1.
French and Indian War
–
The French and Indian War comprised the North American theater of the worldwide Seven Years War of 1754–1763. At the start of the war, the French North American colonies had a population of roughly 60,000 European settlers, the outnumbered French particularly depended on the Indians. Following months of localised conflict, the nations declared war on each other in 1756. The name French and Indian War, used mainly in the United States, British and European historians use the term the Seven Years War, as do English speaking Canadians. French Canadians call it La guerre de la Conquête or the Fourth Intercolonial War, fighting took place primarily along the frontiers between New France and the British colonies, from Virginia in the south to Newfoundland in the north. It began with a dispute over control of the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers, called the Forks of the Ohio, and the site of the French Fort Duquesne. The dispute erupted into violence in the Battle of Jumonville Glen in May 1754, in 1755, six colonial governors in North America met with General Edward Braddock, the newly arrived British Army commander, and planned a four-way attack on the French. None succeeded, and the effort by Braddock proved a disaster, he lost the Battle of the Monongahela on July 9,1755. In 1755, the British captured Fort Beauséjour on the border separating Nova Scotia from Acadia, orders for the deportation were given by William Shirley, Commander-in-Chief, North America, without direction from Great Britain. The Acadians, both captured in arms and those who had sworn the loyalty oath to His Britannic Majesty, were expelled. Native Americans were likewise driven off their land to make way for settlers from New England, after the disastrous 1757 British campaigns, the British government fell. France concentrated its forces against Prussia and its allies in the European theatre of the war, between 1758 and 1760, the British military launched a campaign to capture the Colony of Canada. They succeeded in capturing territory in surrounding colonies and ultimately the city of Quebec, though the British later lost the Battle of Sainte-Foy west of Quebec, the French ceded Canada in accordance with the Treaty of Paris. The outcome was one of the most significant developments in a century of Anglo-French conflict, France ceded its territory east of the Mississippi to Great Britain. It ceded French Louisiana west of the Mississippi River to its ally Spain, in compensation for Spains loss to Britain of Florida. Frances colonial presence north of the Caribbean was reduced to the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, the conflict is known by multiple names. In British America, wars were often named after the sitting British monarch, such as King Williams War or Queen Annes War. As there had already been a King Georges War in the 1740s, British colonists named the war in King Georges reign after their opponents
French and Indian War
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Iroquois engaging in trade with Europeans, 1722
French and Indian War
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French and Indian War
French and Indian War
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Robert Dinwiddie, British lieutenant governor of Virginia
French and Indian War
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Washington's map of the
Ohio River and surrounding region containing notes on French intentions, 1753 or 1754
2.
Ohio River
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The Ohio River, which streams westward from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, to Cairo, Illinois, is the largest tributary, by volume, of the Mississippi River in the United States. The 981-mile river flows through or along the border of six states, through its largest tributary, the Tennessee River, the basin includes many of the states of the southeastern U. S. It is the source of drinking water for three million people and it is named in Iroquoian or Seneca, Ohi, yó, lit. Good River or Shawnee, Pelewathiipi and Spelewathiipi, the river had great significance in the history of the Native Americans, as numerous civilizations formed along its valley. For thousands of years, Native Americans used the river as a major transportation, in 1669, René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle led a French expedition to the Ohio River, becoming the first Europeans to see it. After European-American settlement, the served as a border between present-day Kentucky and Indian Territories. It was a transportation route for pioneers during the westward expansion of the early U. S. In his Notes on the State of Virginia published in 1781–82, Thomas Jefferson stated and its current gentle, waters clear, and bosom smooth and unbroken by rocks and rapids, a single instance only excepted. During the 19th century, the river was the boundary of the Northwest Territory. Where the river was narrow, it was the way to freedom for thousands of slaves escaping to the North, many helped by free blacks and whites of the Underground Railroad resistance movement. The Ohio River is a transition area, as its water runs along the periphery of the humid subtropical. It is inhabited by fauna and flora of both climates, in winter, it regularly freezes over at Pittsburgh but rarely further south toward Cincinnati and Louisville. At Paducah, Kentucky, in the south, near the Ohios confluence with the Mississippi, Paducah was founded there because it is the northernmost ice-free reach of the Ohio. The Ohio River is formed by the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers at Point State Park in Pittsburgh, from there, it flows northwest through Allegheny and Beaver counties, before making an abrupt turn to the south-southwest at the West Virginia–Ohio–Pennsylvania triple-state line. From there, it forms the border between West Virginia and Ohio, upstream of Wheeling, West Virginia, the river then follows a roughly southwest and then west-northwest course until Cincinnati, before bending to a west-southwest course for most of its length. The course forms the borders of West Virginia and Kentucky. The Ohio drains parts of 15 states in four regions, northeast New York, a small area of the southern border along the headwaters of the Allegheny. Pennsylvania, a corridor from the corner to north central border
Ohio River
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The widest point on the Ohio River is just west of
Downtown Louisville, where it is one mile (1.6 km) wide
Ohio River
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Ohio River basin
Ohio River
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The
Allegheny River, left, and
Monongahela River join to form the Ohio River at
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, the largest metropolitan area on the river.
Ohio River
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The 1849
Wheeling Suspension Bridge was the first bridge across the river.
3.
Hopwood, Pennsylvania
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Hopwood is a census-designated place in Fayette County, Pennsylvania, United States. The population was 2,090 at the 2010 census, up from 2,006 at the 2000 census and it is located in North Union and South Union townships. The village was named after John Hopwood, Hopwood is located in central Fayette County at 39°52′27″N 79°42′12″W. It is bordered to the north by East Uniontown, U. S. Route 40 Business runs through the center of Hopwood and forms the border between North and South Union townships. The center of Uniontown is 2 miles to the northwest via National Pike, U. S. Route 40 forms a four-lane bypass around the south side of Uniontown, intersecting National Pike at the south end of Hopwood. Via US40 it is 60 miles southeast to Cumberland, Maryland, according to the United States Census Bureau, the Hopwood CDP has a total area of 1.89 square miles, all of it land. The community sits at the base of Chestnut Ridge, the westernmost ridge of the Allegheny Mountains in this area. As of the census of 2000, there were 2,006 people,893 households, the population density was 1,070.8 people per square mile. There were 932 housing units at a density of 497. 5/sq mi. The racial makeup of the CDP was 98. 60% White,0. 60% African American,0. 10% Native American,0. 25% Asian,0. 05% Pacific Islander,0. 10% from other races, and 0. 30% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 25% of the population,31. 1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 14. 4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.25 and the family size was 2.81. In the CDP, the population was out, with 19. 5% under the age of 18,6. 5% from 18 to 24,25. 3% from 25 to 44,27. 6% from 45 to 64. The median age was 44 years, for every 100 females there were 95.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.6 males, the median income for a household in the CDP was $30,223, and the median income for a family was $41,111. Males had an income of $38,594 versus $19,643 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $17,194, about 8. 0% of families and 13. 4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 22. 5% of those under age 18 and 7. 4% of those age 65 or over. Former major-league baseball player Terry Mulholland was born and raised in the Hopwood area, the Battle of Jumonville Glen, a skirmish which helped to start the French and Indian War, was fought near Hopwood on May 28,1754
Hopwood, Pennsylvania
–
Location of Hopwood in Fayette County
4.
Farmington, Pennsylvania
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Farmington is an unincorporated community and census-designated place in Wharton Township, Fayette County, Pennsylvania, United States. It is located along U. S. Route 40, the National Road, about 60 miles southeast of Pittsburgh and it is also home to the 5-star Nemacolin Woodlands Resort. As of the 2010 census the population of Farmington was 767, Farmington is located in northeastern Farmington Township at geographical coordinates 39° 48′ 28″ North, 79° 34′ 1″ West. Via US Route 40, Uniontown, the Fayette County seat, is 12 miles to the northwest, Pittsburgh is 60 miles to the northwest via US40 and Pennsylvania Route 51. The U. S. Postal Service ZIP code for Farmington is 15437
Farmington, Pennsylvania
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Mystic Rock golf course at
Nemacolin Woodlands Resort.
5.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
Geographic coordinate system
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Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.
6.
Kingdom of Great Britain
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The Kingdom of Great Britain, officially Great Britain, was a sovereign state in western Europe from 1 May 1707 to 31 December 1800. It did not include Ireland, which remained a separate realm, the unitary state was governed by a single parliament and government that was based in Westminster. Also after the accession of George I to the throne of Great Britain in 1714, the early years of the unified kingdom were marked by Jacobite risings which ended in defeat for the Stuart cause at Culloden in 1746. On 1 January 1801, the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland were merged to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922, five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the United Kingdom, the name Britain descends from the Latin name for the island of Great Britain, Britannia or Brittānia, the land of the Britons via the Old French Bretaigne and Middle English Bretayne, Breteyne. The term Great Britain was first used officially in 1474, in the instrument drawing up the proposal for a marriage between Edward IV of Englands daughter Cecily and James III of Scotlands son James. The Treaty of Union and the subsequent Acts of Union state that England and Scotland were to be United into one Kingdom by the Name of Great Britain. However, both the Acts and the Treaty also refer numerous times to the United Kingdom and the longer form, other publications refer to the country as the United Kingdom after 1707 as well. The websites of the UK parliament, the Scottish Parliament, the BBC, additionally, the term United Kingdom was found in informal use during the 18th century to describe the state. The new state created in 1707 included the island of Great Britain, the kingdoms of England and Scotland, both in existence from the 9th century, were separate states until 1707. However, they had come into a union in 1603. Each of the three kingdoms maintained its own parliament and laws and this disposition changed dramatically when the Acts of Union 1707 came into force, with a single unified Crown of Great Britain and a single unified parliament. Ireland remained formally separate, with its own parliament, until the Acts of Union 1800, legislative power was vested in the Parliament of Great Britain, which replaced both the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland. In practice it was a continuation of the English parliament, sitting at the location in Westminster. Newly created peers in the Peerage of Great Britain were given the right to sit in the Lords. Despite the end of a parliament for Scotland, it retained its own laws. As a result of Poynings Law of 1495, the Parliament of Ireland was subordinate to the Parliament of England, the Act was repealed by the Repeal of Act for Securing Dependence of Ireland Act 1782. The same year, the Irish constitution of 1782 produced a period of legislative freedom, the 18th century saw England, and after 1707 Great Britain, rise to become the worlds dominant colonial power, with France its main rival on the imperial stage
Kingdom of Great Britain
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Lord Clive meeting
Mir Jafar after the
Battle of Plassey, by
Francis Hayman (c. 1762)
Kingdom of Great Britain
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Flag
Kingdom of Great Britain
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Pitt addressing the
Commons in 1793
7.
