1.
Strzegom
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Strzegom is a town in Świdnica County, Lower Silesian Voivodeship, in south-western Poland. It is the seat of the Gmina Strzegom administrative district and it lies approximately 15 kilometres north-west of Świdnica, and 52 kilometres west of the regional capital Wrocław. As at 2006, the town had a population of 16,782, traces of settlement on the site during the Roman Empire period have been found. At the same time the building of the St. Peter and Paul parish church began, about 1242, Strzegom received town privileges by Anne of Bohemia, widow of the Silesian duke Henry II the Pious. From the late 13th century the town of Striegau belonged to the Duchy of Jawor and Świdnica under Bolko I the Strict, during the Thirty Years War the city suffered almost complete destruction. In 1742 Striegau became part of Prussia, on June 4,1745 the Battle of Hohenfriedberg, an important victory for King Frederick II during the War of the Austrian Succession, took place near the town. In the 19th century considerable industrial expansion took place, with granite quarries playing an important role in the towns economy. The first rail link to the town was opened in 1856, in 1905 the town of Striegau had 13,427 inhabitants. During World War II, Nazi Germany used a close to the town as a subcamp of the nearby Gross-Rosen concentration camp. The town was renamed Strzegom by the Peoples Republic of Poland, Peter and Paul is one of Polands official national Historic Monuments, as designated October 22,2012. Its listing is maintained by the National Heritage Board of Poland, renovation of the Jewish cemetery in Strzegom, At 2012, completed project and renovation of the Jewish cemetery in the town of Strzegom,52 km west of Wroclaw, near the German border. During the renovation the place cleared, built a wall and 80 gravestones were renovated and returned to its place, the project, which was funded by the EU, introducing Jewish culture and history. The town currently has over 16,000 residents
2.
Kingdom of Prussia
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It was the driving force behind the unification of Germany in 1871 and was the leading state of the German Empire until its dissolution in 1918. Although it took its name from the region called Prussia, it was based in the Margraviate of Brandenburg, the kings of Prussia were from the House of Hohenzollern. Prussia was a power from the time it became a kingdom, through its predecessor, Brandenburg-Prussia. Prussia continued its rise to power under the guidance of Frederick II, more known as Frederick the Great. After the might of Prussia was revealed it was considered as a power among the German states. Throughout the next hundred years Prussia went on to win many battles and it was because of its power that Prussia continuously tried to unify all the German states under its rule. Attempts at creation of a federation remained unsuccessful and the German Confederation collapsed in 1866 when war ensued between its two most powerful states, Prussia and Austria. The North German Confederation which lasted from 1867–1871, created a union between the Prussian-aligned states while Austria and most of Southern Germany remained independent. The North German Confederation was seen as more of an alliance of military strength in the aftermath of the Austro-Prussian War, the German Empire lasted from 1871–1918 with the successful unification of all the German states under Prussian hegemony. This was due to the defeat of Napoleon III in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, in 1871, Germany unified into a single country, minus Austria and Switzerland, with Prussia the dominant power. Prussia is considered the predecessor of the unified German Reich. The Kingdom left a significant cultural legacy, today notably promoted by the Prussian Cultural Heritage Foundation, in 1415 a Hohenzollern Burgrave came from the south to the March of Brandenburg and took control of the area as elector. In 1417 the Hohenzollern was made an elector of the Holy Roman Empire, after the Polish wars, the newly established Baltic towns of the German states including Prussia, suffered many economic setbacks. Many of the Prussian towns could not even afford to attend political meetings outside of Prussia, the towns were poverty stricken, with even the largest town, Danzig, having to borrow money from elsewhere to pay for trade. Poverty in these towns was partly caused by Prussias neighbors, who had established and developed such a monopoly on trading that these new towns simply could not compete and these issues led to feuds, wars, trade competition and invasions. However, the fall of these gave rise to the nobility, separated the east and the west. It was clear in 1440 how different Brandenburg was from the other German territories, not only did it face partition from within but also the threat of its neighbors. It prevented the issue of partition by enacting the Dispositio Achillea which instilled the principle of primogeniture to both the Brandenburg and Franconian territories, the second issue was solved through expansion
3.
Habsburg Monarchy
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The Monarchy was a composite state composed of territories within and outside the Holy Roman Empire, united only in the person of the monarch. The dynastic capital was Vienna, except from 1583 to 1611, from 1804 to 1867 the Habsburg Monarchy was formally unified as the Austrian Empire, and from 1867 to 1918 as the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The two entities were never coterminous, as the Habsburg Monarchy covered many lands beyond the Holy Roman Empire, the monarchy had no official name. The entity had no official name, Austrian Empire, This was the official name. Note that the German version is Kaisertum Österreich, i. e. the English translation empire refers to a territory ruled by an emperor, Austria-Hungary, This was the official name. An unofficial popular name was the Danubian Monarchy also often used was the term Doppel-Monarchie meaning two states under one crowned ruler, Crownlands or crown lands, This is the name of all the individual parts of the Austrian Empire, and then of Austria-Hungary from 1867 on. The Hungarian parts of the Empire were called Lands of the Holy Hungarian Crown of Saint Stephen or Lands of Holy Stephens Crown, the Bohemian Lands were called Lands of the St. Wenceslaus Crown. Burgenland came to Austria in 1921 from Hungary, Salzburg finally became Austrian in 1816 after the Napoleonic wars. Vienna, Austrias capital became a state January 1,1922, after being residence, Upper and Lower Austria, historically, were split into Austria above the Enns and Austria below the Enns. Upper Austria was enlarged after the Treaty of Teschen following the War of the Bavarian Succession by the so-called Innviertel, formerly part of Bavaria. Hereditary Lands or German Hereditary Lands or Austrian Hereditary Lands, In a narrower sense these were the original Habsburg Austrian territories, i. e. basically the Austrian lands, in a wider sense the Lands of the Bohemian Crown were also included in the Hereditary lands. The term was replaced by the term Crownlands in the 1849 March Constitution, within the Habsburg Monarchy, each province was governed according to its own particular customs. Until the mid 17th century, not all of the provinces were even necessarily ruled by the same members of the family often ruled portions of the Hereditary Lands as private apanages. An even greater attempt at centralization began in 1849 following the suppression of the revolutions of 1848. For the first time, ministers tried to transform the monarchy into a bureaucratic state ruled from Vienna. The Kingdom of Hungary, in particular, ceased to exist as a separate entity, in this system, the Kingdom of Hungary was given sovereignty and a parliament, with only a personal union and a joint foreign and military policy connecting it to the other Habsburg lands. When Bosnia and Herzegovina was annexed, it was not incorporated into either half of the monarchy, instead, it was governed by the joint Ministry of Finance. Austria-Hungary collapsed under the weight of the various unsolved ethnic problems that came to a head with its defeat in World War I, to these were added in 1779 the Inn Quarter of Bavaria, and in 1803 the Bishoprics of Trent and Brixen
4.
Electorate of Saxony
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Upon the extinction of the House of Ascania, it was enfeoffed to the Margraves of Meissen from the Wettin dynasty in 1423, who moved the residence up the Elbe river to Dresden. After the Empires dissolution in 1806, the Wettin electors raised Saxony to a kingdom, when Emperor Frederick Barbarossa deposed the Saxon duke Henry the Lion in 1180, the Wittenberg lands belonged to Alberts youngest son Count Bernhard of Anhalt, who assumed the Saxon ducal title. Bernards eldest son, Albert I, ceded Anhalt to his younger brother Henry, retained the ducal title and his sons divided the possessions into the duchies of Saxe-Wittenberg and Saxe-Lauenburg. Louis was succeeded by the Luxembourg king Charles of Bohemia, after being crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 1355, Charles issued the Golden Bull of 1356, the fundamental law of the Empire settling the method of electing the German King by seven Prince-electors. In this way, the country, though small in area, the electoral dignity was connected with it the obligation of male primogeniture, that is, only the eldest son could succeed as ruler. This forbade the division of the territory among several heirs, preventing the disintegration of the country, the importance of this stipulation is shown by the history of most of the fragmented German principalities which were not electorates. Late Alberts Ascanian relative Duke Eric V of Saxe-Lauenburg protested in vain, thus, in 1423, Saxe-Wittenberg, the Margraviate of Meissen and Thuringia were united under one ruler, and the unified territory gradually received the name of Saxony. The partition decisively enfeebled the Wettin dynasty in the rivalry with the rising House of Hohenzollern, the Protestant movement of the 16th century was largely effected under the protection of the Saxon rulers. The Elector did not become at once an adherent of the new opinions, owing to his intervention, Pope Leo X decided against summoning Luther to Rome in 1518, and the Elector secured for Luther Imperial safe-conduct to the 1521 Diet of Worms. When Luther was declared to be under the ban of the empire by Emperor Charles V. Lutheran doctrines spread first in Ernestine Saxony, in 1525, Frederick died and was succeeded by his brother, John the Constant. John was followed in 1532 by his son, John Frederick the Magnanimous, in 1542, he seized the Diocese of Naumburg-Zeitz, and confiscated the secular possessions of the Dioceses of Meissen and Hildesheim. The Catholic faith was forcibly suppressed, after the outbreak of the Schmalkaldic War, Elector John Frederick was placed under the Imperial ban and finally defeated and captured by Emperor Charles V at the Battle of Mühlberg on 24 April 1547. In the Capitulation of Wittenberg of May 19, he was obliged to yield former Saxe-Wittenberg with the dignity to his Albertine cousin Duke Maurice. The Saxon Electorate after the Wittenberg Capitulation consisted of former Saxe-Wittenberg and Meissen together, Maurice secretly shared in all the princely conspiracies against the Emperor, who only escaped capture by flight. During the same year, Charles V was obliged by the Peace of Passau to grant freedom of religion to the Protestant Estates, Maurice died in 1553 at the age of 32. His brother and successor Elector Augustus seized the Catholic dioceses of Merseburg, the last Bishop of Merseburg, Michael Helding called Sidonius, died at Vienna in 1561. In the same manner after the death of Julius von Pflug, the last Catholic Bishop of Naumburg, in 1564 and those cathedral canons who were still Catholic were only permitted to exercise their religion for ten years more
5.
