for consideration. The President nominates officers to be promoted from this list with the advice of the Secretary of Defense, the secretary, and if applicable. The President may nominate any eligible officer who is not on the recommended list if it serves in the interest of the nation, the Senate must then confirm the nominee by a majority vote before the officer can be promoted. Once the nominee is confirmed, they are promoted to that once they assume or hold an office that requires or allows an officer of that rank. For positions of office reserved by statute, the President nominates an officer for appointment to fill that position, for all three uniformed services, because the grade of brigadier general is a permanent rank, the nominee may still be screened by an in-service promotion board. The rank does not expire when the officer vacates a one-star position, tour length varies depending on the position, by statute, or when the officer receives a new assignment
20.
Western Theater of the American Civil War
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The Western Theater served as an avenue of military operations by Union armies directly into the agricultural heartland of the South via the major rivers of the region. The Confederacy was forced to defend an area with limited resources. Union operations began with securing Kentucky in Union hands in September 1861, Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Chattanooga served as the launching point for Maj. Gen. William T. The Western Theater was an area defined by geography and the sequence of campaigning. It originally represented the area east of the Mississippi River and west of the Appalachian Mountains, Operations west of the Mississippi River were in the Trans-Mississippi Theater. The West was by some measures the most important theater of the war, capture of the Mississippi River has been one of the key tenets of Union General-in-Chief Winfield Scotts Anaconda Plan. Union generals consistently outclassed most of their Confederate opponents, with the exception of cavalry commander Nathan Bedford Forrest. Lacking the proximity to the capitals and population centers of the East, the astounding Confederate victories. McClellan, and Stonewall Jackson, the Western theater received considerably less attention than the Eastern, the near-steady progress that Union forces made in defeating Confederate armies in the West and overtaking Confederate territory went nearly unnoticed. The campaign classification established by the United States National Park Service is more fine-grained than the one used in this article, some minor NPS campaigns have been omitted and some have been combined into larger categories. Only a few of the 117 battles the NPS classifies for this theater are described, boxed text in the right margin show the NPS campaigns associated with each section. The focus early in the war was on two states, Missouri and Kentucky. The loss of either would have been a blow to the Union cause. Primarily because of the successes of Captain Nathaniel Lyon and his victory at Boonville in June, the state of Kentucky, with a pro-Confederate governor and a pro-Union legislature, had declared neutrality between the opposing sides. This neutrality was first violated on September 3, when Confederate Maj. Gen. Leonidas Polk occupied Columbus, two days later Union Brig. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant, displaying the personal initiative that would characterize his later career, seized Paducah. On the Confederate side, General Albert Sidney Johnston commanded all forces from Arkansas to the Cumberland Gap, Johnston also gained political support from secessionists in central and western counties of Kentucky via a new Confederate capital at Bowling Green, set up by the Russellville Convention. The alternative government was recognized by the Confederate government, which admitted Kentucky into the Confederacy in December 1861, using the rail system resources of the Mobile and Ohio Railroad, Polk was able to quickly fortify and equip the Confederate base at Columbus. By January 1862, this disunity of command was apparent because no strategy for operations in the Western theater could be agreed upon, James A. Garfield and Mill Springs under Brig. Gen. George H. Thomas
21.
Tennessee River
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The Tennessee River is the largest tributary of the Ohio River. It is approximately 652 miles long and is located in the southeastern United States in the Tennessee Valley. The river was once known as the Cherokee River, among other names, as many of the Cherokee had their territory along its banks, especially in eastern Tennessee. Its current name is derived from the Cherokee village Tanasi, the Tennessee River is formed at the confluence of the Holston and French Broad rivers on the east side of present-day Knoxville, Tennessee. From Knoxville, it flows southwest through East Tennessee toward Chattanooga before crossing into Alabama and it loops through northern Alabama and eventually forms a small part of the states border with Mississippi, before returning to Tennessee. At this point, it defines the boundary between two of Tennessees Grand Divisions, Middle and West Tennessee and this waterway reduces the navigation distance from Tennessee, north Alabama, and northern Mississippi to the Gulf of Mexico by hundreds of miles. The final part of the Tennessees run is in Kentucky, where it separates the Jackson Purchase from the rest of the state and it flows into the Ohio River at Paducah, Kentucky. The river has been dammed numerous times, primarily in the 20th century by Tennessee Valley Authority projects since the 1930s, a navigation canal located at Grand Rivers, Kentucky, links Kentucky Lake and Lake Barkley. The canal allows for a trip for river traffic going from the Tennessee to most of the Ohio River. Maps from the early 18th century call it Cussate, Hogohegee, Callamaco, a 1755 British map showed the Tennessee River as the River of the Cherakees. By the late 18th century, it had come to be called Tennessee, the river was a major highway to transport goods and explorers in the years when Tennessee was not yet settled. Some major towns that still exist today, and major ports at them were established by those who rode down the river, and settled along it. The Tennessee River begins at mile post 652, where the French Broad River meets the Holston River, in the late 18th century, the mouth of the Little Tennessee River was considered to be the beginning of the Tennessee River. Through much of the 19th century, the Tennessee River was considered to start at the mouth of Clinch River, at various points since the early 19th century, Georgia has disputed its northern border with Tennessee. Georgia made several attempts to correct what Georgia felt was an erroneous survey line in the 1890s,1905,1915,1922,1941,1947 and 1971 to resolve the dispute. Crews Townsend, Joseph McCoin, Robert F. Parsley, Alison Martin and Zachary H. Greene, writing for the Tennessee Bar Journal, a publication of the Tennessee Bar Association, appearing on May 12,2008. In 2008, as a result of a drought and resulting water shortage. In a two-page resolution passed overwhelmingly by the senate, Georgia declared that it, not its neighbor to the north
22.
Flag officer
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A flag officer is a commissioned officer in a nations armed forces senior enough to be entitled to fly a flag to mark the position from which the officer exercises command. In some countries, such as Bangladesh, the United States, Pakistan and India, it may apply to all armed forces and this means generals can also be considered flag officers. In most Arab armies, liwa, which can be translated as flag officer, is a specific rank, however, ensign is debatably a more exact translation of the word. In principle, a flag officer commands several units called flags, Flag officer corresponds to the generic terms general officer and air officer. A flag officer sometimes is an officer, called a flag lieutenant or flag adjutant. In the Canadian Forces, an officer is an admiral, vice-admiral, rear-admiral, or commodore. Base commanders, usually full colonels, also have a pennant that flies from the mast or flagpole on the base, since the unification of the Canadian Forces in 1968, a flag officers dress tunic had a single broad stripe on the sleeve and epaulettes. There are no epaulettes on the exterior of the tunic, in India, it is applied to brigadiers, major generals, lieutenant generals and generals in the Army. The equivalents are commodore, rear admiral, vice admiral and admiral in the Navy and air commodore, air marshal, air marshal. Each of these category of officers is designated with a specific flag. Indias honorary ranks are field marshal in the Army, marshal of the Indian Air Force in the Air Force, in the Royal Navy, there is a distinction between flag officer and officer of flag rank. Formerly all officers promoted to flag rank were considered to be flag officers, of the 39 officers of flag rank in the Royal Navy in 2006, very few were flag officers with entitlement to fly a flag. List of fleets and major commands of the Royal Navy lists most admirals who were flag officers, a flag officers junior officer is often known as Flags. The rank of flag officer was bestowed on senior Navy captains who were assigned to lead a squadron of vessels in addition to command of their own ship, during the American Civil War, the Confederate States Navy also used the term. S. Navy or Coast Guard serving in or having the grade of admiral, vice admiral, rear admiral, or rear admiral, in 1862 Congress authorized American use of the title admiral. In the United States Army, Air Force, and Marine Corps, brigadier general, or pay grade O-7, and above. However, as a matter of law, Title 10 of the United States Code makes a distinction between officers and flag officers. Non-naval officers usually fly their flags from their headquarters, vessels, or vehicles, in the United States all flag and general officers must be nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate, each subsequent promotion requires renomination and re-approval
23.