Colony of Virginia
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The Colony of Virginia was the first permanently settled English colony in North America. Newfoundland, with settlements, had been established as a colony by Royal Charter in 1583. American archaeologist William Kelso says Virginia is where the British Empire began and this was the first colony in the British Empire. The colony existed briefly during the 16th century, and then continuously from 1607 until the American Revolution, the name Virginia was first applied by Sir Walter Raleigh and Queen Elizabeth I in 1584. In 1607, members of a joint venture called the Virginia Company founded Jamestown, tobacco became Virginias first profitable export, the production of which had a significant impact on the society and settlement patterns. In 1624, the Virginia Companys charter was revoked by King James I, from 1619 to 1776, the legislature of the Virginia was the House of Burgesses, which governed in conjunction with a colonial governor. Jamestown remained the capital of the Virginia colony until 1699, from 1699 until its dissolution the capital was in Williamsburg and it experienced its first major political turmoil with Bacons Rebellion of 1676. The name Virginia is the oldest designation for English claims in North America, the latter word may have inspired the Queen to name the colony Virginia, noting her status as the Virgin Queen. in Carolina Algonquian, and was not the name of the country as previously misunderstood. Virginia was originally a term used to refer to North Americas entire eastern coast from the 34th parallel north to 48th parallel and this area included a large section of Canada and the shores of Acadia. In gratitude for Virginians loyalty to the crown during the English Civil War, Charles II gave it the title of Old Dominion, Virginia maintains Old Dominion as its state nickname. Accordingly, the University of Virginias athletic teams use Cavaliers as one of their nicknames, earlier attempts had been made by the Spanish in what is now Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina and Virginia, and by the French in South Carolina. Farther south, the Spanish colony of Spanish Florida, centered on St. Augustine, was established in 1565, while to the north, in 1584, Sir Walter Raleigh sent his first colonization mission to the island of Roanoke. This was the first English settlement, although it did not survive and it was a military research expedition with a very narrow focus. In 1587, Raleigh sent another group to attempt to establish a permanent settlement. The first English child born in the New World was named Virginia Dare, the expedition leader, John White returned to England for supplies that same year, but was unable to return to the colony due to war between England and Spain. When he finally did return in 1590, he found the colony abandoned, the houses were intact, but the colonists had completely disappeared. Although there are a number of theories about the fate of the colony, Dare County was named in honor of the baby Virginia Dare, who was among those whose fate is unknown. The word Croatoan was found carved into a tree, the name of a tribe on a nearby island, following the death of Queen Elizabeth I in 1603, King James I ascended to the throne
Colony of Virginia
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"
The Generall Historie of Virginia, New-England, and the Summer Isles ", by
Capt. John Smith
Colony of Virginia
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Flag
Colony of Virginia
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Lines show legal treaty frontiers between Virginia Colony and Indian Nations in various years, as well as today's state boundaries. Red: Treaty of 1646. Green: Treaty of Albany (1684). Blue: Treaty of Albany (1722). Orange:
Proclamation of 1763. Black: Treaty of Camp Charlotte (1774). Area west of this line in present-day Southwest VA was ceded by the Cherokee in 1775.
Colony of Virginia
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Indian massacre of 1622, depicted in a 1628 woodcut by
Matthäus Merian out of
Theodore de Bry 's workshop.
8.
Mingo
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The Mingo people are an Iroquoian-speaking group of Native Americans made up of peoples who migrated west to the Ohio Country in the mid-18th century, primarily Seneca and Cayuga. Anglo-Americans called these migrants mingos, a corruption of mingwe, an Eastern Algonquian name for Iroquoian-language groups in general, Mingos have also been called Ohio Iroquois and Ohio Seneca. Most were forced to move to Indian Territory in the early 1830s under the Indian Removal program, in the 1930s Mingo descendants reorganized as a tribe and were recognized in 1937 by the federal government as the Seneca-Cayuga Tribe of Oklahoma. The Mingo may have been an independent group in the Six Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy, the etymology of the name Mingo derives from the Delaware word, mingwe or Minque as transliterated from their Algonquian language, meaning treacherous or stealthy. In the 17th century, the terms Minqua or Minquaa were used interchangeably to refer to the Iroquois and to the Susquehannock, the Mingo were noted for having a bad reputation and were sometimes referred to as Blue Mingo or Black Mingo for their misdeeds. The Mingo dialect that dominated the Ohio valley from the late 17th to early 18th centuries is considered a variant most similar to the Seneca language. After the French and Indian War, many Cayuga people moved to Ohio and they were joined there by Shawnee of Ohio and the rest of the Mingo confederacy. Their villages were increasingly an amalgamation of Iroquoian Seneca, Wyandot and Susquehannock, although the Iroquois Confederacy had claimed hunting rights and sovereignty over much of the Ohio River Valley since the late 17th century, these people increasingly acted independently. When Pontiacs Rebellion broke out in 1763 at the end of the Seven Years War, at that time, most of the Iroquois nations based in New York were closely allied to the British. The Mingo-Seneca Chief Guyasuta was one of the leaders in Pontiacs War, another famous Mingo leader was Chief Logan, who had good relations with neighboring white settlers. Logan was not a war chief, but a village leader, in 1774, as tensions between whites and Indians were on the rise due to a series of violent conflicts, a band of white outlaws murdered Logans family. Local chiefs counseled restraint, but acknowledged Logans right to revenge, Logan exacted his vengeance in a series of raids with a dozen followers, not all of whom were Mingos. His vengeance satisfied, he did not participate in the resulting Lord Dunmores War and he was not likely to have been at the climactic Battle of Point Pleasant. Rather than take part in the conference, he expressed his thoughts in Logans Lament. His speech was printed and widely distributed and it is one of the most well-known examples of Native American oratory. By 1830, the Mingo were flourishing in western Ohio, where they had improved their farms and established schools, after the US passed the Indian Removal Act in that same year, the government pressured the Mingo to sell their lands and migrate to Kansas in 1832. In Kansas, the Mingo joined other Seneca and Cayuga bands, in 1869, after the American Civil War, the US government pressed for Indian removal to Indian Territory. The three tribes moved to present-day Ottawa County, Oklahoma, in 1881, a band of Cayuga from Canada joined the Seneca Tribe in Indian Territory
Mingo
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Statue of
Logan, a famous Mingo leader, in
Logan, West Virginia
Mingo
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Statue of Mingo, Greetings to Wayfarers, in
Wheeling, West Virginia.
9.
New France
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The territory was divided into five colonies, each with its own administration, Canada, Hudsons Bay, Acadia, Newfoundland, and Louisiana. Acadia had a history, with the Great Upheaval, remembered on July 28 each year since 2003. The descendants are dispersed in the Maritime Provinces of Canada, in Maine and Louisiana in the United States, with populations in Chéticamp, Nova Scotia. In the sixteenth century, the lands were used primarily to draw from the wealth of natural resources, in the seventeenth century, successful settlements began in Acadia, and in Quebec by the efforts of Champlain. By 1765, the population of the new Province of Quebec reached approximately 70,000 settlers. In 1763 France had ceded the rest of New France, except the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, to Great Britain and Spain at the Treaty of Paris, in 1800, Spain returned its portion of Louisiana to France under the secret Treaty of San Ildefonso. However, French leader Napoleon Bonaparte in turn sold it to the United States in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803, New France eventually became part of the United States and Canada, with the only vestige remaining under French rule being the tiny islands Saint Pierre and Miquelon. In the United States, the legacy of New France includes numerous placenames as well as pockets of French-speaking communities. In Canada, institutional bilingualism and strong Francophone identities are arguably the most enduring legacy of New France, the Conquest is viewed differently among Francophone Canadians, and between Anglophone and Francophone Canadians. Around 1523, the Florentine navigator Giovanni da Verrazzano convinced King Francis I, late that year, Verrazzano set sail in Dieppe, crossing the Atlantic on a small caravel with 50 men. After exploring the coast of the present-day Carolinas early the year, he headed north along the coast. The first European to discover the site of present-day New York, he named it Nouvelle-Angoulême in honour of the king, verrazzanos voyage convinced the king to seek to establish a colony in the newly discovered land. Verrazzano gave the names Francesca and Nova Gallia to that land between New Spain and English Newfoundland, in 1534, Jacques Cartier planted a cross in the Gaspé Peninsula and claimed the land in the name of King Francis I. It was the first province of New France, however, initial French attempts at settling the region met with failure. French fishing fleets continued to sail to the Atlantic coast and into the St. Lawrence River, French merchants soon realized the St. Lawrence region was full of valuable fur-bearing animals, especially the beaver, which were becoming rare in Europe. Eventually, the French crown decided to colonize the territory to secure, another early French attempt at settlement in North America took place in 1564 at Fort Caroline, now Jacksonville, Florida. Intended as a haven for Huguenots, Caroline was founded under the leadership of René Goulaine de Laudonnière and it was sacked by the Spanish led by Pedro Menéndez de Avilés who then established the settlement of St. Augustine on 20 September 1565. Acadia and Canada were inhabited by indigenous nomadic Algonquian peoples and sedentary Iroquoian peoples and these lands were full of unexploited and valuable natural riches, which attracted all of Europe
New France
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A map of New France made by Samuel de Champlain in 1612.