Frederick the Great
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Frederick II was King of Prussia from 1740 until 1786, the longest reign of any Hohenzollern king. Frederick was the last titled King in Prussia and declared himself King of Prussia after achieving full sovereignty for all historical Prussian lands, Prussia had greatly increased its territories and became a leading military power in Europe under his rule. He became known as Frederick the Great and was affectionately nicknamed Der Alte Fritz by the Prussian, in his youth, Frederick was more interested in music and philosophy than the art of war. Upon ascending to the Prussian throne, he attacked Austria and claimed Silesia during the Silesian Wars, winning acclaim for himself. Near the end of his life, Frederick physically connected most of his realm by conquering Polish territories in the First Partition of Poland and he was an influential military theorist whose analysis emerged from his extensive personal battlefield experience and covered issues of strategy, tactics, mobility and logistics. Considering himself the first servant of the state, Frederick was a proponent of enlightened absolutism and he modernized the Prussian bureaucracy and civil service and pursued religious policies throughout his realm that ranged from tolerance to segregation. He reformed the system and made it possible for men not of noble stock to become judges. Frederick also encouraged immigrants of various nationalities and faiths to come to Prussia, some critics, however, point out his oppressive measures against conquered Polish subjects during the First Partition. Frederick supported arts and philosophers he favored, as well as allowing complete freedom of the press, Frederick is buried at his favorite residence, Sanssouci in Potsdam. Because he died childless, Frederick was succeeded by his nephew, Frederick William II, son of his brother, historian Leopold von Ranke was unstinting in his praise of Fredericks Heroic life, inspired by great ideas, filled with feats of arms. Immortalized by the raising of the Prussian state to the rank of a power, Johann Gustav Droysen was even more extolling. However, by the 21st century, a re-evaluation of his legacy as a great warrior, Frederick, the son of Frederick William I and his wife, Sophia Dorothea of Hanover, was born in Berlin on 24 January 1712. The birth of Frederick was welcomed by his grandfather, Frederick I, with more than usual pleasure, with the death of his father in 1713, Frederick William became King of Prussia, thus making young Frederick the crown prince. The new king wished for his sons and daughters to be educated not as royalty and he had been educated by a Frenchwoman, Madame de Montbail, who later became Madame de Rocoulle, and he wished that she educate his children. However, he possessed a violent temper and ruled Brandenburg-Prussia with absolute authority. As Frederick grew, his preference for music, literature and French culture clashed with his fathers militarism, in contrast, Fredericks mother Sophia was polite, charismatic and learned. Her father, George Louis of Brunswick-Lüneburg, succeeded to the British throne as King George I in 1714, Frederick was brought up by Huguenot governesses and tutors and learned French and German simultaneously. Although Frederick William I was raised a Calvinist, he feared he was not of the elect, to avoid the possibility of Frederick being motivated by the same concerns, the king ordered that his heir not be taught about predestination
6.
Prince Charles Alexander of Lorraine
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Charles was the son of Leopold Joseph, Duke of Lorraine and Élisabeth Charlotte dOrléans. When his elder brother Franz/Francis, Duke of Lorraine, married the Archduchess Maria Theresa, daughter of Emperor Charles VI, during the War of the Austrian Succession, he was one of the principal Austrian military commanders. He was most notable for his defeats by better trained and superior forces under Frederick the Great, at the Battle of Chotusitz in 1742, his forces lost the battle but were able to inflict greater loss of life and retreat in good order. However, he lost more decisively to Frederick at the Battle of Hohenfriedberg and he was also defeated by Maurice de Saxe at the Battle of Rocoux in 1746. On 7 January 1744 he married Maria Theresas only sister, Archduchess Maria Anna of Austria, the couple were jointly made Governors of the Austrian Netherlands. Although Maria Anna died later the year after marriage, Charles popularity and lack of clear replacement allowed him to continue as governor. Charles also became Grand Master of the Teutonic Order in 1761, with the loss of his co-sovereign Maria Anna, his sister Anne Charlotte, whom he was very close to, acted as a de facto co-sovereign. Despite his record of defeats, he was able to retain his position and he was able to attain command ahead of the more popular Marshal Browne because of the support of his brother who had significant influence over military appointments. During the battle, he was commander of the Imperial Army as appointed by Maria Theresa, after this last defeat, Charles was replaced by Count Leopold Joseph von Daun and retired from military service. He was them sent to the Netherlands as a governor, though an unsuccessful military leader, Charles proved to be a competent administrator, well-liked by the population. Under him, the Austrian Netherlands flourished, and he was involved in the cultural life of his province
7.
Johann Adolf II, Duke of Saxe-Weissenfels
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Johann Adolf II, Duke of Saxe-Weissenfels, was the last duke of Saxe-Weissenfels-Querfurt and a member of the House of Wettin. He was also a commander in the Saxon army, Johann Adolf was the youngest of the eleven children of Johann Adolf I, Duke of Saxe-Weissenfels, and Johanna Magdalena of Saxe-Altenburg. His mother died five months after his birth, on 22 January 1686, in the War of the Polish Succession, Johann Adolf led Saxon troops into Poland. That same year, Johann Adolf inherited Saxe-Weissenfels when his brother Christian died without children, during the Second Silesian War, Prussian troops crossed the Saxon border, and Saxony and Austria agreed to proceed together against Prussia. Saxon troops planned to cut off the Prussians in northern Silesia, but in June 1745, they were defeated at the Battle of Hohenfriedberg. Johann Adolf planned a new campaign in September 1745. Because of this, he was replaced as commander-in-chief by Count Frederick August Rutowski, after the Battle of Kesselsdorf, the Elector removed his half-brother Rutowski as commander-in-chief and reinstated Johann Adolf, who began his duties as commander on 1 December 1745. Additionally, he was appointed chief of the Saxon government during the absence of the Elector, Johann Adolf retreated with the Saxon troops to Bohemia. Five months later, he suffered an attack and died at age sixty-one. In Eisenach on 9 May 1721, Johann Adolf married Johannette Antoinette Juliane of Saxe-Eisenach and they had one son, Frederick Johann Adolf. In Altenburg on 27 November 1734, Johann Adolf married for a time to Fredericka of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg. They had five children, Karl Frederick Adolf, Hereditary Prince of Saxe-Weissenfels, Johann Adolf, Hereditary Prince of Saxe-Weissenfels. August Adolf, Hereditary Prince of Saxe-Weissenfels, Johann Georg Adolf, Hereditary Prince of Saxe-Weissenfels. He was the last member of the line of Saxe-Weissenfels-Querfurt, after his death without surviving male issue, his lands passed to the Electorate of Saxony, from which they had been extracted in 1657 under the terms of the will of John George I, Elector of Saxony
8.
War of the Austrian Succession
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The War of the Austrian Succession involved most of the powers of Europe over the question of Maria Theresas succession to the Habsburg Monarchy. The war included King Georges War in British America, the War of Jenkins Ear, the First Carnatic War in India, the Jacobite rising of 1745 in Scotland, and the First and Second Silesian Wars. Austria was supported by Great Britain and the Dutch Republic, the enemies of France, as well as the Kingdom of Sardinia. France and Prussia were allied with the Electorate of Bavaria, the war ended with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748, by which Maria Theresa was confirmed as Archduchess of Austria and Queen of Hungary, but Prussia retained control of Silesia. But the peace was soon to be shattered, when Austrias desire to recapture Silesia intertwined with the political changes in Europe. In 1740, after the death of her father, Charles VI, Maria Theresa succeeded him as Queen of Hungary, Croatia and Bohemia, Archduchess of Austria and Duchess of Parma. The complications involved in a female Habsburg ruler had been long foreseen, problems began when King Frederick II of Prussia violated the Pragmatic Sanction and invaded Silesia on 16 December 1740, using the 1537 Treaty of Brieg as a pretext. For much of the century, France approached its wars in the same way. It would let its colonies defend themselves, or would offer only minimal help, similarly, several long land borders made an effective domestic army imperative for any ruler of France. At the end of the war, France gave back its European conquests, the British—by inclination as well as for pragmatic reasons—had tended to avoid large-scale commitments of troops on the Continent. For the War of the Austrian Succession, the British were allied with Austria, by the time of the Seven Years War, they were allied with its enemy, Prussia. In marked contrast to France, Britain strove to prosecute the war in the colonies once it became involved in the war. The British pursued a strategy of naval blockade and bombardment of enemy ports. They would harass enemy shipping and attack enemy outposts, frequently using colonists from nearby British colonies in the effort and this plan worked better in North America than in Europe, but set the stage for the Seven Years War. Prince Frederick had been only 28 years of age on 31 May 1740 when his father, Frederick William I died, neither Frederick nor his father had ever been fond of Austria and its various snubs against Prussia. Emperor Charles VI had made provision for the succession of his daughter, in support of his invasion of Silesia, Frederick also used a questionable interpretation of a treaty between the Hohenzollerns and the Piasts of Brieg as pretext. In particular, Frederick feared that Augustus III, Elector of Saxony and King of Poland, was preparing to seize Silesia for himself to unite Saxony and Poland. The only recent combat experience of the Prussian Army was their participation in the War of the Polish Succession, accordingly, the Prussian Army had an uninspiring reputation and was counted as one of the many minor armies of the Holy Roman Empire
9.