General officers in the Confederate States Army
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The general officers of the Confederate States Army were the senior military leaders of the Confederacy during the American Civil War of 1861–1865. They were often former officers from the United States Army prior to the Civil War, most Confederate generals needed confirmation from the Confederate Congress, much like prospective generals in the modern U. S. armed forces. Much of the design of the Confederate States Army was based on the structure, the Confederate Army was composed of three parts, the Army of the Confederate States of America, the Provisional Army of the Confederate States, and the various Southern state militias. Graduates from West Point and Mexican War veterans were highly sought after by Jefferson Davis for military service, like their Federal counterparts, the Confederate Army had both professional and political generals within it. Ranks throughout the CSA were roughly based on the U. S. Army in design and seniority. On February 27,1861, a staff for the army was authorized, consisting of four positions, an adjutant general, a quartermaster general, a commissary general. Initially the last of these was to be a staff officer only, the post of adjutant general was filled by Samuel Cooper and he held it throughout the Civil War, as well as the armys inspector general. As officers were appointed to the grades of general by Jefferson Davis. The dates of rank, as well as seniority of officers appointed to the grade on the same day, were determined by Davis usually following the guidelines established for the prewar U. S. Army. These generals were most often infantry or cavalry brigade commanders, aides to other higher ranking generals, and War Department staff officers. By wars end the Confederacy had at least 383 different men who held this rank in the PACS, the organization of regiments into brigades was authorized by the Congress on March 6,1861. Brigadier generals would command them, and these generals were to be nominated by Davis and these generals also often led sub-districts within military departments, with command over soldiers in their sub-district. These generals outranked Confederate Army colonels, who commonly led infantry regiments and this rank is equivalent to brigadier general in the modern U. S. army. These generals were most commonly infantry division commanders, aides to other higher ranking generals and they also led the districts that made up military departments, and had command over the troops in their districts. By wars end, the Confederacy had at least 88 different men who had held this rank, divisions were authorized by the Congress on March 6,1861, and major generals would command them. These generals were to be nominated by Davis and confirmed by the Senate, Major generals outranked brigadiers and all other lesser officers. This rank was not synonymous with the Unions use of it, as Northern major generals led divisions, corps and this rank is equivalent in most respects to major general in the modern U. S. Army. All of the Confederacys lieutenant generals were in the PACS, the Congress legalized the creation of army corps on September 18,1862, and directed that lieutenant generals lead them
24.
Union Army
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The Union Army was the land force that fought for the Union during the American Civil War,1861 to 1865. It included the permanent regular army of the United States, which was augmented by numbers of temporary units consisting of volunteers as well as conscripts. The Union Army fought and eventually defeated the Confederate Army during the war, at least two and a half million men served in the Union Army, almost all were volunteers. About 360,000 Union soldiers died from all causes,280,000 were wounded and 200,000 deserted. When the American Civil War began in April 1861, there were only 16,000 men in the U. S. Army, and of these many Southern officers resigned and joined the Confederate army. The U. S. Army consisted of ten regiments of infantry, four of artillery, Lincolns call forced the border states to choose sides, and four seceded, making the Confederacy eleven states strong. The war proved to be longer and more extensive than anyone North or South had expected, the call for volunteers initially was easily met by patriotic Northerners, abolitionists, and even immigrants who enlisted for a steady income and meals. Over 10,000 Germans in New York and Pennsylvania immediately responded to Lincolns call, as more men were needed, however, the number of volunteers fell and both money bounties and forced conscription had to be turned to. Nevertheless, between April 1861 and April 1865, at least two and a million men served in the Union Army, of whom the majority were volunteers. It is a misconception that the South held an advantage because of the percentage of professional officers who resigned to join the Confederate army. At the start of the war, there were 824 graduates of the U. S, Military Academy on the active list, of these,296 resigned or were dismissed, and 184 of those became Confederate officers. Of the approximately 900 West Point graduates who were civilians,400 returned to the Union Army and 99 to the Confederate. Therefore, the ratio of Union to Confederate professional officers was 642 to 283, the South did have the advantage of other military colleges, such as The Citadel and Virginia Military Institute, but they produced fewer officers. The Union Army was composed of numerous organizations, which were generally organized geographically, Military Division A collection of Departments reporting to one commander. Military Divisions were similar to the modern term Theater, and were modeled close to, though not synonymous with. Department An organization that covered a region, including responsibilities for the Federal installations therein. Those named for states usually referred to Southern states that had been occupied and it was more common to name departments for rivers or regions. District A subdivision of a Department, there were also Subdistricts for smaller regions
25.
Alabama
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Alabama is a state in the southeastern region of the United States. It is bordered by Tennessee to the north, Georgia to the east, Florida and the Gulf of Mexico to the south, Alabama is the 30th-most extensive and the 24th-most populous of the U. S. states. At nearly 1,500 miles, Alabama has one of the nations longest navigable inland waterways, Alabama is nicknamed the Yellowhammer State, after the state bird. Alabama is also known as the Heart of Dixie and the Cotton State, the state tree is the longleaf pine, and the state flower is the camellia. The largest city by population is Birmingham, which has long been the most industrialized city, the oldest city is Mobile, founded by French colonists in 1702 as the capital of French Louisiana. From the American Civil War until World War II, Alabama, like many states in the southern U. S. suffered economic hardship, like other southern states, Alabama legislators disenfranchised African Americans and many poor whites at the turn of the century. Following World War II, Alabama grew as the economy changed from one primarily based on agriculture to one with diversified interests. The state economy in the 21st century is based on management, automotive, finance, manufacturing, aerospace, mineral extraction, healthcare, education, retail, in the Alabama language, the word for a person of Alabama lineage is Albaamo. The word Alabama is believed to have come from the Alabama language, the words spelling varies significantly among historical sources. As early as 1702, the French called the tribe the Alibamon, other spellings of the name have included Alibamu, Alabamo, Albama, Alebamon, Alibama, Alibamou, Alabamu, Allibamou. Sources disagree on the words meaning, some scholars suggest the word comes from the Choctaw alba and amo. The meaning may have been clearers of the thicket or herb gatherers, the state has numerous place names of Native American origin. However, there are no correspondingly similar words in the Alabama language, an 1842 article in the Jacksonville Republican proposed it meant Here We Rest. This notion was popularized in the 1850s through the writings of Alexander Beaufort Meek, experts in the Muskogean languages have not found any evidence to support such a translation. Indigenous peoples of varying cultures lived in the area for thousands of years before the advent of European colonization, trade with the northeastern tribes by the Ohio River began during the Burial Mound Period and continued until European contact. The agrarian Mississippian culture covered most of the state from 1000 to 1600 AD, with one of its major centers built at what is now the Moundville Archaeological Site in Moundville, Alabama. This is the second-largest complex of the classic Middle Mississippian era, after Cahokia in present-day Illinois, Analysis of artifacts from archaeological excavations at Moundville were the basis of scholars formulating the characteristics of the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex. Contrary to popular belief, the SECC appears to have no links to Mesoamerican culture
26.
Ironclad warship
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An ironclad is a steam-propelled warship protected by iron or steel armor plates used in the early part of the second half of the 19th century. The ironclad was developed as a result of the vulnerability of warships to explosive or incendiary shells. The first ironclad battleship, Gloire, was launched by the French Navy in November 1859 and this type of ship would come to be very successful in the American Civil War. Ironclads were designed for several roles, including as high seas battleships, coastal defense ships and this change was pushed forward by the development of heavier naval guns, more sophisticated steam engines, and advances in metallurgy which made steel shipbuilding possible. The quick pace of change meant that ships were obsolete as soon as they were finished. Many ironclads were built to use of the ram or the torpedo. There is no end to the ironclad period, but towards the end of the 1890s the term ironclad dropped out of use. New ships were constructed to a standard pattern and designated battleships or armored cruisers. The ironclad became technically feasible and tactically necessary because of developments in shipbuilding in the first half of the 19th century. According to naval historian J. Richard Hill, The had three characteristics, a metal-skinned hull, steam propulsion and a main armament of guns capable of firing explosive shells. It is only when all three characteristics are present that a ship can properly be called an ironclad. Each of these developments was introduced separately in the decade before the first ironclads, in the 18th and early 19th centuries fleets had relied on two types of major warship, the ship of the line and the frigate. The first major change to these types was the introduction of power for propulsion. While paddle steamer warships had been used from the 1830s onwards, steam-powered screw frigates were built in the mid-1840s, and at the end of the decade the French Navy introduced steam power to its line of battle. The desire for change came from the ambition of Napoleon III to gain influence in Europe. The first purpose-built steam battleship was the 90-gun Napoléon in 1850, the introduction of the steam ship-of-the-line led to a building competition between France and Britain. Eight sister ships to Napoléon were built in France over a period of ten years, altogether, France built ten new wooden steam battleships and converted 28 from older ships of the line, while the United Kingdom built 18 and converted 41. The era of the wooden steam ship-of-the-line was brief, because of new, in the 1820s and 1830s, warships began to mount increasingly heavy guns, replacing 18- and 24-pounder guns with 32-pounders on sailing ships-of-the-line and introducing 68-pounders on steamers
27.