New France
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Flag
New France
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Champlain's Habitation c. 1608
New France
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A map of western New France, including the
Illinois Country, by
Vincenzo Coronelli, 1688.
10.
Canada (New France)
–
Canada was a French colony within New France discovered and named during Jacques Cartier second voyage in 1535. French explorations continued unto the Countreys of Canada, Hochelaga, even though a permanent trading post and habitation was established at Tadoussac in 1600, it was under a trade monopoly and thus not constituted as an official French colonial settlement. As a result, the first official settlement was not established within Canada until the founding of Quebec by Samuel de Champlain in 1608. The other four colonies within New France were Hudsons Bay to the north, Acadia and Newfoundland to the east, Canada, the most developed colony of New France, was divided into three districts, Québec, Trois-Rivières, and Montréal, each with its own government. The governor of the District of Quebec was also the governor-general of all New France, after the Treaty of Paris of 1763, when France ceded Canada to Great Britain, the colony was renamed the Province of Quebec. A1740 survey of the population of the St. Lawrence River valley counted about 44,000 colonists, of those,18,000 lived under the Government of Quebec,4,000 under the Government of Trois-Rivières and 22,000 under the Government of Montreal. The population was rural, Quebec had 4,600 inhabitants, Trois-Rivières had 378. Also, Île Royale had 4,000 inhabitants, and Île Saint-Jean had 500 inhabitants, before 1717, when it ceded territory to the new colony of Louisiana, it stretched as far south as the Illinois Country. North of the Great Lakes, a mission, Sainte-Marie among the Hurons, was established in 1639, following the destruction of the Huron homeland in 1649 by the Iroquois, the French destroyed the mission themselves and left the area. In what are today Ontario and the prairies, various trading posts and forts were built such as Fort Kaministiquia, Fort Frontenac, Fort Saint Pierre, Fort Saint Charles. The mission and trading post at Sault Ste, marie would later be split by the Canada–US border. Today, the term Les Pays-den-Haut refers to a county municipality in the Laurentides region of Quebec, north of Montreal. In its civil law, customs and the aspects of the great majority of its population. The term Canada may also refer to todays Canadian federation created in 1867, or the historical Province of Canada, a British colony comprising southern Ontario and southern Quebec
Canada (New France)
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Pays d'en Haut in pink around the Great Lakes in 1748.
Canada (New France)
–
Flag
11.
George Washington
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George Washington was an American politician and soldier who served as the first President of the United States from 1789 to 1797 and was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. He served as Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War and he is popularly considered the driving force behind the nations establishment and came to be known as the father of the country, both during his lifetime and to this day. Washington was widely admired for his leadership qualities and was unanimously elected president by the Electoral College in the first two national elections. Washingtons incumbency established many precedents still in use today, such as the system, the inaugural address. His retirement from office two terms established a tradition that lasted until 1940 when Franklin Delano Roosevelt won an unprecedented third term. The 22nd Amendment now limits the president to two elected terms and he was born into the provincial gentry of Colonial Virginia to a family of wealthy planters who owned tobacco plantations and slaves, which he inherited. In his youth, he became an officer in the colonial militia during the first stages of the French. In 1775, the Second Continental Congress commissioned him as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army in the American Revolution, in that command, Washington forced the British out of Boston in 1776 but was defeated and nearly captured later that year when he lost New York City. After crossing the Delaware River in the middle of winter, he defeated the British in two battles, retook New Jersey, and restored momentum to the Patriot cause and his strategy enabled Continental forces to capture two major British armies at Saratoga in 1777 and Yorktown in 1781. In battle, however, Washington was repeatedly outmaneuvered by British generals with larger armies, after victory had been finalized in 1783, Washington resigned as commander-in-chief rather than seize power, proving his opposition to dictatorship and his commitment to American republicanism. Washington presided over the Constitutional Convention in 1787, which devised a new form of government for the United States. Following his election as president in 1789, he worked to unify rival factions in the fledgling nation and he supported Alexander Hamiltons programs to satisfy all debts, federal and state, established a permanent seat of government, implemented an effective tax system, and created a national bank. In avoiding war with Great Britain, he guaranteed a decade of peace and profitable trade by securing the Jay Treaty in 1795 and he remained non-partisan, never joining the Federalist Party, although he largely supported its policies. Washingtons Farewell Address was a primer on civic virtue, warning against partisanship, sectionalism. He retired from the presidency in 1797, returning to his home, upon his death, Washington was eulogized as first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen by Representative Henry Lee III of Virginia. He was revered in life and in death, scholarly and public polling consistently ranks him among the top three presidents in American history and he has been depicted and remembered in monuments, public works, currency, and other dedications to the present day. He was born on February 11,1731, according to the Julian calendar, the Gregorian calendar was adopted within the British Empire in 1752, and it renders a birth date of February 22,1732. Washington was of primarily English gentry descent, especially from Sulgrave and his great-grandfather John Washington emigrated to Virginia in 1656 and began accumulating land and slaves, as did his son Lawrence and his grandson, Georges father Augustine
George Washington
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George Washington by
Gilbert Stuart, 1797
George Washington
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Washington's birthplace
George Washington
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Washington's map, accompanying his Journal to the Ohio (1753–1754)
George Washington
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A
mezzotint of
Martha Washington, based on a 1757 portrait by
Wollaston
12.
Battle of Fort Necessity
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The Battle of Fort Necessity took place on July 3,1754, in what is now the mountaintop hamlet of Farmington in Fayette County, Pennsylvania. The engagement was one of the first battles of the French and Indian War, the battle, along with the May 28 Battle of Jumonville Glen, contributed to a series of military escalations that resulted in the global Seven Years War. Washington built Fort Necessity on a meadow west of the summit of a pass through the Allegheny Mountains. Authorities in New France became more aggressive in their efforts to expel British traders and colonists from this area, in previous wars, the Québecois had more than held their own against the English colonials. The French action drew the attention of not just the British, the reason for this was that they had to provide them with the goods that the Anglo-American traders had previously supplied, and at similar prices. This proved to be singularly difficult, with the exception of one or two Montreal merchant traders, the Canadians showed a great reluctance to venture into the Ohio country. In particular, Tanacharison, a Mingo chief also known as the Half King, became anti-French as a consequence. In a meeting with Paul Marin de la Malgue, commander of the Canadian construction force, the latter reportedly lost his temper, if the river is blocked up, I have the forces to burst it open and tread under my feet all that oppose me. I despise all the things you have said. He then threw down some wampum that Tanacharison had offered as a good will gesture, Marin died not long after, and command of the operations was turned over to Jacques Legardeur de Saint-Pierre. Saint-Pierre politely informed Washington that he was there pursuant to orders, Washington returned to Williamsburg and informed Governor Dinwiddie that the French refused to leave. Dinwiddie ordered Washington to begin raising a regiment to hold the Forks of the Ohio, in present-day Pittsburgh. The governor also issued a commission to Ohio Company employee William Trent, with instructions to raise a small force. Dinwiddie issued these instructions on his own authority, without asking for funding from the Virginia House of Burgesses until after the fact. Trents company arrived on site in February 1754, and began construction of a storehouse and stockade with the assistance of Tanacharison, in response, the Canadians sent a force of about 500 men, Canadian, French, and Indians under Claude-Pierre Pécaudy de Contrecœur. On April 16, they arrived at the forks, the day, Trents force of 36 men, led by Ensign Edward Ward in Trents absence. The Canadians tore down the British works, and began construction of the fort they called Fort Duquesne, historian Fred Anderson describes Dinwiddies instructions, which were issued without the knowledge or direction of the British government in London, as an invitation to start a war. Washington was ordered to gather as many supplies and paid volunteers as he could along the way, by the time he left for the frontier on April 2, he had gathered 186 men
Battle of Fort Necessity
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The modern replica of Fort Necessity
Battle of Fort Necessity
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Portrait of
George Washington by
Charles Willson Peale, 1772
Battle of Fort Necessity
13.