Battle of Dettingen
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The Battle of Dettingen took place on 27 June 1743 at Dettingen on the River Main, Germany, during the War of the Austrian Succession. The British forces, in alliance with those of Hanover and Hesse, George II commanded his troops in the battle, and this marked the last time a British monarch personally led his troops on the field. The battle straddled the river about 18 miles east of Frankfurt, with guns on the Hessian bank, the village of Dettingen is today the town of Karlstein am Main, in the extreme northwest of Bavaria. The British force of 17,000 men under John Dalrymple, here it joined the Pragmatic Army, some 50,000 strong at the start of the campaign, also containing 16,000 Hanoverians with the balance made up of Austrians, Hessians and Dutch. The army remained inactive until January 1743, when King George II ordered Dalrymple to march into Germany, leaving the Hessians. The internal divisions in the Dutch Republic delayed their army of 20,000 so that it too late to participate in the campaign. On 17 June the army set up camp between Kleinostheim and Aschaffenburg, George, accompanied by 25 squadrons of British and Hanoverian cavalry, arrived there on 19 June and took up overall command. This was the result of skillful maneuvering and harassment by a French army of some 45,000 led by Noailles, Noailles had also lined the south bank of the Main with artillery that could fire without interference on the Pragmatic armys left flank. Meanwhile, about 12,000 French troops marched north on Aschaffenburg, thickly wooded hills to the Pragmatic Armys right flank prevented the allies from turning Gramonts position. Some six hours passed with the British, Austrians and Hanoverians trying to form an advance in this confined position, at one point, George IIs horse ran off with him, it was halted by Ensign Cyrus Trapaud, who received a promotion as a reward. James Wolfe wrote that the Pragmatic first line of infantry consisted of nine regiments of British foot, four or five Austrian regiments, the French infantry followed and they too had initial success, throwing back several British regiments of foot. However, the charge forced the French artillery to stop firing and, with the attack spent and the French out of their defenses, the allies counter-attacked. The French line collapsed with the Allies driving Gramonts force across, as a consequence, the road to Hanau was opened, which allowed the Allies to continue their retreat and re-supply. With the French defeat at Dettingen, the Duc de Noailles missed the best opportunity to win the war at a stroke for the French. Had the French prevailed, the Pragmatic Army would have had to surrender or starve, during the battle, Lieutenant-Colonel Sir Andrew Agnew of Lochnaw warned his regiment The Royal Scots Fusiliers not to fire until they could see the whites of their een. A noted wit, Sir Andrew is also quoted as addressing his regiment thus, Lads, better kill them afore they kill you. And to George II after the battle, who had chided him for letting a French cavalry charge break into his regiments position, Ay, please Your Majesty, in memory of this victory, Handel composed his Dettingen Te Deum and Dettingen Anthem. The two parties had agreed before the battle that the sick and wounded who fell into the hands of the enemy would be cared for, when the allies retreated they left behind most of their wounded, and the French respected the agreement, a precursor of the Geneva Convention
10.
Battle of Fontenoy
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The battle was one of the most important in the war and considered the masterpiece of Saxe, serving France, Louis XV, and his son, the Dauphin, were present at the battle. Saxe went on the offensive in April 1745 with a large French army and his initial aim was to take control of the upper Scheldt basin and thereby gain access to the heart of the Austrian Netherlands. To these ends, he first besieged the fortress of Tournai, in order to relieve Tournai, the allies first decided to attack Saxes position – a naturally strong feature, hinged on the village of Fontenoy and further strengthened by defensive works. Despite devastating flanking fire the allied column, made up of British and Hanoverian infantry, only when Saxe concentrated all available infantry, cavalry, and artillery was the column forced to yield. The allies retreated in order, conducting a fighting withdrawal. The battle had shown, however, the strength of a defensive force relying on firepower, casualties were high on both sides, but the French had gained the field, and Tournai fell shortly after the battle. This success was followed by an advance against the less organised and outnumbered allied army, Ghent, Oudenarde, Bruges. By the years end, the Saxon-born Saxe had completed the conquest of much of the Austrian Netherlands, the battle had established French superiority in force and high command. In 1744, France went over to the offensive in the Low Countries. King Louis XV and the Duke of Noailles scored early successes with the capture of the fortresses of western Flanders, Menin, Ypres. Opposing Saxe was the Pragmatic Army, the bulk of which was made up of British and Hanoverian troops under General George Wade, much had been expected of the allies in 1744 but the timidity of their generals had produced nothing against a numerically inferior enemy. Although Wade eventually advanced towards Lille, he did more than bicker with the Austrians about the cost of moving his siege train from Antwerp. Saxe was able to maintain his position at Courtrai and along the lines of the Lys, elsewhere, the Pragmatic Allies had scored considerable success in late 1744. A joint Austro-Saxon force under Charles of Lorraine and Count Traun drove Frederick IIs Prussian army from Bohemia, further success followed with the death in January 1745 of the French puppet emperor, Charles VII. Joseph sued for peace and gave his support for the candidacy of Maria Theresas husband, Francis Stephen, with Bavaria out of the war the Austrians could now try to win back Silesia from Frederick II. Likewise, Bavarian repudiation of its French ties meant France was freed of its German involvement, and could now concentrate on its own efforts in Italy. As early as December 1744, Saxe had prepared plans for an offensive in the Low Countries. The trio of generals was completed by Prince Waldeck, commander of the Dutch contingent in theatre and they hoped to gain the initiative by the establishment of forward magazines and an early opening of the campaign season
11.
Fall of Ghent
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The Allied garrison offered little resistance. Coming in the wake of the Battle of Fontenoy, the loss of Ghent proved a shock to the Allies, the town had been used as a major base for the Pragmatic Army since it had assembled in 1742. It was extremely important as a base as its stores had been reserved. A British regiment, including James Wolfe, had shortly before the fall of the town. The city was invested and the town was seized on July 11. Lowendal opened the trenches and sapped towards the citadel, without hope of relief or reinforcement and with Lowendal strengthened by 15,000 the garrison of the citadel was demoralised and fell to a coup de main on July 15. Some 3,000 allied prisoners were taken as well as a vast quantity of military stores, the following year the town was used as a staging point for a French advance which culminated in the Siege of Brussels. The War of the Austrian Succession, paths of Glory, The Life and Death of General James Wolfe, Continuum International Publishing Group,432 p. ISBN 978-0-7735-3261-8
12.
Battle of Rocoux
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The Battle of Rocoux was a French victory over an allied Austrian, British, Hanoveran and Dutch army in Rocourt, outside Liège during War of the Austrian Succession. The result was a major French victory but not the crushing blow Maurice had hoped to inflict, the French army was commanded by Marshall Saxe and the army of the Pragmatic Allies by Prince Charles of Lorraine of Austria and the British General Sir John Ligonier. Saxe had nearly completed his campaign to take Flanders and was threatening to invade the Netherlands, heavily outnumbering the Dutch, the French defeated them on the third assault. The Dutch were forced to withdraw behind the British and Hannoverian lines, in the face of a general French advance the allied line began to give way. The Austrians on the right were not engaged and made no attempt to take the initiative. Ligoniers cavalry and some British, Hanoverian and Dutch infantry formed a guard that held off the French as the army withdrew. The French were victorious, although the army escaped from destruction. This was the great victory of three for Saxe, after Fontenoy and prior to Lauffeld. The French were victorious, immediately capturing Liège and breaking Austrian control over the Austrian Netherlands for the remainder of the war, ripley, George, Dana, Charles A. eds. The Vinkhuijzen collection of uniforms, France, 1750-1757. Archived from the original on 8 March 2013, flags through the ages and across the world. Browning, Reed. The War of the Austrian Succession, St. Martins Press, New York, ISBN 0-312-12561-5 Chandler, the Art of Warfare in the Age of Marlborough. Spellmount Limited, ISBN 0-946771-42-1 Skrine, Francis Henry, Fontenoy and Great Britains Share in the War of the Austrian Succession 1741-48
13.
Battle of Lauffeld
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The Battle of Lauffeld, also known as Lafelt, Laffeld, Lawfeld, Lawfeldt, Maastricht or Val, took place on 2 July 1747, during the French invasion of the Netherlands. It was part of the War of the Austrian Succession, Cumberland moved to defeat a detachment of the French army commanded by the Prince of Clermont that de Saxe had sent to bait the Pragmatic Allies into moving. Then Saxe force-marched the main French force to the ground he had chosen, once again, as at the Battle of Rocoux, the Austrians on the right refused to move against the open French left flank. The French made five assaults on Lauffeld and the villages changed hands several times, a large French column drove the 10,000 British and Hessian defenders out of the village of Lauffeld a final time. The French cavalry then pierced the allied center, now, a general French advance began to turn the Allied left flank, threatening the annihilation of the British infantry. General Ligonier, on his own initiative, then led the cavalry in charges that would save the army, the greatest cavalry engagement of the war ensued with over 15,000 horsemen charging and counter-charging. Seven regiments of the Irish Brigade in the French service lost over 1400 killed or wounded, the Duke of Cumberland, George IIs favourite son was nearly taken prisoner by the Irish, as in the confusion of battle he mistook the red-coated Irish Brigade for his own troops. Ligonier came up with a body of horse, enabling Cumberland to escape. It was a French victory that left the gateway to the Dutch Republic open to invasion, the allied retreat allowed Saxe to send a detachment of 30,000 troops under Count Lowendahl north across the Low Lands, capturing the city of Bergen-op-Zoom to finish that years campaigning season. At the opening of the campaigning season of 1748, the French invested Maastricht and, after a brief siege. The citys siege started negotiations in April, ending the war in October 1748 with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, ripley, George, Dana, Charles A. eds. The Vinkhuijzen collection of uniforms, France, 1750-1757. Archived from the original on 8 March 2013, flags through the ages and across the world. History of England From the Peace of Utrecht to the Peace of Versailles, browning, Reed. The War of the Austrian Succession, St. Martins Press, New York, ISBN 0-312-12561-5 Chandler, David. The Art of Warfare in the Age of Marlborough, spellmount Limited, ISBN 0-946771-42-1 Skrine, Francis Henry. Fontenoy and Great Britains Share in the War of the Austrian Succession 1741-48, history of England, from The Revolution to the Death of George the Second, London,1848, Vol. II
14.