George Washington Cullum
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George Washington Cullum was an American soldier, engineer and writer. He served as a general in the Union Army during the American Civil War, Cullum also served as the 16th Superintendent of the United States Military Academy. Cullum was born in New York City, but was raised in Meadville and he graduated from the United States Military Academy, ranking third in the Class of 1833. He designed the Independent Congregational Church at Meadville and it was built in 1835–1836 and he joined the Corps of Engineers and supervised a number of construction projects on the East Coast. Cullum served as the engineer in charge of the construction of Fort Trumbull in New London and he was promoted to captain in 1838 and held this rank until the outbreak of the civil war. He was an instructor of engineering at West Point from 1848 to 1855, Cullum took two years leave of absence for health reasons, and traveled throughout Europe, Asia, Africa and the West Indies while recuperating. From April 1861 Cullum was a lieutenant colonel and aide-de-camp to General Winfield Scott and he later superintended engineering works on the Western rivers and was chief engineer at the Siege of Corinth. He was superintendent of the academy from 1864 to 1866. He was mustered out of the volunteers on September 1,1866, after the war, Cullum remained in the Regular Army at a variety of engineering posts, supervising several projects to strengthen Americas coastal defenses. He retired from active service January 13,1874 with the rank of colonel, following his retirement, he married Elizabeth Hamilton, sister of Major General Schuyler Hamilton and widow of Major General Henry W. Halleck. Cullum is interred at Green-Wood Cemetery in Brooklyn, New York, cadet at the Military Academy, July 1,1829 Bvt. Corps of Engineers, July 1,1833 Second Lieut,20,1836 Captain, Corps of Engineers, July 7,1838 Lieut. ‑Col. Staff — Aide-de‑Camp to the General-in‑Chief, Apr, brig. ‑General, U. S. Army, Mar.13,1865, Bvt. Maj. ‑General, U. S. Army, Mar.13,1865, for Faithful, Meritorious, and Distinguished Services during the Rebellion Mustered out of Volunteer Service, Sep. Colonel, Corps of Engineers, Mar.7,1867 List of American Civil War generals Eicher, John H. and David J. Eicher and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Gilman, D. C. Thurston, H. T. Colby, F. M. eds. article name needed, West Point Register Cullums Biographical Register George Washington Cullum
28.
Confederate States Army
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The Confederate States Army was the military ground force of the Confederate States of America during the American Civil War. S. Military Academy and colonel of a regiment during the Mexican War. In March 1861, the Provisional Confederate Congress established a more permanent Confederate States Army, the better estimates of the number of individual Confederate soldiers are between 750,000 and 1,000,000 men. This does not include a number of slaves who were pressed into performing various tasks for the army, such as construction of fortifications. Since these figures include estimates of the number of individual soldiers who served at any time during the war. These numbers do not include men who served in Confederate naval forces, although most of the soldiers who fought in the American Civil War were volunteers, both sides by 1862 resorted to conscription, primarily as a means to force men to register and to volunteer. In the absence of records, estimates of the percentage of Confederate soldiers who were draftees are about double the 6 percent of Union soldiers who were conscripts. Confederate casualty figures also are incomplete and unreliable, one estimate of Confederate wounded, which is considered incomplete, is 194,026. These numbers do not include men who died from causes such as accidents. Other Confederate forces surrendered between April 16,1865 and June 28,1865, by the end of the war, more than 100,000 Confederate soldiers had deserted. The Confederacys government effectively dissolved when it fled Richmond in April, by the time Abraham Lincoln took office as President of the United States on March 4,1861, the seven seceding slave states had formed the Confederate States. The Confederacy seized federal property, including nearly all U. S. Army forts, Lincoln was determined to hold the forts remaining under U. S. control when he took office, especially Fort Sumter in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. Under orders from Confederate President Jefferson Davis, C. S. troops under the command of General P. G. T, Beauregard bombarded Fort Sumter on April 12–13,1861, forcing its capitulation on April 14. The Northern states were outraged by the Confederacys attack and demanded war and it rallied behind Lincolns call on April 15, for all the states to send troops to recapture the forts from the secessionists, to put down the rebellion and to preserve the Union intact. Four more slave states joined the Confederacy. The Confederate Congress provided for a Confederate army patterned after the United States Army and it was to consist of a large provisional force to exist only in time of war and a small permanent regular army. Although the two forces were to exist concurrently, very little was done to organize the Confederate regular army, the Provisional Army of the Confederate States began organizing on April 27. Virtually all regular, volunteer, and conscripted men preferred to enter this organization since officers could achieve a rank in the Provisional Army than they could in the Regular Army
29.
Gideon Johnson Pillow
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Before his military career, Pillow practiced law and was active in Democratic Party politics. He supported the nomination of fellow-Tennessean James K. Polk at the 1844 Democratic National Convention, in 1847, Pillow was commissioned a brigadier general of volunteers to serve in the Mexican-American War, and was later promoted to major general. He performed reasonably well, and was wounded that year at Cerro Gordo, Pillow was court-martialed for insubordination, but with President Polks assistance, the court-martial was reduced to a court of inquiry, which in 1848 exonerated Pillow of any wrongdoing. After the war, Pillow served as a delegate from Tennessee to the Nashville Convention of 1850 and he remained active in supporting the Democratic Party. At the start of the Civil War in 1861, Pillow supported secession, Pillow received the thanks of the Confederate Congress for driving off the Union force at the Battle of Belmont, Missouri. The next night, before the surrender of the fort, Brigadier General John B, Floyd passed overall command of the fort to Pillow, who in turn passed it to Brigadier General Simon Buckner. Floyd and Pillow managed to escape with a few aides before Buckner surrendered the remaining garrison to the Union Army of Brigadier General Ulysses S. Grant. These actions sent his career and reputation into eclipse. Pillow commanded a brigade at the Battle of Stones River in 1863, where he performed poorly, removed from combat duty, he worked mainly in recruiting assignments through the remainder of the war. Bankrupt after the war, Pillow resumed a successful legal career, Pillow was born on June 8,1806 in Williamson County, Tennessee, to Gideon Pillow and Ann Payne Pillow. He came from a connected, property owning family with a reputation for Indian fighting. He graduated from the University of Nashville in 1827 and practiced law in Columbia, Tennessee, regardless of whether Pillow and Polk were partners, they became friends. Pillow married Mary Elizabeth Martin, March 24,1831, in 1831, Tennessee Governor William Carroll appointed Pillow as district attorney general. Pillow served as a general in the Tennessee Militia from 1833 to 1836. In the Mexican-American War, Pillow joined the United States Army with an appointment from President Polk as a general of volunteers July 1,1846. He was promoted to general of volunteers on April 13,1847. He displayed bravery in battle, being wounded in the arm at the Battle of Cerro Gordo. During the war he came into conflict with one of the commanders of the American forces in Mexico
30.
Leonidas Polk
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Leonidas Polk was a Confederate general in Western Theater the American Civil War who was once a planter in Maury County, Tennessee, and a second cousin of President James K. Polk. He also served as bishop of the Episcopal Diocese of Louisiana and was for that reason known as Sewanees Fighting Bishop and he is often erroneously named Leonidas K. Polk. He had no name and never signed any documents as such. The errant K was derived from his listing in the post-bellum New Orleans press as Polk, Polk was one of the more notable, yet controversial, political generals of the war. He is remembered for his disagreements with his immediate superior, the likewise-controversial General Braxton Bragg of the Army of Tennessee. While serving under the command of General Joseph E. Johnston, Polk was born in Raleigh, North Carolina, to Sarah Polk and Colonel William Polk, a Revolutionary War veteran and prosperous planter. He was of Scottish and Scotch-Irish ancestry, capitalizing on his position as chief surveyor of the central district of Tennessee, William was able to acquire about 100,000 acres of land. Polk attended the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill briefly before entering the United States Military Academy at West Point. During his senior year, he joined the Episcopal Church, baptized in the Academy Chapel by Chaplain Charles P. McIlvaine, Polk had an impressive academic record, excelling in rhetoric and moral philosophy. He graduated eighth of 38 cadets on July 1,1827, Polk resigned his commission on December 1,1827, so that he could enter the Virginia Theological Seminary. He became an assistant to Bishop Richard Channing Moore at Monumental Church in Richmond, Moore agreed to ordain Polk as a deacon in April 1830 however on a visit to Raleigh in March it was discovered that he had never been confirmed. To remedy the fact before his ordination he was confirmed at St. Johns Episcopal Church in Fayetteville. He was then ordained a deacon as planned and a priest the following year, on May 6,1830, Polk married Frances Ann Devereux, daughter of John Devereux and Frances Pollock, her mother was the granddaughter of Puritan theologian Jonathan Edwards. The Polks had eight children who survived to adulthood, in 1832, Polk moved his family to the vast Polk Rattle and Snap tract in Maury County, Tennessee, and constructed a massive Greek Revival home called Ashwood Hall. Polk was the largest slaveholder in the county in 1840, with 111 slaves, with his four brothers in Maury County, he built a family chapel, St. Johns Church, at Ashwood. He also served as priest of St. Peters Church in Columbia and he was appointed Missionary Bishop of the Southwest in September 1838 and was elected Bishop of Louisiana in October 1841. Polk laid and consecrated the cornerstone for the first building on October 9,1860, Polks foundational legacy at Sewanee is remembered always through his portrait Sword Over the Gown, painted by Eliphalet F. Andrews in 1900. After the original was vandalized in 1998, a copy by Connie Erickson was unveiled on June 1,2003, at the outbreak of the Civil War, Polk pulled the Louisiana Convention out of the Episcopal Church of the United States
31.
