1.
Scanian War
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The Scanian War was a part of the Northern Wars involving the union of Denmark–Norway, Brandenburg and Sweden. It was fought from 1675 to 1679 mainly on Scanian soil, in the former Danish provinces along the border with Sweden, the war was prompted by Swedish involvement in the Franco-Dutch War. Sweden had allied with France against several European countries, the United Provinces, under attack by France, sought support from Denmark–Norway. After some hesitation, King Christian V started the invasion of Skåneland in 1675, the Danish objective was to retrieve the Scanian lands that had been ceded to Sweden in the Treaty of Roskilde, after the Northern Wars. Although the Danish offensive was initially a success, Swedish counter-offensives led by the 19-year-old Charles XI of Sweden nullified much of the gain. At the end of the war, the Swedish navy had lost at sea, the Danish army had defeated in Scania by the Swedes. Peace was made on behalf of France with the treaties of Fontainebleau and Lund and Saint-Germain-en-Laye, in the 1660s and early 1670s, the Swedish Empire experienced a financial crisis. Also, Sweden maintained good relations to the Dukes of Holstein-Gottorp south of Denmark, another defensive alliance formed in September 1672 between Denmark, Emperor Leopold I, the Electorate of Brandenburg, and the duchies of Brunswick-Celle, Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel and Hesse-Cassel. This alliance maintained an army of 21,000 foot and 10,500 horse, and since May 1673, Brandenburg was then the second most powerful German state, and maintained its own standing army of 23,000 men. The Netherlands had been attacked by the French army in 1672, known as the rampjaar, in December 1674, Louis XIV of France called upon Sweden to invade Brandenburg. Wrangel advanced into the Uckermark, a region on the Brandenburg-Pomeranian frontier, Frederick William I, Elector of Brandenburg received the news in the Rhine valley, and turned northeast to confront Wrangel. As a result of defeat, Sweden appeared vulnerable, encouraging neighbouring countries that had suffered invasion by Sweden in the prior Swedish campaigns to join in the Scanian War. Count Peder Griffenfeld, a royal adviser, advised against it. But when the numerically superior Swedes lost the Battle of Fehrbellin on June 28,1675, Christian V saw his chance, and overcoming Griffenfelds opposition, attacked. The second largest Swedish garrison in North Germany, after Swedish Pomerania, was the twin Duchy of Bremen-Verden, for political reasons, and to prevent the Swedes from advertising and recruiting mercenaries, the Allies decided to conquer these two duchies. Denmark and Brandenburg-Prussia were joined by allies from the neighboring imperial principalities of Münster, the campaign began on 15 September 1675 with an Allied advance into the two Swedish duchies. They rapidly captured one Swedish fortress after another, by the end of the year only the Swedish headquarters town of Stade and Carlsburg were still in Swedish hands. In November the Allies sent their troops into winter quarters with the result that the conquest of the last remaining Swedish strongholds had to wait until the following year, Stade did not surrender until 13 August 1676
2.
Halmstad
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Halmstad is a port, university, industrial and recreational city at the mouth of Nissan in the province of Halland on the Swedish west coast. Halmstad is the seat of Halmstad Municipality and the capital of Halland County, the city had a population of 92,797 in 2012, out of a municipal total of over 90,000. Halmstad is Swedens 20th-largest city by population and located about midway between Gothenburg and Malmö and it is Europes northernmost city with a lot of timber framing architecture. Halmstad, at the part of the Kingdom of Denmark, received its first city charter in 1307. The oldest remains of that first town are to be found at Övraby upstream on Nissan, just south of, the remains of the church can still be seen today between a defunct brick industry and a former landfill. In the 1320s the town moved to the present day town centre, at this time there were two monasteries in the town and during the 15th century the St. Nikolai church was built. Halland was the object of numerous battles, sieges and occupations by Swedish troops, during the Kalmar Union – a Nordic Union between Sweden, Norway and Denmark which lasted between 1400 and 1520 – it was in Halmstad that the Union King was to be finally selected. 1619 is an important date in the history of Halmstad, in March of that year, King Gustav II Adolf of Sweden and Christian IV met at the castle. Over a period of a week they celebrated the payment in full of the Älvsborg ransom, august of the same year saw the destruction of Halmstad by fire. Halland became part of Sweden for a period of thirty years when peace was declared at the Treaty of Brömsebro in 1645, the Treaty of Roskilde in 1658 made this acquisition permanent. Sweden defeated Denmark in the Battle of Fyllebro which took place in 1676 just outside Halmstad, the first May Day demonstration in Sweden was held in Halmstad in 1897. The population grew from 48,800 in 1990 to 58,577 in 2010, in September 2007 the city hosted the Solheim Cup, which was played at the Halmstad Golfklubb. In 2011 Halmstad was the port of the Tall Ships Races. Halmstad has the south Scandinavian variety of the relatively wet climate with warm summers and cool to cold winters. Founded in 1983, Halmstad University is a higher education institution offering bachelors and masters programs in various fields of study. In addition, it conducts Ph. D. programs in three fields of research, Information Technology, Innovation Science and Health Science, Halmstad University has more than 9000 students, including 245 exchange students and 163 international programme students
3.
Sweden
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Sweden, officially the Kingdom of Sweden, is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe. It borders Norway to the west and Finland to the east, at 450,295 square kilometres, Sweden is the third-largest country in the European Union by area, with a total population of 10.0 million. Sweden consequently has a low density of 22 inhabitants per square kilometre. Approximately 85% of the lives in urban areas. Germanic peoples have inhabited Sweden since prehistoric times, emerging into history as the Geats/Götar and Swedes/Svear, Southern Sweden is predominantly agricultural, while the north is heavily forested. Sweden is part of the area of Fennoscandia. The climate is in very mild for its northerly latitude due to significant maritime influence. Today, Sweden is a monarchy and parliamentary democracy, with a monarch as head of state. The capital city is Stockholm, which is also the most populous city in the country, legislative power is vested in the 349-member unicameral Riksdag. Executive power is exercised by the government chaired by the prime minister, Sweden is a unitary state, currently divided into 21 counties and 290 municipalities. Sweden emerged as an independent and unified country during the Middle Ages, in the 17th century, it expanded its territories to form the Swedish Empire, which became one of the great powers of Europe until the early 18th century. Swedish territories outside the Scandinavian Peninsula were gradually lost during the 18th and 19th centuries, the last war in which Sweden was directly involved was in 1814, when Norway was militarily forced into personal union. Since then, Sweden has been at peace, maintaining a policy of neutrality in foreign affairs. The union with Norway was peacefully dissolved in 1905, leading to Swedens current borders, though Sweden was formally neutral through both world wars, Sweden engaged in humanitarian efforts, such as taking in refugees from German-occupied Europe. After the end of the Cold War, Sweden joined the European Union on 1 January 1995 and it is also a member of the United Nations, the Nordic Council, Council of Europe, the World Trade Organization and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Sweden maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides health care. The modern name Sweden is derived through back-formation from Old English Swēoþēod and this word is derived from Sweon/Sweonas. The Swedish name Sverige literally means Realm of the Swedes, excluding the Geats in Götaland, the etymology of Swedes, and thus Sweden, is generally not agreed upon but may derive from Proto-Germanic Swihoniz meaning ones own, referring to ones own Germanic tribe
4.
