1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
War of the Second Coalition
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The War of the Second Coalition was the second war on revolutionary France by the European monarchies, led by Britain, Austria and Russia, and including the Ottoman Empire, Portugal and Naples. Their goal was to contain the spread of chaos from France and they failed to overthrow the revolutionary regime and French territorial gains since 1793 were confirmed. The Allies formed a new alliance and attempted to roll back Frances previous military conquests, the Coalition did very well in 1799, but Russia pulled out. Napoleon took charge in France in late 1799, and he, in the Treaty of Lunéville in 1801, France held all of its previous gains and obtained new lands in Tuscany, Italy, while Austria was granted Venetia and the Dalmatian coast. Britain and France signed the Treaty of Amiens in March 1802, by May 1803 Britain and France were again at war and in 1805 Britain assembled the Third Coalition to resume the war against France. On 20 April 1792, the French Legislative Assembly declared war on Austria, in this War of the First Coalition, France ranged itself against most of the European states sharing land or water borders with her, plus Portugal and the Ottoman Empire. In the summer of 1798, Napoleon Bonaparte led an expedition to Egypt, where his army was trapped, meanwhile, during his absence from Europe, the outbreak of violence in Switzerland drew French support against the old Swiss Confederation. When revolutionaries overthrew the government in Bern, the French Army of the Alps invaded. In northern Italy, Russian general Aleksandr Suvorov won a string of victories, driving the French under Moreau out of the Po Valley, forcing them back on the French Alps and the coast around Genoa. However, the Russian armies in the Helvetic Republic were defeated by French commander André Masséna, ultimately the Russians left the Coalition when Great Britain insisted on the right to search all vessels it stopped at sea. In Germany, Archduke Charles of Austria drove the French under Jean-Baptiste Jourdan back across the Rhine, Jourdan was replaced by Massena, who then combined the Armies of the Danube and Helvetia. From October 1797 until March 1799, the signatories of the Treaty of Campo Formio avoided armed conflict, despite their agreement at Campo Formio, two primary combatants, France and Austria, remained suspicious of each other and several diplomatic incidents undermined the agreement. The French demanded additional territory not mentioned in the Treaty, the Habsburgs were reluctant to hand over designated territories, much less additional ones. The Congress at Rastatt proved inept at orchestrating the transfer of territories to compensate the German princes for their losses, Ferdinand of Naples refused to pay tribute to France, followed by the Neapolitan rebellion and the subsequent establishment of the Parthenopaean Republic. Republicans in the Swiss cantons, supported by the French army, overthrew the government in Bern. Other factors contributed to the rising tensions, on his way to Egypt, Napoleon had stopped at the heavily fortified port city of Valletta. Grand Master Ferdinand von Hompesch zu Bolheim, who ruled the island, the French Knights of the order deserted, and the remaining Knights failed to mount a successful resistance. Bonaparte forcibly removed the other Knights from their possessions, angering Paul, Tsar of Russia, the French Directory, furthermore, was convinced that the Austrians were conniving to start another war
3.
Galerie des Batailles
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It is an epigone of the Grande galerie of the Louvre and was intended to glorify French military history from the Battle of Tolbiac to the Battle of Wagram. 13 bronze tablets on the wall are inscribed with the names of princes, admirals, constables, marshals, there are also busts placed on supports against the columns and between the paintings. While a number of them were of questionable quality, a few masterpieces, joseph-Antoine, prince Poniatowski, maréchal de lEmpire. Adolphe Édouard Casimir Joseph Mortier, duc de Trévise, maréchal de lEmpire, Jean-Baptiste Bessières, duc dIstries, maréchal de lEmpire. Henri LXI, prince de Reuss-Schleiz, général de brigade in French service, Battle of Tolbiac, won by Clovis I over the Alamanni in 496. 4. 15m by 4. 65m Simon de Montfort, 5th Earl of Leicester, Robert dArtois, son of Otto IV and Mahaut dArtois. Hugues Quieret, French admiral, died 1340, Nicolas Béhuchet, French admiral, died 1340. Commemorative tablet at the end of the galerie. Commemorative tablet at the end of the galerie. Alexandre-Antoine Hureau, comte de Sénarmont, général de division, artist, Antoine Laurent Dantan the Elder. César Charles Étienne, comte Gudin, général de division, walter VI of Brienne, Duke of Athens, constable of France in 1356. Battle of Friedland,14 June 1807,5. 43m by 4. 65m, showing Napoleon I and count Nicolas Charles Oudinot Antoine Louis Charles, comte Lasalle, Battle of Wagram,6 July 1809, by Horace Vernet. Dimensions,5. 3m by 4. 65m, showing Napoleon I, artist, François Masson. 58m by 5. 10m Nicolas-Bernard, général-baron Guiot de Lacour, général de division. Artist, Jean-Baptiste Joseph Debay, le Fils Battle of Hohenlinden,3 December 1800, showing Jean Victor Moreau, Michel Ney, Emmanuel de Grouchy, Jean de Habsburg, André Bruno de Frévol, comte de La Coste, général de brigade. Second Battle of Zürich,25 September 1799, oil on canvas, showing André Masséna, commissioned by Louis-Philippe in 1835,5.43 m by 4.65 m Claude-Louis-Constant Corbineau, général de brigade. Artist, Antoine Laurent Dantan, lAîné Joseph Sécret Pascal-Vallongue, général de Brigade, Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy. Artist, Charles-François Lebœuf, Nanteuil, also known as Nanteuil-Lebœuf, prigent de Coëtivy, sire de Coëtivy, Admiral of France. Killed at the siege of Cherbourg,5. 43m by 4. 65m, showing Philip and Nicolas Zonnekin, dated and signed Scheffer Henry 1837
4.
Palace of Versailles
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The Palace of Versailles, Château de Versailles, or simply Versailles, is a royal château in Versailles in the Île-de-France region of France. Versailles is therefore not only as a building, but as a symbol of the system of absolute monarchy of the Ancien Régime. First built by Louis XIII in 1623, as a lodge of brick and stone. The first phase of the expansion was designed and supervised by the architect Louis Le Vau and it culminated in the addition of three new wings of stone, which surrounded Louis XIIIs original building on the north, south, and west. After Le Vaus death in 1670, the work was taken over and completed by his assistant, charles Le Brun designed and supervised the elaborate interior decoration, and André Le Nôtre landscaped the extensive Gardens of Versailles. Le Brun and Le Nôtre collaborated on the fountains, and Le Brun supervised the design. During the second phase of expansion, two enormous wings north and south of the wings flanking the Cour Royale were added by the architect Jules Hardouin-Mansart. He also replaced Le Vaus large terrace, facing the garden on the west, with became the most famous room of the palace. The Royal Chapel of Versailles, located at the end of the north wing, was begun by Mansart in 1688. One of the most baffling aspects to the study of Versailles is the cost – how much Louis XIV, owing to the nature of the construction of Versailles and the evolution of the role of the palace, construction costs were essentially a private matter. Initially, Versailles was planned to be a residence for Louis XIV and was referred to as the kings house. Once Louis XIV embarked on his campaigns, expenses for Versailles became more of a matter for public record. To counter the costs of Versailles during the years of Louis XIVs personal reign. Accordingly, all materials that went into the construction and decoration of Versailles were manufactured in France, even the mirrors used in the decoration of the Hall of Mirrors were made in France. While Venice in the 17th century had the monopoly on the manufacture of mirrors, to meet the demands for decorating and furnishing Versailles, Colbert nationalised the tapestry factory owned by the Gobelin family, to become the Manufacture royale des Gobelins. In 1667, the name of the enterprise was changed to the Manufacture royale des Meubles de la Couronne, the Comptes meticulously list the expenditures on the silver furniture – disbursements to artists, final payments, delivery – as well as descriptions and weight of items purchased. Entries for 1681 and 1682 concerning the silver used in the salon de Mercure serve as an example. 5 In anticipation, For the silver balustrade for the bedroom,90,000 livres II
5.
Hohenlinden
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Hohenlinden is a community in the Upper Bavarian district of Ebersberg. The city of Lynden, Washington is named after it, as is Linden, Hohenlinden is also the subject of an eponymous poem by Thomas Campbell. Hohenlinden lies in the Munich Planning Region roughly 35 km east of Munich, Hohenlinden has the following traditional rural land units, Ebersberger Forst and Hohenlinden. Hohenlinden belonged to the Electorate of Bavaria and was part of the estate of Hofmark Ebersberg of the Order of Malta. It was here that the Battle of Hohenlinden was fought on 3 December 1800, the community is home to two churches, the Kirche Mariä Heimsuchung built in 1489 in Late Gothic style, and the Pfarrkirche St. Josef, built in 1903 in neo-Gothic style. Hohenlinden’s mayor is Ludwig Maurer, an independent who was elected in 1998, in 1999, the community’s tax revenue, converted to euros, was €1,552,000 of which €160,000 was business taxes. According to official statistics,155 people on the social insurance contribution rolls were employed in industry in 1998 in Hohenlinden and in trade, in other fields,1,470 people on the aforesaid rolls were employed, and 1,103 worked from their homes. There were no employees in processing industries, there were 5 businesses in contracting. Furthermore, in 1999, there were 43 agricultural businesses with an area of 772 ha. Over the past few decades, Hohenlinden’s location near the Bundesstraße 12, there are four inns, three traditional Bavarian ones and one Italian. Besides several smaller shops, there is a REWE and an EDEKA supermarket, the Bavarian dialect is very common and widespread in Hohenlinden. In Bavarian, Hohenlinden is called Healin, Hohenlinden offers a wide choice of associations and clubs. Most of them are free for everyone to join and only charge an annual fee to cover their expenses. Other popular organisations are the Landfrauen, the Motocrossverein, the Tischtennisverein, the Eisstockschützen, Pfadfinder Impeesa, community website Battle of Hohenlinden Private Hohenlinden page
6.
Munich
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Munich is the capital and largest city of the German state of Bavaria, on the banks of River Isar north of the Bavarian Alps. Munich is the third largest city in Germany, after Berlin and Hamburg, the Munich Metropolitan Region is home to 5.8 million people. According to the Globalization and World Rankings Research Institute Munich is considered an alpha-world city, the name of the city is derived from the Old/Middle High German term Munichen, meaning by the monks. It derives from the monks of the Benedictine order who ran a monastery at the place that was later to become the Old Town of Munich, Munich was first mentioned in 1158. From 1255 the city was seat of the Bavarian Dukes, black and gold—the colours of the Holy Roman Empire—have been the citys official colours since the time of Ludwig the Bavarian, when it was an imperial residence. Following a final reunification of the Wittelsbachian Duchy of Bavaria, previously divided and sub-divided for more than 200 years, like wide parts of the Holy Roman Empire, the area recovered slowly economically. In 1918, during the German Revolution, the house of Wittelsbach, which governed Bavaria since 1180, was forced to abdicate in Munich. In the 1920s, Munich became home to political factions, among them the NSDAP. During World War II, Munich was heavily bombed and more than 50% of the entire city, the postwar period was characterised by American occupation until 1949 and a strong increase of population and economic power during the years of the Wirtschaftswunder after 1949. The city is home to corporations like BMW, Siemens, MAN, Linde, Allianz and MunichRE as well as many small. Munich is home to national and international authorities, major universities, major museums. Its numerous architectural attractions, international events, exhibitions and conferences. Munich is one of the most prosperous and fastest growing cities in Germany and it is a top-ranked destination for migration and expatriate location, despite being the municipality with the highest density of population in Germany. Munich nowadays hosts more than 530,000 people of foreign background, the year 1158 is assumed to be the foundation date, which is the earliest date the city is mentioned in a document. The document was signed in Augsburg, by that time the Guelph Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony and Bavaria, had built a bridge over the river Isar next to a settlement of Benedictine monks—this was on the Old Salt Route and a toll bridge. In 1175, Munich was officially granted city status and received fortification, in 1180, with the trial of Henry the Lion, Otto I Wittelsbach became Duke of Bavaria and Munich was handed over to the Bishop of Freising. In 1240, Munich was transferred to Otto II Wittelsbach and in 1255, Duke Louis IV, a native of Munich, was elected German king in 1314 and crowned as Holy Roman Emperor in 1328. He strengthened the position by granting it the salt monopoly
7.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
8.