Columbus, Kentucky
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Columbus is a home rule-class city in Hickman County, Kentucky, in the United States. The population was 170 at the 2010 census, a decline from 229 in 2000, Columbus is the oldest town in Kentuckys Jackson Purchase. It was first settled on the Mississippi floodplain in 1804 and known as Iron Banks after the sites French name les rivages de fer, the long-held local rumor that President Thomas Jefferson planned to remove the American capital to the site has absolutely no basis in fact. The name of the town was changed to Columbus in 1820 and it was the original county seat of Hickman before the transfer of the court to Clinton. It was formally incorporated in 1860, just ahead of its seizure by Confederate forces during the American Civil War the next year, the engagement was Grants first direct combat during the war. In 1878, the American railroad legend Casey Jones got his railroad first job here, working as a telegrapher for the Mobile, in 1927, a flood deluged the city. The town was reëstablished upon higher ground above the flood plain, some of the original houses were saved and moved inland. Columbus is located at 36°45′37″N 89°6′10″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 0.4 square miles, all land. As of the census of 2000, there were 229 people,95 households, the population density was 558.6 people per square mile. There were 110 housing units at a density of 268.3 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 77. 29% White,17. 90% Black or African American,2. 18% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 4. 80% of the population. 31. 6% of all households were made up of individuals and 12. 6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.41 and the average family size was 3.11. In the city, the population was out with 23. 1% under the age of 18,13. 5% from 18 to 24,26. 2% from 25 to 44,24. 0% from 45 to 64. The median age was 35 years, for every 100 females there were 102.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95.6 males, the median income for a household in the city was $25,313, and the median income for a family was $29,844. Males had an income of $21,667 versus $14,500 for females. The per capita income for the city was $11,766. About 5. 1% of families and 9. 1% of the population were below the poverty line, the climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers and generally mild to cool winters
32.
Paducah, Kentucky
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Paducah is a home rule-class city in and the county seat of McCracken County, Kentucky, United States. The population was 24,864 in 2015, down from 25,024 during the 2010 U. S. Census, twenty blocks of the citys downtown have been designated as a historic district and listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Paducah is the hub of its area, which includes McCracken, Ballard and Livingston counties in Kentucky. Paducah was first settled as Pekin by James and William Pore c. 1821, the community – favorably located at the confluence of several waterways – occupied a site previously noted as a Chickasaw trading center. The town was out by William Clark in 1827 and renamed Paducah. Instead, it is probable that Clark named the town for the Comanches, Paducah was formally established as a town in 1830 and incorporated as a city by the state legislature in 1838. By this time, steam boats traversed the river system and its facilities were important to trade. In addition, railroads began to be developed that entered the region, a factory for making red bricks, and a foundry for making rail and locomotive components became the nucleus of a thriving River and Rail economy. It became the site of dry dock facilities for steamboats and towboats, because of its proximity to coalfields further to the east in Kentucky and north in Illinois, Paducah also became an important railway hub for the Illinois Central Railroad. This was the primary north-south railway connecting the cities of Chicago and East St. Louis to the Gulf of Mexico at Gulfport, Mississippi and New Orleans. The Illinois Central system also provided east-west links to the Burlington Northern and the Atchison, Topeka, the Illinois Central Railroad began construction of their largest locomotive workshop at Paducah in 1924. Over a period of 190 days, a ravine between Washington and Jones Streets was filled with 44,560 carloads of dirt to enlarge the site to include 23 buildings. The eleven million dollar project was completed in 1927 as the fourth largest industrial plant in Kentucky and it became the largest employer in Paducah with 1,075 employees in 1938. The shops became part of the Paducah and Louisville Railway in 1986, at the outset of the Civil War, Kentucky attempted to take a neutral position. However, when a Confederate force occupied Columbus, a Union force under General Ulysses S. Grant responded by occupying Paducah. Throughout most of the war, Col. Stephen G. Hicks was in charge of Paducah, on December 17,1862, under the terms of General Order No. 11, US forces required thirty Jewish families to leave their long-established homes, Grant was trying to break up a black market in cotton, in which he suspected Jewish traders were involved. Cesar Kaskel, a prominent local Jewish businessman, dispatched a telegram of complaint to Pres, lincoln and met with him, together with similar actions by other Jewish businessmen and loud complaints by Congress, he succeeded in seeing the order revoked within a few weeks
33.
Albert Sidney Johnston
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Albert Sidney Johnston served as a general in three different armies, the Texian Army, the United States Army, and the Confederate States Army. He saw extensive combat during his career, fighting actions in the Texas War of Independence, the Mexican–American War, the Utah War. Johnston was the officer, Union or Confederate, killed during the entire war. Davis believed the loss of Johnston was the point of our fate. Johnston was unrelated to Confederate general Joseph E. Johnston, Johnston was born in Washington, Kentucky, the youngest son of Dr. John and Abigail Johnston. His father was a native of Salisbury, Connecticut, although Albert Johnston was born in Kentucky, he lived much of his life in Texas, which he considered his home. He was first educated at Transylvania University in Lexington, where he met fellow student Jefferson Davis, both were appointed to the United States Military Academy, Davis two years behind Johnston. In 1826 Johnston graduated eighth of 41 cadets in his class from West Point with a commission as a second lieutenant in the 2nd U. S. Infantry. Johnston was assigned to posts in New York and Missouri and served in the Black Hawk War in 1832 as chief of staff to Bvt, in 1829 he married Henrietta Preston, sister of Kentucky politician and future Civil War general William Preston. They had one son, William Preston Johnston, who became a colonel in the Confederate Army, the senior Johnston resigned his commission in 1834 in order to care for his dying wife in Kentucky, who succumbed two years later to tuberculosis. After serving as Secretary of War for the Republic of Texas from 1838 to 1840, in 1843, he married Eliza Griffin, his late wifes first cousin. The couple moved to Texas, where they settled on a plantation in Brazoria County. Johnston named the property China Grove, here they raised Johnstons two children from his first marriage and the first three children born to Eliza and him. In 1836 Johnston moved to Texas and he enlisted as a private in the Texas Army during the Texas War of Independence against the Republic of Mexico. He was named Adjutant General as a colonel in the Republic of Texas Army on August 5,1836, on January 31,1837, he became senior brigadier general in command of the Texas Army. On December 22,1838, Mirabeau B, lamar, the second president of the Republic of Texas, appointed Johnston as Secretary of War. He provided for the defense of the Texas border against Mexican invasion, in February 1840, he resigned and returned to Kentucky. Johnston returned to Texas during the Mexican–American War under General Zachary Taylor as a colonel of the 1st Texas Rifle Volunteers, the enlistments of his volunteers ran out just before the Battle of Monterrey
34.