Braddock Expedition
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It was defeated at the Battle of the Monongahela on July 9, and the survivors retreated. The expedition takes its name from General Edward Braddock, who led the British forces and died in the effort. Braddocks defeat was a setback for the British in the early stages of the war with France and has been described as one of the most disastrous defeats for the British in the 18th century. Braddocks expedition was part of a massive British offensive against the French in North America that summer, as commander-in-chief of the British Army in America, General Braddock led the main thrust against the Ohio Country with a column some 2,100 strong. With these men, Braddock expected to seize Fort Duquesne easily, George Washington, then just 23, knew the territory and served as a volunteer aide-de-camp to General Braddock. Braddocks Chief of Scouts was Lieutenant John Fraser of the Virginia Regiment, Fraser owned land at Turtle Creek, had been at Fort Necessity, and had served as Second-in-Command at Fort Prince George, at the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers. Braddock mostly failed in his attempts to recruit Native American allies from those not yet allied with the French, he had but eight Mingo Indians with him. A number of Indians in the area, notably Delaware leader Shingas, caught between two powerful European empires at war, the local Indians could not afford to be on the side of the loser. They would decide based on Braddocks success or failure, Braddock had received important assistance from Benjamin Franklin, who helped procure wagons and supplies for the expedition. Among the wagoners were two men who would later become legends of American history, Daniel Boone and Daniel Morgan. Other members of the expedition included Ensign William Crawford and Charles Scott, among the British were Thomas Gage, Charles Lee, future American president George Washington, and Horatio Gates. In some cases, the column was able to progress at a rate of two miles a day, creating Braddocks Road—an important legacy of the march—as they went. They passed the ruins of Fort Necessity along the way, where the French, small French and Indian war bands skirmished with Braddocks men during the march. Meanwhile, at Fort Duquesne, the French garrison consisted of only about 250 regulars and Canadian militia, the Indians were from a variety of tribes long associated with the French, including Ottawas, Ojibwas, and Potawatomis. Claude-Pierre Pécaudy de Contrecœur, the Canadian commander, received reports from Indian scouting parties that the British were on their way to besiege the fort. He realised he could not withstand Braddocks cannon, and decided to launch a preemptive strike, by July 8,1755, the Braddock force was on the land owned by the Chief Scout, Lieutenant John Fraser. That evening, the Indians sent a delegation to the British to request a conference, the Indians asked the British to halt their advance so that they could attempt to negotiate a peaceful withdrawal by the French from Fort Duquesne. Both Washington and Fraser recommended this to Braddock but he demurred, on July 9,1755, Braddocks men crossed the Monongahela without opposition, about 10 miles south of Fort Duquesne
Braddock Expedition
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Route of the Braddock Expedition
Braddock Expedition
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Map of Braddock's Military Road
Braddock Expedition
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Braddock Road trace near Fort Necessity, Pennsylvania.
Braddock Expedition
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19th-century engraving of the wounding of Major-General Braddock at the Battle of the Monongahela.
14.
Battle of the Monongahela
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The Battle of the Monongahela, took place on 9 July 1755, at the beginning of the French and Indian War, at Braddocks Field in what is now Braddock, Pennsylvania,10 miles east of Pittsburgh. The defeat marked the end of the Braddock expedition, by which the British had hoped to capture Fort Duquesne, Braddock was mortally wounded in the battle and died during the retreat near present-day Uniontown, Pennsylvania. He specifically asked for George Washington, who accompanied him on the march, the remainder of the column retreated south-eastwards and the fort, and region, remained in French hands until its capture in 1758. Braddock had been dispatched to North America in the new position of Commander-in-Chief and he added to this by recruiting local troops in British America, swelling his forces to roughly 2,200 by the time he set out from Fort Cumberland, Maryland on 29 May. He was accompanied by Virginia Colonel George Washington, who had led the previous expedition to the area. Braddocks expedition was part of an attack on the French in North America. Braddocks orders were to launch an attack into the Ohio Country, disputed by Britain, control of the area was dominated by Fort Duquesne on the forks of the Ohio River. Once it was in his possession, he was to proceed on to Fort Niagara and he soon encountered a number of difficulties. He was scornful of the need to recruit local Native Americans as scouts and he found that the road he was trying to use was slow, and needed constant widening to move artillery and supply wagons along it. Frustrated, he split his force in two, leading a column ahead, with a slower force following with the cannon. The flying column of 1,300 crossed the Monongahela River on 9 July, within 10 miles of their target, Fort Duquesne had been very lightly defended, but had recently received significant reinforcements. Claude-Pierre Pecaudy de Contrecœur, the Canadian commander of the fort, had around 1,600 French troupes de la Marine, Canadian militiamen, concerned by the approach of the British, he dispatched Captain Daniel Liénard de Beaujeu with around 800 troops, to check their advance. The French and Indians arrived too late to set an ambush, as they had delayed. They ran into the British advance guard, commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Gage, seeing the enemy in the trees, Gage ordered his men to open fire. Despite firing at long range for a smooth-bored musket, their opening volleys succeeded in killing Captain Beaujeu. Unconcerned by the death of Beaujeu, the Indian warriors took up positions to attack and they were fighting on an Indian hunting ground which favored their tactics, with numerous trees and shrubbery separated by wide open spaces. Although roughly a hundred of the Canadians fled back to the fort, the Indian tribes allied with the French, the Ottawas and Potawatomis, used psychological warfare against the British forces. After the Indians killed British soldiers, they would nail their scalps to surrounding trees, during the battle, Indians made a terrifying whoop sound that caused fear and panic to spread in the British infantry
Battle of the Monongahela
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19th-century engraving of the death of Major-General Braddock at the Battle of the Monongahela.
Battle of the Monongahela
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Route of the Braddock Expedition.
15.
Kittanning Expedition
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Commanded by Lieutenant Colonel John Armstrong, this raid deep into hostile territory was the only major expedition carried out by Pennsylvania Provincial troops during a brutal backcountry war. Early on September 8,1756 they launched an attack on the Indian village. Although it eventually became a conflict known as the Seven Years War. The French-allied Indians who had defeated General Edward Braddock at the Monongahela were primarily from the Great Lakes region to the north, with Fort Duquesne now secured, the victorious French encouraged the Delaware and Shawnee to take up the hatchet against those who had taken their land. Beginning about October 1755, Delaware and Shawnee war parties, often with French cooperation, although European-Americans also waged war with cruelty, they found Indian warfare particularly brutal and frightening. Notable among the Indian raiders were the Delaware war leaders Shingas and Captain Jacobs, the colonial governments of Pennsylvania and Virginia offered rewards for their scalps. Captain Jacobs was on an expedition led by Louis Coulon de Villiers that descended on Fort Granville on the morning of August 2,1756. The attackers were held off, but the commander was killed, and his second in command surrendered the garrison, including the women and children. The commanders brother, Lieutenant Colonel John Armstrong, immediately organized an expedition against Kittanning in response, Armstrong led 300 Pennsylvania Provincial soldiers from Fort Shirley on August 31. By September 7, the column had reached the vicinity of Kittanning, signs of a small Indian camp prompted Colonel Armstrong to detach a dozen men under Lieutenant James Hogg to monitor it while the column moved on toward the village. The next morning Armstrong launched an attack on the village. Many of the Kittanning residents fled, but Captain Jacobs put up a defense, holing up with his wife, when he refused to surrender, his house and others were set on fire, touching off gunpowder that had been stored inside. Some buildings exploded, and pieces of Indian bodies flew high into the air, Captain Jacobs was killed and scalped after jumping from his home in an attempt to escape the flames. The battle ended when the village was engulfed in flames. Prisoners informed Armstrong that a party of 24 men had left the day before in advance of another planned raid and this news caused Armstrong some concern over the fate of Lieutenant Hogg, so he precipitately ordered a withdrawal. They were met after several miles by a mortally-wounded Hogg, who reported that his force had been attacked by a larger Indian force, some of his men had immediately fled, and most of the rest had been killed. By September 13, Armstrong and his force had returned to Fort Loudon. According to Armstrongs report, he took 11 scalps and freed 11 prisoners and he estimated that his men killed between 30 and 40 Indians
Kittanning Expedition
16.
Forbes Expedition
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The Forbes Expedition was a British military expedition led by Brigadier-General John Forbes in 1758, during the latter stages of the French and Indian War. Forbes commanded between 6,000 and 8,000 men, including a contingent of Virginians led by George Washington and this well organized expedition was in contrast to a similar expedition led by Edward Braddock in 1755 that ended in the disastrous Battle of the Monongahela. Working for most of the summer on the construction of the road, periodic fortified supply depots, in mid-September, a reconnaissance force was soundly defeated in the Battle of Fort Duquesne when its leader, Major James Grant, attempted to capture the fort instead of gathering information alone. This collapse of Native American support made it impossible for the French to hold Fort Duquesne, when the expedition neared to within a few miles of Fort Duquesne in mid-November, the French abandoned and blew up the fort. Three units of scouts led by Captain Hugh Waddell entered the smoking remnants of the fort under the orders of Colonel George Washington on November 24, general Forbes, who was ill with dysentery for much of the expedition, only briefly visited the ruins. He was returned to Philadelphia in a litter, and died not long afterward, Forbes Road Braddock Expedition Nemacolins Path Beaver Wars Susquehannock peoples Erie peoples Shawnee Anderson, Fred. Crucible of War, The Seven Years War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, the British Defeat of the French in Pennsylvania,1758, A Military History of the Forbes Campaign Against Fort Duquesne. Fowler, William M. Empires at war, The French and Indian War and the Struggle for North America 1754-1763
Forbes Expedition
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Engraving depicting the British arrival at the remains of
Fort Duquesne
Forbes Expedition
17.