Swedish Empire
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The Swedish Empire refers to the Kingdom of Swedens territorial control of much of the Baltic region during the 17th and early 18th centuries, a time when Sweden was one of the great European powers. The beginning of the Empire is usually taken as the reign of Gustavus Adolphus, who ascended the throne in 1611, in Swedish history, the period is referred to as stormaktstiden, literally meaning the Great Power era. The interests of the high nobility contrasted with the uniformity policy, in territories acquired during the periods of de facto noble rule, serfdom was not abolished, and there was also a trend to set up respective estates in Sweden proper. The Great Reduction of 1680 put an end to efforts of the nobility. However, in the course of this war as well as in the subsequent Scanian War, Sweden was able to maintain her empire only with support of her closest ally. Charles XI of Sweden consolidated the empire and ensured a period of peace, before Russia, Saxony and Denmark started an attack on his successor. Sweden emerged as a great European power under Axel Oxenstierna and King Gustavus Adolphus, during the Thirty Years War, Sweden managed to conquer approximately half of the member states of the Holy Roman Empire. After France had intervened on the side as Sweden, the fortunes would shift again. As the war continued, it turned more and more grim, although exact population estimates do not exist, historians estimate that as many as one-third of the people in the Holy Roman Empire may have died as a result of the war. At the same time, Sweden joined the other important northern European nations in founding overseas colonies, New Sweden was founded in the valley of the Delaware River in 1638, and Sweden later laid claim to a number of Caribbean islands. A string of Swedish forts and trading posts was constructed along the coast of West Africa as well, at the conclusion of the Thirty Years War, the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 granted Sweden territories as war reparations. Sweden demanded Silesia, Pomerania pay a sum of 200,000 Riksdaler out of the lands they would receive, or 2) surrender a fourth of the property itself. Against this, the over-taxed lower estates protested, and the Diet had to be suspended, the king intervened, not to quell the commons, as the senate insisted, but to compel the nobility to give way. He proposed a committee to investigate the matter before the meeting of the next Riksdag. Charles X Gustav had done his best to recover from the extravagance of Christina. However, his own desire for military glory may have caused problems for his country, in three days, he persuaded the Swedish estates of the potential of his attack on the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. However, when he left Stockholm for Warsaw on July 10,1654, the Polish-Swedish War expanded into a general European war. He achieved passage over the Belts and emerged triumphant, only to die of sheer exhaustion, immediately after his death, a regency was appointed to govern Sweden during the minority of his only son and successor, Charles XI of Sweden, who was four years old
5.
Charles XI of Sweden
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Charles XI, also Carl, was King of Sweden from 1660 until his death, in a period of Swedish history known as the Swedish Empire. Charles was the son of King Charles X Gustav of Sweden. His father died when he was five years old, so Charles was educated by his governors until his coronation at the age of seventeen, soon after, he was forced out on military expeditions to secure the recently acquired dominions from Danish troops in the Scanian War. Changes in finance, commerce, national maritime and land armaments, judicial procedure, church government, Charles XI was succeeded by his only son Charles XII, who made use of the well-trained army in battles throughout Europe. The fact that Charles was crowned as Charles XI does not mean that he was the 11th king of Sweden who had the name Charles. His fathers name was due to his great-grandfather, King Charles IX of Sweden and this descendant was actually the 5th King Charles. The numbering tradition thus begun still continues, with the present king of Sweden being Carl XVI Gustaf, Charles was born in the Stockholm Palace Tre Kronor in November 1655. His father, Charles X of Sweden, left Sweden in July to fight in the war against Poland, after several years of warfare, the king returned in the winter of 1659 and gathered his family and the Riksdag of the Estates in Gothenburg. In mid-January 1660 he fell ill and one month later he wrote his last will, per Brahe was one member of the council. In addition, Charles X Gustav left command of the army and these provisions among others led to the remainder of the council immediately challenging the will. February 14, the day after King Charles Xs death, Hedwig Eleonora sent a message to the council stating that she knew that they contested the will and that she demanded that it should be respected. The council answered that the will must first be discussed with the parliament, and at the council in Stockholm on May 13. The parliament questioned whether it would be good for her health or suitable for a widow to attend council, and her reply that the council would be allowed to meet without her and only inform her when they considered it necessary was met with satisfaction from the council. Hedwig Eleonoras ostensible indifference to politics came as a relief to the lords of the guardian government. His mother, Queen Hedvig Eleonora, remained the regent until Charles XI attained his majority on 18 December 1672. During his first appearances in parliament, Charles spoke to the government through her and he would whisper the questions he had in her ear, and she would ask them aloud and clearly for him. As an adolescent, Charles devoted himself to sports, exercise and he appeared ignorant of the very rudiments of statecraft and almost illiterate. His main difficulties are now seen as evident signs of dyslexia, according to many contemporary sources, the king was considered poorly educated and therefore not qualified to conduct himself effectively in foreign affairs
6.
Simon Grundel-Helmfelt
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Baron Simon Grundel-Helmfelt was a Swedish field marshal and governor. Helmfelt is most notable for his victory at the Battle of Lund despite being heavily outnumbered by Danish troops. He served in the Thirty Years War from 1641 and distinguished himself at the Battle of Breitenfeld and he was knighted in 1646, when he changed his name from Grundel to Grundel-Helmfelt. Later that year he was wounded outside Rain am Lech by a musket bullet, in 1649 he was promoted to Colonel of the Artillery and in 1655 to General of the Infantry. In 1656, he was appointed Governor of Riga, where he defended the town against Tsar Alexej. He became Governor-General of Ingria in 1658, helmfelt returned to Stockholm in 1676 to become Commander-in-chief of the Swedish army during the Scanian War. He was killed the year at the Battle of Landskrona
7.
Battle of Rathenow
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The Battle of Rathenow was the first engagement between the forces of Brandenburg-Prussia and Sweden in the Swedish-Brandenburg War. The battle took place on 256 and ended with the capture of the town of Rathenow, the front of which had been occupied by Sweden, by the Brandenburg troops. The Swedes, led by Colonel Wangelin, had about 500 men, in 1674, Brandenburg entered the Franco-Dutch War against France and dispatched an army to Alsace. As a result, France persuaded Sweden to attack the undefended Electorate of Brandenburg, in late 1674, Swedish troops advanced from Swedish Pomerania well into the Electorate, thanks to the absence of any significant contingents of Brandenburg troops. Meanwhile, the main Brandenburg Army was fighting the French in Bavaria, the town of Rathenow was also occupied by Swedish troops, because Wrangel wanted to launch a crossing of the River Elbe at Havelberg from Rathenow and join forces with Hanoverian troops. His objective was the capture of the important Brandenburg fortress of Magdeburg, to that end the Swedish advance party under Colonel Wangelin occupied Rathenow, initially to secure the Havel crossings and then push forward to Magdeburg. The town of Rathenow was located on the bank of the River Havel. Of its medieval fortifications, only elements had survived, but these still offered adequate protection against an army not set on a long siege, so the gates were fortified and equipped with drawbridges. The Brandenburg plan was to assault the town through its western gate and their troops advanced under Field Marshal Georg von Derfflinger just before 2 clock over the Havel bridge. This enabled the dragoons to break into the town, meanwhile, the Elector had Major General von Götze and 600 musketeers advance along the mill embankment to the Mill Gate. Here fighting broke out, the Swedes proving able to hold their ground for the time being, another unit that attempted to enter the south side of the town from the Havel in boats, was also initially repulsed. Not until the attack did the Brandenburgers succeed in entering the town. The assault on the Mill Gate also prevailed and General von Götze succeeded in capturing it, after vigorous fighting, the Swedish garrison was defeated and their commander, Swedish Colonel Wangelin, surrendered. Wangelin and his comrades are taken prisoner, as well as the lieutenant colonel and major,2 captains and some lieutenants and they had 600 in all, the rest were all killed. If God had wanted us to do more, had we had our infantry with us, we would have beaten the enemy soundly, adieu, I can write no more. I die your faithful husband and your servant, the fight cost Sweden 200 dead and 270 prisoners. The Brandenburg troops lost only 100 men killed or mortally wounded and they also captured 500 to 600 horses from the Swedes. The Swedes, hitherto perceived as invincible, had suffered their first defeat, as a consequence of this setback, the Swedes had to abandon their plan to cross the Elbe at Havelberg in the vicinity of Rathenow, in order to attack the key Brandenburg fortress of Magdeburg
8.