Arkansas
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Arkansas is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States. Its name is of Siouan derivation from the language of the Osage denoting their related kin, the states diverse geography ranges from the mountainous regions of the Ozark and the Ouachita Mountains, which make up the U. S. Interior Highlands, to the forested land in the south known as the Arkansas Timberlands, to the eastern lowlands along the Mississippi River. Arkansas is the 29th largest by area and the 33rd most populous of the 50 United States, the capital and most populous city is Little Rock, located in the central portion of the state, a hub for transportation, business, culture, and government. The northwestern corner of the state, such as the Fayetteville–Springdale–Rogers Metropolitan Area and Fort Smith metropolitan area, is a population, education, the largest city in the eastern part of the state is Jonesboro. The largest city in the part of the state is Pine Bluff. The Territory of Arkansas was admitted to the Union as the 25th state on June 15,1836, in 1861 Arkansas withdrew from the United States and joined the Confederate States of America during the Civil War. Upon returning to the Union in 1868, the state would continue to suffer due to its reliance on slavery. White rural interests continued to dominate the politics until the Civil Rights Movement. Arkansas began to diversify its economy following World War II and relies on its service industry, aircraft, poultry, steel, tourism, cotton, and rice. The culture of Arkansas is observable in museums, theaters, novels, television shows, restaurants, wright, and physicist William L. McMillan, who was a pioneer in superconductor research, have all lived in Arkansas. The name Arkansas derives from the root as the name for the state of Kansas. The Kansa tribe of Native Americans are closely associated with the Sioux tribes of the Great Plains, the word Arkansas itself is a French pronunciation of a Quapaw word, akakaze, meaning land of downriver people or the Sioux word akakaze meaning people of the south wind. In 2007, the legislature passed a non-binding resolution declaring the possessive form of the states name to be Arkansass which has been followed increasingly by the state government. Arkansas borders Louisiana to the south, Texas to the southwest, Oklahoma to the west, Missouri to the north, as well as Tennessee, the United States Census Bureau classifies Arkansas as a southern state, sub-categorized among the West South Central States. The state line along the Mississippi River is indeterminate along much of the border with Mississippi due to these changes. Arkansas can generally be split into two halves, the highlands in the northwest half and the lowlands of the southeastern half, the highlands are part of the Southern Interior Highlands, including The Ozarks and the Ouachita Mountains. The southern lowlands include the Gulf Coastal Plain and the Arkansas Delta and this dual split can yield to general regions named northwest, southwest, northeast, southeast, or central Arkansas
35.
Cumberland Gap
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The Cumberland Gap is a narrow pass through the long ridge of the Cumberland Mountains, within the Appalachian Mountains, near the junction of the U. S. states of Kentucky, Virginia, and Tennessee. Long used by Native Americans, the Cumberland Gap was brought to the attention of settlers in 1750 by Thomas Walker, a Virginia physician and explorer. The path was explored by a team of frontiersmen led by Daniel Boone, making it accessible to pioneers who used it to journey into the frontiers of Kentucky. The Cumberland Gap is one of many passes in the Appalachian Mountains and it lies within Cumberland Gap National Historical Park and is located on the border of present-day Kentucky and Virginia, approximately 0.25 miles northeast of the tri-state marker with Tennessee. Scientists have dated this region to the Cambrian or Pennsylvanian period, the unique landscape seen today is a result of the uplift of sedimentary rock in conjunction with several million years of weathering and erosion. These features include narrow ridges, steep cliffs, overlooks, the Cumberland Gap is now known as a wind gap since water no longer flows through it. The V-shaped gap serves as a gateway to the west, the base of the gap is about 300 feet above the valley floor below even though the north side of the pass was lowered 20 feet during the construction of Old U. S. Route 25E. To the south the ridge rises 600 feet above the pass, because it is centrally located in the United States, the region around Cumberland Gap experiences all four seasons. The summers are sunny, warm and humid with average temperatures in the mid to upper 90s F. In the winter months, January through March, temperatures range in the 30s to 40s F and are mild with rain. The nearest cities are Middlesboro, Kentucky, and Harrogate, Tennessee, the gap was formed by the development of three major structural features, the Pine Mountain Thrust Sheet, the Middlesboro Syncline, and the Rocky Face Fault. Lateral compressive forces of sedimentary rocks from deep layers of the Earths crust pushing upward 320 to 200 million years ago created the thrust sheet, resistance on the fault from the opposing Cumberland Mountain to Pine Mountain caused the U-shaped structure of the Middlesboro Syncline. The once flat-lying sedimentary rocks were now deformed roughly 40 degrees northwest, further constriction to the northwest of Cumberland Mountain developed into a fault trending north-to-south called the Rocky Face Fault, which eventually cut through Cumberland Mountain. This combination of geological processes created ideal conditions for weathering. However, the discovery of the Middlesboro impact structure has proposed new details in the formation of Cumberland Gap, less than 300 million years ago a meteorite, approximately the size of a football field, struck the earth, creating the Middlesboro Crater. One of three astroblemes in the state, it is a 3. 7-mile diameter meteorite impact crater with the city of Middlesboro, Kentucky, detailed mapping by geologists in the 1960s led many to interpret the geological features of the area to be a site of an ancient impact. In 1966 Robert Dietz discovered shatter cones in sandstone, proving recent speculation. Shatter cones, a rock-shattering pattern naturally formed only during events, are found in abundance in the area
36.
Simon Bolivar Buckner
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Simon Bolivar Buckner was an American soldier and politician who fought in the United States Army in the Mexican–American War and in the Confederate States Army during the American Civil War. He later served as the 30th Governor of Kentucky, after graduating from the United States Military Academy at West Point, Buckner became an instructor there. He took a hiatus from teaching to serve in the Mexican–American War and he resigned from the army in 1855 to manage his father-in-laws real estate in Chicago, Illinois. He returned to his state of Kentucky in 1857 and was appointed adjutant general by Governor Beriah Magoffin in 1861. In this position, he tried to enforce Kentuckys neutrality policy in the days of the Civil War. When the states neutrality was breached, Buckner accepted a commission in the Confederate Army after declining a commission to the Union Army. In 1862, he accepted Ulysses S. Grants demand for a surrender at the Battle of Fort Donelson. He was the first Confederate general to surrender an army in the war and he spent five months as a prisoner of war. After his release, Buckner participated in Braxton Braggs failed invasion of Kentucky, in the years following the war, Buckner became active in politics. He was elected governor of Kentucky in 1887 and it was his second campaign for that office. His term was plagued by violent feuds in the part of the state, including the Hatfield–McCoy feud. His administration was rocked by scandal when state treasurer James Honest Dick Tate absconded with $250,000 from the states treasury, as governor, Buckner became known for vetoing special interest legislation. In the 1888 legislative session alone, he issued more vetoes than the previous ten governors combined, in 1895, he made an unsuccessful bid for a seat in the U. S. Senate. The following year, he joined the National Democratic Party, or Gold Democrats and he was the Gold Democrats candidate for Vice President of the United States in the 1896 election, but polled just over one percent of the vote on a ticket with John M. Palmer. He never again sought public office and died January 8,1914, Buckner, was born at Glen Lily, his familys estate near Munfordville, Kentucky. He was the child and second son of Aylett Hartswell. His closest friend in Munfordville was Thomas J. Wood, who would become a Union Army general opposing Buckner at the Battle of Perryville, Buckners father was an iron worker, but found that Hart County did not have sufficient timber to fire his iron furnace. Consequently, in 1838, he moved the family to southern Muhlenberg County where he organized an iron-making corporation, Buckner attended school in Greenville, and later at Christian County Seminary in Hopkinsville
37.
Bowling Green, Kentucky
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Bowling Green is a home rule-class city in and the county seat of Warren County, Kentucky, United States. Founded by pioneers in 1798, Bowling Green was the capital of Confederate Kentucky during the American Civil War. The city was the inspiration for the 1967 Everly Brothers song Bowling Green and it is the home of numerous manufacturers, including General Motors and Fruit of the Loom. The Bowling Green Assembly Plant has been the source of all Chevrolet Corvettes built since 1981, Bowling Green is also home to the states second-largest public university, Western Kentucky University. In 2014, Forbes magazine listed Bowling Green as one of the Top 25 Best Places to Retire in the United States, the first Europeans known to have reached the area carved their names on beech trees near the river around 1775. By 1778, settlers established McFaddens Station on the bank of the Barren River. Present-day Bowling Green grew out of homesteads erected by Robert and George Moore and General Elijah Covington, the Moore brothers arrived from Virginia circa 1794. In 1798, only two years after Warren County had been formed, Robert Moore donated 2 acres of land to county trustees for the purpose of constructing public buildings, soon after, he donated an additional 30 to 40 acres surrounding the original plot. The city of Bowling Green was officially incorporated by the Commonwealth of Kentucky on March 6,1798, some controversy exists over the source of the towns name. Some historians dispute this, however, and credit Bowling Green, Virginia, early records indicate that the city name was also spelled Bowlingreen. By 1810, Bowling Green had 154 residents, growth in steamboat commerce and the proximity of the Barren River increased Bowling Greens importance. Canal locks and dams on the Barren River made it more navigable. In 1832, the first portage railway connected the river to the location of the current county courthouse, mules pulled freight and passengers to and from the city on the tracks. Despite rapid urbanization of the Bowling Green area in the 1830s, Bowling Green declared itself neutral in an attempt to escape the Civil War. Because of its location and resources, however, both the Union and Confederacy sought control of the city. The majority of its residents rejected both the Confederacy and the Lincoln administration, on September 18,1861, around 1300 Confederate soldiers arrived from Tennessee to occupy the city, placed under command of Kentucky native General Simon Bolivar Buckner. The citys pro-Union feelings surprised the Confederate occupiers, surrounding hills were fortified to secure possible military approaches to the valuable river and railroad assets. In November 1861, the provisional Confederate government of Kentucky chose Bowling Green as its capital and they destroyed bridges across the Barren River, the railroad depot, and other important buildings that could be used by the enemy
38.