Siege of Bergen op Zoom (1747)
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Bergen op Zoom was defended by allies, consisting of the Dutch, Austrians, British, Hanoverians and Hessians, that supported the Pragmatic Sanction. After seven years of war, both sides in this conflict were suffering from weariness of the war. Although tentative peace initiatives had been put forward, neither side was yet willing to make meaningful concessions, the capture of Bergen op Zoom would be a signal defeat for the Dutch and would open the door for an invasion of the Dutch Netherlands. Saxe calculated that his numerically inferior opponents would not be able to defend two fortified cities at once. Bergen op Zoom was a town with a population of some 5,000 people. The circumference of the ramparts was about three miles with ten bastions covered by five hornworks. The intervals contain twenty one ravelins which are covered by stone lunettes, much of the surrounding country was marshland. Because of these lines and some lines to the west, Bergen op Zoom could not be completely invested. The fortress was the work of the great Dutch engineer. It was believed to be impregnable and was considered the strongest fortification in Dutch Brabant, Bergen op Zoom had withstood two previous sieges, the first in 1588 and a second in 1622. It could be supplied with munitions and provision by boats using two navigable canals each defended by its own fort, Bergen op Zoom was well-garrisoned and well-supplied, so the siege by French forces did not cause immediate alarm in the Netherlands. The fortress had access to the sea, and the Dutch navy supplied the fortress without serious interference by the French, the French, since they were the besieging force and controlled much of the surrounding area, were also well-supplied and reinforced. However, the allies had an army under Prince Waldeck nearby which posed a threat to French supply lines. The various bastions, ravelins and lunettes of the fortification were all named and would mount over 230 cannon, the principal effort of the French concentrated on the bastions Coehoorn and Pucelle. Facing the French trench lines, the sides of Coehoorn were flanked on its right by the ravelin Antwerpen, between the bastion and Antwerpen was the lunette Holland and between the bastion and Diden was the lunette Zealand. To the left of Diden was the lunette, Utrecht, and this area would witness the most continuous and fierce combat of the siege. On the night of the 14 July the French opened the trenches using 2,400 workers supported by 10 companies of grenadiers and 5 battalions of infantry. Lowendal used 12,000 of his troops to man the trench lines, the first parallel was laid overnight of the first day,400 paces out from the fortifications
15.
Siege of Maastricht (1748)
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The Siege of Maastricht took place in April-May 1748 during the War of the Austrian Succession. A French force under the command of Maurice de Saxe besieged and captured the Dutch barrier fortress of Maastricht in the final few months of the campaign in the Low Countries. After a relatively long siege the garrison of Maastricht capitulated and marched out with the honours of war, Maastricht was returned along with Frances conquests in the Austrian Netherlands according to the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle signed in 1748. Among the defenders were the Austro-Walloon Regiment of Los Rios, commanded by its Colonel Jean Charles Joseph, Count of Merode, Marquis of Deynze, Charles, 5th Duke of Arenberg Browning, the War of the Austrian Succession
16.
Battle of Chotusitz
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The battle was a part of the War of the Austrian Succession sometimes referred to as the First Silesian War. The armies were equal at 28,000 to 30,000 each, with the Prussians having about 2,000 more infantry. The Austrians were attempting to retake occupied Prague and the Prussians were trying to block them from accomplishing that, the battle of Chotusitz was especially notable in that it was the only major battle started by the Austrians during this war. Prince Charles had entered Bohemia with the intention of liberating the capital of Prague. Faulty intelligence misinformed him of the strength of the Prussians in the area, the Prussian army had divided with Frederick leading the vanguard about 10,000 strong, marching on Kuttenberg, Kutna Hora, with the intent of preventing the Austrians from reaching Prague. The main army of nearly 20,000 followed a day later under Prince Leopold of Anhalt. With the two Prussians forces a days march apart and out of supporting distance of each other Charles had an opportunity of inflicting a defeat in detail on one, or both, of the Prussian forces. Unfortunately, a wary Charles hesitated for a day and the two Prussians forces, realizing the danger, both moved towards each other, Leopold marching through the night reached Chotusitz at 2 A. M. and established tenuous contact with Frederick. Leopold went into camp a little north of what was to be the field of battle on the plain in the valley of the Elbe near the hamlet of Chotusitz. Charles of Lorraine, hoping to catch Leopold cut off from Frederick while the Prussians were divided, advanced north with his force in four columns and he decided to attempt a night attack, or camisade. Charles overnight advance took longer than anticipated and it was well after dawn that he approached the field with 30,000 troops. Alerted to the danger, Frederick gave Leopold instructions to deploy on Chotusitz and hold until the rest of the Prussians could come up with Frederick, bringing their forces up to 28,000. Frederick gave orders to Leopold to deploy leaving room for Fredericks force to come in on the right and he then began marching towards the field at 4 A. M. with the intent of arriving at 7 A. M. Leopold marched from the camp to Chotusitz and positioned his troops facing south-east in the town and to the right, the left flank terrain was very broken with gullies and ponds and unsuitable for the cavalry. By 7 A. M. the Austrians were deployed and had advanced to within cannon shot while Frederick had arrived on the field with the rest of the Prussian army, at 8 A. M. Charles ordered a general attack. Frederick rode up the rise behind which Buddenbrocks cavalry was partially concealed, observed the Austrian position, quickly unlimbered some guns, under cover of this fire, Buddenbrocks cavalry advanced at a trot and then at a gallop. The Prussian line, in a charge, outflanking the Austrian first line, broke. The Austrian cavalry was stopped and driven back by cavalry under Rothenburg and a couple of Prussian infantry regiments
17.
Battle of Sahay
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Broglie won a small, but politically important, victory which combined with Fredericks success at Chotusitz disposed Maria Theresa to cede Silesia in the peace of Breslau on June 11,1742. Lobkowitz marched on an advanced French post at Frauenberg and investing it on May 18 began a bombardment with twelve cannon, broglie, joined by Belle-Isle on May 19, moved to relieve the post. The engagement began at four in the afternoon. The Austrians were drawn up in line of battle with their left on the village of Sahay which they occupied with 300 Pandur irregular light infantry and their left was covered by some swampy ground with woods on a height to their right and rear. The French, with numbers, pressed the attack. They attempted to flank the marsh with some cavalry and attacked Sahay with a guard of grenadiers. The Austrians fell back to the woods in disorder but recovered and counter-attacked, a cavalry charge by three regiments of Austrian cuirassiers was launched from some rising ground in front of the woods against the French Carabiniers who were supported by two dragoon regiments. The French cavalry flanked the Austrian cavalry and the Austrians were repulsed, the infantry on both sides attacked each other but the French pushed the Austrians back to the woods. The French regiment Navarre making three bayonet charges, the Austrian cavalry rallied behind the infantry and charged again but were again forced back with the Hohenzollern cuirassiers distinguishing themselves but suffering severely. The battle ended around eight in the evening with the Austrians retreating during the night losing some 500 killed, the French losses were about 250. The new Larned History for ready reference, reading and research, histoire de la dernière guerre de Bohème Volumes 1-2. Flags through the ages and across the world
18.
Battle of Soor
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The Battle of Soor was a battle between Frederick the Greats Prussian army and an Austro-Saxon army led by Prince Charles Alexander of Lorraine during the War of the Austrian Succession. The battle occurred in the vicinity of Soor, also known as Hajnice, the battle started with a failed Austrian surprise attack on the outnumbered Prussians. Despite initial setbacks the Prussian army managed to defeat the Austrians, three months after the battle of Hohenfriedberg, Frederick laid the Camp of Staudenz, initially planning to return to Berlin, in order to inspect the building work on his new palace of Sans Souci. Having stripped off many detachments during his march through Bohemia, Fredericks numbers had reduced to 22,500 men. Prince Charles then discovered that Frederick had failed to occupy the Graner-Koppe, on 29 September, Charles attempted to flank the Prussian camp from the Königreich-Wald hills, and the following morning the Austrians took positions on the crucial Graner-Koppe hill. The 40, 200-strong Austrian army intended to destroy the Prussians in a surprise attack, Prussian scouts soon detected the Austrian presence, and drummers and trumpeters sounded the general alarm as Prussians began preparing for battle. Austrian artillery proceeded to fire on the Prussian encampment, while the Prussian army marched into battle, Frederick ordered the cavalry to charge up the valley to the side of the hill in order to encircle the enemy. During the maneuver the cavalry came under fire, suffering heavy casualties. Despite the initial setback the vanguard regiments of the Gens D’Armes, coming under musket fire the Prussian cavalry withdrew into rear of the force. By the time of the retreat, Prussian grenadiers and the Anhalt infantry regiment began engaging the Austrian troops positioned on the hill. An Austrian counterattack, supported by fire, dealt significant damage to the Prussian infantry causing it to fall back. The Prussians then launched a second assault consisting of Geist Grenadiers, Blanckensee, La Motte, the unwillingness of the Austrian artillery to risk firing at its own troops contributed to the fall of the summit. A number of Prussian regiments positioned south of Burkersdorf ignored orders to remain in the area, a bayonet charge led by Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick seized an Austrian battery, and the surprise attack led to the collapse of the Austrian line. Despite the lack of an organised pursuit many Austrian infantrymen were captured by the Prussian cavalry regiments, a total of 856 Prussians were killed, while the injured or missing amounted to 3,055. Austrian and Saxon troops suffered 7,444 dead, injured or missing, pp 333–338 ISBN 0-89919-352-8 Chandler, David, The Art of Warfare in the Age of Marlborough. ISBN 0-946771-42-1 Duffy, Christopher, The Army of Frederick the Great The Emperors Press pp 243–245, ISBN 1-883476-02-X Duffy, Christopher, Frederick the Great, A Military Life Routledge pp 69–71 ISBN 0-415-00276-1
19.
Battle of Mollwitz
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The Battle of Mollwitz was fought by Prussia and Austria on 10 April 1741, during the early stages of the War of the Austrian Succession. It was the first battle of the new Prussian King Frederick II and this battle cemented his authority over the newly conquered territory of Silesia and gave him valuable military experience. After the accession of Maria Theresa of Austria to the Kingdoms of Bohemia and Hungary, Frederick II saw an opportunity to invade and he took Silesia by storm and occupied almost the entire province. Both Neipperg and Frederick rushed northwards in parallel columns, in a race to reach the city first, in atrocious weather, Neipperg reached Neisse first and set up camp there. Frederick II and his army were now caught behind enemy lines with a large Austrian force lying between him and the rest of his kingdom and his supply and communication lines cut off. Both sides knew that battle was now inevitable, there was very heavy snow on the ground which caused snow-blindness, and Frederick miscalculated the distance to the river on his right. He deployed several of his units behind a bend in the river where they could take no part in the battle and it is said that Schwerin commented early on that Frederick miscalculated the distance, but he was ignored. Neipperg was in a bad situation when he discovered Fredericks entire army on his doorstep by simply looking out of his window, not only were most of his soldiers still sleeping, but his entire army was facing to the north-west, away from the Prussians. The Austrian army was waking up, desperately rushing from its camp, by around 1 pm, both sides had formed lines of battle and were ready to engage. This left the Prussian flank open to attack, and the Austrian cavalry then turned on the unprotected infantry, abandoning the field, he was nearly caught and almost shot. Many historians believe that Schwerin advised Frederick to leave so that Schwerin could take command of the troops himself, the leader of the Austrian cavalry, General Römer, received a fatal shot to his head from a Prussian musket ball. With the leaders of both dead, an officer asked Schwerin where they should retreat to. Schwerin famously replied, Well retreat over the bodies of our enemies, a second Austrian cavalry attack on the left side was beaten back and Schwerin ordered a general advance of all Prussian forces. The Prussian infantry soon engaged the Austrian battle line and they were some of the most well-drilled infantry of the period, and could fire 4-5 shots a minute with their flintlock muskets, seriously outgunning their opponents. Soon the Austrians were routed from the field and Frederick the Great stood victorious, the victory was due to Field Marshal Schwerin. The Prussian king had fled from the battlefield when the Austrians seemed to be winning, Frederick the Great later swore never again to leave his troops behind in battle, and he kept this promise faithfully until his death in the late 18th century. He annexed the province of Silesia from Austria and learned a number of lessons from Mollwitz. He is quoted as saying, Mollwitz was my school, Frederick had made several mistakes but his army still won the battle due to their superior training
20.