French First Republic
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In the history of France, the First Republic, officially the French Republic, was founded on 21 September 1792 during the French Revolution. The First Republic lasted until the declaration of the First Empire in 1804 under Napoleon, under the Legislative Assembly, which was in power before the proclamation of the First Republic, France was engaged in war with Prussia and Austria. The foreign threat exacerbated Frances political turmoil amid the French Revolution and deepened the passion, in the violence of 10 August 1792, citizens stormed the Tuileries Palace, killing six hundred of the Kings Swiss guards and insisting on the removal of the king. A renewed fear of action prompted further violence, and in the first week of September 1792, mobs of Parisians broke into the citys prisons. This included nobles, clergymen, and political prisoners, but also numerous common criminals, such as prostitutes and petty thieves, many murdered in their cells—raped, stabbed and this became known as the September Massacres. The resulting Convention was founded with the purpose of abolishing the monarchy. The Conventions first act, on 10 August 1792, was to establish the French First Republic, the King, by then a private citizen bearing his family name of Capet, was subsequently put on trial for crimes of high treason starting in December 1792. On 16 January 1793 he was convicted, and on 21 January, throughout the winter of 1792 and spring of 1793, Paris was plagued by food riots and mass hunger. The new Convention did little to remedy the problem until late spring of 1793, despite growing discontent with the National Convention as a ruling body, in June the Convention drafted the Constitution of 1793, which was ratified by popular vote in early August. The Committees laws and policies took the revolution to unprecedented heights, after the arrest and execution of Robespierre in July 1794, the Jacobin club was closed, and the surviving Girondins were reinstated. A year later, the National Convention adopted the Constitution of the Year III and they reestablished freedom of worship, began releasing large numbers of prisoners, and most importantly, initiated elections for a new legislative body. On 3 November 1795, the Directory was established, the period known as the French Consulate began with the coup of 18 Brumaire in 1799. Members of the Directory itself planned the coup, indicating clearly the failing power of the Directory, Napoleon Bonaparte was a co-conspirator in the coup, and became head of the government as the First Consul. He would later proclaim himself Emperor of the French, ending the First French Republic and ushering in the French First Empire
9.
Habsburg Monarchy
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The Monarchy was a composite state composed of territories within and outside the Holy Roman Empire, united only in the person of the monarch. The dynastic capital was Vienna, except from 1583 to 1611, from 1804 to 1867 the Habsburg Monarchy was formally unified as the Austrian Empire, and from 1867 to 1918 as the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The two entities were never coterminous, as the Habsburg Monarchy covered many lands beyond the Holy Roman Empire, the monarchy had no official name. The entity had no official name, Austrian Empire, This was the official name. Note that the German version is Kaisertum Österreich, i. e. the English translation empire refers to a territory ruled by an emperor, Austria-Hungary, This was the official name. An unofficial popular name was the Danubian Monarchy also often used was the term Doppel-Monarchie meaning two states under one crowned ruler, Crownlands or crown lands, This is the name of all the individual parts of the Austrian Empire, and then of Austria-Hungary from 1867 on. The Hungarian parts of the Empire were called Lands of the Holy Hungarian Crown of Saint Stephen or Lands of Holy Stephens Crown, the Bohemian Lands were called Lands of the St. Wenceslaus Crown. Burgenland came to Austria in 1921 from Hungary, Salzburg finally became Austrian in 1816 after the Napoleonic wars. Vienna, Austrias capital became a state January 1,1922, after being residence, Upper and Lower Austria, historically, were split into Austria above the Enns and Austria below the Enns. Upper Austria was enlarged after the Treaty of Teschen following the War of the Bavarian Succession by the so-called Innviertel, formerly part of Bavaria. Hereditary Lands or German Hereditary Lands or Austrian Hereditary Lands, In a narrower sense these were the original Habsburg Austrian territories, i. e. basically the Austrian lands, in a wider sense the Lands of the Bohemian Crown were also included in the Hereditary lands. The term was replaced by the term Crownlands in the 1849 March Constitution, within the Habsburg Monarchy, each province was governed according to its own particular customs. Until the mid 17th century, not all of the provinces were even necessarily ruled by the same members of the family often ruled portions of the Hereditary Lands as private apanages. An even greater attempt at centralization began in 1849 following the suppression of the revolutions of 1848. For the first time, ministers tried to transform the monarchy into a bureaucratic state ruled from Vienna. The Kingdom of Hungary, in particular, ceased to exist as a separate entity, in this system, the Kingdom of Hungary was given sovereignty and a parliament, with only a personal union and a joint foreign and military policy connecting it to the other Habsburg lands. When Bosnia and Herzegovina was annexed, it was not incorporated into either half of the monarchy, instead, it was governed by the joint Ministry of Finance. Austria-Hungary collapsed under the weight of the various unsolved ethnic problems that came to a head with its defeat in World War I, to these were added in 1779 the Inn Quarter of Bavaria, and in 1803 the Bishoprics of Trent and Brixen
10.
Bavaria
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Bavaria is a free state and one of 16 federal states of Germany. Located in the German southeast with an area of 70,548 square kilometres and its territory comprises roughly a fifth of the total land area of Germany, and, with 12.9 million inhabitants, it is Germanys second most populous state. Munich, Bavarias capital and largest city, is the third largest city in Germany, the Duchy of Bavaria dates back to the year 555. In the 17th century CE, the Duke of Bavaria became a Prince-elector of the Holy Roman Empire, the Kingdom of Bavaria existed from 1806 to 1918, when Bavaria became a republic. In 1946, the Free State of Bavaria re-organised itself on democratic lines after the Second World War, Bavaria has a unique culture, largely because of the states Catholic majority and conservative traditions. Bavarians have traditionally been proud of their culture, which includes such as Oktoberfest. The state also has the second largest economy among the German states by GDP figures, modern Bavaria also includes parts of the historical regions of Franconia, Upper Palatinate and Swabia. The Bavarians emerged in a north of the Alps, previously inhabited by Celts. The Bavarians spoke Old High German but, unlike other Germanic groups, rather, they seem to have coalesced out of other groups left behind by Roman withdrawal late in the 5th century. These peoples may have included the Celtic Boii, some remaining Romans, Marcomanni, Allemanni, Quadi, Thuringians, Goths, Scirians, Rugians, the name Bavarian means Men of Baia which may indicate Bohemia, the homeland of the Celtic Boii and later of the Marcomanni. They first appear in written sources circa 520, a 17th century Jewish chronicler David Solomon Ganz, citing Cyriacus Spangenberg, claimed that the diocese was named after an ancient Bohemian king, Boiia, in the 14th century BCE. From about 554 to 788, the house of Agilolfing ruled the Duchy of Bavaria and their daughter, Theodelinde, became Queen of the Lombards in northern Italy and Garibald was forced to flee to her when he fell out with his Frankish overlords. Garibalds successor, Tassilo I, tried unsuccessfully to hold the frontier against the expansion of Slavs. Tassilos son Garibald II seems to have achieved a balance of power between 610 and 616, after Garibald II little is known of the Bavarians until Duke Theodo I, whose reign may have begun as early as 680. From 696 onwards he invited churchmen from the west to organize churches and his son, Theudebert, led a decisive Bavarian campaign to intervene in a succession dispute in the Lombard Kingdom in 714, and married his sister Guntrud to the Lombard King Liutprand. At Theodos death the duchy was divided among his sons, at Hugberts death the duchy passed to a distant relative named Odilo, from neighbouring Alemannia. He was defeated near Augsburg in 743 but continued to rule until his death in 748, saint Boniface completed the peoples conversion to Christianity in the early 8th century. Bavaria was in ways affected by the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century
11.
Electorate of Bavaria
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The Electorate of Bavaria was an independent hereditary electorate of the Holy Roman Empire from 1623 to 1806, when it was succeeded by the Kingdom of Bavaria. The Wittelsbach dynasty which ruled the Duchy of Bavaria was the branch of the family which also ruled the Electorate of the Palatinate. The head of the branch was one of the seven prince-electors of the Holy Roman Empire according to the Golden Bull of 1356. At that point the two lines were joined in personal union until the end of the Holy Roman Empire. In 1805, after the Peace of Pressburg, the then-elector, Maximilian Joseph, raised himself to the dignity of King of Bavaria, the Electorate of Bavaria consisted of most of the modern regions of Upper Bavaria, Lower Bavaria, and the Upper Palatinate. Before 1779, it included the Innviertel, now part of modern Austria. This was ceded to the Habsburgs by the Treaty of Teschen, for administration purposes Bavaria was already from 1507 divided into four stewardships, Munich, Burghausen, Landshut and Straubing. With the acquisition of the Upper Palatinate during the Thirty Years War the stewardship Amberg was added, in 1802 they were abolished by the minister Maximilian von Montgelas. In 1805 shortly before the elevation Tirol and Vorarlberg were united with Bavaria, in the Council of Princes of the Diet prior to the personal union of 1777 he held individual voices as Duke of Bavaria and Princely Landgrave of Leuchtenberg. In the Imperial Circles he was, along with the Archbishop of Salzburg, co-Director of the Bavarian Circle and he also held lands in the Swabian Circle. The finances and the system were reorganised, a class of civil servants and a national militia founded. In spite of subsequent reverses, Maximilian retained these gains at the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, during the later years of this war Bavaria, especially the northern part, suffered severely. In 1632 the Swedes invaded, and when Maximilian violated the treaty of Ulm in 1647, the French, after repairing this damage to some extent, the elector died at Ingolstadt in September 1651, leaving his duchy much stronger than he had found it. Whatever lustre the international position won by Maximilian I might add to the ducal house, in 1669, moreover, he again called a meeting of the diet, which had been suspended since 1612. Untaught by Maximilian II Emmanuels experience, his son, Charles Albert, devoted all his energies to increasing the European prestige and power of his house. Maximilian III Joseph, by the peace of Füssen signed on 22 April 1745, at his death, without issue, on 30 December 1777, the Bavarian line of the Wittelsbachs became extinct, and the succession passed to Charles Theodore, the elector palatine. After a separation of four and a half centuries, the Electorate of the Palatinate, to which the duchies of Jülich, the protests of the next heir, Charles II, Duke of Zweibrücken, supported by the king of Prussia, led to the War of Bavarian Succession. By the peace of Teschen the Innviertel was ceded to Austria, for Bavaria itself Charles Theodore did less than nothing
12.
Jean Victor Marie Moreau
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Jean Victor Marie Moreau was a French general who helped Napoleon Bonaparte to power, but later became a rival and was banished to the United States. Moreau was born at Morlaix in Brittany and his father was a successful lawyer, and instead of allowing Moreau to enter the army, as he attempted to do, insisted on Moreau studying law at the University of Rennes. Young Moreau showed no inclination for law, but reveled in the freedom of student life, instead of taking his degree, he continued to live with the students as their hero and leader, and formed them into a sort of army, which he commanded as their provost. When 1789 came, he commanded the students in the daily affrays which took place at Rennes between the young noblesse and the populace, in 1791, Moreau was elected a lieutenant colonel of the volunteers of Ille-et-Vilaine. Lazare Carnot promoted Moreau to be general of division early in 1794, the Battle of Tourcoing established Moreaus military fame, and in 1795 he was given the command of the Army of the Rhine-and-Moselle, with which he crossed the Rhine and advanced into Germany. He was at first completely successful and won victories and penetrated to the Isar. It was at time he found a traitorous correspondence between his old comrade and commander Charles Pichegru and the émigré Prince de Condé. Too late to clear himself, he sent the correspondence to Paris, joubert fell in the battle, and Moreau then conducted the retreat of the army to Genoa, where he handed over the command to Jean Étienne Championnet. In reward, Napoleon again gave him command of the Army of the Rhine, on his return to Paris he married 19-year-old Eugénie Hulot, born in Mauritius and friend of Joséphine de Beauharnais, an ambitious woman who gained a complete ascendancy over him. After spending a few weeks with the army in Germany and winning the battle of Hohenlinden. His wife collected around her all who were discontented with the aggrandisement of Napoleon, all this was well known to Napoleon, who seized the conspirators. In 1804, Moreau passed through Spain and embarked for America, Moreau arrived with his wife in New York City, in August 1805. He lived there till 1813, dividing his time fishing, hunting, and social intercourse. His abode was the refuge of all political exiles, and representatives of foreign powers tried to induce him to raise his sword against Napoleon, at the outbreak of the War of 1812, President Madison offered him the command of the U. S. troops. Moreau was willing to accept, but after hearing the news of the destruction of the Grande Armée in Russia, Charles John and Tsar Alexander I of Russia were now together with the Prussians and the Austrians leading an army against Napoleon. Moreau, who wished to see Napoleon defeated and a republican government installed, gave advice to the Swedish, Moreau was mortally wounded in the Battle of Dresden on 27 August 1813 while he was talking to the tsar and died on 2 September in Louny. After Moreau was shot down at his side, the observed to Metternich. Moreau was buried in the Catholic Church of St. Catherine in St. Petersburg
13.