Fort Donelson
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Fort Donelson was a fortress built by the Confederacy during the American Civil War to control the Cumberland River leading to the heart of Tennessee, and the heart of the Confederacy. The fort was named after Confederate general Daniel S. Donelson, the Union Army of the Tennessee, commanded by Major General Ulysses S. Grant, captured the fort from the Confederate Army in the Battle of Fort Donelson in February of 1862. The capture of the resulted in an enormous strategic victory for the Union forces. Union forces occupied the fort for the remainder of the war, a small detachment of Confederate troops made one unsuccessful attempt to regain it. Bushrod Johnson of the Confederate Corps of Engineers had approved the build site, the site commanded a bend on the west side of the Cumberland River opposite Fort Henry which is located on a bend in the Tennessee River about 10 miles west. To the north flows Hickman River, a channel that was impassable except by boat or bridge. The fort, which was meant to house troops and protect the batteries from sorties, had a few acres of log huts. Like Fort Henry, which had fallen to Union troops on February 6, Fort Donelson would not be able to defeat a large scale assault, cannons including a 128 pounder and two 32 pounders were placed atop the hundred foot bluff within the arc. Construction was started by a force of men brought from the nearby Cumberland Iron Works. Confederate commanders Bushrod Johnson Gideon J. Pillow John B, buckner, Sr. Major Rice E. Graves, Jr. Artillery Commander Fort Donelson was garrisoned by the Confederate troops until 1862. The fort was captured by Union General Ulysses S. Grant, the fort was attacked again on August 25,1863, by a Confederate force demanding its surrender. The attack was unsuccessful and was repulsed, Fort Donelson was attacked by General U. S Grant and Flag Officer Andrew Foote, who surrounded the fort and captured it after a short siege. On February 6 Grant was ordered by General Henry Halleck to assault Fort Donelson immediately, Grant made reconnaissance, observed the natural obstacles and Confederate improvements, and knew the fort would not be taken by the 8th. He organized and had Brigadier Generals John A. McClernand, Charles F. Smith, after minor skirmishes with Confederate cavalry in route, the assault on Fort Donelson began on 12 February. On 14 February, a battle took place with Union ships suffering serious damage. After attempting in vain to escape their tenuous position on February 15 via roads to Nashville the Confederates capitulated, the Union was ecstatic when the news of Fort Donelsons surrender reached the capital and cities. Union forces now controlled one of the largest forts in the western theater, the war had been going badly for the Union in Virginia, but the captures of Fort Henry and Fort Donelson were promising victories. After the front line shifted away from Fort Donelson, it became of strategic importance
39.
Cumberland River
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The Cumberland River is a major waterway of the Southern United States. The 688-mile-long river drains almost 18,000 square miles of southern Kentucky, the river flows generally west from a source in the Appalachian Mountains to its confluence with the Ohio River near Paducah, Kentucky, and the mouth of the Tennessee River. Major tributaries include the Obey, Caney Fork, Stones, although the Cumberland River basin is predominantly rural, there are also some large cities on the river, including Nashville and Clarksville, both in Tennessee. In addition, the system has been extensively developed for flood control. Its headwaters are three separate forks that begin in Kentucky and converge in its Harlan County, Martins Fork starts in Hensley Settlement on Brush Mountain in Bell County and snakes its way north through the mountains to Baxter. Clover Fork starts on Black Mountain in Holmes Mill, near the Virginia border, poor Fork begins as a small stream on Pine Mountain in Letcher County near Flat Gap, Virginia. It flows southwest in parallel with Pine Mountain until it merges with the two forks in Baxter. From there, the river continues flowing west through the mountains of Kentucky. The 68-foot falls is one of the largest waterfalls in the southeastern United States and is one of the few places in the Western Hemisphere where a moonbow can be seen. Beyond Cumberland Falls, the river turns abruptly west once again and continues to grow as it converges with other creeks and it receives the Laurel and Rockcastle Rivers from the northeast and then the Big South Fork of the Cumberland River from the south. From here it flows into the man-made Lake Cumberland, formed by Wolf Creek Dam, the more than 100-mile reservoir is one of the largest artificial lakes in the eastern US. Near Celina, the river crosses south into Tennessee, where it is joined by the Obey River, northeast of Nashville, the river is dammed twice more, forming Cordell Hull Lake and Old Hickory Lake. After flowing through Nashville and picking up the Stones River, the river is dammed to form Cheatham Lake, finally, the river flows north and merges with the Ohio River at Smithland, northeast of Paducah. The explorer Thomas Walker of Virginia in 1758 named the river, the Cumberland River was called Wasioto by the Shawnee Native Americans, who lived in this area. French traders called it the Riviere des Chaouanons, or river of the Shawnee for this association, the river was also known as the Shawnee River for years after Walkers trip. Important first as a passage for hunters and settlers, the Cumberland River also supported later riverboat trade, villages, towns, and cities were located at landing points along its banks. Through the middle of the 19th century, settlers depended on rivers as the transportation routes for trading. In more recent history, a number of floods have struck various regions that the river flows through
40.
Andrew H. Foote
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Andrew Hull Foote was an American naval officer who was noted for his service in the American Civil War and also for his contributions to several naval reforms in the years prior to the war. When the war came, he was appointed to command of the Western Gunboat Flotilla, in that position, he led the gunboats in the Battle of Fort Henry. For his services with the Western Gunboat Flotilla, Foote was among the first naval officers to be promoted to the rank of rear admiral. Foote was born at New Haven, Connecticut, the son of Senator Samuel A. Foot, as a child Foote was not known as a good student, but showed a keen interest in one day going to sea. His father compromised and had him entered at the United States Military Academy at West Point, six months later in 1822, he left West Point and accepted an appointment as a midshipman in the United States Navy. Between 1822 and 1843, Foote saw service in the Caribbean, Pacific and he first began as a midshipman on the USS Grampus. In 1830, he was commissioned a lieutenant, and was stationed in the Mediterranean, in 1837, Foote circumnavigated the globe in the USS John Adams. After serving on sea, Foote was put in charge of the Philadelphia Naval Asylum, after serving on land he went back to sea, and organized a Temperance Society aboard the USS Cumberland. This group developed into a movement that resulted in ending the policy of supplying grog to U. S. Naval personnel, from 1849 to 1851, Foote commanded the USS Perry, cruising the waters off the African coast. He was active in suppressing the trade there. This experience persuaded him to support the cause of abolition, and in 1854, he published a 390 page book, Africa and he also became a frequent speaker on the Abolitionist circuit. Foote was promoted to Commander in 1856, and took command of the USS Portsmouth in the East India Squadron, with this command, Foote was assigned the mission of observing British operations against Canton, China, during the Second Opium War. This eventually resulted in his being attacked from Chinese shore batteries, Foote led a landing party that seized the barrier forts along the Pearl River in reprisal for the attack. This led to an occupation by the U. S. Navy of Chinese territory. Foote returned to the Continental United States in 1858, and took command of the Brooklyn Navy Yard, in Brooklyn, New York, when the American Civil War began in 1861, Foote was in command of the New York Navy Yard. On June 29,1861 Foote was promoted to Captain, even though Foote was an officer in the United State Navy, the Western Flotilla was under the jurisdiction of the Union Army. In early February 1862, now holding the rank of Flag Officer, despite heavy damage to one of the gunboats, Foote was able to quickly subdue the fort. Several days later Grant and Foote moved against Fort Donelson on the Cumberland River, hoping for a repeat of the success at Fort Henry, General Grant urged Foote to attack the forts river batteries
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Seth Ledyard Phelps
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Seth Ledyard Phelps was an American naval officer, politician, and diplomat. He served with distinction in the U. S. Navy during the Civil War and afterward was appointed president of the Board of Commissioners of the District of Columbia and then as U. S. Phelps was born on January 13,1824 in Chardon, Ohio, when the Civil War broke out in 1861, Phelps was a Lieutenant commanding the gunboat USS Conestoga. He was promoted to Lieutenant Commander in July 1862, and resigned from the Navy in October 1864, after the war, in 1875, his onetime commander Grant nominated Phelps to serve on the temporary Board of Commissioners. When Congress made it official in 1878, Phelps was elected as the permanent Boards first president and he served for one year, resigning on November 29,1879. In 1883, President Chester A. Arthur appointed Phelps Minister to Peru and he was buried in Washington at Oak Hill Cemetery. Phelps Vocational School in Northeast DC is named for Phelps, additionally, his home at 15 Logan Circle in Washington still stands and has been designated a national Historic Landmark. Seth Ledyard Phelps Letterbook Missouri History Museum Archives Seth Ledyard Phelps at Find a Grave
42.