Battle of Pfaffenhofen
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The Battle of Pfaffenhofen was fought on 15 April 1745 between France and Austria. The Austrians under Karl Josef Batthyány defeated the outnumbered French under General Ségur, here he died 3 months later. This hampered the ongoing negotiations, so Maria Theresia ordered the Austrian Army to start a new offensive to put pressure on the Bavarian negotiators. Amberg and Vilshofen were taken and the Bavarian army under Törring and its French, Hessian, Törring decided to pull back his Bavarian and Hessian troops behind the Lech River. The next day Segur decided to pull back behind the Lech. The Austrians, aware of the isolated French position, had by then reached Pfaffenhofen with a larger than the French. First the Austrians attacked the town of Pfaffenhofen and were met by French fire, but the Austrians took the town in house-to-house combat in which the fierce Croatian Pandurs inflicted heavy casualties on the French defenders. Meanwhile, François de Ségur had hastily improvised a defensive position around a hill west of the city. But, when more and more Austrian troops, including the force under Batthyány, reached the battlefield, de Ségur was forced twice to withdraw his army. When the sign for a withdrawal was given, panic broke out amongst the Palatinate troops. De Ségur had the greatest difficulty in preventing the panic spreading amongst his French troops, the retreating army was harassed by the Pandur and Hussar light cavalry, which inflicted many casualties. Only after the French and Palatinates had crossed the Paar river at Hohenwart at 18,00, the defeated army reached Rain on the Lech the next day at 11,00 at set up camp. But the next morning the Austrian army appeared and the allies fled over the Lech River, only the burning down of the bridge prevented a total disaster for the allies. De Ségur had lost many troops and material, but his maintenance of discipline had prevented the destruction of his army. The day after the defeat, Törring was dismissed and the Peace-party prevailed, one week later, Maximilian III Joseph concluded the Treaty of Füssen with Austria. The Battle of Pfaffenhofen eliminated Bavaria-Bohemia as one of the four theaters of War the Austrians had to fight on, releasing troops for the war in Silesia, Italy, the Art of Warfare in the Age of Marlborough. Ripley, George, Dana, Charles A. eds, the Vinkhuijzen collection of military uniforms, France, 1750-1757. Archived from the original on 8 March 2013, flags through the ages and across the world
21.
Battle of Kesselsdorf
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The Prussians were led by Leopold I, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau, while the Austrians and Saxons were led by Field Marshal Rutowsky. The Prussians were victorious over the Royal Saxon Army and the Imperial Army of the Holy Roman Emperor. Two Prussian columns, one led by Frederick, the second by the Leopold the Old Dessauer were converging on Dresden, the capital of Saxony, interposed between Leopold and Dresden was Rutowsky with an army of Saxons. Rapidly marching towards Dresden and Rutowsky was prince Charles who hoped to be able to reinforce both, Leopold moved slowly and deliberately forward entering Saxon territory on 29 November and advanced on Rutowsky at Leipzig, whereupon Rutowsky retired towards Dresden. By 12 December, Leopold reached Meissen and joined with a corps under Lehwaldt, the Saxons deployed along a ridge that ran from Kesselsdorf to the river Elbe and that was fronted by a stream and marshy ground. The 7,000 Austrians under Grünne formed on the right near the Elbe, the line was long and there was a considerable gap in its center between the Saxons and the Austrians. On the fifteenth, Leopold finally came up, there was much snow and ice on the field. The Prussians were slightly outnumbered 35,000 to 32,000, additionally, the Saxons and Austrians had the advantage of the ground. The Saxons had the town defended with twenty-four heavy cannons, their engineers and carpenters enhancing its defensibility, a second, reinforced attack was made and this too failed with the Prussians fleeing in disorder. The Prussians had suffered some 1,500 casualties from the forces of 3,500. The shock of the charge sent the Saxons tumbling back and through their position in Kesselsdorf. At this same time, Leopolds son, Prince Moritz, personally led a regiment which broke through the Saxon center. The regiment, although isolated, held its ground while other Prussian regiments attempted but failed to link up with it due to the stubbornness of the Saxon defence. Eventually, Leopolds success in taking Kesselsdorf bore fruit and the Saxon flank was turned causing the Saxon line to collapse and their army to flee at nightfall. During the battle, the Austrians on the right never fired a shot, while Charles, the Saxons fled in a wild panic into Dresden. There, despite the presence of Charles and his army of 18,000, Leopold then linked up his forces with those of Frederick, who was so delighted by the victory that he embraced Leopold personally. The Saxons then abandoned Dresden, which Fredrick and Leopold occupied on the eighteenth after demanding its unconditional surrender, annals of the wars of the eighteenth century. Flags through the ages and across the world, the Art of Warfare in the Age of Marlborough
22.
King George's War
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King Georges War is the name given to the military operations in North America that formed part of the War of the Austrian Succession. It was the third of the four French and Indian Wars and it took place primarily in the British provinces of New York, Massachusetts Bay, New Hampshire, and Nova Scotia. In French, it is known as the Third Intercolonial War, the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ended the war in 1748 and restored Louisbourg to France, but failed to resolve any outstanding territorial issues. The War of Jenkins Ear broke out in 1739 between Spain and Great Britain, but was confined to the Caribbean Sea and conflict between Spanish Florida and the neighboring British Province of Georgia, Massachusetts did not declare war until June 2. News of war reached the French fortress at Louisbourg first, on May 3,1744. Concerned about their overland supply lines to Quebec, they first raided the British fishing port of Canso on May 23, and then organized an attack on Annapolis Royal, then the capital of Nova Scotia. However, French forces were delayed in departing Louisbourg, and their Mikmaq and Maliseet allies in conjunction with Father Jean-Louis Le Loutre, Annapolis had received news of the war declaration, and was somewhat prepared when the Indians began besieging Fort Anne. Lacking heavy weapons, the Indians withdrew after a few days, in 1745, British colonial forces captured Fortress Louisbourg after a siege of six weeks. In retaliation, the Wabanaki Confederacy of Acadia launched the Northeast Coast Campaign against the British settlements on the border of Acadia in Maine, France launched a major expedition to recover Louisbourg in 1746. Beset by storms, disease, and finally the death of its commander, the war was also fought on the frontiers between the northern British colonies and New France. On November 28,1745, the French with their Indian allies raided and destroyed the village of Saratoga, New York, all of the British settlements north of Albany were accordingly abandoned. In July 1746 an Iroquois and intercolonial force assembled in northern New York for an attack against Canada. British regulars expected to participate never arrived, and the attack was called off, in 1748, Indian allies of the French attacked Schenectady, New York. The war took a toll, especially in the northern British colonies. The losses of Massachusetts men alone in 1745–46 have been estimated as 8% of that colonys adult male population. According to the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, Louisbourg was returned to France three years later, in exchange for the city of Madras in India, captured by the French from the British and this decision outraged New Englanders, particularly Massachusetts colonists who had contributed the most to the expedition. The British government eventually acknowledged their effort with a payment of £180,000 after the war, in Acadia and Nova Scotia, the fighting continued in Father Le Loutres War. The Enduring Vision, A History of the American People Drake, a Particular History of the Five Years French and Indian War in New England Kingsford, William
23.
Jacobite rising of 1745
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The Jacobite rising of 1745 was the attempt by Charles Edward Stuart to regain the British throne for the exiled House of Stuart. The rising occurred during the War of the Austrian Succession when most of the British Army was on the European continent, the march south began with an initial victory at Prestonpans near Edinburgh. The Jacobite army, now in bold spirits, marched onwards to Carlisle, the Battle of Culloden ended with the final defeat of the Jacobite cause, and with Charles Edward Stuart fleeing with a price on his head, before finally sailing to France. The Glorious Revolution of 1688–89 resulted in the Roman Catholic Stuart king, James II of England and VII of Scotland, James daughter and her husband, who was also Jamess nephew, ascended the British throne as joint sovereigns William and Mary. In 1690 Presbyterianism was established as the religion of Scotland. The Act of Settlement 1701 settled the succession of the English throne on the Protestant House of Hanover, the Scottish Act of Security 1704 required that Queen Annes successor be Protestant, and the Act of Union 1707 applied the Act of Settlement to Scotland. With the death of Queen Anne in 1714, the Elector of Hanover, George I, James IIs son, James Francis Edward Stuart, the Old Pretender, attempted to gain the British throne in 1715 but failed to do so. The accession of George I ushered in the Whig supremacy, with the Tories deprived of all political power, George II succeeded his father in 1727. In February 1742 Sir Robert Walpole resigned as Prime Minister after nearly 21 years, thereafter, the Whig Henry Pelham was Prime Minister until 1754. In 1743 war broke out between Britain and France, as part of the larger War of the Austrian Succession and it was signed by the Duke of Beaufort, Lord Barrymore, Lord Orrery, Sir Watkin Williams Wynn, Sir John Hynde Cotton and Sir Robert Abdy. Amelot replied that the French government would need proof of English support for Jacobitism before it could act. The Tory leaders had requested 10,000 French soldiers and arms for 10,000 of the officers on half pay and unemployed soldiers. The French were to land in Maldon in Essex, a section of coast not patrolled by the Royal Navy, obviating a crossing of the River Thames and counting on support from Jacobite sentiment there. They advised that Maurice of Saxony should command the French army because he was known to most of them and was a Protestant. A parallel expeditionary force for a Scottish landing under the command of Lord Marischal was requested as well, James Butler, Louis XVs Master of Horse, toured England ostensibly for purchasing bloodstock but in reality to gauge the health of Jacobitism in England. Before he left for England the French king briefed him personally to assure the Tory leaders that all of their demands would be met and he reported back that they showed great zeal for a revolution. John Sample, a spy for Walpole, told the Duke of Newcastle that plans for a French invasion had been orchestrated by Wynn, Butler returned to France in October and had an audience with Louis XV, who said he was satisfied. The next month Amelot told Sempill officially that Louis XV was resolved to restore the House of Stuart, the Declaration of King James was signed by James Francis Edward Stuart on 23 December 1743 and was to be published in the event of a successful French landing
24.