Battle of Fort Duquesne
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The Battle of Fort Duquesne was a British assault on the eponymous French fort that was repulsed with heavy losses on 14 September 1758, during the French and Indian War. Forbes ordered Major James Grant of the 1st Highland Regiment to reconnoiter the area with 850 men. When Grant proceeded to attack the French position, his force was out manoeuvred, surrounded, Major Grant was taken prisoner and the British survivors retreated fitfully to Fort Ligonier. The battle for fort duquesne is what historians believe started the seven year war, after repulsing this advance party the French, deserted by some of their native allies and vastly outnumbered by the approaching Forbes, blew up their magazines and burnt Fort Duquesne. In November the French withdrew from the Ohio Valley and British colonists erected Fort Pitt on the site, Forbes commanded between 5,000 and 7,000 men, including a contingent of Virginians led by George Washington. Bouquet believed the fort to be held by 500 French and 300 Indians, Grant, who arrived in the vicinity of the fort on September 13, believed there were only 200 enemy within, and sent a small party of 50 men forward to scout. These saw no enemy outside the fort, they burned a storehouse and returned to Grants main position, the next morning, Grant divided his force into several parts. A company of the 77th, under a Capt. McDonald, approached the fort with drums beating, the French and Indian force was in fact much larger than anticipated, and moved swiftly. They overwhelmed McDonalds decoy force and overran the party that had meant to ambush them. Lewiss force left its positions and went to the aid of the rest of the force but the French and Indians had by then gained a point of high ground above them. The Indians used the forest to their advantage, concealed by a thick foliage, their heavy, in the one-sided battle in the woods, the British and American force suffered 342 casualties, of whom 232 were from the 77th Regiment, including Grant, who was taken prisoner. Out of the eight officers in Andrew Lewis’s Virginian contingent,5 were killed,1 was wounded, nevertheless, most of Grants force escaped to rejoin the main army under Forbes and Bouquet. The Franco-Indian force suffered only 8 killed and 8 wounded, French and Indians knew not that Grant and his men were there until they beat the drum and played upon the bag-pipes, just at day-light. A plaque on the Allegheny County Courthouse, erected in 1901 commemorates the site of the battle, the French continued to occupy Fort Duquesne until November 26, when the garrison set fire to the fort and left under the cover of darkness. As the British marched up to the remains, they were confronted with an appalling sight. The Indians had decapitated many of the dead Highlanders and impaled their heads on the stakes on top of the fort walls. The British and Americans rebuilt Fort Duquesne, naming it Fort Pitt after the British prime minister William Pitt, crucible of War, The Seven Years War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754-1766 pp 267–285 Chartrand, Rene. Tomahawk and Musket, French and Indian Raids in the Ohio Valley 1758, founders Son Leads Area Through Wars with French and British
Battle of Fort Duquesne
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This engraving by
Alfred R. Waud depicts the British occupation of the remains of Fort Duquesne on November 25.
Battle of Fort Duquesne
18.
Battle of Fort Ligonier
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The Battle of Fort Ligonier was a battle of the French and Indian War. On 12 October 1758, French and Indian forces directed from nearby Fort Duquesne were repulsed in an attack on the British outpost of Fort Ligonier and his expedition methodically constructed a road across the Allegheny Mountains, which had reached a place known as Loyal Hannon by early September. Forbes advance force, about 1,500 men under the command of Henry Bouquet then began the construction of Fort Ligonier for the purpose of establishing winter quarters and they were subjected to regular harassment by French and Indian raiding parties sent from Fort Duquesne. To answer these raids, Bouquet authorized James Grant to lead 750 men on a reconnaissance in force of Duquesne, Grant, apparently seeking the glory of a quick victory, attempted the forts capture on 14 September. Grant had seriously underestimated the size of François-Marie Le Marchand de Lignerys French force, Lignery sent out virtually his entire garrison,440 troupes de la marine and 150 Delaware Indians, under the command of Charles Phillip Aubry. The command at Ligonier was temporarily under Pennsylvania provincial Colonel James Burd, outside the fort he had stationed a number of men to guard supplies and others to guard the expeditions animals as they grazed, about 1.5 miles from the fort. These guards, who were dispersed, suffered the brunt of the French. When the sounds of gunfire reached the fort, Colonel Burd sent out the Maryland Battalion, about 200 provincials and these were quickly driven back to the fort by the larger French force. By this time the garrison, numbering about 2,000, was under arms. Burd sent out the 1st Pennsylvania Battalion to assist the Marylanders, three companies of the North Carolina Provincials were also part of this force, led by Maj. Driven back by active British artillery, the French and Indians retreated and they seemingly made no attempt to block the road, Burd reported the arrival of men during the afternoon. Around 9,00 pm, an assault was attempted on one of the forts redoubts, the French and Indians remained near the fort through the night, sniping at sentries, probing the defenses, and killing or taking about 200 horses before they withdrew back to Fort Duquesne. James Smith reported what the French-allied Indians said about the battle, They met his army near Fort Ligoneer, and attacked them, casualties were relatively light for the attackers. Aubrys superior officer, General Montcalm, reported casualties at two killed and seven wounded, but Burd also reported burying four Frenchmen. British casualties were higher, the French reported taking 100 scalps and seven prisoners, while the British report 12 killed,18 wounded,3 men of the North Carolina Provincials were killed during the fighting. The British continued work on Ligonier, and after General Forbes arrived on 2 November, on 24 November, Lignery destroyed Fort Duquesne, sending his men to other forts to the north and west. Fort Ligonier continued to see service through Pontiacs Rebellion, after which it was abandoned and it was reconstructed, and the site is now on the National Register of Historic Places. The British Defeat of the French in Pennsylvania,1758, A Military History of the Forbes Campaign Against Fort Duquesne, fowler, William M. Empires at war, The French and Indian War and the Struggle for North America 1754-1763
Battle of Fort Ligonier
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Plan of
Fort Ligonier from an 1896 publication
19.
Uniontown, Pennsylvania
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Uniontown is a city in Fayette County, Pennsylvania, United States,46 miles southeast of Pittsburgh and part of the Pittsburgh Metro Area. The population was 10,372 at the 2010 census, down from 12,422 at the 2000 census and it is the county seat and largest city of Fayette County. Popularly known as Beesontown, the town of Union was founded by Henry Beeson on July 4,1776, the National Road, also known as the Cumberland Road, was routed through Uniontown in the early 19th century, and the town grew along with the road. Uniontowns role in the Underground Railroad in the years is commemorated by a marker on the corner of East Main Street. Residents helped slaves escaping from the South to freedom, in the late nineteenth century, the town grew based on the development of coal mines and the steel industry. Uniontown was the site of violent clashes between striking miners and guards at the local coke works during the bituminous coal miners strike of 1894. Fifteen guards armed with carbines and machine guns held off an attack by 1,500 strikers, killing five, the Columbia Rolling Mill, an iron and steel works, was located in Uniontown from 1887 to 1895. The mill was the top industry at that time. During the Coal Boom of the part of the 20th century, Uniontown was home to at least 13 millionaires. Coal barons and Carl Laemmle, the president of Universal Films and it was a mile and a quarter raceway. This decline continued into the 21st century, and the population is half its peak of 1940. The USS Uniontown, a Tacoma-class frigate, was named for the city by the United States Navy on August 16,1944, in 1967 Uniontown was the birthplace of the McDonalds Big Mac sandwich. In 2007 the Big Mac Museum was opened in North Huntingdon Township in Westmoreland County, according to a McDonalds spokesperson, the decision was based on logistics and access, but Uniontown residents complained in an article that was published in the Herald-Standard. The Uniontown Downtown Historic District, Gallatin School, John S. Douglas House, John P. Conn House, Uniontown is located slightly west of the center of Fayette County at 39°540 North, 79°4328 West. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 2.04 square miles. The city is 999 feet above sea level and rests at the base of Chestnut Ridge, the National Pike or Cumberland Road crossed over the mountains and passed through the area which became the center of Uniontown. The route is now Business Route 40, as the mainline of US40 bypasses the city center to the south, as of the census of 2010, there were 10,372 people,5,423 households, and 3,031 families residing in the city. The population density was 5136 people per square mile, there were 6,320 housing units at an average density of 3,103.0 per square mile
Uniontown, Pennsylvania
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A mural celebrating local hero George Marshall and the city's current revitalization efforts.
Uniontown, Pennsylvania
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Fayette Building
Uniontown, Pennsylvania
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Fayette County Courthouse
Uniontown, Pennsylvania
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WMBS (AM) studio on South Mount Vernon Avenue
20.
Fayette County, Pennsylvania
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Fayette County is a county located in the U. S. state of Pennsylvania. Fayette County is located in southwestern Pennsylvania, adjacent to Maryland, as of the 2010 census, the population was 136,606. The county was created on September 26,1783, from part of Westmoreland County, Fayette County is part of the Pittsburgh, PA Metropolitan Statistical Area. The first Europeans in Fayette County were explorers, who had used an ancient American Indian trail that bisected the county on their journey across the Appalachian Mountains. In 1754, when control of the area was still in dispute between France and Great Britain, 22-year-old George Washington fought against the French at Jumonville Glen and Fort Necessity. British forces under Washington and General Edward Braddock improved roads throughout the region, during the American Revolution, Fayette County was plagued by attacks from British-allied Indians and remained isolated as a frontier region. Also retarding settlement was a dispute with Virginia, Virginias District of West Augusta. In 1780 the dispute was settled by the government in favor of Pennsylvania. President George Washington called out the militias to restore order, Fayette County continued to be important to travelers in the early 1800s. The National Road provided a route through the mountains of the county for settlers heading west, the shipyards in Brownsville on the Monongahela River built ships for both the domestic and international trade. As Pittsburgh developed its industries in the century, Fayette County become a center of coal mining. From the 1880s to the early 1900s, the great expansion in steel production became nationally important. Both new European immigrants and African Americans in the Great Migration from the rural South were attracted to the Pittsburgh area for industrial jobs, the historic Scottish and German farming communities established in the earlier 19th century were soon overshadowed by the wave of immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe. By World War II, Fayette County had a new unionized working class that enjoyed increased prosperity, in the 1950s, however, the coal industry fell into decline. In the 1970s, the restructuring and collapse of American steel resulted in a loss of industrial jobs. The population has declined since the peak in 1940, as residents have had to move elsewhere for work, the loss of union jobs caused many working families to drop out of the middle class. Only a few mines are being worked in the 21st century, the region is slowly transitioning toward the service sector, with an increase in jobs in fields such as telemarketing. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 798 square miles
Fayette County, Pennsylvania
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Fayette County Courthouse
21.