David Hunter
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David Hunter was a Union general during the American Civil War. S. Hunter was born in Troy, New York, or Princeton and he was the cousin of writer-illustrator David Hunter Strother and his maternal grandfather was Richard Stockton, a signer of the United States Declaration of Independence. He graduated from the United States Military Academy, in 1822, records of his military service prior to the Civil War contain significant gaps. From 1828 to 1831, he was stationed on the northwest frontier, at Fort Dearborn, where he met and married Maria Kinzie and he served in the infantry for 11 years, and was appointed captain of the 1st U. S. Dragoons in 1833. He resigned from the Army in July 1836 and moved to Illinois and he rejoined the Army in November 1841 as a paymaster and was promoted to major in March 1842. One source claims that he saw action in the Second Seminole War, in 1860, Hunter was stationed at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, and he began a correspondence with Abraham Lincoln, focusing on Hunters strong anti-slavery views. This relationship had long-lasting political effects, the first of which was an invitation to ride on Lincolns inaugural train from Springfield, Illinois, to Washington, during this duty, Hunter suffered a dislocated collarbone at Buffalo, due to a crowd pressing the president-elect. Soon after the firing on Fort Sumter, Hunter was promoted to colonel of the 6th U. S and he was wounded in the neck and cheek while commanding a division under Irvin McDowell at the First Battle of Bull Run in July 1861. In August, he was promoted to general of volunteers. He served as a commander in the Western Army under Maj. Gen. John C. Frémont, and was appointed as commander of the Western Department on November 2,1861 and that winter, Hunter was transferred to command the Department of Kansas and, in March 1862, was transferred again to command the Department of the South and the X Corps. Hunter served as the president of the court-martial of Maj. Gen. Fitz John Porter and he also served briefly as the Assistant Inspector General of the Department of the Gulf. Hunter was an advocate of arming black men as soldiers for the Union cause. Confederate President Jefferson Davis issued orders to the Confederate army that Hunter was to be considered a felon to be executed if captured and this action incensed border state slave holders, and Kentucky Representative Charles A. Wickliffe sponsored a resolution demanding a response. Congress approved the Confiscation Act of 1862, which freed all slaves working within the armed forces by forbidding Union soldiers to aid in the return of fugitive slaves. In 1863, Hunter wrote a letter to Confederate leader Jefferson Davis protesting against the Confederate armys brutal mistreatment of captured black U. S. soldiers. Sigel did a job, losing immediately at the Battle of New Market to a force that included cadets from the Virginia Military Institute. Hunter replaced Sigel in command of the Army of the Shenandoah, Lee was concerned enough about Hunter that he dispatched a corps under Lt. Gen. Jubal A
43.
Henry Halleck
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Henry Wager Halleck was a United States Army officer, scholar, and lawyer. A noted expert in military studies, he was known by a nickname that became derogatory and he was an important participant in the admission of California as a state and became a successful lawyer and land developer. Halleck served as General-in-Chief of all Union armies during the American Civil War, Early in the Civil War, Halleck was a senior Union Army commander in the Western Theater. However, Halleck was not present at the battles, and his subordinates received most of the credit, the only operation in which Halleck exercised field command was the Siege of Corinth in a spring of 1862, a Union victory which he conducted with extreme caution. Halleck also developed rivalries with many of his generals, such as Ulysses S. Grant. In July 1862, following Major General George B, mcClellans failed Peninsula Campaign in the Eastern Theater, Halleck was promoted to general-in-chief of all U. S. armies. Halleck served in capacity for about a year and a half. Halleck was a general who believed strongly in thorough preparations for battle and in the value of defensive fortifications over quick. President Abraham Lincoln once described him as more than a first rate clerk. In March of 1864, Grant was promoted to general-in-chief, without the pressure of having to control the movements of the armies, Halleck performed capably in this task, ensuring that the Union armies were well-equipped. Halleck was born on a farm in Westernville, Oneida County, New York, third child of 14 of Joseph Halleck, a lieutenant who served in the War of 1812, and Catherine Wager Halleck. Young Henry detested the thought of a life and ran away from home at an early age to be raised by an uncle. He attended Hudson Academy and Union College, then the United States Military Academy and he became a favorite of military theorist Dennis Hart Mahan and was allowed to teach classes while still a cadet. He graduated in 1839, third in his class of 31 cadets, returning home a first lieutenant, Halleck gave a series of twelve lectures at the Lowell Institute in Boston that were subsequently published in 1846 as Elements of Military Art and Science. His scholarly pursuits earned him the nickname Old Brains, during the Mexican-American War, Halleck was assigned to duty in California. He was awarded a promotion to captain in 1847 for his gallant and meritorious service in California. He was transferred north to serve under General Bennet Riley, the general of the California Territory. Halleck was soon appointed military secretary of state, a position made him the governors representative at the 1849 convention in Monterey where the California state constitution was written
44.
Department of the Ohio
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Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan was designated as its first commander. McClellan led efforts in the spring and early summer of 1861 to occupy the area of western Virginia that wanted to remain in the Union and his forces defeated two small Confederate armies and paved the way for the region to later became the state of West Virginia. After McClellan was reassigned to command the Army of the Potomac, under his directive, troops pushed southward towards Huntsville, Alabama, from Chattanooga, Tennessee, but were turned away. Then, General Orders No.97 commanded Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell to assume command of the department, all the forces of the department were then organized into the Army of the Ohio with Buell in command. The Department of the Ohio was dissolved in March 11,1862, when it was merged into the Department of the Mississippi and the Department of the Mountains. The Department of the Ohio was recreated on August 19,1862, and consisted of the states of Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, Maj. Gen. Horatio G. Wright was assigned to command the reconstituted department. In September, western Virginia was added to the department, along with all Federal troops in the region. On March 25,1863, after the Senate refused to confirm Wrights promotion to major general, Wright, after briefly occupying a subordinate command in Louisville, Kentucky, transferred in May 1863 to the Army of the Potomac to command the 1st Division of VI Corps. Burnside consolidated all the forces of the department and created the XXIII Corps, elements of the new Army of the Ohio helped repel Morgans Raid, although the entire army rarely functioned as a single unit during this campaign. On October 16,1863, the Department of the Ohio became part of the Military Division of the Mississippi, under the overall command of Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant. Due to illness, Burnside asked to be relieved of command after the Battle of Fort Sanders and was replaced by Maj. Gen. John G. Foster on December 9. On February 9,1864, Maj. Gen. John M. Schofield assumed command of the Department of the Ohio, for much of the remainder of the war, the department was synonymous with the Army of the Ohio. Eicher, John H. and Eicher, David J. Civil War High Commands, Stanford University Press,2001, ISBN 0-8047-3641-3. Its Border Annals, Its Part in the Indian Wars, in the War of 1812, in the Mexican War, and in the War of the Rebellion, with a Prefix, Giving a Compendium of the History of the United States. War Department, The War of the Rebellion, a Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies, U. S. Government Printing Office, 1880–1901
45.