First Carnatic War
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In 1720 France effectively nationalised the French East India Company, and began using it to expand its imperial interests. This became a source of conflict with the British in India with the entry of Britain into the War of the Austrian Succession in 1744. Hostilities in India began with a British naval attack on a French fleet in 1745 and this resulted in the despatch of a fleet under La Bourdonnais that arrived in 1746. The fleets met again on 19 August, but Peyton refused battle, recognising that La Bourdonnais had acquired additional guns at Pondicherry, on 4 September 1746, La Bourdonnais led an attack on Madras. After several days of bombardment the British surrendered and the French entered the city, the British leadership was taken prisoner and sent to Pondicherry. It was originally agreed that the town would be restored to the British after negotiation but this was opposed by Dupleix, who sought to annex Madras to French holdings. Disguising themselves as natives, Clive and three others eluded their inattentive sentry, slipped out of the fort, and made their way to Fort St. David, some 50 miles to the south. Dupleix, in the meantime, had before the promised to turn over Fort St. George to the Nawab of the Carnatic Anwaruddin Khan. Anwaruddin responded by sending a 10, 000-man army to take the fort from Dupleix by force, Dupleix, who had lost the support of La Bourdonnais over the status of Madras, had only 300 French troops. In the Battle of Adyar this small force successfully repulsed the attacks of Anwaruddins army, Dupleix then launched an assault on Fort St. David. Stung by his defeat at Adyar, Anwaruddin sent his son Muhammed Ali to assist the British in the defence of Cuddalore, over the next few months Anwaruddin and Dupleix had made peace, and the Carnatic troops were withdrawn. The French, under the command of De Brurie, launched another attempt to take Fort St. David, the timely counterattack by the British and the Nawab, however, turned the tables and prompted the French to withdraw to Pondicherry. In 1748 Major Stringer Lawrence arrived to command of the British troops at Fort St. David. With the arrival of reinforcements from Europe, the British besieged Pondicherry in late 1748, the siege was lifted in October 1748 with the arrival of the monsoons, and the war came to a conclusion with the arrival in December of news of the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. Under its terms Madras was returned to British control, the British East India Company, in contrast, did little to expand its own influence and only weakly attempted to oppose Dupleixs expansive activities. Clive, The life and Death of a British Emperor
25.
Dobromierz, Lower Silesian Voivodeship
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Dobromierz is a village-sized municipality in Świdnica County, Lower Silesian Voivodeship, in south-western Poland. The municipality lies approximately 16 kilometres north-west of Świdnica, and 61 kilometres south-west of the regional capital Wrocław and it has a population of 800. It is the municipality and the seat of the administrative district called Gmina Dobromierz. First mentioned as Vrideberch in a 1307 deed, it received town privileges about 1409, the area was the site of Frederick the Greats victory at the Battle of Hohenfriedberg, fought between Austria and Prussia on June 4,1745 during the War of the Austrian Succession. Prior to 1945 it was in Germany
26.
Prussia
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Prussia was a historic state originating out of the Duchy of Prussia and the Margraviate of Brandenburg, and centred on the region of Prussia. For centuries, the House of Hohenzollern ruled Prussia, successfully expanding its size by way of an unusually well-organised, Prussia, with its capital in Königsberg and from 1701 in Berlin, shaped the history of Germany. In 1871, German states united to create the German Empire under Prussian leadership, in November 1918, the monarchies were abolished and the nobility lost its political power during the German Revolution of 1918–19. The Kingdom of Prussia was thus abolished in favour of a republic—the Free State of Prussia, from 1933, Prussia lost its independence as a result of the Prussian coup, when the Nazi regime was successfully establishing its Gleichschaltung laws in pursuit of a unitary state. Prussia existed de jure until its liquidation by the Allied Control Council Enactment No.46 of 25 February 1947. The name Prussia derives from the Old Prussians, in the 13th century, the Teutonic Knights—an organized Catholic medieval military order of German crusaders—conquered the lands inhabited by them. In 1308, the Teutonic Knights conquered the region of Pomerelia with Gdańsk and their monastic state was mostly Germanised through immigration from central and western Germany and in the south, it was Polonised by settlers from Masovia. The Second Peace of Thorn split Prussia into the western Royal Prussia, a province of Poland, and the part, from 1525 called the Duchy of Prussia. The union of Brandenburg and the Duchy of Prussia in 1618 led to the proclamation of the Kingdom of Prussia in 1701, Prussia entered the ranks of the great powers shortly after becoming a kingdom, and exercised most influence in the 18th and 19th centuries. During the 18th century it had a say in many international affairs under the reign of Frederick the Great. During the 19th century, Chancellor Otto von Bismarck united the German principalities into a Lesser Germany which excluded the Austrian Empire. At the Congress of Vienna, which redrew the map of Europe following Napoleons defeat, Prussia acquired a section of north western Germany. The country then grew rapidly in influence economically and politically, and became the core of the North German Confederation in 1867, and then of the German Empire in 1871. The Kingdom of Prussia was now so large and so dominant in the new Germany that Junkers and other Prussian élites identified more and more as Germans and less as Prussians. In the Weimar Republic, the state of Prussia lost nearly all of its legal and political importance following the 1932 coup led by Franz von Papen. East Prussia lost all of its German population after 1945, as Poland, the main coat of arms of Prussia, as well as the flag of Prussia, depicted a black eagle on a white background. The black and white colours were already used by the Teutonic Knights. The Teutonic Order wore a white coat embroidered with a cross with gold insert
27.
Silesia
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Silesia is a region of Central Europe located mostly in Poland, with small parts in the Czech Republic and Germany. Its area is about 40,000 km2, and its population about 8,000,000, Silesia is located along the Oder River. It consists of Lower Silesia and Upper Silesia, the region is rich in mineral and natural resources, and includes several important industrial areas. Silesias largest city and historical capital is Wrocław, the biggest metropolitan area is the Upper Silesian metropolitan area, the centre of which is Katowice. Parts of the Czech city of Ostrava fall within the borders of Silesia, Silesias borders and national affiliation have changed over time, both when it was a hereditary possession of noble houses and after the rise of modern nation-states. The first known states to hold there were probably those of Greater Moravia at the end of the 9th century. In the 10th century, Silesia was incorporated into the early Polish state, in the 14th century, it became a constituent part of the Bohemian Crown Lands under the Holy Roman Empire, which passed to the Austrian Habsburg Monarchy in 1526. Most of Silesia was conquered by Prussia in 1742, later becoming part of the German Empire, the Weimar Republic, the varied history with changing aristocratic possessions resulted in an abundance of castles in Silesia, especially in the Jelenia Góra valley. The remaining former Austrian parts of Silesia were partitioned to Czechoslovakia, in 1945, after World War II, the bulk of Silesia was transferred to Polish jurisdiction by the Potsdam Agreement of the victorious Allied Powers and became part of Poland. The small Lusatian strip west of the Oder-Neisse line, which had belonged to Silesia since 1815 and its centres are Görlitz and Bautzen. Most inhabitants of Silesia today speak the languages of their respective countries. The population of Upper Silesia is native, while Lower Silesia was settled by a German-speaking population before 1945, an ongoing debate exists whether Silesian speech should be considered a dialect of Polish or a separate language. Also, a Lower Silesian German dialect is used, although today it is almost extinct and it is used by expellees within Germany, as well as Germans who were left behind. The names all relate to the name of a river and mountain in mid-southern Silesia, the mountain served as a cultic place. Ślęża is listed as one of the numerous Pre-Indo-European topographic names in the region, according to some Polish Slavists, the name Ślęża or Ślęż is directly related to the Old Slavic words ślęg or śląg, which means dampness, moisture, or humidity. They disagree with the hypothesis of an origin for the name Śląsk from the name of the Silings tribe, in the fourth century BC, Celts entered Silesia, settling around Mount Ślęża near modern Wrocław, Oława, and Strzelin. Germanic Lugii tribes were first recorded within Silesia in the 1st century, Slavic peoples arrived in the region around the 7th century, and by the early ninth century, their settlements had stabilized. Local Slavs started to erect boundary structures like the Silesian Przesieka, the eastern border of Silesian settlement was situated to the west of the Bytom, and east from Racibórz and Cieszyn
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Saxony
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Its capital is Dresden, and its largest city is Leipzig. Saxony is the tenth largest of Germanys sixteen states, with an area of 18,413 square kilometres, located in the middle of a large, formerly all German-speaking part of Europe, the history of the state of Saxony spans more than a millennium. It has been a medieval duchy, an electorate of the Holy Roman Empire, a kingdom, the area of the modern state of Saxony should not be confused with Old Saxony, the area inhabited by Saxons. Old Saxony corresponds approximately to the modern German states of Lower Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, Saxony is divided into 10 districts,1. After a reform in 2008, these regions - with some alterations of their respective areas - were called Direktionsbezirke, in 2012, the authorities of these regions were merged into one central authority, the Landesdirektion Sachsen. The Erzgebirgskreis district includes the Ore Mountains, and the Schweiz-Osterzgebirge district includes Saxon Switzerland, the largest cities in Saxony according to the 31 December 2015 estimate. To this can be added that Leipzig forms a metropolitan region with Halle. The latter city is located just across the border to Saxony-Anhalt, Leipzig shares for instance an S-train system and an airport with Halle. Saxony has, after Saxony Anhalt, the most vibrant economy of the states of the former East Germany and its economy grew by 1. 9% in 2010. Nonetheless, unemployment remains above the German average, the eastern part of Germany, excluding Berlin, qualifies as an Objective 1 development-region within the European Union, and is eligible to receive investment subsidies of up to 30% until 2013. FutureSAX, a business competition and entrepreneurial support organisation, has been in operation since 2002. Microchip makers near Dresden have given the region the nickname Silicon Saxony, the publishing and porcelain industries of the region are well known, although their contributions to the regional economy are no longer significant. Today the automobile industry, machinery production and services contribute to the development of the region. Saxony is also one of the most renowned tourist destinations in Germany - especially the cities of Leipzig and Dresden, new tourist destinations are developing, notably in the lake district of Lausitz. Saxony reported an unemployment of 8. 8% in 2014. By comparison the average in the former GDR was 9. 8% and 6. 7% for Germany overall, the unemployment rate reached 8. 2% in May 2015. The Leipzig area, which recently was among the regions with the highest unemployment rate, could benefit greatly from investments by Porsche. With the VW Phaeton factory in Dresden, and many part suppliers, zwickau is another major Volkswagen location
29.