Archduke John of Austria
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Archduke John of Austria, a member of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine, was an Austrian field marshal and Imperial regent of the emerging German Empire during the Revolutions of 1848. John was born in Florence, the child of the Habsburg grand duke Leopold of Tuscany. He was baptized with the name of John Baptist Joseph Fabian Sebastian, in 1790, Leopold succeeded his brother Joseph II as Holy Roman Emperor and his family moved from the Grand Duchy of Tuscany to the Imperial court in Vienna. Only two years later, Johns elder brother Francis II ascended the Imperial throne, Johns native language was Italian, he learned to speak French and German fluently. Educated by the Swiss historian Johannes von Müller, he developed wide-ranging skills and interests, especially in the history, during the Napoleonic Wars, John was given command of the Austrian army in September 1800, despite his personal reluctance to assume the position. He showed personal bravery in the War of the Second Coalition, demoralized by defeat, the army nearly disintegrated in the subsequent retreat, which was only stopped by an armistice arranged on 22 December. After the Peace of Lunéville in 1801, Archduke John was made General Director of the Engineering and Fortification Service, in the War of the Third Coalition, John again fought the French and Bavarian forces. From 1805 he directed an able defence of several Tyrolean passes against the French and was awarded the Commander Cross of the Military Order of Maria Theresa, however, according to the Peace of Pressburg, Austria had to cede Tyrol and Vorarlberg to Bavaria. John remained obliged to Tyrol and maintained contact with Baron Joseph Hormayr who forged a resistance movement against the Bavarian occupation. In 1808, John pressed for the creation of Tyrolean Landwehr forces based on the success of the Prussian Landwehr, which played a vital role in the Tyrolean Rebellion led by Andreas Hofer. At the commencement of the War of the Fifth Coalition in 1809 he became commander of the Army of Inner Austria, under his command were the VIII Armeekorps led by Albert Gyulai and the IX Armeekorps headed by Alberts brother Ignaz Gyulai. After winning a significant victory at the Battle of Sacile on 16 April 1809, having detached forces to besiege Venice and other fortresses, Johns army was soon outnumbered by Eugènes heavily reinforced host. Worse, news of the Austrian defeat at the Battle of Eckmühl reached him, before withdrawing, he fought off Franco-Italian attacks at the Battle of Caldiero between 27 and 30 April. Attempting to blunt the Franco-Italian pursuit, he stood to fight on 8 May and was beaten at the Battle of Piave River, trying to defend the entire border, he sent Ignaz Gyulai to defend Ljubljana in Carniola, while holding Villach in Carinthia with his own forces. Eugènes pursuit overran the defenses at the Battle of Tarvis. Forced to flee northeast into Hungary, John offered battle again but was defeated at Raab on 14 June 1809, ordered to join his brother Archduke Charles at the Battle of Wagram on 5 and 6 July, Johns small army arrived too late to avert an Austrian defeat. His brother criticized him for tardiness, after the conclusion of the campaign, John again evolved plans for a widespread rebellion. However, upon the Treaty of Schönbrunn Austrian policies under Minister Klemens von Metternich sought a rapprochement to France, Johns friend Baron Hormayr and other conspirators were arrested, the archduke himself effectively was sidelined and retired to his estates in Thernberg
14.
Preveza
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Preveza is a town in the region of Epirus, northwestern Greece, located at the mouth of the Ambracian Gulf. It is the capital of the unit of Preveza, which is part of the region of Epirus. The Aktio-Preveza Immersed Tunnel, the first and so far only undersea tunnel in Greece, was completed in 2002, the ruins of the ancient city of Nicopolis lie 7 kilometres north of the city. Different theories have suggested by scholars as to the origin of the name Preveza. In 1857, Panagiotis Aravantinos, one of the earliest historians of modern Epirus, suggested an Italian origin of the name, relating it to the word prevesione, supply. Most of the scholars who have dealt with the origin of the name after Aravantinos and this view has also been shared by the byzantinists Fyodor Uspensky and Konstantinos Amantos.541 km2, the municipal unit 66.835 km2. In antiquity, the part of Epirus was inhabited by the Greek tribe of Cassopeans, part of a larger tribe. At the southernmost part of Epirus, king Pyrrhus founded, in 290 BC, today, it is believed that Berenikea lies on the hills near the village of Michalitsi, following the excavations by Sotirios Dakaris in 1965. The Ionian Sea, near Berenikea, was the site of the naval Battle of Actium, on 2 September 31 BC, in which Octavians forces defeated those of Mark Antony, the ancient city of Nicopolis was built, nearby, by Augustus to commemorate his victory. The city is believed to have, at its peak, a population of 150,000, in AD90, Epictetus arrived at Nicopolis, after been banished by the Roman emperor Domitian, and established a school of philosophy. One of his students, Arrian, became a famous historian, Nicopolis continued under Roman and later Byzantine rule, experiencing brief periods of Bulgarian rule in the 10th century. According to one theory, modern Preveza grew around a military outpost built in the 9th century by the Bulgarians, the city was first attested in the Chronicle of the Morea. However, Hammond places the foundation of Preveza much later, at the end of the 14th century, after 1204, it came under the Despotate of Epirus, the Second Bulgarian Empire, the Serbian Empire, and the Despotate of Arta. It then came under Venetian rule until captured by the Ottomans, the Ottomans refounded Preveza probably in 1477, with a subsequent strengthening of the fortifications in 1495. This day is a Turkish Navy National Holiday, and some of today Turkish submarines called Preveze, Preveza was hotly contested in several Ottoman-Venetian Wars. However, at the end of the war in 1699 Preveza was handed back to Ottoman rule, Venetian rule would persist until the very end of the Venetian Republic itself in 1797. During this period, in 1779, the Orthodox missionary Kosmas visited Preveza where it is said he founded a Greek school, which would be the only school of the city during the 18th century. At the end of the 18th century, Preveza became a center of trade with western Europe
15.
Battle of Ostrach
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The Battle of Ostrach, also called the Battle by Ostrach, occurred on 20–21 March 1799. It was the first battle of the War of the Second Coalition, the battle resulted in the victory of the Austrian forces, under the command of Archduke Charles, over the French forces, commanded by Jean Baptiste Jourdan. The battle occurred during Holy Week,1799, amid rain, initially, the French were able to take, and hold, Ostrach and the nearby hamlet of Hoßkirch plus several strategic points on the Ostrach marsh. As the engagement began, Habsburg numerical superiority overwhelmed French defenses, by evening, the French left wing was flanked and Jourdans men retreated from Ostrach to the Pfullendorf heights. On the next morning, as Jourdan considered a counter-attack, the weather broke, the numbers and dispositions of the Austrians convinced him that any attack would be useless, and that he could not hope to maintain his position in the heights. As he withdrew, a portion of his flank was cut off from the main force. Although casualties appeared even on both sides, the Austrians had a larger fighting force, both on the field at Ostrach, and stretched along a line between Lake Constance and Ulm. French casualties amounted to eight percent of the force and Austrian, the French withdrew to Engen and Stockach, where a few days later the armies engaged again, this time with greater losses on both sides, and an Austrian victory. As the rhetoric grew more strident, however, the monarchies started to view events with alarm. In 1790, Leopold succeeded his brother Joseph as emperor and by 1791, he considered the situation surrounding his sister, Marie Antoinette and they threatened ambiguous, but quite serious, consequences if anything should happen to the royal family. The French Republican position became increasingly difficult, compounding problems in international relations, French émigrés continued to agitate for support of a counter-revolution abroad. Chief among them were the Prince Condé, his son, the Duke de Bourbon, and his grandson, from their base in Koblenz, immediately over the French border, they sought direct support for military intervention from the royal houses of Europe, and raised an army. On 20 April 1792, the French National Convention declared war on Austria, in this War of the First Coalition, France ranged itself against most of the European states sharing land or water borders with her, plus Portugal and the Ottoman Empire. The treaty called for meetings between the parties to work out the exact territorial and remunerative details, to be convened at Rastatt. The French demand for more territory than originally agreed upon stalled negotiations, despite their agreement at Campo Formio and the ongoing meetings at Rastatt, the two primary combatants of the First Coalition, France and Austria, were highly suspicious of the others motives. Several diplomatic incidents undermined the agreement, ferdinand of Naples refused to pay tribute to France, followed by the Neapolitan rebellion, invasion by France, and the subsequent establishment of the Parthenopaean Republic. Republican uprising in the Swiss cantons, encouraged by the French Republic with military support, other factors contributed to the rising tensions as well. On his way to Egypt in 1798, Napoleon had stopped on the Island of Malta and this angered Paul, Tsar of Russia, who was the honorary head of the Order
16.
Battle of Feldkirch
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The Battle of Feldkirch saw a Republican French corps led by André Masséna attack a weaker Habsburg Austrian force under Franz Jellacic. Defending fortified positions, the Austrians repulsed all of the French columns and this and other French setbacks in southern Germany soon caused Masséna to go on the defensive. The War of the Second Coalition combat occurred at the Austrian town of Feldkirch, Vorarlberg, on a flimsy pretext, a Republican French army invaded Switzerland in January 1798 and forced the country into an uneasy alliance marked by occasional revolts. By the start of hostilities with Austria in early 1799, Masséna was in command of the Army of Helvetia, going on the offensive, the French inflicted defeats on the Austrians at Maienfeld, Chur and Feldkirch on 6 and 7 March. Ordered to attack Feldkirch in late March by his superior Jean-Baptiste Jourdan, Jourdans defeats at Ostrach and Stockach soon forced the French to recoil. The ostensible reason for the French Directory to order the invasion of Switzerland was that the Confederation was maltreating the people of the Canton of Vaud, however, the real reason was most likely the desire for the French government to get its hands on the Swiss treasury at Bern. Named to command the Army of Helvetia, Guillaume Brune with a division from the Army of Italy started marching north on 1 January 1798. Meanwhile, Balthazar Alexis Henri Schauenburgs 15, 000-man division was detached from the Army of the Rhine, during this time bogus negotiations were carried on to mislead the Swiss. On 5 February 1798, Brune officially took command of the divisions of Schauenburg and his former unit. Converging on Bern, both entered the city on 5 March after scattered fighting. On 8 March 1798 Brune was appointed to lead the Army of Italy and he left for his new command on 29 March and Schauenburg was named the new army commander. Meanwhile, cash and gold worth 10 million francs were seized of which three million helped finance Napoleon Bonapartes French campaign in Egypt and Syria, in addition,293 cannons,38 howitzers and 32 mortars were taken to Huningue and Carouge. Though the two became allies on 19 August 1798, many Swiss were not happy with their new French overlords. The French soldiers were kept busy suppressing revolts in Valais and other cantons, during his tenure, Schauenburg got Nicolas Oudinot transferred to his army. Schauenburg was an excellent organizer but not a general like his successor. On 11 December, he relinquished command to André Masséna and assumed the role of Inspector General of Infantry, at this time the Army of Helvetia counted 24,000 veteran troops, including 1,600 cavalry. By invading Switzerland, the French government had opened up a new avenue for the Coalition forces to invade France. Along its borders with Belgium and Germany, France was well-protected by a belt of fortresses, but in the Jura Mountains on the Swiss frontier, there were only a few places like Fort de Joux and Salins-les-Bains guarding the region of Franche-Comté
17.