Battle of Nauen
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The Skirmish at Nauen, took place on 276 near the town of Nauen between the vanguard of the Brandenburg-Prussian army and Swedish rearguard units during the Swedish-Brandenburg War. The engagement ended with the capture of the town of Nauen by Brandenburg-Prussia, the decisive military victory in favour of Brandenburg, however, took place at the Battle of Fehrbellin on the following day. In December 1674 a Swedish army from Swedish Pomerania invaded the undefended March of Brandenburg, the Swedish field marshal dispatched a spearhead under the command of Colonel Wangelin to Rathenow, in order to secure the line of the river. The situation suddenly changed when the Brandenburg army succeed in recapturing this strategically important location at the Battle of Rathenow and this coup, which completely surprised the Swedes, meant that it was no longer possible for them to cross the Elbe at Havelberg. When the Elector learned of this, he took up their immediate pursuit, in the meantime, a 1,200 strong Brandenburg advance guard under Lieutenant Colonel Sydow had ridden at the gallop to a position covering Nauen. The lakeland in front of the town was only passable over a causeway, so the Swedes had thrown up protective fieldworks, including several cannon. In spite of that, they offered no resistance when they saw a number of enemy horsemen advancing on them. Instead, they tipped their cannon into the lake and beat a hasty retreat. The fleeing soldiers were pursued by Brandenburg cavalry to the edge of the town of Nauen, the largest element of the Swedish contingent withdrew behind a stream beyond the town. A smaller element, a battalion of musketeers, occupied Nauen, meeting the advancing Brandenburgers with a fire from their muskets. Nevertheless, even before they were reinforced by cannon and more dragoons in front of the town,200 Brandenburg troopers succeeded in driving back a Swedish rearguard of 1,000 cuirassiers, in response, the Swedes rapidly surrendered the town of Nauen to Brandenburg and fled. During this further retreat, the pursuing Brandenburg cavalry inflicted further casualties on the Swedes, despite that, the Brandenburg cavalry could not capture the crossing over the stream behind the town. At the end of the bridge, the Swedes had erected a defensive position with several cannon, the fire from these guns forced the Brandenburgers to pull back with losses. Meanwhile, behind the Swedish fortification, the main Swedish army had deployed in order of battle, nevertheless, the enemy was in a good position, as before, so that a frontal assault would have been too fraught with risk. In addition, the Brandenburg troops were exhausted by their forced march, so the order was issued to pull back into and behind the town of Nauen and to pitch camp for the night. By the evening of 276 the two faced one another at close proximity. The Brandenburg side expected to battle the next morning in front of the gates of Nauen. The Swedes however used the cover of night to withdraw towards Fehrbellin, the Elector and his army broke camp the next day at 5,30 a. m. in order to continue the pursuit
9.
Battle of Fehrbellin
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The Battle of Fehrbellin was fought on June 18,1675 between Swedish and Brandenburg-Prussian troops. Along with the Battle of Warsaw, Fehrbellin was crucial in establishing the prestige of Frederick William, prior to the battle the Swedes and Brandenburg had been allies in various wars against the Kingdom of Poland. Leaving on 26 May 1675, he marched 250 kilometres to Magdeburg in only two weeks and this feat was considered one of the great marches in military history. He did it by abandoning his supply wagons and leaving large parts of the infantry behind, having his army buy supplies from the locals, the Swedes did not expect him to arrive that early. This ruse, combined with the speed of the Electors advance made the Swedes unaware of his arrival, field Marshal Derfflinger then personally led an attack on Rathenow with 7,000 cavalry and 1,000 musketeers, his approach slowed but hidden by heavy rain. Derfflinger impersonated a Swedish officer and convinced the guards to open the gates of the town by claiming that a Brandenburg patrol was after him. Once the gates were opened for him, he led a charge of 1,000 dragoons against the city and he was 69 years old at the time. Once Derfflinger had forced the Swedish garrison from Rathenow, Wrangel pulled back his troops toward Havelberg and his progress was greatly impeded by marshes that the summer rains had turned treacherous. On June 17, the Brandenburgian troops reached Nauen, meanwhile, Frederick Williams advance parties, under the command of Colonel Joachim Hennings and guided by locals, blocked the exits of the area. The Swedes, who had planned to cross the Elbe river in order to join forces with Brunswick troops, were forced back to their last position at Fehrbellin. The Swedish commander, Wrangel, found himself hemmed in by a bridge over the Rhin river by the town of Fehrbellin. Impassable marshes on both flanks left Wrangel little choice but to give battle south of the village of Hakenberg while his engineers repaired the span. A total of 6, 000–7,000 Brandenburgers with 13 cannons faced 7,000 Swedes with 28 guns and these guns opened fire around noon on the 18th and caused heavy casualties on the Swedish right flank. Wrangel, now aware of the threat, attempted several times to wrest control of the hills but was stopped each time by the Brandenburgian cavalry. The Brandenburgian cavalry then turned and routed a regiment of Swedish infantry, the Swedish right however had held up long enough though for the Fehrbellin bridge to be repaired and Wrangel was able to get a large portion of his army across before darkness fell. Frederick William rejected all his officers suggestions to shell the town, the Brandenburg troops lost about 500 men. Wrangels forces lost slightly more than the Brandenburgers but it is exactly how many. The Swedish infantry under Delwig lost 300–400 men alone, with 200 additional losses mostly attributed to the cavalry, of the 1,200 Dalwig Guards, all but 20 were killed or captured
10.