Maria Theresa
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Maria Theresa Walburga Amalia Christina was the only female ruler of the Habsburg dominions and the last of the House of Habsburg. She was the sovereign of Austria, Hungary, Croatia, Bohemia, Transylvania, Mantua, Milan, Lodomeria and Galicia, by marriage, she was Duchess of Lorraine, Grand Duchess of Tuscany and Holy Roman Empress. She started her 40-year reign when her father, Emperor Charles VI, Charles VI paved the way for her accession with the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 and spent his entire reign securing it. Upon the death of her father, Saxony, Prussia, Bavaria, Prussia proceeded to invade the affluent Habsburg province of Silesia, sparking a nine-year conflict known as the War of the Austrian Succession, and subsequently conquered it. Maria Theresa would later try to reconquer Silesia during the Seven Years War. Of the sixteen, ten survived to adulthood and she had eleven daughters and five sons. She criticised and disapproved of many of Josephs actions, Maria Theresa understood the importance of her public persona and was able to simultaneously evoke both esteem and affection from her subjects. However, she refused to allow religious toleration and contemporary travelers thought her regime was bigoted and superstitious. As a young monarch who fought two wars, she believed that her cause should be the cause of her subjects. The dowager empresses, her aunt Wilhelmine Amalia of Brunswick-Lüneburg and grandmother Eleonor Magdalene of the Palatinate-Neuburg, were her godmothers and her father was the only surviving male member of the House of Habsburg and hoped for a son who would prevent the extinction of his dynasty and succeed him. Thus, the birth of Maria Theresa was a disappointment to him. Charles sought the other European powers approval for disinheriting his nieces and they exacted harsh terms, in the Treaty of Vienna, Great Britain demanded that Austria abolish the Ostend Company in return for its recognition of the Pragmatic Sanction. France, Spain, Saxony-Poland, Bavaria and Prussia later reneged, little more than a year after her birth, Maria Theresa was joined by a sister, Maria Anna, and another one, named Maria Amalia, was born in 1724. The portraits of the family show that Maria Theresa resembled Elisabeth Christine. The Prussian ambassador noted that she had blue eyes, fair hair with a slight tinge of red, a wide mouth. Unlike many other members of the House of Habsburg, neither Maria Theresas parents nor her grandparents were closely related to each other, Maria Theresa was a serious and reserved child who enjoyed singing and archery. She was barred from riding by her father, but she would later learn the basics for the sake of her Hungarian coronation ceremony. The imperial family staged opera productions, often conducted by Charles VI and her education was overseen by Jesuits
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Hans Joachim von Zieten
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Hans Joachim von Zieten, sometimes spelled Johann Joachim von Zeithen, also known as Zieten aus dem Busch, was a cavalry general in the Prussian Army. He served in four wars and was instrumental in several victories during the reign of Frederick the Great, most particularly at Hohenfriedberg and he is also well known for a raid into the Holy Roman Empire during the Second Silesian War, known as Zietens Ride. After engaging in a reputed 74 duels, and fighting in four wars, Zieten was born on 14 May 1699 in the hamlet of Wustrau, now part of Fehrbellin, in the Margraviate of Brandenburg. His father was Joachim Matthias and his mother, Catharine Jurgass, the family had lived there for several hundred years, records show them founding a Latin School in the mid-fourteenth century. The property was small and the referred to the ramshackle house as a calliope. His father shared the property with his brother, Hans Dietrich, when the brother died in 1693, Zieten was the third of seven children, by 1720, when his father died, only four children remained. Wustrau came to Zieten and his three sisters, the estate was valued at 8,000 thalers, of which the maintenance of the mother had to be fulfilled and his sisters inheritances and dowries paid. This left Zieten with about half of the value, a neighbor, General von Schwendy of Buskow, took Zieten in 1715 as corporal in his regiment in Neuruppin. On 7 July 1722, Zieten became a cadet, upon his appointment as governor of Spandau, Schwendy, who had been Zietens mentor, released his regiment to command of Major General Kurt Christoph Graf von Schwerin. In a report to Frederick William I, Zieten was described as, very small, and of weak voice for commanding. This was sufficient for the so-called soldier-king, who was obsessed with tall men, two years later, during a stay in Berlin, Zieten heard of the doubling of the dragoon regiment of Wuthenow and obtained a position as lieutenant in this regiment. In 1727, after an argument with his captain, he was condemned, after returning from the fortress, Zieten challenged the Rittmeister to a duel and he was subsequently cashiered. By 1730, on the recommendation of General Wilhelm Dietrich von Buddenbrock, on 1 March 1732, a second company of the Hussars was created, and Zieten was appointed as its chief and promoted to the Rittmeister with 50 thalers a months salary. In summer 1732, Zieten was given four weeks of arrest for an offense, in 1735, Frederick William appointed Zieten as the head of a hussar company, and sent him to the Imperial Army on the Rhine, where he participated in the Rhine campaign. Károly József Batthyány, the Austrian hussars superintendent, served as his mentor in the fighting against France, at that time, the Austrians were the reputed masters of light cavalry work. His next promotion, to took place on 29 January 1736. In 1737 Zieten married the 33-year-old Judith von Jürgaß and his eldest daughter came from this marriage. Shortly before the wedding, he dueled with his superintendent, Lieutenant Colonel Alexander Ludwig von Wurmburg, in 1741, at the onset of the First Silesian War, Zieten was a major and squadron leader
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Zieten Hussars
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The Zieten Hussars, last designation, Hussars Regiment von Zieten No. 3, was a regiment of the Prussian Army and later the Imperial German Army, founded in 1730 and named after its first Colonel. During the 1806 campaign of the War of the Fourth Coalition, the regiment capitulated at Ratekau following the defeat of 1806 and was disbanded. In 1807 it formed a squadron in its former depot as Freikorps Marwitz, in 1860, before the unification of Germany, the regiment became a part of the Federal Army. But it took until 1861 to officially recognize the tradition of the old Prussian 2nd Hussar Regiment. Shortly before the outbreak of World War I it formed part of the 6th Cavalry-Brigade in the 6th Division known as Husaren-Regiment von Zieten Nr, footnotes Citations Knötel, Richard, Knötel, Herbert, & Sieg, Herbert. Uniforms of the World, A compendium of Army, Navy, Air Force uniforms 1700-1937, Charles Scribners Sons Knötel, Die preussischen Kavallerie-Regimenter 1913/1914 nach dem Gesetz vom 3. Hofschröer, Peter, Prussian Cavalry of the Napoleonic Wars, 1807–1815, Osprey Publishing, London,1986 Die Zietenhusaren, Husarenregiment von Zieten Nr.3
32.