Battle of Stockach (1799)
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The Battle of Stockach occurred on 25 March 1799, when French and Austrian armies fought for control of the geographically strategic Hegau region in present-day Baden-Württemberg. In the broader context, this battle constitutes a keystone in the first campaign in southwestern Germany during the Wars of the Second Coalition. The Austrian Armys superior strength, almost three-to-one, forced the French to withdraw, when a small French force commanded by Dominique Vandamme nearly flanked the Austrian Army, Charless personal intervention was crucial for the Austrians, buying time for reinforcements to arrive. General Jourdan, while trying to rally his men, was trampled to death. Ultimately, the French were driven back upon the Rhine River and this treaty proved difficult to administer. Austria was slow to give up some of the Venetian territories, supported by French republican forces, Swiss insurgents staged several uprisings, ultimately causing the overthrow of the Swiss Confederation after 18 months of civil war. By early 1799, the French Directory had become impatient with stalling tactics employed by Austria, the uprising in Naples raised further alarms, and recent gains in Switzerland suggested the timing was fortuitous to venture on another campaign in northern Italy and southwestern Germany. As winter broke in 1799, on 1 March, General Jean Baptiste Jourdan and his army of 25,000 and this crossing officially violated the Treaty of Campo Formio. On 2 March, the Army was renamed Army of the Danube, the Austrians had already reached an agreement with Tsar Paul of Russia by which the legendary Alexander Suvorov would leave retirement to assist Austria in Italy with another 60,000 troops. Ostrach itself lies almost at the end of this plain. By 7 March, the first French forces arrived there, over the following week, additional forces for both sides arrived, and the two armies faced each other across this valley. The French army extended in a line from the Danube to Lake Constance. François Joseph Lefebvre commanded the Advance Guard, positioned on the slope below Pfullendorf, pierre Marie Barthélemy Ferinos First Division held the southern-most flank, to defend against any encirclement by Charles force. Jourdan set up command at Pfullendorf, and the Cavalry Reeserve, commanded by Jean-Joseph Ange dHautpoul, stood slightly to the north, by late on the 19th, Austrian and French soldiers had been skirmishing at outposts for more than 30 hours, with the action growing increasingly intense. In the early hours of the 21st, General Lefebvre informed Jourdan that the Austrians were attacking all his positions, after 24 hours of fighting, Austrian forces pushed Lefebvre and Saint Cyrs troops back to the Pfullendorf heights. Although sappers blew up the bridge over the Ostrach river. They nearly outflanked General Saint Cyrs forces on the flank, did outflank Lefebvres forces in the center. Saint Cyrs troops barely managed to pull back before being cut off
18.
Battle of Verona (1799)
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Battle of Verona on 26 March 1799 saw a Habsburg Austrian army under Pál Kray fight a First French Republic army led by Barthélemy Louis Joseph Schérer. The battle encompassed three separate combats on the same day, at Verona, the two sides battled to a bloody draw. At Pastrengo to the west of Verona, French forces prevailed over their Austrian opponents, at Legnago to the southeast of Verona, the Austrians defeated their French adversaries. The battle was fought during the War of the Second Coalition, Verona is a city on the Adige River in northern Italy. At Pastrengo, the French lost 1,000 killed, wounded, in addition, the French captured 1,500 men,12 guns, two pontoon bridges, and two colors. The Schröder Infantry Regiment Nr.27 lost particularly serious casualties, at Verona, French losses numbered 1,500 killed and wounded plus 300 men and three guns captured out of a total of 14,500 men. The Austrians counted 1,600 killed and wounded and 1,100 captured out of 16,400 troops, Generals Konrad Valentin von Kaim, Ferdinand Minkwitz, and Anton Lipthay de Kisfalud were wounded. The contest at Legnago cost the French 2,000 killed and wounded and 600 men and 14 guns captured out of 9,500 men, General of Brigade François Felix Vignes was killed. The Austrians lost 700 killed and wounded and 100 captured out of 14,000 soldiers, Lipthay never recovered from his wounds and died on 17 February 1800 at Padua. The 1799 Campaign in Italy, The Left Wing - led directly by General Schérer, the 1799 Campaign in Italy, Austrian defence of Verona - March 24th 1799. The 1799 Campaign in Italy, Battle of Verona - March 26,1799, the 1799 Campaign in Italy, Verona Defense March 26,1799. The 1799 Campaign in Italy, Austrian Deployment Approaching the Legnago Battle, biographical Dictionary of All Austrian Generals during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, 1792-1815
19.
Battle of Cassano (1799)
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The Battle of Cassano dAdda was fought on 27 April 1799 near Cassano dAdda, about 28 km ENE of Milan. It resulted in a victory for the Austrians and Russians under Alexander Suvorov over Jean Moreaus French army, the action took place during the War of the Second Coalition during the larger conflict known as the French Revolutionary Wars. While General Napoleon Bonaparte campaigned in Egypt, the Second Coalition launched an invasion of French-occupied Italy, General of Division Barthélemy Schérer fought inconclusive actions the Austrians at Pastrengo, Verona, and Legnago on 26 March 1799. Feldmarschal-Leutnant Pál Kray and his Austrians then defeated Schérer at the Battle of Magnano on April 4th and this defeat forced the French army into a long retreat. Attempts by Schérer to hold the lines of the Mincio and Oglio rivers failed when an Austrian force led by FML Josef Vukassovich turned his northern flank, Schérer, completely out of his depth, handed over army command to the more capable MG Moreau. Austrias Russian allies, led by Suvorov, soon began appearing at the front, when Field Marshal Suvorov joined the allied army, he took over the top command from Kray, though the latter had just been promoted to Feldzeugmeister. The arrival of General of Cavalry Michael von Melas displaced Kray the top Austrian field command, therefore, Kray was assigned to capture the fortress of Mantua, while Melas and Suvorov pursued the French. The Siege of Mantua lasted from April until the garrison surrendered on 28 July, Moreau deployed the divisions of MGs Paul Grenier, Claude Victor, Jean Sérurier, and Pierre de Laboissière to defend the line of the Adda River. The Austrians still made up the bulk of the allied army, the Austrian division commanders were FML Peter Ott, FML Johann Zoph, General-Major Franz de Lusignan, and FML Konrad Valentin von Kaim. Even before the battle, a Russian force under Petr Bagration outflanked the French position by seizing a bridge over the Adda at Lecco on 26 April and this put Séruriers division in an awkward position. On 27 April, General of Cavalry Michael von Melas with the divisions of Fröhlich and Kaim stormed the French positions at Cassano, while Ott, suvarovs assault forced Moreau to retreat. The French suffered 2,500 killed and wounded, plus 5,000 soldiers,27 cannon, the Austro-Russians lost 2,000 killed and wounded. Moreau retreated, leaving a 2, 400-man garrison in Milans citadel, on 28 April, Vukassovich trapped Seruriers division at Verderio and the French lost another 300 killed and wounded, plus 2,700 captured. Greniers division withdrew to Novara while Victor and Laboissière pulled back to Valenza, another authority gives allied losses as 6,000 and French prisoners as 7,000, without listing French killed and wounded. Kaim pressed on to capture Turin on 20 June, Milans citadel capitulated on 24 May. The next major action was the Battle of Trebbia on 17–20 June, ISBN 1-85367-276-9 The Austrians Advance by Enrico Acerbi
20.
Battle of Winterthur (1799)
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The small town of Winterthur lies 18 kilometers northeast of Zürich, in Switzerland. Because of its position at the junction of seven cross-roads, the army held the town controlled access to most of Switzerland. By mid-May 1799, the Austrians had wrested control of parts of Switzerland from the French as forces under the command of Hotze, the French Army of Switzerland and the Army of the Danube, now both under the command of André Masséna, sought to prevent this merger. Masséna sent Michel Ney and a mixed cavalry and infantry force from Zürich to stop Hotzes force at Winterthur. Despite a sharp contest, the Austrians succeeded in pushing the French out of the Winterthur highlands, once the union of the Habsburg armies took place in early June, Archduke Charles attacked French positions at Zürich and forced the French to withdraw beyond the Limmat. Initially, the rulers of Europe viewed the revolution in France as an event between the French king and his subjects, and not something in which they should interfere, the French position became increasingly difficult. Compounding problems in relations, French émigrés continued to agitate for support of a counter-revolution. On 20 April 1792, the French National Convention declared war on Austria, in this War of the First Coalition, France ranged itself against most of the European states sharing land or water borders with her, plus Portugal and the Ottoman Empire. The treaty called for meetings between the parties to work out the exact territorial and remunerative details. Convened at a town in the mid-Rhineland, Rastatt, the Congress quickly derailed in a mire of intrigue. The Austrians were reluctant to cede the designated territories, compounding the Congresss problems, tensions grew between France and most of the First Coalition allies. Ferdinand of Naples refused to pay tribute to France. The French invaded Naples and established the Parthenopaean Republic, encouraged by the French Republic, a republican uprising in the Swiss cantons led to the overthrow of the Swiss Confederation and the establishment of the Helvetic Republic. The French Directory was convinced that the Austrians were planning to start another war, indeed, the weaker France seemed, the more seriously the Austrians, the Neapolitans, the Russians, and the English discussed this possibility. In mid-spring, the Austrians reached an agreement with Tsar Paul of Russia by which the legendary Alexander Suvorov would come out of retirement to assist Austria in Italy with another 60,000 troops. The French Directorys military strategy in 1799 called for offensive campaigns on all fronts, central Italy, northern Italy, the Swiss cantons, the upper Rhineland, and Holland. Theoretically, the French had a force of 250,000 troops. As winter broke in 1799, General Jean Baptiste Jourdan and the Army of the Danube, at a strength of 50,000
21.
Battle of Trebbia (1799)
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The War of the Second Coalition engagement occurred west of Piacenza, a city located 70 kilometres southeast of Milan. In the spring of 1799 the Austrian and Russian armies ousted the French from much of northern Italy after the battles of Magnano and Cassano, assembling the French occupation forces of southern and central Italy into an army, MacDonald moved north to challenge his enemies. Rather than playing safe by moving along the west coast road, MacDonald boldly chose to move east of the Apennine Mountains, after brushing aside a much smaller Austrian force at Modena, MacDonalds army swept west along the south bank of the Po River. Suvorov swiftly concentrated his Russians and the allied Austrians of Michael von Melas to block the French move, on 17 July, the leading French divisions bumped into a holding force led by Peter Karl Ott von Bátorkéz along the Tidone River. Ott was rapidly reinforced by the bulk of the Austro-Russian army, Suvorov attacked on the 18th but the outnumbered French managed to hold off the Allied drive. On 19 June MacDonalds entire army was concentrated and he ordered an attack which was coordinated and repulsed at all points. Realizing that assistance from Moreau was not forthcoming, that night MacDonald ordered the beaten French army to slip away to the south, on the 20th the Allies overran a French demi brigade acting as rear guard. Instead of bringing a powerful reinforcement to the hard-pressed French in northwest Italy, only the remains of MacDonalds army arrived. Due to participation of some 3,000 soldiers of the Polish Legions, the defeat was a crushing blow to French morale and prompted Schérer to plead with the French Directory to be relieved of command. Two days later, Alexander Suvorov arrived at Vicenza with a Imperial Russian army, on 27 April, the Coalition allies led by Suvorov were victorious over Jean Victor Marie Moreaus French army at the Battle of Cassano along the Adda River. The next day at Verderio, Jean-Mathieu-Philibert Séruriers division was surrounded, the defeats caused Moreau to fall back, leaving 2,400 men to hold the Milan citadel. On 6 May the garrison of Peschiera capitulated to Kray while on 11 May Pizzighettone and 1,500 French soldiers surrendered to Konrad Valentin von Kaim, on 12 May, Suvorovs subordinate Andrei Grigorevich Rosenberg suffered a minor setback in the Battle of Bassignana. Ferrara, Ravenna and Milan all capitulated to Austrian besieging forces on 24 May, meanwhile,30,000 Allies under Suvorov moved up the north bank of the Po River toward Turin. On the morning of 26 May, Josef Philipp Vukassovichs advance guard seized Turin with its arsenal, pascal Antoine Fiorella and his 3, 400-man French garrison withdrew to the citadel where they were besieged. Early June found the Allied main body of 47,087 troops under Suvorov, Rosenberg, Karl Joseph Hadik von Futak with 9,900 Austrians watched the Swiss mountain passes. Krays 19, 760-man corps was engaged in the Siege of Mantua, finally, Suvorov summoned the 19, 458-strong corps of Count Heinrich von Bellegarde from Switzerland to Milan where they arrived on 5 June. But the Allies were aware that Jacques MacDonald had a strong French occupation force in southern, on 14 April 1799, the French Directory ordered MacDonald to help the French forces in northern Italy. Accordingly, he assembled the Army of Naples and moved north, MacDonald reached Rome on 16 May and Florence ten days later
22.