Battle of Lund
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The Danish had an army of about 13,000 under the personal command of 31-year-old King Christian V of Denmark, aided by General Carl von Arensdorff. The Swedish army, which numbered about 8,000, was commanded by Field Marshal Simon Grundel-Helmfelt and it is one of the bloodiest battles in percent of casualties on both sides ever fought on European soil. After the Swedish defeat at the Battle of Fehrbellin and a number of Danish triumphs at sea, the Danes saw this as an opportunity to regain control over the Scanian lands, which had fallen to Sweden with the 1658 Treaty of Roskilde. The Danes invaded via Helsingborg in late June 1676 with an army of 14,000 men and this made it impossible for the outnumbered Swedish troops to effectively defend the recently acquired province. After a month, only the town of Malmö remained under Swedish control. In August, a Danish detachment tried to advance north, but Swedish King Charles XI had prepared a new army in the province of Småland, and the Danish advance was halted at the Battle of Halmstad. The Swedes had gathered 14,000 men by October, of which three-fourths were mounted and they slowly fought their way in an attempt to break the siege of Malmö. Swedish supply lines were thin due to frequent interceptions by local peasants under the command of Danish officers, in early November, the Danish king and his army had taken post at Lund, south of the Kävlinge River. The Danes controlled all the crossings, and the Swedish army was forced to camp on the north side. For one month this situation endured, but snow arrived in late November, on the morning of December 3, the Swedish General of Fortifications Erik Dahlberg reported to the king that the ice would hold their weight. The Danes assumed that the Swedes had gone into winter camp, before daybreak the Swedish army broke camp and made preparations to cross the river. The Swedes had 2,000 infantry and 6,000 cavalry at their disposal, their Danish opponents had more than 5,000 infantry,6,000 cavalry, in addition to 1,300 Dutch marines—in all, about 13,000 men. Under the cover of a night, between 04,00 and 05,30, the entire Swedish force successfully crossed the river. The Swedish planned to attack the sleeping Danish camp with cavalry from the southeast, reconnaissance patrols reported that the ground between the two armies was unsuitable for mounted troops, so King Charles XI and his generals gathered to discuss the new situation. Most advisers pointed out that it would be foolish to attack by foot as the Danish army possessed much more infantry, additionally, the Swedes would likely lose the element of surprise during the long march towards the Danish camp. The king was eager to attack at once, but was swayed by his advisers and he ordered the troops to advance towards the hills just outside the north wall of Lund, to seize a tactical advantage. The hills would mean better terrain for the cavalry and the town itself would cover the Swedish southern flank, by then Danes had woken, and soon recognised the Swedish intentions. The Danes quickly broke camp and started to race the Swedes for control of the hills, the first skirmish was between the Swedish right wing and the Danish left wing, and ended in a draw
11.
Battle of Landskrona
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The Battle of Landskrona was fought on the Ylleshed moor, outside the town of Landskrona, in southern Sweden on July 14,1677, between Sweden and Denmark. On July 12 the Swedish army of 10,000 men had reinforced with 4,000 peasants from Småland. The Swedes planned to attack the Danish army that had weakened by losses at Malmö before reinforcements could arrive from Germany. The Danes however, had returned to Landskrona and camped on the hills west of the town. Early in the morning of July 14, Charles XI formed his army into four columns, but as soon as the Swedes got the enemy camp in sight they noticed that it was empty. This caused some confusion among the Swedish generals, most of them assumed that Christian V had retreated to Landskrona and that the Swedes should abort the operation. However Charles was determined to battle and kept his army marching towards the Danish camp. During the night Christian had moved his army down from the hills, the Swedish General Ascheberg spotted the Danish troops behind the wall. The Swedish army paused for one hour and at nine oclock formed itself into two lines at the north-east end of the moor. Although his generals advised against it, Christian decided to leave his position behind the wall. The two armies started advancing towards each other and were separated only by a small valley. The artillery exchanged fire but none of the sides were willing to attack across the dale, finally Charles XI and his guard on the right wing charged down the slope and up the other side. They were immediately surrounded and almost taken prisoner, but saved by the Household cavalry, the rest of the Swedish right wing followed and the battle began. After less than one hour the Danish left wing was routed, on the Danish right Christian V out-flanked the Swedes and when Field marshal Simon Grundel-Helmfelt was killed the Swedish left wing was scattered. However, backed up by the 4,000 peasants, the Swedes managed to escape, in the center the Danes took the initiative when General Russenstein attacked soon after both flanks were engaged. But as his left flank was unprotected it took a lot of punishment, at the same time Christian could not make the left flank of the Swedish center bulge. When the Swedish cavalry that had pursued the Danish left wing returned to the battle at the same time, by 18,00 all Danish troops had quit the field and the Swedes retired to the former Danish camp. Reasons for the Danish defeat are said to be rivalry between Danish generals and that the Danish units had been mixed up during the night, the Danes also failed to exploit their success on the right wing, which gave the Swedes time to reorganize their units
12.
Battle of Marstrand
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The battle of Marstrand was a successful Dano-Norwegian siege of the harbor town of Marstrand, Sweden which took place between 6–23 July 1677, during the Scanian War. In January 1677, a point in Strömstad was taken by a Swedish force. After doing this Løvenhielm proceeded to Uddevalla, simultaneously, Gyldenløve shipped out a considerable force in the direction of Marstrand. He landed on the island of Koön on 6 July. Marstrand was defended by the fortress of Carlsten and the three strong-points Malepert, Gustafsborg, and Hedvigsholm, the defenders tallied 600, led by commander Anders Sinclair. When demanded to evacuate the fortress, Sinclair replied. there was no fortress to yield, the Danes attacked Hedvigsholm first, after withstanding several attacks, the Swedes defending it were forced to abanadon it and retire to Carlsten on 20 July. Malepert had been already on 13 July and Gustafsberg was abandoned soon thereafter. Carlsten no longer had outposts, and after strong bombardment from all sides, finally surrendered on 23 July, after taking Carlsten, Gyldenløve installed a strong detachment of troops under Løvenhjelm to defend Marstrand before returning to Norway. Through the conquest of Marstrand Denmark obtained a safe, ice-free harbour and this in turn further enabled the Danish blockade of Gothenburg. However, Løvenhjelm soon found himself threatened by approaching Swedish forces, berättelser ur svenska historien, vol 6, p 685, Carl Georg Starbäck & Per Olof Bäckström Dansk biografisk lexikon, vol 10, p 597, Carl Frederik Bricka
13.
Battle of Warksow
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The Battle of Warksow was a battle that took place on the Baltic Sea island of Rügen on 8 January 1678 during the Swedish-Brandenburg War. In the battle Swedish forces defeated an army composed mainly of Danes supported by a smaller contingent of Brandenburg troops. The Swedes were able to muster some 3,500 men for the battle including 2,000 cavalry, the allied Danes and Brandenburg troops had about 4,670 men, including a few hundred Brandenburg soldiers and 1,770 cavalry, as well as 16 cannon. 170 Swedes lost their lives in the battle and subsequent pursuit, the Danish/Brandenburg side lost 400 killed and more than 3,600 captured. After the battle and in the days followed, the entire allied force were captured or forced to follow the Swedish flag. After a Swedish army had defeated in the Battle of Fehrbellin in 1675 in Brandenburg. Suddenly its possessions in northern Germany were threatened by the alliance of Denmark, in 1677 the Swedish fleet was almost completely destroyed in the Battle of Køge Bay by the Danish fleet under command of Admiral Niels Juel. For Swedish Rügen this defeat meant that the possession was now cut off from all assistance from Sweden. According to internal agreements between Brandenburg-Prussia and Denmark, the island of Rügen would be given to Denmark after the treaty with Sweden. On 17 September 1677 Danish troops under the command of the Danish king landed on the eastern coast of the island near Prorer Wiek. Thus, the Danes were able to entrench themselves, unchallenged, the Swedes were beaten in the ensuing Battle of Bergen and withdrew to Altefähr and into the Prosnitzer Schanze. Shortly thereafter the Swedes under Königsmarck also had to leave Altefähr, only the Prosnitzer Schanze remained in Swedish hands. Due to ongoing looting and devastation by Swedish, Danish and Brandenburg troops, on 21 October the Danish king returned to Denmark. Part of the Brandenburg troops were withdrawn from the island, leaving only 970 men from Brandenburg-Prussia on the island, the Danish-Brandenburg troops were now under the command of Major General von Rumohr and Colonel Wilhelm Friedrich von Hülsen. These two had not to engage with the Swedes until the arrival of further reinforcements. However, any reinforcement from the Danish army, weakened by disease, the Swedish chose to land at Neufährschanze which was still in Swedish hands. Against orders, the allied Danish and Brandenburg force under Major General von Rumohr gave battle, at 9 in the morning the battle began with an exchange of artillery on the road between Poseritz and Gustow at Warksow Manor. When Detlef von Rumohr was felled by a shell, confusion arose in the ranks of the allies
14.