Pennsylvania
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Pennsylvania /ˌpɛnsᵻlˈveɪnjə/, officially the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, is a state located in the northeastern and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. The Appalachian Mountains run through its middle, Pennsylvania is the 33rd largest, the 5th most populous, and the 9th most densely populated of the 50 United States. The states five most populous cities are Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Allentown, Erie, the state capital, and its ninth-largest city, is Harrisburg. Pennsylvania has 140 miles of shoreline along Lake Erie and the Delaware Estuary. The state is one of the 13 original founding states of the United States, it came into being in 1681 as a result of a land grant to William Penn. Part of Pennsylvania, together with the present State of Delaware, had earlier been organized as the Colony of New Sweden and it was the second state to ratify the United States Constitution, on December 12,1787. Independence Hall, where the United States Declaration of Independence and United States Constitution were drafted, is located in the states largest city of Philadelphia, during the American Civil War, the Battle of Gettysburg, was fought in the south central region of the state. Valley Forge near Philadelphia was General Washingtons headquarters during the winter of 1777–78. Pennsylvania is 170 miles north to south and 283 miles east to west, of a total 46,055 square miles,44,817 square miles are land,490 square miles are inland waters, and 749 square miles are waters in Lake Erie. It is the 33rd largest state in the United States, Pennsylvania has 51 miles of coastline along Lake Erie and 57 miles of shoreline along the Delaware Estuary. Cities include Philadelphia, Reading, Lebanon and Lancaster in the southeast, Pittsburgh in the southwest, the tri-cities of Allentown, Bethlehem, the northeast includes the former anthracite coal mining communities of Scranton, Wilkes-Barre, Pittston City, and Hazleton. Erie is located in the northwest, the state has 5 regions, namely the Allegheny Plateau, Ridge and Valley, Atlantic Coastal Plain, Piedmont, and the Erie Plain. Straddling two major zones, the majority of the state, with the exception of the corner, has a humid continental climate. The largest city, Philadelphia, has characteristics of the humid subtropical climate that covers much of Delaware. Moving toward the interior of the state, the winter climate becomes colder, the number of cloudy days increase. Western areas of the state, particularly locations near Lake Erie, can receive over 100 inches of snowfall annually, the state may be subject to severe weather from spring through summer into fall. Tornadoes occur annually in the state, sometimes in large numbers, the Tuscarora Nation took up temporary residence in the central portion of Pennsylvania ca. Both the Dutch and the English claimed both sides of the Delaware River as part of their lands in America
Pennsylvania
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World's End State Park, Sullivan County
Pennsylvania
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Flag
Pennsylvania
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Autumn in North Branch Township,
Wyoming County, Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania
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Penn's Treaty with the Indians, by
Edward Hicks
22.
Canadien
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French Canadians are an ethnic group who trace their ancestry to French colonists who settled in Canada from the 17th century onward. Today, French Canadians constitute the main French-speaking population in Canada, today, French Canadians live across North America. The province of Quebec has the largest population of French-Canadian descent, though smaller communities exist throughout Canada, between 1840 and 1930, roughly 900,000 French Canadians emigrated to the United States, mostly to the New England region. Other terms for French Canadians who continue to reside in the province of Quebec, are Quebecers or Québécois, the other major group of French Canadians are the Acadians who reside in the Maritime Provinces. In total, those who identify as French Canadian, French, Québécois, the French Canadians get their name from Canada, the most developed and densely populated region of New France during the period of French colonization in the 17th and 18th century. The original use of the term Canada referred to the area along the St. From 1535 to the 1690s, the French word Canadien had referred to the First Nations the French had encountered in the St. Lawrence River valley at Stadacona, at the end of the 17th century, Canadien became an ethnonym distinguishing the inhabitants of Canada from those of France. French Canadians living in Canada express their identity using a number of terms. The Ethnic Diversity Survey of the 2006 Canadian census found that French-speaking Canadians identified their ethnicity most often as French, French Canadians, Québécois, the latter three were grouped together by Jantzen as French New World ancestries because they originate in Canada. Canadien was used to refer to the French-speaking residents of New France beginning in the last half of the 17th century, the English-speaking residents who arrived later from Great Britain were called Anglais. This usage continued until Canadian Confederation in 1867 and those reporting French New World ancestries overwhelmingly had ancestors that went back at least four generations in Canada. Fourth generation Canadiens and Québécois showed considerable attachment to their group, with 70% and 61%, respectively. The generational profile and strength of identity of French New World ancestries contrast with those of British or Canadian ancestries, which represent the largest ethnic identities in Canada. As a result, their identification with their ethnicity is weaker, for example, only 50% of third generation Canadians strongly identify as such, bringing down the overall average. The survey report notes that 80% of Canadians whose families had been in Canada for three or more generations reported Canadian and provincial or regional ethnic identities and these identities include French New World ancestries such as Québécois, Acadian. Since the 1960s, French Canadians in Quebec have generally used Québécois or Québécoise to express their cultural and national identity, rather than Canadien français, francophones who self-identify as Québécois and do not have French-Canadian ancestry may not identify as French Canadian. Those who do have French or French-Canadian ancestry, but who support Quebec sovereignty and this is a reflection of the strong social, cultural, and political ties that most Quebeckers of French-Canadian origin, who constitute a majority of francophone Quebecers, maintain within Quebec. French Canadians outside Quebec are more likely to self-identify as French Canadian, identification with provincial groupings varies from province to province, with Franco-Ontarians, for example, using their provincial label far more frequently than Franco-Columbians do
Canadien
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Hubert Reeves
Canadien
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Gabrielle Roy
Canadien
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Jack Kerouac
Canadien
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Louise Arbour
23.
Ohio Company
–
The Ohio Company, formally known as the Ohio Company of Virginia, was a land speculation company organized for the settlement by Virginians of the Ohio Country and to trade with the Native Americans. The company had a grant from Britain and a treaty with Indians, but France also claimed the area. Virginian explorers recognized the potential of the Ohio region for colonization and moved to capitalize on it, in 1748, Thomas Lee and brothers Lawrence and Augustine Washington organized the Ohio Company to represent the prospecting and trading interests of Virginian investors. The grant was in two parts, the first 200,000 acres were promised, and the following 300,000 acres were to be granted if the Ohio Company successfully settled one hundred families within seven years. Furthermore, the Ohio Company was required to construct a fort, but the land grant was rent and tax free for ten years to facilitate settlement. The organizers signed a treaty of friendship and permission at Logstown with the tribes in the region in 1752. A rival group of land speculators from Virginia, the Loyal Company of Virginia, was organized about the same time, and included influential Virginians such as Thomas Walker and Peter Jefferson. In 1752 George Mason, later to become a founding father, became treasurer of the Ohio Company. Cresap was given a contract to blaze a small road over the mountains to the Monongahela River, in 1750, the Ohio Company hired Christopher Gist, a skillful woodsman and surveyor, to explore the Ohio Valley in order to identify lands for potential settlement. He surveyed by estimating the Kanawhan Region and the Ohio Valley tributaries beginning in 1750,1751 and 1753 and his journals provide valuable insights of the greater Ohio Valley and the Alleghenies. Gist travelled as far west as the Miami Indian village of Pickawillany, the settlement efforts were complicated by the conflicting land claims of the time. The Ohio Country ceded by the King through Governor Dinwiddie included, in Dinwiddies opinion, in addition to the Pennsylvania colonial government claims of this territory, the French were fighting for and occupying much of the Ohio Valley, most notably at Fort Duquesne. Dinwiddie responded by sending a unit under the command of George Washington to the region. In 1763, the Ohio Company sent a representative to petition the British Crown for a grant renewal, the plans for settlement and military development continued, with Henry Bouquets 1764 plans to construct military posts around prospective western settlements. In 1768, the British government authorized Sir William Johnson to make the Treaty of Fort Stanwix, purchasing land rights from the Iroquois, the goal was acquiring 2.5 million acres of Ohio Country land. Benjamin Franklin was one of the shareholders, as well as included George Croghan. The Walpole Company, Indiana Company, and members of the Ohio Company reorganized, in 1772, the Grand Ohio Company received from the British government a grant of a large tract lying along the southern bank of the Ohio as far west as the mouth of the Scioto River. A colony to be called Vandalia was planned, however, the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War interrupted colonization and nothing was accomplished
Ohio Company
–
Thomas Lee, president of the Virginia Council of State, organized the Ohio Company of Virginia in 1748.
Ohio Company
–
The Ohio Country, showing present-day U.S. state boundaries
Ohio Company
–
1755
Fry-Jefferson map showing earlier established colonial borders before the
French and Indian War.
Ohio Company
24.