Battle of Novi (1799)
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The Battle of Novi saw a combined army of Habsburg Austrians and Imperial Russians under Field Marshal Alexander Suvorov attack a Republican French army under General Barthélemy Catherine Joubert. After a prolonged and bloody struggle, the Austro-Russians broke through the French defenses, Joubert was killed while French division commanders Catherine-Dominique de Pérignon and Emmanuel Grouchy were captured. Novi Ligure is located in the province of Piedmont in Italy a distance of 58 kilometres north of Genoa, the battle occurred during the War of the Second Coalition which was part of the French Revolutionary Wars. In 1799, Russian and Austrian forces swept across the Po River valley, the French troops in Italy were badly defeated at the major battles of Magnano, Cassano and the Trebbia. Subsequently, French and Cisalpine Italian troops retreated into Genoa and the Ligurian Republic, a new French government placed Joubert in command of the reformed Army of Italy and ordered him to take the offensive. Accordingly, the French army moved north across the mountain crests, to Jouberts dismay, it was clear that large Coalition forces were nearby. The next morning Paul Krays Austrian corps assaulted the French left flank, after a delay, Suvorov committed a Russian corps to attack the center and Michael von Melas Austrian corps to attack the French right flank. Krays troops suffered losses but by evening the French army was badly beaten. However, the Coalition planners proceeded to throw away their advantage by sending Suvorovs Russians to Switzerland, the 1799 campaign in Italy began with the Battle of Verona, a series of costly but indecisive clashes around Verona on 26 March. At the Battle of Magnano on 5 April, the Habsburg Austrian army of Paul Kray triumphed over the Republican French army of Barthélemy Louis Joseph Schérer, two days later, a distraught Schérer begged to be relieved of command. Michael von Melas arrived to command of the Austrian army from Kray on 9 April. Hearing that 12,000 Austrians were approaching from the Tyrol to the north, leaving 12,000 troops in the fortress of Mantua and 1,600 more in Peschiera del Garda, the demoralized French commander ordered his crippled army to withdraw. As the soldiers back, the skies opened up and turned the retreat into a sodden nightmare. On 15 April 1799, the veteran Russian field marshal Alexander Suvorov formally took command of the combined Austro-Russian army in Italy, on 27 April Suvorov defeated the French, now under Jean Victor Marie Moreau, at the Battle of Cassano. The Allies suffered 2,000 casualties while the French sustained losses of 2,500 killed and wounded plus 5,000 soldiers,27 guns, the next day a 3, 000-man French division was trapped and surrendered at Verderio Superiore. The next major action was the Battle of Trebbia from 17 to 20 June where Suvorovs 37, 000-strong Austro-Russian army mauled Jacques MacDonalds 33, the Allies suffered 5,500 casualties while inflicting 16,500 on the French including the taking of 7,000 prisoners. Meanwhile, Coalition forces successfully besieged a number of key fortresses, Peschiera fell on 6 May, Milan was captured on 24 May and Turin fell on 20 June after a nine-day siege. Suvorov and his Austrian allies had evicted the French from almost all of Italy, while Archduke Charles, a day after defeating MacDonald at the Trebbia, the Allies captured the 17th Light Demi Brigade,1,099 men, six guns and three colors
23.
Battle of Callantsoog
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Despite strong opposition by troops of the Batavian Republic under Lieutenant-General Herman Willem Daendels the British troops established a bridgehead and the Dutch were forced to retreat. The British government had long deliberated about the best place for the landing of the Anglo-Russian expedition on the Dutch coast, also, the British planners thought that the great city of Amsterdam could easily be approached and captured from this direction. The project of the expedition was of course known to the Batavian and French governments and military commanders and this compelled them to spread their forces thinly over a large area, from the Scheldt in the South to Groningen. One of the two divisions of the new Batavian army, under Daendels, was indeed positioned in North Holland and this implied that Dumonceau was several day marches away and could in the event not reach Daendels in time to support him. The same applied to the French forces under the command of General Guillaume Marie Anne Brune, the division was accompanied by companies from the 3rd and 4th battalions Royal Artillery and Royal Engineers. Second-in-command and Chief-of-Staff was Lieutenant-General Sir James Pulteney, the invasion fleet of about 200 vessels in total was commanded by Vice-Admiral Mitchell. By then, Admiral Duncan had joined the fleet, the next few days the British invasion fleet was again buffeted by inclement weather, but by the evening of the 26th this had sufficiently died down to consider starting the landing the next day. Meanwhile, the Batavian forces had had time to make their preparations for the coming event, to understand these, it is useful to consider the terrain at the proposed landing site, as it was in 1799. Den Helder then was just a hamlet with two batteries, called Unie and Revolutie, nearby. It was located at the northern point of a spit of sand that jutted out from the North-Holland peninsula. The spit consisted of three rows of dunes behind the North Sea beach, with a road, bordered by a canal, behind the canal was a marsh, called the Koegras. The sand spit was bordered in the north by the Marsdiep and it was no more than half a mile wide. Daendels figured that it would be impossible to deploy his division in such a narrow space while fronting the shore. He himself took up position near Callantsoog with the remainder of the 1st Batavian Division and this command consisted of the 1st, 3rd, 4th and 6th Demi-brigades, the 1st Jagers and the 1st Grenadiers. Of course, the implication was that he violated the taboo against dividing his forces, at 3 AM on the morning of August 23, the British vanguard under Gen. Pulteney embarked in the boats of the British invasion fleet. There were not enough boats to accommodate all troops at once and these 2500 men of the 3rd Brigade and Reserve landed without mishap, the first to put foot ashore was Lt. Macdonald of the Grenadier company of the 25th. The fleet had meanwhile swept the beach clear with a vigorous cannonade that displaced a lot of sand, the British had landed at the location that was locally known as Kleine Keeten. On top of the dune near this location stood a semaphore station, the Batavian jagers tried to prevent its capture but were driven back on Kleine Keeten, as had been anticipated since they were just a skirmishing line
24.
Vlieter Incident
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In the Vlieter incident on 30 August 1799, a squadron of the navy of the Batavian Republic, commanded by Rear-Admiral Samuel Story, surrendered to the British navy. The incident occurred during the Anglo-Russian Invasion of Holland and it took place on a sandbank near the channel between Texel and the mainland that was known as De Vlieter, near Wieringen. This Republic now changed sides in the war, entering into an offensive and defensive alliance with France and it was hoped that this invasion would cause a popular uprising of the Dutch population against their republic. The former Stadtholder and his eldest son the Prince of Orange tried to support the expedition by propaganda-efforts, the loyalty of the Batavian navy was especially in doubt, as this was a hotbed of Orangist sentiment. However, it is not clear whether the two officers indeed made an organizational effort before the fatal day. The invasion fleet of about 200 warships and transports left England on 13 August 1799, inclement weather at first prevented it from approaching the Dutch coast. However, on 22 August, British Vice-Admiral Mitchell was able to approach the roadstead of Den Helder where the squadron of Admiral Story lay at anchor, Mitchell sent over parlimentaires demanding that Story defect to the Prince with his fleet, but Story refused indignantly. He replied further that he would ask for instructions from the Batavian government. The British ships then withdrew and the weather turned bad for a few days. On 26 August 1799 an Anglo-Russian invasion fleet of eleven ships-of-the-line and seven frigates arrived at the roadstead of Texel and they started to disembark troops on the 27th, without opposition from the Batavian fleet, that had withdrawn into the Zuider Zee. General Herman Willem Daendels, the commander of the Batavian landforces, on 28 August, Admiral Story returned with his squadron to the Vlieter roadstead, where he anchored, because adverse winds made it impossible to attack the British. Enervated by the sight of the Orangist flags on the forts and church steeples of Den Helder, Van Braams ship Leyden was one of those. He later admitted that it would have been easy for him to quell the revolt, instead, he informed his commanding officer, Admiral Story of the precarious situation aboard the other ships of the fleet. Story now sent his captain, Van Capellen, and the captain of the Cerberus, De Jong, under a flag of truce to the commander of the British squadron, Admiral Mitchell. He asked for a truce to avoid unnecessary bloodshed - Story later averred that this was a ruse on his part to gain time to restore discipline on his ships. Mitchell did not fall for this ruse, probably because the two Dutch negotiators were actually the ringleaders of the mutiny and he issued an ultimatum giving Story one hour to defect and join the invasion force with his ships, or face the consequences. Faced with this ultimatum, Story convened a council of war aboard his flagship with all his captains, before this council started, the crew of the Washington had already begun a full mutiny, refusing to man the guns, and throwing munitions into the sea. Attempts of Story himself, and Van Braam to reason with the mutineers had been of no avail, when asked during the council of war to describe the situation aboard their ships all, except Captain Van Senden of Batavier, had similar stories
25.
Battle of Krabbendam
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The British division had established a bridgehead in the extreme north of the North-Holland peninsula after the Battle of Callantsoog. Brune tried to dislodge them before they could be reinforced by further Anglo-Russian forces and this enabled the British and their Russian allies to land their expeditionary force and to break out of the bridgehead during the Battle of Bergen. This left the Zijpe polder open to the British, the Zijpe polder formed a natural redoubt, because of its high southern dike which had a deep circular drainage canal running along it, which acted as a kind of moat. The dike was high enough to afford a view a way across all avenues of approach. Abercromby took advantage from these properties of the terrain, by erecting artillery positions. His dispositions were anchored on the right on the dike which runs parallel with the sea dike at Petten. Then they ran east along the dike of the Zijpe polder, with reinforcements at the villages of Krabbendam, Eenigenburg, and Sint Maarten, the villages in front of this line, like Schagen were occupied as outposts. Meanwhile, the French and Batavians had frantically been bringing up reinforcements, a French division under General Dominique Vandamme was brought up via Haarlem and occupied a line between Alkmaar and the sea. Brune directed Daendels to come forward to Oudkarspel and Sint Pancras and he was then reinforced with the 7th Demi-brigade of Daendels division. By September 9 the forces under General Brune had therefore reached a numerical superiority of about 25,000 troops over about 23,000 for General Abercromby. As it was known that soon strong Russian and British reinforcements would be landed, Brune decided to attack on the 10th, while he still had this advantage. The main role would be performed by the French division of Vandamme, the plan can therefore be characterised as an attempt at single envelopment. Because of the haste to get the attack underway, the preparations were apparently sloppy on the part of Brunes staff and this could only have happened because a proper reconnaissance apparently had not been performed. As a consequence, Daendels was forced to take a more easterly route and concentrate on the objective of the village of Sint Maarten. Dumonceaus right-hand column, under General Bonhomme, then attacked Daendels original objective, the attempt to storm the British defenses at this point was, however, frustrated by the circular canal in front of the dike and the well-aimed fire of the defenders. A second attempt failed and Bonhomme remained in his position until both he and Daendels retreated that evening after the retreat of the Franco-Batavian left wing at the same time. However, Bonhommes attack should have supported the column under Colonel Bruce that had Krabbendam as its objective. Bruce was supposed to advance from Alkmaar, but was delayed appreciably because a number of farmers carts going to market blocked the city gate he was trying to use to march his column out
26.