Siege of Stralsund (1678)
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The Siege of Stralsund was a battle between the Electorate of Brandenburg and the Swedish Empire on 10 and 11 October 1678, during the Scanian War. After two days of bombardment, the severely devastated Swedish fortress of Stralsund surrendered to the Brandenburgers, the Scanian War reached Swedish Pomerania when after the Battle of Fehrbellin the retreating Swedish forces were pursued by a Brandenburgian army under Great Elector Frederick William Is command. Stralsund was one of two major fortresses Sweden maintained in Pomerania, the other one being Stettin. After the Brandenburgian army had captured Stettin and Wolgast, Stralsund was seriously threatened, in addition, Danish forces had landed on Rügen in 1677, aided by a loyal Rugian noble. Thus, all buildings outside the fortifications were levelled in 1677 to strip an imminent Brandenburgian attack of cover, Stralsund then held a population of 8,500, including armed burghers, and close to 5,000 Swedish, German and Finnish foot and horse. Frederick William I positioned his artillery south of the town and started bombardment on 10 October 1678 and his aim was to force Swedish commander Otto Wilhelm von Königsmarck into surrender by abundantly firing incendiary bombs on the burghers mansions. The small, newly created Brandenburgian navy also took part in the siege, most of the southern half of the town was destroyed when the defendants surrendered the town on 11 October, namely 285 houses,476 huts, and 194 servant dwellings. Despite great efforts of Frederick William I to win the loyalty of the Swedish Pomeranian population, including generous aid programs to rebuilt Stralsund and Stettin, most remained loyal to Sweden. After the fall of Stralsund, there were only few Swedish-held areas left in Swedish Pomerania, Stralsund was returned to Sweden in the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye. Due to the bombardment and another fire on 12 June 1680. After the 1680 fire destroyed an additional 48 houses,89 huts, and 82 servant dwellings, only 205 houses,408 huts, Pomerania during the Early Modern Age Brandenburg-Pomeranian conflict
15.
Battle of Halmstad
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The Battle of Halmstad was fought on August 17,1676, at Fyllebro, approximately five kilometers south of the town Halmstad in southwest Sweden. It was the last battle in Halland between Denmark and Sweden, the Danish army that landed at Helsingborg in Scania in late June 1676 managed to conquer almost the whole province in less than a month. The Swedish army had to retreat north to Växjö, on August 11, King Charles XI and his small army headed west to intercept Duncan. At noon of August 17, the Swedish army reached the road from Scania to Halmstad. The Swedes destroyed the bridge leading south and headed north, after just a few kilometres the Swedish vanguard under command of Ascheberg encountered a small Danish unit that was routed back north. After a short chase Ascheberg found himself face-to-face with Duncan and his forces, the Danish army was about to cross the bridge over the creek Fylleån. Duncan, who thought that the enemy troops were the entire Swedish force. Unaware of the danger he let his troops assume battle formations on the bank with their backs against the creek. Meanwhile, the Swedes brought forward the rest of their cavalry and infantry, the battle started with a salvo from the few Swedish cannons, whereupon Charles XI and his Household cavalry charged down the hills to attack the Danish left wing. Soon the Swedes also charged on the wing and in the center. After 15 minutes the Danish left wing was scattered, in the center the Danish infantry put up a determined fight, with a powerful counter-attack from a cavalry unit that tried to break through the Swedish lines, but only one squadron made it through. At this point Duncan had realized his mistake and ordered his troops to retreat back across the bridge. But the Swedish cavalry on the right wing found a ford, understanding that the battle was lost, Duncan surrendered. The action had lasted for more than an hour. The defeat at Halmstad dealt a blow to the Danish plans to advance north. The day after the battle the Danish King Christian V broke his camp at Kristianstad, on September 5 he reached Halmstad and begun besieging the town with no result. Three weeks later he returned to Scania to find quarters for the winter, the battle at Fyllebro was also 20-year-old Charles XIs first major victory. It was an important morale boost for him, his generals, the army was still much too weak to confront the Danes in Scania and marched north to Varberg to await more troops
16.
Halland
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Halland is one of the traditional provinces of Sweden, on the western coast of Sweden. It borders Västergötland, Småland, Scania and the sea of Kattegat, the provinces of Sweden serve no administrative function. Instead, that function is served by the Counties of Sweden, as of December 31,2009, Halland had a population of 303,895. Of these,287,668 lived in Halland County,13,980 lived in Västra Götaland County, during the Danish era until 1658, the province had no coat of arms and no seal. In Sweden, however, every province had been represented by heraldic arms since 1560, when Charles X Gustav of Sweden suddenly died in 1660 a coat of arms had to be created for the newly acquired province. Each province was to be represented by its arms at the royal funeral, there are several theories about the choice of a lion. Bengt Algotsson, duke of Halland and Finland in the 14th century, blazon, Azure, a Lion rampant Argent langued, armed and dente Gules. The same coat of arms was granted for the administrative Halland County. The rivers of Lagan, Ätran, Nissan and Viskan flow through the province, Halland is well known for its fertile soil and as an agricultural district. The Bronze Age was probably a period of prosperity in Halland. This is shown in the number of new settlements and the archaeological remains. Over 1,100 tumuli and grave mounds have been found, the end of the Bronze Age witnessed an over-consumption of resources. This might have been a result of a demand for charcoal in smelting gold or bronze among the local elites. The worsening climate at the beginning of the Iron Age meant that the local elites no longer could obtain bronze to the extent as before. As a result, the structures collapsed. The early Iron Age social structures seem to have been relatively egalitarian and this is likely to have been a distant influence from the growing Roman Empire. During the 5th and 6th century large free-standing farms were created, an example of such a farm can be found in Slöinge. It was not just the structure that changed, so too did the settlement structure
17.