Don Carlos Buell
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Don Carlos Buell was a United States Army officer who fought in the Seminole War, the Mexican-American War, and the American Civil War. Buell led Union armies in two great Civil War battles—Shiloh and Perryville, the nation was angry at his failure to defeat the outnumbered Confederates after Perryville, or to secure East Tennessee. Historians concur that he was brave and industrious, and a master of logistics, Buell was relieved of field command in late 1862 and made no more significant military contributions. Don Carlos Buell was born in Lowell, Ohio and he was a first cousin of George P. Buell, also a Union general. He lived in Indiana for a time before the American Civil War, Military Academy in 1841 and was commissioned a second lieutenant in the 3rd U. S. In the Mexican-American War, he served under both Zachary Taylor and Winfield Scott and he was brevetted three times for bravery and was wounded at Churubusco. Between the wars he served in the U. S. Army Adjutant Generals office and as an adjutant in California, at the start of the American Civil War, Buell was an early organizer of the Army of the Potomac and briefly commanded one of its divisions. He was promoted to general, with seniority dating from May 17,1861. In November 1861, he succeeded Brig. Gen. William T. Sherman in command at Louisville, Buells command was designated the Department of the Ohio and his troops the Army of the Ohio. Buells superiors wanted him to operate in eastern Tennessee, an area with Union sympathies, however, Buell essentially disregarded his orders and moved against Nashville instead, which he captured on February 25,1862, against little opposition. At the Battle of Shiloh, Buell reinforced Grant with three of the five divisions of the Army of the Ohio, about 20,000 men, Buell considered that his arrival was the primary reason that Grant avoided a major defeat. But Halleck needed to continually prod Buell to get his army to Pittsburg Landing in order to reinforce Grant, concentrating for a planned attack on the Confederate stronghold at Corinth. Although Buells army was only 90 miles east at Columbia, it one month to reach Pittsburg Landing. Buell considered himself the victor of the battle and denigrated Grants contribution, the commanders operated almost completely independently of each other and Buell proved slow and hesitant to commit himself. Following Shiloh, Henry Halleck arrived in person to command of Grant. The combined Union force,100,000 men strong, began an extremely sluggish pursuit against P. G. T, beauregards Army of Tennessee, which had retreated into northern Mississippi. Despite a more than 2-1 numerical advantage, Halleck took caution to an extreme, the Siege of Corinth ended in the Confederates abandoning the city on May 25. Afterwards, Halleck split up the two armies and sent Buell eastward to capture Chattanooga while Grant remained in the Corinth area
46.
President of the United States
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The President of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president directs the executive branch of the government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. The president is considered to be one of the worlds most powerful political figures, the role includes being the commander-in-chief of the worlds most expensive military with the second largest nuclear arsenal and leading the nation with the largest economy by nominal GDP. The office of President holds significant hard and soft power both in the United States and abroad, Constitution vests the executive power of the United States in the president. The president is empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves. The president is responsible for dictating the legislative agenda of the party to which the president is a member. The president also directs the foreign and domestic policy of the United States, since the office of President was established in 1789, its power has grown substantially, as has the power of the federal government as a whole. However, nine vice presidents have assumed the presidency without having elected to the office. The Twenty-second Amendment prohibits anyone from being elected president for a third term, in all,44 individuals have served 45 presidencies spanning 57 full four-year terms. On January 20,2017, Donald Trump was sworn in as the 45th, in 1776, the Thirteen Colonies, acting through the Second Continental Congress, declared political independence from Great Britain during the American Revolution. The new states, though independent of each other as nation states, desiring to avoid anything that remotely resembled a monarchy, Congress negotiated the Articles of Confederation to establish a weak alliance between the states. Out from under any monarchy, the states assigned some formerly royal prerogatives to Congress, only after all the states agreed to a resolution settling competing western land claims did the Articles take effect on March 1,1781, when Maryland became the final state to ratify them. In 1783, the Treaty of Paris secured independence for each of the former colonies, with peace at hand, the states each turned toward their own internal affairs. Prospects for the convention appeared bleak until James Madison and Edmund Randolph succeeded in securing George Washingtons attendance to Philadelphia as a delegate for Virginia. It was through the negotiations at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in the U. S. The first power the Constitution confers upon the president is the veto, the Presentment Clause requires any bill passed by Congress to be presented to the president before it can become law. Once the legislation has been presented, the president has three options, Sign the legislation, the bill becomes law. Veto the legislation and return it to Congress, expressing any objections, in this instance, the president neither signs nor vetoes the legislation
47.
Abraham Lincoln
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Abraham Lincoln was an American politician and lawyer who served as the 16th President of the United States from March 1861 until his assassination in April 1865. Lincoln led the United States through its Civil War—its bloodiest war and perhaps its greatest moral, constitutional, in doing so, he preserved the Union, abolished slavery, strengthened the federal government, and modernized the economy. Born in Hodgenville, Kentucky, Lincoln grew up on the frontier in Kentucky. Largely self-educated, he became a lawyer in Illinois, a Whig Party leader, elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1846, Lincoln promoted rapid modernization of the economy through banks, tariffs, and railroads. Reentering politics in 1854, he became a leader in building the new Republican Party, in 1860, Lincoln secured the Republican Party presidential nomination as a moderate from a swing state. Though he gained little support in the slaveholding states of the South. Subsequently, on April 12,1861, a Confederate attack on Fort Sumter inspired the North to enthusiastically rally behind the Union. Politically, Lincoln fought back by pitting his opponents against each other, by carefully planned political patronage and his Gettysburg Address became an iconic endorsement of the principles of nationalism, republicanism, equal rights, liberty, and democracy. Lincoln initially concentrated on the military and political dimensions of the war and his primary goal was to reunite the nation. He suspended habeas corpus, leading to the ex parte Merryman decision. Lincoln closely supervised the war effort, especially the selection of top generals, including his most successful general, Lincoln tried repeatedly to capture the Confederate capital at Richmond, each time a general failed, Lincoln substituted another, until finally Grant succeeded. As the war progressed, his moves toward ending slavery included the Emancipation Proclamation of 1863. On April 14,1865, five days after the surrender of Confederate commanding general Robert E. Lee, Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth, a Confederate sympathizer. Secretary of War Edwin Stanton launched a manhunt for Booth, and 12 days later on April 26, Lincoln has been consistently ranked both by scholars and the public as among the greatest U. S. presidents. Abraham Lincoln was born February 12,1809, the child of Thomas and Nancy Hanks Lincoln, in a one-room log cabin on the Sinking Spring Farm near Hodgenville. He was a descendant of Samuel Lincoln, an Englishman who migrated from Hingham, Norfolk to its namesake of Hingham, samuels grandson and great-grandson began the familys western migration, which passed through New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. Lincolns paternal grandfather and namesake, Captain Abraham Lincoln, moved the family from Virginia to Jefferson County, Captain Lincoln was killed in an Indian raid in 1786. His children, including eight-year-old Thomas, the presidents father
48.
Washington's Birthday
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It can occur on the 15th through the 21st of February inclusive. Colloquially, the day is now widely known as Presidents Day and is often an occasion to honor all persons who have served as president. The day is a holiday in most states, with official names including Washingtons Birthday, Presidents Day, Presidents Day. Depending upon the law, the state holiday might officially celebrate Washington alone, Washington and Abraham Lincoln. However, Presidents Day is not always a term and might refer to only a selection of presidents. Several states honor presidents with official state holidays that do not fall on the third Monday of February, in Massachusetts, the state officially celebrates Washingtons Birthday on the same day as the Federal holiday. In New Mexico, Presidents Day, at least as a state-government paid holiday, is observed on the Friday following Thanksgiving, George Washington was officially born on February 11,1731. Consequently, by the 1730s, the Julian calendar used by Britain, furthermore, the British civil year began on 25 March rather than 1 January, so that dates in February belonged to the preceding year. Since, during the 1700s, February 11 under the Julian calendar would fall as February 22 on the Gregorian, the federal holiday honoring Washington was originally implemented by an Act of Congress in 1879 for government offices in Washington and expanded in 1885 to include all federal offices. As the first federal holiday to honor an American president, the holiday was celebrated on Washingtons actual birthday, on January 1,1971, the federal holiday was shifted to the third Monday in February by the Uniform Monday Holiday Act. This date places it between February 15 and 21, which makes the name Washingtons Birthday in some sense a misnomer, since it never occurs on Washingtons actual birthday, the purpose was not to honor any particular President but to honor the office of the Presidency. It was first thought that March 4, the inauguration day. However, the bill recognizing the March 4 date was stalled in the Senate Judiciary Committee and that committee felt that, because of its proximity to Lincolns and Washingtons Birthdays, three holidays so close together would be unduly burdensome. During this time, however, the Governors of a majority of the states issued proclamations declaring March 4 to be Presidents Day in their respective jurisdictions. By the mid-1980s, with a push from advertisers, the term Presidents Day began its public appearance, in Washingtons adopted hometown of Alexandria, Virginia, celebrations are held throughout the month of February. Until the late 1980s, corporate businesses generally closed on this day, some public transit systems have also gone to regular schedules on the day. Many colleges and universities hold regular classes and operations on Presidents Day, consequently, some schools, which used to close for a single day for both Lincolns and Washingtons birthday, now often close for the entire week as a mid-winter recess. For example, the New York City school district began doing so in the 1990s, today, the February holiday has become well known for being a day in which many stores, especially car dealers, hold sales
United States (Union)
CSA (Confederacy)