Battle of Mannheim (1799)
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The Battle of Mannheim was fought between a Habsburg Austrian army commanded by Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen and a Republican French army under Jacques Léonard Muller. Most of the French Army of the Rhine had retreated to the west bank of the Rhine River, despite assistance by Michel Ney, Laroches division was beaten and driven out of the city when attacked by Charles and a much superior force. The War of the Second Coalition action occurred in the city of Mannheim, in the summer of 1799, Mullers 18, 000-man army had the mission of drawing Charles Austrian army away from Switzerland, the central and western portions of which were held by André Massénas army. Moving south from Mannheim, the Army of the Rhine laid siege to Philippsburg, provoked by this threat to his strategic rear, Charles and 30,000 troops moved north against Muller, who quickly withdrew. On 4 June 1799, the First Battle of Zurich was fought between André Massénas 45, 000-strong Army of the Danube and a 53, 000-man Austrian army led by Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen. Austrian casualties numbered 2,400 and eight guns while the French lost 4,400 men and 28 guns, though the French held their ground, Masséna evacuated Zürich the next day and withdrew to a strong position overlooking the city. The 6th and 7th Divisions were supervised by Pierre Marie Barthélemy Ferino while Lecourbe controlled the 1st, included in Massénas command were Claude Juste Alexandre Legrand with 6,186 men and Claude-Sylvestre Colaud with 5,106 men watching the Rhine north of Strasbourg. The Army of the Rhine was formed on 5 July 1799 by Jean Baptiste Bernadotte, the French reported the strength of the army as 40,000 to 60,000 men, but this was a ruse to trick the Austrians. In fact, much of the strength was tied up in garrisons. The purpose of the Army of the Rhine was to lure the Austrian army away from Masséna and this could be achieved by menacing Archduke Charles supply line, which ran northeast from Switzerland to Ulm on the Danube River. The army was too weak to fight the Austrians in a pitched battle, meanwhile, an Austro-Russian army under Alexander Suvorov had cleared most of Italy of its French occupiers. In the Battle of Novi on 15 August 1799, the Allies suffered 8,200 casualties, mostly Austrian, during this time, the Austrians were very successful in reducing the French-held fortresses in Italy. By 11 September, the only Piedmont fortress that remained in French hands was Cuneo, at this time there was a major change in Allied strategy which apparently originated with William Grenville, 1st Baron Grenville, the British foreign minister. According to the plan, Suvorov was to march north into Switzerland with 20,000 Russians to join 45,000 newly arrived Russians under Alexander Korsakov near Zürich and these soldiers would be assisted by 18,000 Austrians led by Friedrich Freiherr von Hotze. Meanwhile, the British agent William Wickham would raise an army of 20,000 Swiss, the mostly-Russian force was supposed to invade France across the Jura Mountains. As soon as Korsakovs army was situated, Charles was to move north into southern Germany with 60,000 Austrians, tsar Paul I of Russia and Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor approved this plan and issued the necessary orders which arrived at Charles headquarters on 7 August. In fact, the archduke was reluctant to carry out the plan, in the end, bad timing ruined the new scheme, Charles would leave Switzerland too early and Suvorov would arrive in Switzerland too late. However, Archduke Charles was not quite finished with Switzerland, the Austrian general tried to gain a bridgehead across the Aare River at Döttingen
27.
Battle of Bergen (1799)
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The battlefield is marked by the Russisch Monument. The Duke of York landed on 15 September, and assumed the command of the army, on 19 September the forces, under the Duke of York, formed in four columns, moved forward from Schagerbrug. At this period the Allies possessed a superiority of force with which it was decided to strike a blow as early as possible. Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany The British and Russian commanders noticed that the Republicans had left their right uncovered, and this would have been difficult to correct if the attack on that flank had been vigorously carried out. They had also left Amsterdam undefended on the side by which it was accessible. The enemy’s left was advantageously posted on the sand hills which extend from the sea, in front of Petten. The ground over which the columns had to move was intersected every three or four hundred yards by broad, deep, wet ditches and canals. The bridges across the few roads leading to the points of attack were destroyed, the battle was commenced by Russian forces, which had by 8 am, September 19, obtained possession of Bergen. In vain did they expect support from their British allies, which had not even lined up for the battle, because the British and Russian commanders had neglected to synchronize their clocks. The column under Lieutenant-General Dundas attacked the village of Warmenhuizen at dawn and they held it under artillery fire until the conclusion of the action. However, in consequence of the failure on the right, it was considered necessary to recall all the troops. The strength of the column which attacked Bergen would have more than sufficient if it had been employed correctly. 1,225, including 49 officers, wounded. Republicans,3,000 prisoners, the space between Alkmaar and the Zuiderzee was thus rendered defensible by small numbers, and Amsterdam was secured on the land side. The remainder of the army, which had been reinforced, was concentrated between the Langedijk and the sea, and the post of Oudkarspel was strengthened by additional works, schoorldam and Koedijk were also fortified. The next major engagement took place at Castricum on 6 October, the above text is an extract from an article compiled by the British Armys Intelligence branch of the Quartermaster-Generals department in 1884. Flash-map of the Battle of Bergen-Binnen, history of the War of 1799
28.
Battle of Alkmaar (1799)
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For the 16th century siege, see Siege of Alkmaar. Though the battle ended in a draw, the Anglo-Russians were in a position at the end of the battle that favored them slightly in a strategic sense. This prompted Brune to order a strategic withdrawal the next day to a line between Monnickendam in the East and Castricum in the West, there the final battle of the campaign would take place on 6 October. Torrential rains made the roads impassable, the defenders profited from this lull in the campaign by completing their inundations in the low-lying eastern part of the North-Holland peninsula. These soon made their defenses in that part of the country impregnable, as a consequence a repeat of the thrusts by Sir Ralph Abercromby toward Hoorn, and general Pulteney toward Oudkarspel along the Langedijk had become pointless. The Langedijk was now an island in a big lake that could easily be defended by the 1st Batavian Division of General Herman Willem Daendels. The delay had the advantage for the force, however. The Duke of York, aware that French reinforcements from Belgium were on the way, the attack was to be made on 30 September, but it turned out that the roads were still very bad, the soldiers sunk to their knees into the mud. The attack was then advanced to 1 October, but again had to be postponed, Coote and Chatham were to support the Russians in their attack on Bergen and to maintain contact with Abercromby. These dispositions make clear that the main thrust of the attack again was towards the village of Bergen, other than the first battle of Bergen this time the attack would be concentrated on a much narrower front, between Schoorl and the North Sea. As Abercromby was supposed to advance along the beach to a point beyond the left flank of the French, the first stages of the battle went according to the British plan. To allow all columns to advance at the time the start time had to be delayed till low tide to allow general Abercrombys column to make use of the beach. Soon Coote and Chatham drove the French outposts from the villages of Camp and Groet, essens central column then advanced cautiously. Meanwhile, Burrard and Sedmoratzky drove the French and Batavian troops out of the villages of Schoorl, here the Russians halted and limited themselves to shelling Koedijk and Bergen with their artillery for the remainder of the day. Meanwhile, the French left wing had fallen back on the village of Bergen and this was a strong position and York realized they had to be removed from it to secure success. He therefore ordered Chatham to bring up his brigade from the plain and they managed to push the French back and forced them to give up their position in the heights near Bergen. The French noted the Russian hesitation and at this time launched a counterattack from Bergen in two columns under generals Gouvion and Boudet. These attacks were countered by the British Reserve in cooperation with Cootes brigade
29.
Battle of Castricum
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The Battle of Castricum saw a Franco-Dutch force defeat an Anglo-Russian force near Castricum, Netherlands. An Anglo-Russian force of 32,000 men landed in North Holland on August 27,1799, captured the Dutch fleet at Den Helder on August 30 and the city of Alkmaar on October 3. Following a series of battles at Bergen on September 19 and Alkmaar on October 2, the town of Castricum passed from British-Russian to Batavian-French hands several times until the former finally fled, losing 2536 men and 11 guns, the Batavian-French losses stood at 1382. The defeat persuaded the Duke that his position was untenable, after a chaotic retreat, the parties signed the Convention of Alkmaar on October 10. The British and Russians were allowed to withdraw, without paying reparations, as a sign of gratitude for enabling him honourably to emerge from the inglorious Dutch imbroglio, Brune received a number of horses from the Duke. By 19 November all the British and Russian troops had been embarked, in the years following the 1799 invasion, defensive lines were constructed in Holland to protect Amsterdam from future invasions from the north. In the Huis met de Kogel in Castricum, a cannonball that got stuck in the wall during the battle can still be seen, a plaque beneath the cannonball commemorates the battle. Various locality names in Castricum also provide a reminder of the battle, like the Russenbergen dunes, the Russisch Monument in Bergen marks the fighting there. The French victory was commemorated on the Arc de Triomphe in Paris as Alkmaer. Anglo-Russian invasion of North Holland Noord-Holland 1799 De Engels-Russische inval
30.
Johann von Klenau
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Johann von Klenau, also called Johann Josef Cajetan von Klenau und Janowitz was a field marshal in the Habsburg army. In the early years of the French Revolutionary Wars, Klenau distinguished himself at the Wissembourg lines, afterward, Klenau became the youngest lieutenant field marshal in the history of the Habsburg military. As a corps commander, Klenau led key elements of the Austrian army in its victory at Aspern-Esslingen and its defeat at Wagram, after the Battle of Nations, Klenau organized and implemented the successful Dresden blockade and negotiated the French capitulation there. In the 1814–15 campaign, he commanded the Corps Klenau of the Army of Italy, after the war in 1815, Klenau was appointed commanding general in Moravia and Silesia. Johann von Klenau was born into an old Bohemian nobility family at Benatek Castle in the Austrian province of Bohemia on 13 April 1758, the family of Klenau dates to the fifteenth century, and the family of Janowitz to the fourteenth. The family name of Klenau regularly appears in records after the sixteenth century, the Klenau family was one of the oldest dynasties in Bohemia, and many of the noble families of Bohemia have sprung from marriages into the Klenau line. The original name of the family was Przibik, with the predicate von Klenowa, the family was raised to the baronetcy in 1623 with the certificate granted to one Johann von Klenowa and, in 1629, to his son, Wilhelm. The Imperial councilor and judge in Regensburg, Wilhelm von Klenau, was raised to comital status in 1630, Johann Klenau entered the 47th Infantry Regiment Ellrichshausen in 1774, at the age of 17, and became a second lieutenant in 1775. After transferring to a Chevauleger regiment as a Rittmeister, or captain of cavalry, Klenau fought in the short War of the Bavarian Succession, most of this conflict occurred in Bohemia from 1778 to 1779, between the Habsburg Monarchy, Saxony, Bavaria and Prussia. The war had no battles, but was instead a series of skirmishes and raids, in their raids, forces from both sides sought to confiscate or destroy the others provisions, fodder, and materiel. His regiment repulsed an attack of superior numbers of Ottoman forces on 28 September 1788, at Zemun, near Belgrade, for which he received a personal commendation and earned his promotion to major. Initially, the rulers of Europe considered the 1789 revolution in France as an affair between the French king and his subjects, and not a matter in which they should interfere. However, as the rhetoric grew more strident after 1790, the European monarchs began to view the French upheavals with alarm. Among the concerned monarchs were the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II, who feared for the life and well-being of his sister and they threatened ambiguous, but quite serious, consequences if anything should happen to the royal family. The French Republican position became increasingly difficult, compounding problems in international relations, French émigrés agitated for support of a counter-revolution. From their base in Koblenz, adjacent to the French–German border, they sought direct support for intervention from the royal houses of Europe. On 20 April 1792, the French National Convention declared war on Austria, in this War of the First Coalition, France ranged itself against most of the European states sharing land or water borders with her. Portugal and the Ottoman Empire also joined the alliance against France, by the terms of the Peace of Basel, the Prussian army was to leave the Rhine and Main river valleys, as it did so, the French quickly overran these territories
31.