Denmark
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The term Danish Realm refers to the relationship between Denmark proper, the Faroe Islands and Greenland—three countries constituting the Kingdom of Denmark. The legal nature of the Kingdom of Denmark is fundamentally one of a sovereign state. The Faroe Islands and Greenland have been part of the Crown of Denmark since 1397 when the Kalmar Union was ratified, legal matters in The Danish Realm are subject to the Danish Constitution. Beginning in 1953, state law issues within The Danish Realm has been governed by The Unity of the Realm, a less formal name for The Unity of the Realm is the Commonwealth of the Realm. In 1978, The Unity of The Realm was for the first time referred to as rigsfællesskabet. The name caught on and since the 1990s, both The Unity of The Realm and The Danish Realm itself has increasingly been referred to as simply rigsfællesskabet in daily parlance. The Danish Constitution stipulates that the foreign and security interests for all parts of the Danish Realm are the responsibility of the Danish government, the Faroes received home rule in 1948 and Greenland did so in 1979. In 2005, the Faroes received a self-government arrangement, and in 2009 Greenland received self rule, the Danish Realms unique state of internal affairs is acted out in the principle of The Unity of the Realm. This principle is derived from Article 1 of the Danish Constitution which specifies that constitutional law applies equally to all areas of the Danish Realm, the Constitutional Act specifies that sovereignty is to continue to be exclusively with the authorities of the Realm. The language of Denmark is Danish, and the Danish state authorities are based in Denmark, the Kingdom of Denmarks parliament, with its 179 members, is located in the capital, Copenhagen. Two of the members are elected in each of Greenland and the Faroe Islands. The Government ministries are located in Copenhagen, as is the highest court, in principle, the Danish Realm constitutes a unified sovereign state, with equal status between its constituent parts. Devolution differs from federalism in that the powers of the subnational authority ultimately reside in central government. The Self-Government Arrangements devolves political competence and responsibility from the Danish political authorities to the Faroese, the Faroese and Greenlandic authorities administer the tasks taken over from the state, enact legislation in these specific fields and have the economic responsibility for solving these tasks. The Danish government provides a grant to the Faroese and the Greenlandic authorities to cover the costs of these devolved areas. The 1948 Home Rule Act of the Faroe Islands sets out the terms of Faroese home rule, the Act states. the Faroe Islands shall constitute a self-governing community within the State of Denmark. It establishes the government of the Faroe Islands and the Faroese parliament. The Faroe Islands were previously administered as a Danish county, the Home Rule Act abolished the post of Amtmand and these powers were expanded in a 2005 Act, which named the Faroese home government as an equal partner with the Danish government
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Helsingborg
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Helsingborg is a town and the seat of Helsingborg Municipality, Scania, Sweden. It had 132,989 inhabitants in 2013, Helsingborg is the centre of the northern part of western Scania. This makes Helsingborg the fourth largest population area in Sweden, the city is also Swedens closest point to Denmark, with the Danish city Helsingør clearly visible on the other side of the Øresund about 4 km to the west, closer than to the citys own remoter areas. If including all population around the part of Øresund, as a Helsingborg-Helsingør metropolitan area. The busy ferry route, known as the HH Ferry route has through history been operated by shipping lines. As of 2014 more than 70 car ferries departures from each harbour every day, following the Swedish orthography reform of 1906 many place names in Sweden got a modernized spelling. In 1912 it was decided to use the form Hälsingborg, in preparation for the local government reform 1971 the Hälsingborg city council proposed that the new, enlarged municipality should be spelled with an e. This was also the decision of the Government of Sweden, effective from 1 January 1971, historic Helsingborg, with its many old buildings, is a scenic coastal city. The buildings are a blend of old-style stone-built churches and a 600-year-old medieval fortress in the city centre, the streets vary from wide avenues to small alley-ways. Kullagatan, the pedestrian shopping street in the city, was the first pedestrian shopping street in Sweden. Helsingborg is one of the oldest cities of what is now Sweden and it has been the site of permanent settlement officially since 21 May 1085. Helsingborgs geographical position at the narrowest part of Øresund made it important for Denmark. From 1429 Eric of Pomerania introduced the Øresundstolden, a levy on all trading vessels passing through the sound between Elsinore and Helsingborg and this was one of the main incomes for the Danish Crown. Crossing traffic, like fishermen, was not subject to the tax, the Sound Dues primarily made Helsingør flourish, but quite a bit spilled over to Helsingborg. Evidence of this is William Shakespeares masterpiece Hamlet, which unfolda at Kronborg, and the Prince of Denmark may well have hidden himself from his evil uncle in Helsingborg. In any case, the Renaissance was a period for the Kingdom of Denmark. But towards the middle of the 17th Century, dark clouds appeared from the North, following the Dano-Swedish War and the Treaty of Roskilde Denmark had to give up all territory on the southern Scandinavian peninsula, and Helsingborg became submitted to new rulers. King Charles X Gustav of Sweden landed here on 5 March 1658 to take possession of the Scanian lands and was met by a delegation led by the bishop of the Diocese of Lund
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Scania
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Scania, also known by its local name Skåne, is the southernmost province of Sweden which consists of a peninsula on the southern tip of the Scandinavian Peninsula and some islands close to it. Scania is roughly equivalent to the modern Skåne County, the responsibility for overseeing implementation of state policy in the county is administered by the County Administrative Board. Within Scania there are 33 municipalities that are independent and separate from the Scania Regional Council which has its seat in Kristianstad, the largest city is Malmö, which is also the third largest city in Sweden. To the north, Scania borders the provinces of Halland and Småland, to the northeast Blekinge, to the east and south the Baltic Sea and Bornholm island, since 2000 a road and railway bridge, the Øresund Bridge, bridges the sound to the Danish island of Zealand. The HH Ferry route across the part of Øresund also remains as an important link between the Scandinavian Peninsula and Zealand. Scania is part of the transnational Øresund Region, Scania was part of the kingdom of Denmark up until the Treaty of Roskilde in 1658. The transition to Sweden was later confirmed by the 1660 Treaty of Copenhagen, the 1679 Peace of Lund, the last serious Danish attempt to invade the province failed in 1710, after the Battle of Helsingborg. The period 1658–1720 saw widespread violence by the Swedish militaries against the local population, the same was also true about the Danish military, though to a far lesser extent. The region did not form part of Sweden proper until 1720 and it was then divided in two counties and has since then been regarded as fully integrated in Sweden. Until the early 19th century, a policy of forced assimilation was employed by the Swedish government in what then had been a linguistically Danish region. Controversy relating to whether the Scanian dialects should be classified as a language or as Danish or Swedish dialects remains to this day. From north to south Scania is around 130 kilometres and covers less than 3% of Swedens total area, about 16% of Scanias population is foreign-born. With 120 inh/km2 Scania is the second most densely populated province of Sweden, the western part, along the coast of the Øresund, is by far the most populated part. The endonym used in Swedish and other North Germanic languages is Skåne, the Latinized form Scania occurs especially in British English as an exonym. Scania is the only Swedish province for which exonyms are still used in many languages, e. g. French Scanie, Dutch and German Schonen, Polish Skania, Spanish Escania, Italian Scania. For the provinces modern administrative counterpart, Skåne län, the endonym Skåne is used in English, in the Alfredian translation of Orosiuss and Wulfstans travel accounts, the Old English form Sconeg appears. The names Scania and Scandinavia are considered to have the same etymology, the name is possibly derived from the Germanic root *Skaðin-awjã, which appears in Old Norse as Skáney. According to some scholars, the Germanic stem can be reconstructed as *Skaðan- meaning danger or damage, Skanör in Scania, with its long Falsterbo reef, has the same stem combined with -ör, which means sandbanks
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Gothenburg
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Gothenburg is the second-largest city in Sweden and the fifth-largest in the Nordic countries. Situated by Kattegat, on the west coast of Sweden, the city has a population of approximately 550,000 in the urban area, Gothenburg was founded as a heavily fortified, primarily Dutch, trading colony, by royal charter in 1621 by King Gustavus Adolphus. At a key location at the mouth of the Göta älv, where Scandinavias largest drainage basin enters the sea. Gothenburg is home to students, as the city includes the University of Gothenburg. Volvo was founded in Gothenburg in 1927, the original, parent Volvo Group and the now separate Volvo Car Corporation are still headquartered on the island of Hisingen in the city. Other key companies are SKF and Astra Zeneca, Gothenburg is served by Göteborg Landvetter Airport 30 km southeast of the city center. The smaller Göteborg City Airport,15 km from the city center, was closed to airline traffic in 2015. The city hosts some of the largest annual events in Scandinavia, the Gothenburg Film Festival, held in January since 1979, is the leading Scandinavian film festival with over 155,000 visitors each year. In summer, a variety of music festivals are held in the city, such as Way Out West. The city was named after the Geats, the inhabitants of Gothia, the river on which the city sits is the Göta älv or Gothia River. Göta borg Gothia Fortress is the fort on the Göta Älv, in Dutch, Scots, and English, all languages with a long history in this trade and maritime-oriented city, the name Gothenburg is used for the city. The French form of the city name is Gothembourg, but in French texts, Gothenburg can also be seen in some older English texts. In Spanish the city is called Gotemburgo and these traditional forms are sometimes replaced with the use of the Swedish Göteborg, for example by The Göteborg Opera and the Göteborg Ballet. However, Göteborgs universitet, previously designated as the Göteborg University in English, the Gothenburg municipality has also reverted to the use of the English name in international contexts. Other old variations in Swedish are Götheborgh, and the more common Götheborg, one English text, written in the late 15th century, states the name as Guthaeborg. In 2009, the city launched a new logotype for Gothenburg. Since the name Göteborg contains the Swedish letter ö the idea was to make the more international. As of 2015, the name is spelled Go, teborg on a number of signs in the city
21.