Cuirassier Regiment "Queen" (Pomeranian) No. 2
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The Cuirassier Regiment Queen No.2 was a Prussian cavalry regiment. Formed in 1717 as Dragoner-Regiment Nr.5 Bayreuth Dragoner it was originally a dragoon regiment and was part of the Prussian order of battle until 1918, the Bayreuth Dragoons achieved fame for their role in winning the Battle of Hohenfriedberg in 1745. In 1819 it was transformed into a cuirassier regiment, apart from short interruptions, the regimental garrison was Pasewalk in Western Pomerania from 1721 to 1919. The Prussian Dragoner-Regiment Nr.5 was formed by an order on 2 April 1717. The new formation was to be sponsored by Oberst Achaz von der Schulenburg and raised from recruits in the Duchies of Ansbach, by 1 June the regiment was formed, with 44 officers and NCOs and 295 cavalry troopers, all aged between 20 and 40 years old. By 1718, the regiment had expanded to four squadrons comprising 689 men and it was not until 1730 that the regiment reached its full size, ten squadrons, a total of 62 officers,120 NCOS, standard bearers,30 drummers and 1,320 cavalry troopers. On 7 August 1731 the regiment was granted the honor title Bayreuth Dragoner and was redesignated Dragoner-Regiment Nr.5 Bayreuth Dragoner, the regiment wore the standard powder blue coat of the Prussian dragoons with crimson turnbacks and facings. The regiment first saw action during the War of Austrian Succession, at the Battle of Mollwitz, six squadrons of the regiment were engaged on an attack on the Austrians left wing. This attack caused the enemy to retreat and brought victory for the Prussian king, at the Battle of Chotusitz, the regiment did not fare as well. During two cavalry attacks, the Bayreuth Dragoons failed to break through the lines and suffered heavy losses including 14 officers. The regiment won its reputation at the Battle of Hohenfriedberg, the Austrian commander, Prince Charles Alexander of Lorraine, was holding against repeated Prussian infantry attacks. The commander of the Bayreuth Dragoons, Generalleutnant Gessler, saw an opportunity to attack a large force of Austrian infantry attacking the exhausted Prussian infantry, the ten squadrons of the regiment formed into two columns and charged into the Austrians. In the fighting followed, the Bayreuth Dragoons destroyed 20 Austrian and Saxon battalions, took 2,500 prisoners. Prinz Karl was forced to retreat in disarray, and the battle was won, after the charge at Hohenfriedberg, the regiment was permitted to wear a golden 67 on their cartridge cases. Although the regiment was present at the Battle of Soor, it did not see any action, with the outbreak of the Seven Years War in 1756, the regiment was in the vanguard of the Prussian advance into Saxony. At the Battle of Lobositz, the regiment was involved in the two failed cavalry charges against the Austrians on the Homolka-berg, the regiment performed as well as could be expected, with two squadrons rescuing the Gardes du Corps from annihilation. The dragoons participated in the Siege of Pirna, and on 6 May 1757 took part in the bitterly fought Battle of Prague, in the French Revolutionary Wars the regiment marched southwest in 1792 to fight in northern France in the Palatinate and Baden. In the battle of Jena-Auerstedt against Napoleon it was almost routed, in 1806, Queen consort Louise of Prussia became Colonel-in-Chief of the regiment
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Silesian Wars
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Silesia was strategically important to Prussia because it significantly blunted the capacity of Prussias two chief foes—Austria and Russia—to meddle in Prussian affairs. Prussian victory foreshadowed a wider struggle for control over the German-speaking peoples that would culminate in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, the First Silesian War inaugurated, and is generally seen in the context of, the wider ranging War of the Austrian Succession. While Charles launched a claim to the throne and the Habsburg territories, King Frederick II aimed at the annexation of Silesia. Furious Frederick III in turn insisted on the centuries-old Brandenburg claims to the Silesian Piast heritage. Forty-five years on, an alliance formed in support of Prussia’s newly asserted claims on Silesia. King Frederick II was supported by the electorates of Bavaria, Saxony and Cologne, as well as by the kingdoms of France, Spain, Sweden and Naples along with various smaller European powers. The shared objective within the alliance was the destruction or at least the diminution of the Habsburg Monarchy, Britain and Austria were bound by the Anglo-Austrian Alliance which had existed since 1731. On 8 November 1740, King Frederick II ordered the mobilization of the Prussian Army, according to his plan of attack, two corps would defeat a small Austrian infantry regiment and occupy the whole Silesian lands. On December 11 he issued an ultimatum to Austria demanding the surrender of Silesia, in turn, he promised to acknowledge the Pragmatic Sanction and to give his vote as Brandenburg prince-elector in the Imperial election to Maria Theresas husband Duke Francis of Lorraine. Instead of awaiting the Austrian response, he marched against Silesia with an army of about 27,000 men five days later, hailed by the Protestant population. After a two-month campaign, Prussian forces had occupied all of Silesia, with only small Austrian garrisons entrenched in the fortresses of Głogów, Brzeg, and Nysa. Having abandoned winter quarters in 1741, the Prussian forces started their spring campaign, the Silesian capital Wrocław was occupied by August 10, a first armistice was concluded on October 9. The Prussian victory in the Battle of Chotusitz on May 17,1742, only the southern portion of Upper Silesia remained under Habsburg control, later called Austrian Silesia. The Second Silesian War took place from 1744 to 1745, the Austrians had lost Silesia to Prussia in the Battle of Mollwitz. This was the time when the Austrians, under the command of Field Marshal Otto Ferdinand von Abensberg und Traun, the Prussians were again led by King Frederick the Great. The Battle of Hohenfriedberg on June 4,1745, was fought through a series of separate actions, after the Prussian victory, Frederick did not pursue the opposing armies. In the Battle of Soor on September 29,1745, Fredericks Prussians faced an Austrian army led by Prince Charles Alexander of Lorraine with 39,000 men, Frederick tried to obtain Graner-Koppe from Prince Charles where the Prussians met with cannon fire. The Prussians won after a closely fought battle consisting of a series of attacks, whilst Frederick was sure the war was over, Empress Maria Theresa had not given up her claims to Silesia
34.
Dresden
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Dresden is the capital city and, after Leipzig, the second-largest city of the Free State of Saxony in Germany. It is situated in a valley on the River Elbe, near the border with the Czech Republic, Dresden has a long history as the capital and royal residence for the Electors and Kings of Saxony, who for centuries furnished the city with cultural and artistic splendour. The city was known as the Jewel Box, because of its baroque, the controversial American and British bombing of Dresden in World War II towards the end of the war killed approximately 25,000, many of whom were civilians, and destroyed the entire city centre. After the war restoration work has helped to reconstruct parts of the inner city, including the Katholische Hofkirche, the Zwinger. Since German reunification in 1990 Dresden is again a cultural, educational and political centre of Germany, the Dresden University of Technology is one of the 10 largest universities in Germany and part of the German Universities Excellence Initiative. The economy of Dresden and its agglomeration is one of the most dynamic in Germany and it is dominated by high-tech branches, often called as “Silicon Saxony”. The city is one of the most visited in Germany with 4,3 million overnight stays per year. The royal buildings are among the most impressive buildings in Europe, main sights are also the nearby National Park of Saxon Switzerland, the Ore Mountains and the countryside around Elbe Valley and Moritzburg Castle. The most prominent building in the city of Dresden is the Frauenkirche, built in the 18th century, the church was destroyed during World War II. The remaining ruins were left for 50 years as a war memorial, the church was rebuilt from 1994 to 2005. Although Dresden is a relatively recent city of Germanic origin followed by settlement of Slavic people, Dresdens founding and early growth is associated with the eastward expansion of Germanic peoples, mining in the nearby Ore Mountains, and the establishment of the Margraviate of Meissen. Its name etymologically derives from Old Sorbian Drežďany, meaning people of the forest, Dresden later evolved into the capital of Saxony. Around the late 12th century, a Slavic settlement called Drežďany had developed on the southern bank, another settlement existed on the northern bank, but its Slavic name is unknown. It was known as Antiqua Dresdin by 1350, and later as Altendresden, dietrich, Margrave of Meissen, chose Dresden as his interim residence in 1206, as documented in a record calling the place Civitas Dresdene. After 1270, Dresden became the capital of the margraviate and it was given to Friedrich Clem after death of Henry the Illustrious in 1288. It was taken by the Margraviate of Brandenburg in 1316 and was restored to the Wettin dynasty after the death of Valdemar the Great in 1319, from 1485, it was the seat of the dukes of Saxony, and from 1547 the electors as well. The Elector and ruler of Saxony Frederick Augustus I became King Augustus II the Strong of Poland in personal union and he gathered many of the best musicians, architects and painters from all over Europe to the newly named Royal-Polish Residential City of Dresden. His reign marked the beginning of Dresdens emergence as a leading European city for technology, during the reign of Kings Augustus II the Strong and Augustus III of Poland the Zwinger Royal Palace, the Hofkirche and the Frauenkirche were built
35.
Der Hohenfriedberger
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Der Hohenfriedberger, also called Hohenfriedberger Marsch or Der Hohenfriedberger Marsch, is one of the most classic and well known German military marches. It takes its name from the victory of the Prussians over the allied Austrians and Saxons on June 4,1745 during the Second Silesian War at the Battle of Hohenfriedberg, there are many legends surrounding the origins of the march. Supposedly, the Bayreuther dragoon regiment, which was crucial in securing a Prussian victory, whether the march was actually played then is just as questionable as the claim that Frederick II of Prussia was the composer of the piece. The first outline was written in 1795, for the first time in 1845, in celebration of the hundredth anniversary of the battle, the march was given lyrics, Auf, Ansbach-Dragoner. Because the regiment by then had been renamed Ansbach-Bayreuth, mozart based a victory march in his opera Idomeneo on this march. In Kubricks film Barry Lyndon, it was used during the scenes depicting Lydons service with the Prussian Army during the Seven Years War. The cavalry version is played while Barry is free and on a horse, when he is seconded to the secret police, Mozarts version is played on two occasions. The march was used at the beginning of the film Stalingrad during the rally in Italy before they were sent East. Since it is used in parts of the Königgrätzer Marsch, it can be heard in Indiana Jones, in the film Victory, the march is played by the German Army band prior to Deutschland Über Alles. On a CD released by Brandenburg Historica, in the Napoleonic Wars expansion for the video game Mount and Blade, Warband it is one of the tunes the instrumentalists can play for certain team bonuses when playing as the Prussian Army. Königgrätzer Marsch Yorckscher Marsch Badenweiler Marsch Alte Kameraden
36.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
37.
Robert M. Citino
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Robert M. Citino is an American historian at the University of North Texas. He is an authority on modern German military history, with an emphasis upon World War II. The Historically Speaking journal described him as one of the most perceptive military historians writing today, Citino was born and grew up in Cleveland, Ohio, a son of a World War II veteran. After graduating with Magna Cum Laude with his Bachelors degree in history from Ohio State University in 1978, he earned his Masters, Citino is fluent in German and is a prolific reader of early 20th century German military literature. Prior to his position at the University of North Texas, Citino has taught at Eastern Michigan University, West Point, and he is a fellow of the Barsanti Military History Center, a trustee of the Society for Military History, and a consultant for the White House staff. He has also appeared as a consultant on the History Channel, throughout his career Citino has advocated changing the current nomenclature of German military tactics. Although he uses the word Blitzkrieg on the cover of his books, he has espoused the view that it should be called by its proper German military term, Bewegungskrieg. Citino has taught courses on Nazi Germany and American military history, including Korea, Vietnam, on March 15,2013, Citino was awarded the 2013 Distinguished Book Award by the Society for Military History for his work The Wehrmacht Retreats, Fighting a Lost War,1943. The book explores German losses in key campaigns in 1943—losses which would lead to an erosion of the German militarys strategic advantage. It is his second Distinguished Book Award, he received one in 2004 for his book Blitzkrieg to Desert Storm. Citino was a professor at the United States Army War College in Carlisle. Winner of the 2004 Paul M. Germany and the Union of South Africa in the Nazi Period, the Path to Blitzkrieg, Doctrine and Training in the German Army, 1920–1939. Was the Reputation of the Wehrmacht for Military Superiority Deserved, in History in Dispute 4, World War II, 1939–1945 Detroit, St. James Press. The Weimar Roots of German Military Planning, in Military Planning and the Origins of the Second World War in Europe. Quest for Decisive Victory, From Stalemate to Blitzkrieg in Europe, Blitzkrieg to Desert Storm, The Evolution of Operational Warfare. The German Way of War, From the Thirty Years War to the Third Reich, the Death of the Wehrmacht, The German Campaigns of 1942. Military Histories Past and Present, A Reintroduction, American Historical Review vol.112 no.4 Citino. The Path To Blitzkrieg, Doctrine and Training in the German Army 1920–39, the Wehrmacht Retreats, The Campaigns of 1943
38.
Integrated Authority File
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The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format
Prussia
Austria
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