Battle of Messkirch
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The Battle of Messkirch was fought on 4 and 5 May 1800 and resulted the victory of French army against the Austrians. See the Messkirch 1800 Order of Battle for details of the French, on 25 April 1800 the French Armée dAllemagne, under Jean Victor Marie Moreau, crossed the Rhine River at Kehl and Schaffhausen. The 1st Demi-Brigade, of the Corps led by Laurent de Gouvion-Saint-Cyr, conquered St. Georgen, the French repeatedly assaulted the town on 4 and 5 May always in vain. The 1st Demi-Brigade, despite the Austrian superiority there, was able to conquer Krumbach and the heights surrounding it, therefore, the Austrian moved back to Sigmaringen, followed by the French. The Battle of Biberach ensued on 9 May, French Revolutionary Wars, Campaigns of 1800 Heinrich Bücheler, Werner Fischer, Roland Kessinger, Die Schlacht bei Meßkirch 5ter Mai 1800, Gedenkband zum 200. ISBN 3-926633-47-6 Kempf, Unsere Heimat in den Napoleonischen Kriegen
32.
Battle of Biberach (1800)
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The Battle of Biberach on 9 May 1800 saw a French First Republic corps under Laurent Gouvion Saint-Cyr engage part of a Habsburg Austrian army led by Pál Kray. After an engagement in which the Austrians suffered twice as many casualties as the French, the combat occurred during the War of the Second Coalition, part of the French Revolutionary Wars. Biberach an der Riss is located 35 kilometres southwest of Ulm, in late April 1800, a French army under the command of Jean Victor Marie Moreau crossed the Rhine river near Basel. At Stockach and Engen on 3 May, Moreau captured Krays base of supplies, two days later, Kray confronted his pursuers at Battle of Messkirch but was beaten again. On the 9th, the corps of Gouvion Saint-Cyr caught up with a part of Krays army and this treaty proved difficult to administer. Austria was slow to give up some of the Venetian territories, supported by French republican forces, Swiss insurgents staged several uprisings, ultimately causing the overthrow of the Swiss Confederation after 18 months of civil war. By early 1799, the French Directory had become impatient with stalling tactics employed by Austria, the uprising in Naples raised further alarms, and recent gains in Switzerland suggested the timing was fortuitous to venture on another campaign in northern Italy and southwestern Germany. At the beginning of 1800, the armies of France and Austria faced each other across the Rhine, feldzeugmeister Pál Kray led approximately 120,000 troops. Of these,25,000 men were deployed east of Lake Constance to protect the Vorarlberg, unwisely, Kray set up his main magazine at Stockach, near the northwestern end of Lake Constance, only a days march from French-held Switzerland. General of Division Jean Victor Marie Moreau commanded an army of 137,000 French troops. Of these,108,000 troops were available for operations while the other 29,000 watched the Swiss border. First Consul Napoleon Bonaparte offered a plan of operations based on outflanking the Austrians by a push from Switzerland, rather, Moreau planned to cross the Rhine near Basel where the river swung to the north. A French column would distract Kray from Moreaus true intentions by crossing the Rhine from the west, Bonaparte wanted Claude Lecourbes corps to be detached to Italy after the initial battles, but Moreau had other plans. Battles at Engen and Stockach were fought on 3 May 1800 between the army of the French First Republic under Jean Victor Marie Moreau and the army of Habsburg Austria led by Pál Kray, the fighting near Engen resulted in a stalemate with heavy losses on both sides. However, while the two armies were engaged at Engen, Claude Lecourbe captured Stockach from its Austrian defenders under the Joseph. The loss of this main supply base at Stockach compelled Kray to order a retreat to Messkirch and it also meant, however, that any retreat by Kray into Austria via Switzerland and the Vorarlberg was cut off. On 4 and 5 May, the French launched repeated and fruitless assaults on the Messkirch, subsequently, Kray withdrew his forces to Sigmaringen, followed closely by the French. At the beginning of March, Bonaparte ordered Moreau to form his army into several all-arms army corps, by 20 March 1800, Moreau organized four corps, with the last one serving as an army reserve
33.
Fort Bard
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Fort Bard has been completely restored after many years of neglect. In 2006 it reopened to tourists as the Museum of the Alps, it has additional art exhibitions, in the summer, the main courtyard is used to host musical and theatrical performances. The fort, which is at the entrance to the Aosta Valley, is located in a gorge above the Dora Baltea river. It has been used for millennia to control the route between Italy and France. The current fortifications were built by Charles Albert of Savoy between 1830 and 1838 and it replaced a 10th-century castle that had, itself, been built on an earlier structure founded by Theodoric I in the 5th century. The castle was under the control of the local lords of Bard until the middle of the 13th century when ownership passed to the House of Savoy. Under their control, the defences were strengthened and improved, on May 14,1800, a 40, 000-strong French army was stopped by 400 Austro-Piedmontese soldiers at Fort Bard. They held the pass for two weeks, completely ruining Napoleon Bonapartes plan of making an attack on the Po Valley. When he heard the news, he named the fort vilain castel de Bard, bonaparte then gave the order himself, that the fort should be razed to the ground. It was not until 1830 that Charles Albert of Savoy, fearing new attacks from the French, the task was entrusted to the famed Italian military engineer, Francesco Antonio Olivero. The work, which eight years to complete, created a fort with two distinct levels. The upper part had conventional battlements whereas the part had 50 gun ports in autonomous casemates that were designed to offer mutual protection if attacked. A total of 416 soldiers could now be billeted in the 283-room fort, the upper level had a courtyard which contained the arsenals and barracks. The fort had enough ammunition and food supplies for three months, by the end of the 19th century, the fort had lost its military value and fell into disuse. However, the Italian Army did continue to use the fort as a powder magazine, when it closed in 1975, ownership passed to the government of the Autonomous Region of Valle dAosta. In the 1980s the fort opened as a tourist attraction despite many buildings needing urgent repair, in the late 1990s the fort was closed. It then underwent major restoration work, in 2006 Fort Bard reopened as the Museum of the Alps. Fort Bard and its town were used as the fictional Eastern European country of Sokovia in the 2015 film Avengers, james R. Arnold, Marengo and Hohenlinden, Napoleons Rise to Power David G
34.
Battle of Montebello (1800)
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The Battle of Montebello was fought on 9 June 1800 near Montebello in Lombardy. During the lead-up to the Battle of Marengo, the vanguard of the French army in Italy engaged and defeated an Austrian force in a glorious victory, napoleons capture of Milan on 2 June found the Austrian army separated into three major and several minor concentrations. To the east of Milan, FML Josef Philipp Vukassovich had 4,000 men, South of the Po River, FML Andreas OReilly von Ballinlough marched east toward Piacenza with 3,000 men. Strong garrisons manned the fortresses of Alessandria, Coni and Casale, Melas believed he had plenty of time to mass his army and launch a counter-offensive north from Piacenza. General of Division Jean Lannes moved south from Milan with his corps, seizing Pavia on 3 June and being initially repulsed by Piacenzas tiny 400-man garrison. In a series of operations on 6 June, Generals of Division Joachim Murat, Murat then overran Piacenza while Lannes pushed OReilly back to the west. These actions placed French forces directly on the main Austrian line of communication between Alessandria and Mantua in the strategic Stradella defile, meanwhile, Murat captured a set of Austrian dispatches that disclosed that Genoa had fallen. Confronted with a new situation, Napoleon issued orders to press the Austrians, on 7 June, Otts column was marching north from Genoa. Otts corps reached Voghera at 8 pm on 8 June to join OReilly, a patrol reported French troops to the east. Ott directed OReilly with six battalions and four cavalry squadrons to defend the village of Casteggio on the main east-west highway. Meanwhile, the French army became overextended, Lannes planned to continue marching west. This would bring his 8,000 men into contact with Otts corps of 18,000, French Forces, Lannes Corps, Lannes Division, Watrin 6th Light, 22nd Line, 40th Line. Melas chief-of-staff, General-Major Anton von Zach was on the scene, Watrin aggressively fed his units into the battle, but found his three demi-brigades, two batteries and one cavalry regiment opposed by a superior force. Ott disposed of 26 infantry battalions and 15 cavalry squadrons, for five hours, the outnumbered French soldiers tried to break the Austrian position. Twice they seized Casteggio, but were out by OReillys troops. Attempts to flank the Austrian left were repulsed by the Lobkowitz Dragoons, the 12th Hussars charged repeatedly to keep the French infantry from being overrun by the Austrian dragoons. Nine Austrian battalions defended a hill to the south of the village while, the French received some help when the Consular Guards three field pieces and other units arrived. As Lannes command neared their breaking point at about 1,00 pm, despite intense Austrian artillery fire, the combined pressure forced back Otts tired soldiers and convinced that general to order a phased withdrawal
35.
Battle of Marengo
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The Battle of Marengo was fought on 14 June 1800 between French forces under Napoleon Bonaparte and Austrian forces near the city of Alessandria, in Piedmont, Italy. Surprised by the Austrian advance toward Genoa in mid-April 1800, Bonaparte had hastily led his army over the Alps in mid-May, initially, their two assaults across the Fontanone stream near Marengo village were repelled, and General Jean Lannes reinforced the French right. Bonaparte realised the true position and issued orders at 11,00 am to recall the detachment under Général de Division Louis Desaix, on the Austrian left, Ott’s column had taken Castel Ceriolo, and its advance guard moved south to attack Lannes’s flank. Melas renewed the assault and the Austrians broke the central French position. By 2,30 pm the French were withdrawing and Austrian dragoons seized the Marengo farm, Bonaparte had by then arrived with the reserve, but Berthier’s troops began to fall back on the main vine belts. Knowing Desaix was approaching, Bonaparte was anxious about a column of Ott’s soldiers marching from the north, the French then withdrew steadily eastward toward San Giuliano Vecchio as the Austrians formed a column to follow them in line with Ott’s advance in the northern sector. The French casualties were considerably fewer, but included Desaix, the whole French line chased after the Austrians to seal une victoire politique that secured Bonaparte’s grip on power after the coup. It would be followed by a campaign, which sought to rewrite the story of the battle three times during Napoleon’s rule. The Battle of Marengo was the victory that sealed the success of Bonapartes Italian campaign of 1800 and is best understood in the context of that campaign. By a daring crossing of the Alps with his Army of the Reserve in mid-May 1800 almost before the passes were open, Bonaparte had threatened Melass lines of communications in northern Italy. The French army then seized Milan on 2 June, followed by Pavia, Piacenza and Stradella, Lombardy, Bonaparte hoped that Melass preoccupation with the Siege of Genoa, held by General André Masséna, would prevent the Austrians from responding to his offensive. However, Genoa surrendered on 4 June, freeing a number of Austrians for operations against the French. On 9 June, General Jean Lannes beat Feldmarschallleutnant Peter Ott in the Battle of Montebello and this caused Bonaparte to become overconfident. He became convinced that Melas would not attack, and further, as other French forces closed from the west and south, the Austrian commander had withdrawn most of his troops from their positions near Nice and Genoa to Alessandria on the main Turin-Mantua road. Ott arrived from Montebello of 13 June in a war council, nonetheless, by abandoning the San Giuliano plain, where the superior Austrian cavalry could have given him an edge, Melas probably made a serious mistake. Bonaparte knew that Ott had no way out from Alessandria, Victor then deployed divisional generals Gaspard Amédée Gardanne and Jacques-Antoine de Chambarlhac de Laubespins divisions along the Fontanone stream. The battle took place to the east of Alessandria, on a plain crossed by a river forming meanders, on the plain were spread numerous hamlets and farms which represented strategic points. The three main sites of the battle formed a triangle, with Marengo in the west, Castel Ceriolo in the north, a small stream, the Fontanone, passed between Marengo and the Bormida
36.