Norway
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The Antarctic Peter I Island and the sub-Antarctic Bouvet Island are dependent territories and thus not considered part of the Kingdom. Norway also lays claim to a section of Antarctica known as Queen Maud Land, until 1814, the kingdom included the Faroe Islands, Greenland, and Iceland. It also included Isle of Man until 1266, Shetland and Orkney until 1468, Norway has a total area of 385,252 square kilometres and a population of 5,258,317. The country shares a long border with Sweden. Norway is bordered by Finland and Russia to the north-east, Norway has an extensive coastline, facing the North Atlantic Ocean and the Barents Sea. King Harald V of the Dano-German House of Glücksburg is the current King of Norway, erna Solberg became Prime Minister in 2013, replacing Jens Stoltenberg. A constitutional monarchy, Norway divides state power between the Parliament, the Cabinet and the Supreme Court, as determined by the 1814 Constitution, the kingdom is established as a merger of several petty kingdoms. By the traditional count from the year 872, the kingdom has existed continuously for 1,144 years, Norway has both administrative and political subdivisions on two levels, counties and municipalities. The Sámi people have an amount of self-determination and influence over traditional territories through the Sámi Parliament. Norway maintains close ties with the European Union and the United States, the country maintains a combination of market economy and a Nordic welfare model with universal health care and a comprehensive social security system. Norway has extensive reserves of petroleum, natural gas, minerals, lumber, seafood, the petroleum industry accounts for around a quarter of the countrys gross domestic product. On a per-capita basis, Norway is the worlds largest producer of oil, the country has the fourth-highest per capita income in the world on the World Bank and IMF lists. On the CIAs GDP per capita list which includes territories and some regions, from 2001 to 2006, and then again from 2009 to 2017, Norway had the highest Human Development Index ranking in the world. It also has the highest inequality-adjusted ranking, Norway ranks first on the World Happiness Report, the OECD Better Life Index, the Index of Public Integrity and the Democracy Index. Norway has two names, Noreg in Nynorsk and Norge in Bokmål. The name Norway comes from the Old English word Norðrveg mentioned in 880, meaning way or way leading to the north. In contrasting with suðrvegar southern way for Germany, and austrvegr eastern way for the Baltic, the Anglo-Saxon of Britain also referred to the kingdom of Norway in 880 as Norðmanna land. This was the area of Harald Fairhair, the first king of Norway, and because of him
22.
Rutger von Ascheberg
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Ascheberg was born on the estate Berbonen in Courland on 2 June 1621. He was of an old Westphalian family that had emigrated to Courland in the 16th century and his parents were Wilhelm von Ascheberg and Margaretha von der Osten. At the age of 13 he served as page for Colonel Brink of the Swedish army fighting in the Thirty Years War in Germany and he was present at a number of major battles, including the Battle of Nördlingen in 1634. In 1639 he left the army for studies in France, at the age of 19 he was drafted to a Hessian cavalry regiment in Swedish service. He distinguished himself at the Battle of Wolfenbüttel 1641, in the Battle of Breitenfeld in 1642 he was wounded and captured by the enemy, but later rescued. During the remaining part of the Thirty Years War, Ascheberg fought under Field Marshals Lennart Torstenson and he distinguished himself on a number of occasions and was made Cornet in 1644, Captain Lieutenant in 1645 and Rittmeister in 1646. After the peace was settled in 1648, Ascheberg remained in Germany and he held a position as bailiff 1651–1655. In 1655, he was offered a position as Lieutenant Colonel and command of a regiment within the Swedish army, the war, known as the Second Northern War, initially took place in Poland-Lithuania. Ascheberg proved to be successful during the campaign, after capturing the city of Jarosław, Ascheberg was promoted Colonel. In July of the year, he attended the Battle of Warsaw. He commanded the Swedish forces in the Battle of Chojnice, in which he was successful according to some sources. As a token of his appreciation, Swedish king Charles X Gustav gave von Ascheberg a rapier he had used in battle, von Ascheberg also received valuable jewellery and an estate in Prussia. Denmark attacked Swedish dominions in Germany in 1657 and this meant that the Swedish army, including the forces under Aschebergs command, left Poland to instead engage their Danish enemy. In 1658, Ascheberg spearheaded the March across the Belts as the Swedish army marched across the ices of Little Belt and he narrowly escaped being caught when the enemy under Frederick William of Brandenburg and Polish commander Stefan Czarniecki attacked Sønderborg in December 1658. In February 1659, he was wounded during the assault on Copenhagen. After spending 10 weeks abed, a recovered von Ascheberg returned to the battlefield in time to be in charge of the conquest of the island Møn in May 1659 and he remained on the island until the war ended in 1660. In 1664, Ascheberg was promoted to Major General and in 1665 and he returned to Sweden when the conflict was settled. In 1670 he reached the rank of Lieutenant General and in 1673, in 1674 he was promoted to General
23.
Christian V of Denmark
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Christian V was king of Denmark and Norway from 1670 until his death in 1699. As king he wanted to show his power as absolute monarch through architecture and he was the first to use the 1671 Throne Chair of Denmark, partly made for this purpose. His motto was, Pietate et Justitia, Christian was elected successor to his father in June 1650. This was not a choice, but de facto automatic hereditary succession. Escorted by his chamberlain Christoffer Parsberg, Christian went on a trip abroad, to Holland, England, France. On this trip, he saw absolutism in its most splendid achievement at the young Louis XIVs court and he returned to Denmark in August 1663. From 1664 he was allowed to attend proceedings of the State College, hereditary succession was made official by Royal Law in 1665. ChristIan was hailed as heir in Copenhagen in August 1665, in Odense and Viborg in September, only a short time before he became king, he was taken into the Council of the Realm and the Supreme Court. He became king upon his fathers death on 9 February 1670 and he was the first hereditary king of Denmark, and in honor of this, Denmark acquired costly new crown jewels and a magnificent new ceremonial sword. The war exhausted Denmarks economic resources without securing any gains, to accommodate non-aristocrats into state service, he created the new noble ranks of count and baron. One of the elevated in this way by the king was Peder Schumacher, named Count Griffenfeld by Christian V in 1670. The results of the war efforts proved politically and financially unremunerative for Denmark, the damage to the Danish economy was extensive. After the Scanian War, his sister, Princess Ulrike Eleonora of Denmark, married the Swedish king Charles XI, Christian V was also often considered dependent on his councillors by contemporary sources. The Danish monarch did nothing to dispel this notion, in his memoirs, he listed hunting, love-making, war and maritime affairs as his main interests in life. Christian V introduced Danske Lov in 1683, the first law code for all of Denmark and it was succeeded by the similar Norske Lov of 1687. He also introduced the land register of 1688, which attempted to out the land value of the united monarchy in order to create a more just taxation. During his reign, science witnessed a golden age due to the work of the astronomer Ole Rømer in spite of the king’s personal lack of scientific knowledge and he died from the after-effects of a hunting accident and was interred in Roskilde Cathedral. Christian V had eight children by his wife and six by his Maîtresse-en-titre, Sophie Amalie Moth, Sophie was the daughter of his former tutor Poul Moth
24.