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
–
Pittsburgh is a city in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania in the United States, and is the county seat of Allegheny County. The city proper has a population of 304,391. The metropolitan population of 2,353,045 is the largest in both the Ohio Valley and Appalachia, the second-largest in Pennsylvania, and the 26th-largest in the U. S. The city features 30 skyscrapers, two inclines, a fortification and the Point State Park at the confluence of the rivers. Aside from steel, Pittsburgh has led in manufacturing of aluminum, glass, shipbuilding, petroleum, foods, sports, transportation, computing, autos, and electronics. For part of the 20th century, Pittsburgh was behind only New York and Chicago in corporate headquarters employment, Americas 1980s deindustrialization laid off area blue-collar workers and thousands of downtown white-collar workers when the longtime Pittsburgh-based world headquarters moved out. The area has served also as the federal agency headquarters for cyber defense, software engineering, robotics, energy research. The area is home to 68 colleges and universities, including research and development leaders Carnegie Mellon University, the region is a hub for Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design, sustainable energy, and energy extraction. Pittsburgh was named in 1758 by General John Forbes, in honor of British statesman William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham. The current pronunciation, which is unusual in English speaking countries, is almost certainly a result of a printing error in some copies of the City Charter of March 18,1816. The error was repeated commonly enough throughout the rest of the 19th century that the pronunciation was lost. After a public campaign the original spelling was restored by the United States Board on Geographic Names in 1911. The area of the Ohio headwaters was long inhabited by the Shawnee, the first known European to enter the region was the French explorer/trader Robert de La Salle from Quebec during his 1669 expedition down the Ohio River. European pioneers, primarily Dutch, followed in the early 18th century, Michael Bezallion was the first to describe the forks of the Ohio in a 1717 manuscript, and later that year European fur traders established area posts and settlements. In 1749, French soldiers from Quebec launched an expedition to the forks to unite Canada with French Louisiana via the rivers, during 1753–54, the British hastily built Fort Prince George before a larger French force drove them off. The French built Fort Duquesne based on LaSalles 1669 claims, the French and Indian War, the North American front of the Seven Years War, began with the future Pittsburgh as its center. British General Edward Braddock was dispatched with Major George Washington as his aide to take Fort Duquesne, the British and colonial force were defeated at Braddocks Field. General John Forbes finally took the forks in 1758, Forbes began construction on Fort Pitt, named after William Pitt the Elder while the settlement was named Pittsborough
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
–
Clockwise:
Cathedral of Learning at the
University of Pittsburgh; Pittsburgh skyline;
Carnegie Mellon University;
PNC Park;
Duquesne Incline
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
–
This article is about the Pennsylvania city. For other uses, see
Pittsburgh (disambiguation).
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
–
Monongahela River scene, 1857
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
–
Downtown facade memorializing Pittsburgh's
industrial heritage with an image of legendary steelworker
Joe Magarac
25.
Fort Necessity
–
Fort Necessity National Battlefield is a National Battlefield Site in Fayette County, Pennsylvania, United States, which preserves the site of the Battle of Fort Necessity. After returning to the meadows in what is now Fayette County, Pennsylvania. Supposedly named by Washington as Fort Necessity or Fort of Necessity, the structure protected a storehouse for supplies such as gunpowder, rum, the sutler of Washingtons force was John Fraser, who earlier had been second-in-command at Fort Prince George. Later he served as Chief Scout to General Edward Braddock and then Chief Teamster to the Forbes Expedition, by June 13,1754, Washington had under his command 295 colonials and the nominal command of 100 additional regular British army troops from South Carolina. Washington spent the remainder of June 1754 extending the road further west. He wanted to create a crossing point roughly 41 mi near Redstone Creek. This was a prehistoric Native American earthwork mound on a bluff overlooking the river crossing, the aboriginal mound structure may have once been part of a fortification. Five years later in the war, Fort Burd was constructed at Redstone Old Fort and he preferred this to following the ridge-hopping, high-altitude path traversed by the western part of the route that was later chosen for Braddocks Road. It jogged to the north near the fort and passed over another notch near Confluence, Pennsylvania into the valley, the Redstone destination at the terminus of Nemacolins Trail was a natural choice for an advanced base. The location was one of the few known good crossing points where both sides of the deep river had low accessible banks, steep sides were characteristic of the Monongahela River valley. Late in the day on July 3, Washington did not know the French situation, believing his situation was impossible, he accepted surrender terms which allowed the peaceful withdrawal of his forces, which he completed on July 4,1754. The French subsequently occupied the fort and then burned it, Washington did not speak French, and stated later that if he had known that he was confessing to the assassination of Joseph Coulon de Jumonville, he would not have signed the surrender document. During the Great Depression of the 20th century, attempts to preserve the location of Fort Necessity were undertaken, on March 4,1931, Congress declared the location a National Battlefield Site under management of the War Department. Transferred to the National Park Service in 1933, the park was redesignated a National Battlefield on August 10,1961, as with all historic sites administered by the National Park Service, the battlefield was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 15,1966. Subsequent archaeological research helped to uncover the majority of the original position, shape. A replica of the fort was constructed on site in the 1970s, a new visitor center, which also is home to a National Road interpretive center, opened on October 8,2005. The battlefield and fort are currently being improved, the land on which the tavern was built was originally owned by George Washington. In 1770 he purchased the site on which he had commanded his first battle, around the 1830s, Judge Nathanial Ewing of Uniontown constructed the tavern
Fort Necessity
–
The reconstructed Fort Necessity.
Fort Necessity
–
Old Postcard of Fort Necessity Museum.
Fort Necessity
–
Mount Washington Tavern, an important stop for early travelers on the National Road.
Fort Necessity
–
The grave of General Edward Braddock.
26.
Fort Duquesne
–
Fort Duquesne was a fort established by the French in 1754, at the convergence point of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers in what is now downtown Pittsburgh in the U. S. state of Pennsylvania. It was destroyed by the British, and replaced by Fort Pitt in 1758, the site of both forts is now occupied by Point State Park, where the outlines of the two forts have been laid in brick. Englishman William Trent had established a successful trading post at the forks as early as the 1740s. Both the French and the British were keen to gain advantage in the area, as the area was within the drainage basin of the Mississippi River, the French claimed it as theirs. Lieutenant Governor of the Virginia Colony, Robert Dinwiddie, saw this as threatening to the claims to land in the area by Virginians. Washington reached Fort Le Boeuf in December and was rebuffed by the French. Following Washingtons return to Virginia in January 1754, Dinwiddie sent Virginians to build Fort Prince George at the Forks of the Ohio, work began on the fort on February 17. By April 18, a much larger French force of five hundred under the command of Claude-Pierre Pécaudy de Contrecœur arrived at the forks, the French knocked down the tiny British fort and built Fort Duquesne, named in honor of Marquis Duquesne, the governor-general of New France. The fort was built on the model as Fort Frontenac on Lake Ontario. Meanwhile, Washington, newly promoted to Colonel of the newly created Virginia Regiment, set out on 2 April 1754 with a force to build a road to. Washington was at Wills Creek in south central Pennsylvania when he received news of the forts surrender, on May 25, Washington assumed command of the expedition upon the death of Colonel Joshua Fry. Two days later, Washington encountered a Canadian scouting party near a place now known as Jumonville Glen, Washington attacked the Canadians killing 10 in the early morning hours, and took 21 prisoners, of whom many were killed by the natives. More importantly for world history, the Battle of Jumonville Glen is widely considered the start of the French and Indian War. Washington then ordered construction of Fort Necessity at a large clearing known as the Great Meadows, on 3 July 1754, the counterattacking French and Canadians forced Washington to surrender Fort Necessity, but allowed Washington and his men to return home without their armaments. Even though Fort Duquesnes location at the forks looked strong on a map—controlling the confluence of three rivers—the reality was rather different, the site was low, swampy, and prone to flooding. In addition, the position was dominated by highlands located directly across the Monongahela River, Pécaudy de Contrecœur was preparing to abandon the fort in the face of Braddocks advance in 1755, and was only saved when the advancing British force was annihilated. The French held Fort Duquesne during the French and Indian War, the French held the fort successfully early in the war, turning back the expedition led by General Edward Braddock during the 1755 Battle of the Monongahela. George Washington served as one of General Braddocks aides, a smaller attack by James Grant in September 1758 was repulsed with heavy losses
Fort Duquesne
–
Fort Duquesne
Fort Duquesne
–
A 1755 map clearly showing the location of Fort Duquesne on the upper border.
Fort Duquesne
–
At
Point State Park, bricks mark the outline of the former site of Fort Duquesne.
Fort Duquesne
–
Fort Duquesne commemorative stamp 1958 issue
27.
Assassination
–
Assassination is the murder of a prominent person, often a political leader or ruler, usually for political reasons or payment. The word assassin is believed to derive from the word Hashshashin. It referred to a group of Nizari Shia Persians who worked against various Arab, founded by the Persian Hassan-i Sabbah, the Assassins were active in the fortress of Alamut in Iran from the 8th to the 14th centuries, and also controlled the castle of Masyaf in Syria. The group killed members of the Persian, Abbasid, Seljuq, the word for murder in many Romance languages is derived from this same root word. Assassination is one of the oldest tools of power politics and it dates back at least as far as recorded history. The Old Testament story of Judith illustrates how a woman frees the Israelites by tricking and assassinating Holofernes, a warlord of the rival Assyrians, with whom the Israelites were at war. King Joash of Judah was recorded as being assassinated by his own servants, Joab assassinated Absalom, King Davids son, chanakya wrote about assassinations in detail in his political treatise Arthashastra. His student Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of the Maurya Empire, later made use of assassinations against some of his enemies, other famous victims are Philip II of Macedon, the father of Alexander the Great, and Roman consul Julius Caesar. Emperors of Rome often met their end in this way, as did many of the Muslim Shia Imams hundreds of years later, the practice was also well known in ancient China, as in Jing Kes failed assassination of Qin king Ying Zheng in 227 BC. Whilst many assassination were performed by an individual or a small group, the earliest were the sicarii in 6 A. D. who predated the Middle Eastern assassins and Japanese ninjas by centuries. In the Middle Ages, regicide was rare in Western Europe, blinding and strangling in the bathtub were the most commonly used procedures. With the Renaissance, tyrannicide—or assassination for personal or political reasons—became more common again in Western Europe and this account is, however, contentious among historians, it being most commonly asserted that he died of natural causes. The myth of the Curse of King Zvonimir is based on the legend of his assassination, in 1192, Conrad of Montferrat, the de facto King of Jerusalem, was killed by an assassin. The reigns of King Przemysł II of Poland, William the Silent of the Netherlands, in Russia alone, two emperors, Paul I and his grandson Alexander II, were assassinated within 80 years. In the United Kingdom, only one Prime Minister of the United Kingdom has ever been assassinated—Spencer Perceval on May 11,1812. In the United States, within 100 years, four presidents—Abraham Lincoln, James Garfield, William McKinley, there have been at least 20 known attempts on U. S. presidents lives. Huey Long, a Senator, was assassinated in September of 1935, the Polish Home Army conducted a regular campaign of assassinations against top Nazi German officials in occupied Poland. Adolf Hitler, meanwhile, was almost killed by his own officers, indias Father of the Nation, Mohandas K. Gandhi, was shot to death on January 30,1948, by Nathuram Godse
Assassination
–
The word "assassin" was derived from
Hasan-i Sabbah and his
Assassin's Order of Nizari Ismailism.