Battle of Neuburg (1800)
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The Battle of Neuburg occurred on 27 June 1800 in the south German state of Bavaria, on the southern bank of the Danube river. Neuburg is located on the Danube between Ingolstadt and Donauwörth, after a series of reverses, several of the allies withdrew from the Coalition. By 1800, Napoleons military victories in northern Italy challenged Habsburg supremacy there, French victories in the upper Danubian territories opened a route along that river to Vienna. In a series of battles in what is now southern Germany, the heaviest action of the battle occurred in the village of Unterhausen, in the outskirts of Neuburg. By early 1799, the French Directory had become impatient with stalling tactics employed by Austria, the uprising in Naples raised further alarms, and recent gains in Switzerland suggested the timing was fortuitous to venture on another campaign in northern Italy and southwestern Germany. At the beginning of 1800, the armies of France and Austria faced each other across the Rhine, feldzeugmeister Pál Kray led approximately 120,000 troops. Of these,25,000 men were deployed east of Lake Constance to protect the Vorarlberg, unwisely, Kray set up his main magazine at Stockach, near the northwestern end of Lake Constance, only a days march from French-held Switzerland. To secure access into Bavaria and, eventually, to Vienna and this was not a new tactic, The stretch of river between Ulm and Neuburg had been the site of major battles of the Thirty Years War and War of the Spanish Succession. Between Ulm and Ingolstadt, the Danube grows significantly in volume, making it a wide, the Iller joins the Danube at Ulm, dumping massive amounts of water into the stream, at Donauwörth, the Lech enters the Danube. Control of the bridges and passages between Ulm and Donauwörth, Neuburg, then Ingolstadt offered an advantage of both transport and prestige, after withdrawing from Biberach, Kray waited at Ulm for Moreaus assault, which did not come. Lecourbe then approached Dettingen, Blindheim and Höchstädt, the corps of General Paul Grenier had been posted with its right flank to the Danube and Gunzburg, and their left flank at Kinsdorf. Once Höchstädt and its nearby bridges fell on 19 June, the French controlled the Danube crossings between Ulm and Donauwörth, Kray abandoned Ulm, and withdrew further downstream. The next French target would be Neuburg and this is also confirmed in an extract of Moreaus dispatch to the French Minister of War, published in the London Chronicle,10 June 1800. The 6th Chasseurs, 13th Cavalry, 4th Hussars and 11th Chasseurs distinguished themselves in this affair, the rest of the division, and that of, passed rapidly the Danube. General Grenier was equally well prepared. In addition, the presence of Théophile Corret de la Tour dAuvergne, in addition, General Espagnes 37th and 84th Regiments were engaged, as were grenadiers the 109th Regiment. Lecourbes division was reformed in April 1800 while still in Switzerland, after the Battle of Messkirch, both Gouvion Saint-Cyr and Sainte-Suzanne had retired to the Rhine, taking many of their forces with them. Consequently, Moreau had assigned had the cavalry commanded by Jean-Joseph Ange dHautpoul to reinforce Lecourbes division, on 26 June 1800, Krays force held the remaining passages across the Danube between Neuburg and Inglostadt. On that morning, the divisions of Gudin and Montrichard marched toward the junction of the Danube, General Gudins division followed a southward track toward Pöttmes and established a line north to Ehekirchen, approximately 3 miles
37.
Battle of Ampfing (1800)
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The Austrians, under the leadership of Archduke John of Austria, forced their enemies to retreat, though they sustained greater losses than the French. Ampfing is located 63 kilometers east of Munich and 8 km west of Mühldorf am Inn, in Spring 1800, while Moreau wrecked Austrian defenses in Germany, Generals Massena and Desaix ran into stiff Austrian offensives in Northern Italy. In June, Napoleon brought in the corps and defeated the Austrians at Marengo. With the French pressing on Austria from the north and through Italy, despite these significant losses—both of them decisive—the Austrians were reluctant to accept disadvantageous peace terms. After the expiration of the truce in November 1800, both the Austrian and French armies rushed to come to grips with each other in the terrain east of Munich. The newly appointed commander of Austrian forces, Archduke John, managed to bring the bulk of his army against Greniers left wing of Jean Moreaus French army near Ampfing, outnumbered, two French divisions fought a stubborn rear guard action for six hours before retreating in good order. Instead of being sobered by their 3,000 casualties, Archduke John, the Austrian general ordered a pursuit of the French through forested terrain. But, instead of fleeing, Moreau and his troops were waiting for the Austrians, the two armies met in the decisive Battle of Hohenlinden two days later. This treaty proved difficult to administer, Austria was slow to give up some of the Venetian territories. Supported by French republican forces, Swiss insurgents staged several uprisings, by early 1799, the French Directory had become impatient with stalling tactics employed by Austria. The uprising in Naples raised further alarms, and recent gains in Switzerland suggested the timing was fortuitous to venture on another campaign in northern Italy, at the beginning of 1800, the armies of France and Austria faced each other across the Rhine. Pál Kray led approximately 120,000 troops, of these,25,000 men were deployed east of Lake Constance to protect the Vorarlberg. Unwisely, Kray set up his main magazine at Stockach, near the end of Lake Constance. Jean Victor Marie Moreau commanded an army of 137,000 French troops. Of these,108,000 troops were available for operations while the other 29,000 watched the Swiss border. First Consul Napoleon Bonaparte offered a plan of operations based on outflanking the Austrians by a push from Switzerland, rather, Moreau planned to cross the Rhine near Basel where the river swung to the north. A French column would distract Kray from Moreaus true intentions by crossing the Rhine from the west, Bonaparte wanted Claude Lecourbes corps to be sent to Italy after the initial battles on the Danube plain, but Moreau had other plans. Battles at Engen and Stockach were fought on 3 May 1800 between the army of the First French Republic under Jean Victor Marie Moreau and the army of Habsburg Austria led by Pál Kray, the fighting near Engen resulted in a stalemate with heavy losses on both sides
38.
Battle of Copenhagen (1801)
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The Danish fleet at the inlet of the Copenhagen harbour formed a blockade preventing the British fleet from entering the harbour. The Danish mainly used older ships not meant to sail in the sea as blockades, Denmark defended the capital with these ships and bastions on both side of the harbour inlet, Kastellet, Trekroner, Lynetten as well as Quintus, Sixtus and Strickers. It was the attempt by the British to scare Denmark, as the British had already entered Øresund with a navy in August 1800. Now Britain would have Denmarks entire navy and merchant fleet, so it would not fall in to the hands of the French. The British were not aware that the modern Royal Danish Navy and many merchant ships were hidden in the Roskilde fjord. The battle was the result of failures of diplomacy in the latter half of the 18th century. At the beginning of 1801, during the French Revolutionary Wars, the Royal Navy searched neutral ships trading with French ports, seizing their cargoes if they were deemed to be trading with France. It was in the British interest to guarantee its naval supremacy, the Russian Tsar Paul, having been a British ally, arranged a League of Armed Neutrality comprising Denmark, Sweden, Prussia, and Russia, to enforce free trade with France. The British viewed the League to be much in the French interest. The League was hostile to the British blockade and, according to the British, its existence threatened the supply of timber, in early 1801, the British government assembled a fleet at Great Yarmouth, with the goal of breaking up the League. The British needed to act before the Baltic Sea thawed and released the Russian fleet from its bases at Kronstadt, If the Russian fleet joined with the Swedish and Danish fleets, the combined fleets would form a formidable force of up to 123 ships-of-the-line. The British fleet was under the command of Admiral Hyde Parker, frustrated by the delay, Nelson sent a letter to Captain Thomas Troubridge, a friend and a Lord Commissioner of the Admiralty. This prompted the Earl of St Vincent to send a private note, the British fleet reached the Skaw on 19 March, where they met a British diplomat, Nicholas Vansittart, who told them that the Danes had rejected an ultimatum. Although the Admiralty had instructed Parker to frustrate the League, by force if necessary, he was a naturally cautious person, in the end Nelson was able to persuade Sir Hyde to attack the Danish fleet currently concentrated off Copenhagen. Promised naval support for the Danes from Karlskrona, in Sweden, the Prussians had only minimal naval forces and also could not assist. Attacking the Danish fleet would have been difficult as Parkers delay in sailing had allowed the Danes to prepare their positions well, the northern end of the line terminated at the Tre Kroner forts armed with 68 guns. North of the fort, in the entrance to Copenhagen harbour, were two ships-of-the-line, a frigate, and two brigs, all rigged for sea, and two more hulks. Batteries covered the water between the Danish line and the shore, and further out to sea a large shoal, the Middle Ground, constricted the channel
39.
Algeciras Campaign
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To reach Cadiz, the French squadron had to pass the British naval base at Gibraltar, which housed the squadron tasked with blockading the Spanish port. The British squadron was commanded by Rear-Admiral Sir James Saumarez, on 6 July 1801, Saumarez attacked the anchored squadron, in the First Battle of Algeciras. In the aftermath of the first battle, both sides set about making urgent repairs and calling up reinforcements, a confused night action followed, in which the British ship HMS Superb cut through the disorganised allied rearguard, followed by the rest of Saumarezs force. In the confusion one French ship was captured, a Spanish frigate sank, the following morning the French ship Formidable came under attack at the rear of the combined squadron, but successfully drove off pursuit and reached Cadiz safely. On 1 August 1798, a British fleet surprised and almost completely destroyed the French Mediterranean Fleet at the Battle of the Nile in the aftermath of the successful French invasion of Egypt. The squadron made three attempts to reach Egypt, eventually retiring to Toulon in late July 1801. The presence of force at Toulon enabled the French to plan a secondary operation using Ganteaumes new arrivals. A deal had been brokered earlier in the year between Bonaparte and Charles IV of Spain for the Spanish government to provide six ships of the line from the Cadiz fleet to the French Navy. This force of nine French ships, accompanied by six promised vessels from the Spanish fleet, was then to one of two mooted plans, the first was a large scale attack on Lisbon. The other planned operation, adopted following the end of the War of the Oranges on 2 June, was for the force to resupply Egypt using soldiers stationed at Italian ports. To facilitate the transfer of the Spanish ships to French control, le Pelley arrived at the Spanish port on 13 June in the frigates Libre and Indienne with sailors to begin manning the newly purchased ships and Commodore Julien le Ray to command them. Linois sailed from Toulon on 13 June 1801 with three ships of the line and one frigate carrying 1,560 soldiers under Brigadier-General Devaux. Therefore, the only British ships on hand when Linois emerged from the port were a few frigates, Linoiss passage was slow, facing winds from the southwest that delayed his squadron so that by the 30 June they were only off Cape de Gata in the Alboran Sea. On 1 July they were spotted from Gibraltar, although the only warship there was the 14-gun HMS Calpe under Captain George Dundas which was unable to influence their advance. Instead, Captain Dundas ordered Lieutenant Richard Janvarin to take a boat and communicate with the Cadiz blockade force of seven ships of the line, Linois passed Gibraltar on 3 July and during the night discovered the 14-gun brig HMS Speedy a short distance ahead. Cochranes initial belief that the ships were Spanish treasure vessels caused him to bring Speedy closer to the ships. Rather than surrender however, Cochrane threw all of his guns and excessive weight overboard and he then attempted to cut directly between the approaching Formidable and Desaix, the small target avoiding the concentrated fire of the French ships and pulling into open water. At this, Commodore Jean-Anne Christy-Pallière on Desaix swung his ship about and pursued, several shots damaging Speedys sails, as Speedy slowed, Desaix overtook the small brig and fired a full broadside at close range
France
Austria
Electorate of Bavaria