Kristianstad
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Kristianstad is a city and the seat of Kristianstad Municipality, Skåne County, Sweden with 35,711 inhabitants in 2010. During the last 15 years, it has gone from a town to a developed commercial city, today attracting visitors in the summertime mainly from Germany, Denmark. The purpose of the town was to safeguard the eastern half of the Danish province of Scania against any future raids from Sweden in the north, one of these raids had sacked the nearby town of Vä in 1612. Vä then lost its charter and the people were moved to the new, the king also founded the town of Christianopel in eastern Blekinge to serve a similar purpose. This meant that the church was considerably larger than there was initially use for. Also in Christianstad the town planning of the Renaissance could be laid down for the first time at the foundation of the town and this makes the Kristianstad town centre of today exceptionally well-kept and easy to get around in. Pylyp Orlyk was after 1709 chosen as a Hetman in exile by the cossacks, while in Bender Orlyk wrote one of the first state constitutions in Europe. This Constitution of Pylyp Orlyk was confirmed by Charles XII and it also names him as the protector of Ukraine, after 1714 Orlyk now together with several other cossacks followed the Swedish king Charles XII to Sweden. Orlyk with his family and about 40 other Cossacks arrived in Ystad, after some months in Ystad they lived in the city of Kristianstad for some years. Orlyk wrote numerous proclamations and essays about Ukraine including the 1710 Constitution of Pylyp Orlyk, the citys coat of arms depicts two lions holding the King Christian IVs crowned insignia, the monogram C4. The coat of arms was slightly modified after the Swedish takeover following the 1658 Treaty of Roskilde in which the eastern third of Denmark was ceded to Sweden. The coat of arms is similar to the coat of arms of the former town of Christianopel in eastern Blekinge. Since 1971, the coat of arms is used by Kristianstad Municipality, Kristianstads coat of arms is one of the few coat of arms in the world depicting a foreign kings or queens coat of arms. A reason for the Swedes to continue using the old coat of arms could be its colours – blue, the city served as capital of Kristianstad County between 1719 and 1997. It now houses the administration and the parliament of the Skåne Regional Council. For a long time Kristianstad also was an important garrison town, the A3 Wendes Artillery Regiment. Also the town housed for years the so-called Scanian Fortification Brigade. The Wendes Artillery Regiment served with distinction in the Napoleonic Wars, one of Swedens higher courts of appeal was located in Kristianstad before being moved to Malmö in 1917
25.
Varberg
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Varberg is a locality and the seat of Varberg Municipality, Halland County, Sweden with 27,602 inhabitants in 2010. Varberg and all of Halland are well known for their typical west coast sandy beaches, in Varberg the coast changes from wide sandy beaches to rocky terrain that continues north into the Bohuslän archipelago and as far as the North Cape. Varberg is a charming and popular resort and many people from inland cities such as Borås are either moving to Varberg or holidaying there. Varberg is located in a terrain of hills and plains and it is largely without trees and green areas, in its place are bald rocks and sand. The Swedish authoritative author and bishop Esaias Tegnér described it in 1826 as the least appealing place in Sweden, the sandy beaches are however very popular in the summer. Another main factor in Varberg is its natural surroundings, just a 20-minute drive inland reveals a totally different landscape. Here you will be among a landscape, rolling hills with lakes. Varberg has a climate that although moderate by Swedish standards. Summers are in general cooler than both in Halmstad and Gothenburg, with highs being moderated by the marine airflow, although this moderation occurs, some summer days can be very warm, and some winter nights see severe frosts. A fortress called Varberg was erected in the 1280s as part of a chain of establishments along the coast. In the middle of the 14th century, the old settlement Getakärr 1 kilometre north of the fortress took its new name from the fortress, the town was moved 5 km northwards around the year 1400. It was destroyed during the Kalmar War and rebuilt near the fortress, in 1645 Halland passed from Denmark to Sweden by the Treaty of Brömsebro for a period of 30 years. It had at that time about 600 inhabitants, the transfer was made permanent by the Treaty of Roskilde in 1658. The town was moved again after a fire in 1666, to the location were the city centre is today, the city was devastated by a huge fire in 1863 and was subsequently rebuilt with stone or brick houses. In 1890 the population figure had passed 4,000 and with industrialization it reached 8,500 in 1930, the local government reform of 1971 made Varberg the seat of the much larger Varberg Municipality, with a current population of close to 56,000 inhabitants. Although several houses were torn down in the 1970s, most of the city still remains intact. Varbergs fortress is its most notable building, mostly because of its size as it has no architectural uniformity. It was first built as a castle in 1280, with new parts being built in successions, near Varberg there is the VLF transmitter Grimeton, an interesting radio-technical facility and classified by UNESCO to be a World Cultural Heritage site
26.
History of Scania
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Archeological findings on Jutland, the Danish islands, and on the Scanian plains have modified this picture. It has now become clear that the distribution of wealth, at least from the early Migration Period, was very uneven, the plains were to a large extent divided up between large farms which were far bigger than smallholdings, and were often grouped in villages. Subsequently, only a faction of the population can be presumed to have enjoyed full civic rights. These tribes would have had their own leader, and their own group of warriors, all under the command of the magnates, Scania was first mentioned in written texts in the 8th century, stating that it was a part of Denmark. According to the Large Jelling Stone, Scanians, like all Danes were Christianized by the King of all Danes, Harald Bluetooth before this stone was risen, the Scanian law, the oldest of the Medieval Scandinavian laws, came into force in the beginning of the 13th century. It is remarkable in the sense that it exists written in both Latin letters as well as Runes, Codex runicus, already in 1060 was Dalby Church build by Svend Estridsen, as one of the first Danish churches made of stone. Between 1104 and 1536, Lund was the Archbishopric of Denmark, in 1332 the king of Denmark, Christopher II, died as a king without a country after he and his older brother and predecessor had divided Denmark into much smaller polities. King Magnus took advantage of his neighbours distress, redeeming these lands for the eastern Danish provinces for a amount of silver. The province was reconquered by the great Danish king Valdemar IV of Denmark in 1360. During parts of the Middle Ages, Scania was known throughout Northern Europe for its herring, in the middle of the 14th century the Black Death affected the area as much as in most of Europe. Generally the population declined with a third or more, by the end of this century, the Kalmar Union rose as an attempt to counter the Hanseatic League. The Union was largely a creation of Queen Margaret who had become Queen in Denmark and Norway in 1387, as her son, King Olaf II of Denmark. And two years later she helped the Swedes to get rid of the disliked Albert av Mecklenburg, Queen Margaret, remained as the de facto ruler of the three kingdoms more or less until her death in 1412. King Eric founded the Scanian Town, which today is known as Landskrona at the part of the all Danish Øresund, and introduced the Sound Dues in 1429. By this he secured a stable income for his kingdom that made it relatively rich. In the Franciscan monastery at Lund, the Academy was established in 1425 and it was a kind of medieval university, but was closed when the Reformation reached Denmark in 1536. The two Nordic countries were in conflict with each other for five hundred years. By possessing both sides of the Øresund Strait, as well as The Belts, Denmark had effective control over the entrance to the Baltic Sea and was able to trade through the sounds
27.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
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