Assassination
–
Assassination of King
Henry III of France
Assassination
–
Assassination of King
Przemysł II of Poland
Assassination
–
Assassination of President Abraham Lincoln; 1865 depiction. Assassin
John Wilkes Booth on the right.
28.
George Washington in the French and Indian War
–
George Washington commanded the Continental Army in the American Revolutionary War, and was the first President of the United States, serving from 1789 to 1797. Because of his role in the founding of the United States. His devotion to republicanism and civic virtue made him a figure among early American politicians. Washingtons military experience began in the French and Indian War with a commission as a major in the militia of the British Province of Virginia. In 1753 Washington was sent as an ambassador from the British crown to the French officials and Indians as far north as present-day Erie, the following year he led another expedition to the area to assist in the construction of a fort at present-day Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Before reaching that point, he and some of his men, accompanied by Indian allies and its leader was killed, although the exact circumstances of his death were disputed. This peacetime act of aggression is seen as one of the first military steps leading to the global Seven Years War, the French responded by attacking fortifications Washington erected following the ambush, forcing his surrender. Released on parole, Washington and his troops returned to Virginia, in 1755 he participated as a volunteer aide in the ill-fated expedition of General Edward Braddock, where he distinguished himself in the retreat following the climactic Battle of Monongahela. Unable to get a commission in the British Army, Washington then resigned from the militia, married. Washington gained valuable military skills during the war, acquiring tactical, strategic and he also acquired important political skills in his dealings with the British military establishment and the provincial government. His successes in military and political spheres during that conflict led to his election as the first President of the United States of America, born into a well-to-do Virginia family near Fredericksburg in 1732, Washington was schooled locally until the age of 15. The early death of his father when he was 11 eliminated the possibility of schooling in England, thanks to the connection by marriage of his half-brother Lawrence to the wealthy Fairfax family, Washington was appointed surveyor of Culpeper County in 1749, he was just 17 years old. Its investors also included Virginias Royal Governor, Robert Dinwiddie, who appointed Washington a major in the militia in February 1753. The Ohio Country was occupied by a variety of Indian tribes that were nominally under the suzerainty of the Iroquois Confederacy based in what is now northwestern New York, the area was also the subject of several conflicting claims by British and French colonies. The British provinces of Virginia and Pennsylvania both claimed the area, and traders from Pennsylvania had been trading with the Indians at least since the early 1740s, when news of this reached Virginia, Governor Dinwiddie sought advice from the British government in London. He received orders to send a messenger to the French, reiterating British claims and demanding that they stop construction of their forts and quit the territory. Governor Dinwiddie chose Major Washington, then 21 years old, for the trek into the Ohio Country to assess the French military situation, and to deliver the British demands. He was a good choice despite his youth because he was familiar with the frontier from survey work, had good health, although he had no frontier warfare experience, neither did most other Virginians
George Washington in the French and Indian War
–
This portrait of Washington was painted in 1772 by
Charles Willson Peale, and shows Washington in uniform as a colonel of the Virginia Regiment. The original hangs in Lee Chapel at
Washington and Lee University in
Lexington, Virginia. It is the earliest known depiction of Washington.
George Washington in the French and Indian War
–
A map of the upper
Ohio River and surrounding area drawn by Washington during or after his 1753 expedition
George Washington in the French and Indian War
–
A recreation of
Fort Necessity
George Washington in the French and Indian War
–
Major-General
Braddock 's death at the
Battle of the Monongahela, July 9, 1755.
29.
Ohio Country
–
The Ohio Country was the name used in the 18th century for the regions of North America west of the Appalachian Mountains and in the region of the upper Ohio River south of Lake Erie. This area was disputed in the century by France and Great Britain. One of the first frontier regions of the United States, the area encompassed roughly all of present-day Ohio, northwestern West Virginia, western Pennsylvania, and eastern Indiana. After the Revolution and resolution of claims to the territory, the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 established the boundaries of the Northwest Territory. The territory included all the land of the United States west of Pennsylvania and it covered all of the modern states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, and the northeastern part of Minnesota. The area covered more than 260,000 square miles, in the 17th century, the area north of the Ohio River had been occupied by the Algonquian-speaking Shawnee and some Siouan language-speaking tribes. The Iroquois conquered and absorbed the Erie tribe, who were one of the Iroquoian language family, the Ohio Country remained largely uninhabited for decades, and was used primarily as a hunting ground by the Iroquois. In the 1720s, a number of Native American groups began to migrate to the Ohio Country from the East, by 1724, Delaware Indians had established the village of Kittanning on the Allegheny River in present-day western Pennsylvania. With them came those Shawnee who had settled in the east. Other bands of the scattered Shawnee tribe began to return to the Ohio Country in the decades that followed, a number of Seneca and other Iroquois also migrated to the Ohio Country, moving away from the French and British imperial rivalries south of Lake Ontario. The Seneca were the westernmost of the Iroquois nations based in New York, in the late 1740s and the second half of the 18th century, the British angled for control of the territory. In 1749, the British Crown, via the colonial government of Virginia, with the arrival of the Europeans, both Great Britain and France claimed the area and both sent fur traders into the area to do business with the Ohio Country Indians. The Iroquois League claimed the region by right of conquest, the rivalry between the two European nations, the Iroquois, and the Ohio natives for control of the region played an important part in the French and Indian War from 1754 through 1760. After initially remaining neutral, the Ohio Country Indians largely sided with the French, armed with supplies and guns from the French, they raided via the Kittanning Path against British settlers east of the Alleghenies. After they destroyed Fort Granville in the summer of 1756, the colonial governor John Penn ordered Lt. Colonel John Armstrong to destroy the Shawnee villages west of the Alleghenies, the British defeated the French and their allies. Meanwhile, other British and colonial forces drove the French from Fort Duquesne and building Fort Pitt, in the 1763 Treaty of Paris, France ceded control of the entire Ohio region to Great Britain, without consulting its native allies, who still believed they had territorial claims. Colonies such as Pennsylvania and Virginia claimed some of the lands by their original charters. The British ordered the settlers to leave or get special permission to stay
Ohio Country
Ohio Country
–
The Ohio Country with battles and massacres between 1775 and 1794
30.
Fortress
–
Fortifications are military constructions or buildings designed for the defense of territories in warfare, and also used to solidify rule in a region during peace time. Humans have constructed defensive works for many thousands of years, in a variety of increasingly complex designs, the term is derived from the Latin fortis and facere. From very early history to modern times, walls have been a necessity for cities to survive in a changing world of invasion. Some settlements in the Indus Valley Civilization were the first small cities to be fortified, in ancient Greece, large stone walls had been built in Mycenaean Greece, such as the ancient site of Mycenae. A Greek Phrourion was a collection of buildings used as a military garrison. These construction mainly served the purpose of a tower, to guard certain roads, passes. Though smaller than a fortress, they acted as a border guard rather than a real strongpoint to watch. The art of setting out a camp or constructing a fortification traditionally has been called castramentation since the time of the Roman legions. Fortification is usually divided into two branches, permanent fortification and field fortification, there is also an intermediate branch known as semi-permanent fortification. Castles are fortifications which are regarded as being distinct from the fort or fortress in that they are a residence of a monarch or noble. Roman forts and hill forts were the antecedents of castles in Europe. The Early Middle Ages saw the creation of towns built around castles. Medieval-style fortifications were made obsolete by the arrival of cannons in the 14th century. Fortifications in the age of black powder evolved into much lower structures with greater use of ditches and earth ramparts that would absorb, Walls exposed to direct cannon fire were very vulnerable, so were sunk into ditches fronted by earth slopes. The arrival of explosive shells in the 19th century led to yet another stage in the evolution of fortification, steel-and-concrete fortifications were common during the 19th and early 20th centuries. However the advances in warfare since World War I have made large-scale fortifications obsolete in most situations. Demilitarized zones along borders are arguably another type of fortification, although a passive kind, many military installations are known as forts, although they are not always fortified. Larger forts may be called fortresses, smaller ones were known as fortalices
Fortress
–
Krak des Chevaliers is one of the best-preserved Crusader
castles.
Fortress
–
Bourtange star fort, restored to 1750 situation,
Groningen (province),
Netherlands.
Fortress
–
The well preserved
Bulgarian medieval fort
Baba Vida.
Fortress
–
Fortifications on the Iraq-Iran Border, viewed from the
ISS, 2014
Media related to Battle of Jumonville Glen at Wikimedia Commons
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