1.
Galerie des Batailles
–
It is an epigone of the Grande galerie of the Louvre and was intended to glorify French military history from the Battle of Tolbiac to the Battle of Wagram. 13 bronze tablets on the wall are inscribed with the names of princes, admirals, constables, marshals, there are also busts placed on supports against the columns and between the paintings. While a number of them were of questionable quality, a few masterpieces, joseph-Antoine, prince Poniatowski, maréchal de lEmpire. Adolphe Édouard Casimir Joseph Mortier, duc de Trévise, maréchal de lEmpire, Jean-Baptiste Bessières, duc dIstries, maréchal de lEmpire. Henri LXI, prince de Reuss-Schleiz, général de brigade in French service, Battle of Tolbiac, won by Clovis I over the Alamanni in 496. 4. 15m by 4. 65m Simon de Montfort, 5th Earl of Leicester, Robert dArtois, son of Otto IV and Mahaut dArtois. Hugues Quieret, French admiral, died 1340, Nicolas Béhuchet, French admiral, died 1340. Commemorative tablet at the end of the galerie. Commemorative tablet at the end of the galerie. Alexandre-Antoine Hureau, comte de Sénarmont, général de division, artist, Antoine Laurent Dantan the Elder. César Charles Étienne, comte Gudin, général de division, walter VI of Brienne, Duke of Athens, constable of France in 1356. Battle of Friedland,14 June 1807,5. 43m by 4. 65m, showing Napoleon I and count Nicolas Charles Oudinot Antoine Louis Charles, comte Lasalle, Battle of Wagram,6 July 1809, by Horace Vernet. Dimensions,5. 3m by 4. 65m, showing Napoleon I, artist, François Masson. 58m by 5. 10m Nicolas-Bernard, général-baron Guiot de Lacour, général de division. Artist, Jean-Baptiste Joseph Debay, le Fils Battle of Hohenlinden,3 December 1800, showing Jean Victor Moreau, Michel Ney, Emmanuel de Grouchy, Jean de Habsburg, André Bruno de Frévol, comte de La Coste, général de brigade. Second Battle of Zürich,25 September 1799, oil on canvas, showing André Masséna, commissioned by Louis-Philippe in 1835,5.43 m by 4.65 m Claude-Louis-Constant Corbineau, général de brigade. Artist, Antoine Laurent Dantan, lAîné Joseph Sécret Pascal-Vallongue, général de Brigade, Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy. Artist, Charles-François Lebœuf, Nanteuil, also known as Nanteuil-Lebœuf, prigent de Coëtivy, sire de Coëtivy, Admiral of France. Killed at the siege of Cherbourg,5. 43m by 4. 65m, showing Philip and Nicolas Zonnekin, dated and signed Scheffer Henry 1837
2.
Palace of Versailles
–
The Palace of Versailles, Château de Versailles, or simply Versailles, is a royal château in Versailles in the Île-de-France region of France. Versailles is therefore not only as a building, but as a symbol of the system of absolute monarchy of the Ancien Régime. First built by Louis XIII in 1623, as a lodge of brick and stone. The first phase of the expansion was designed and supervised by the architect Louis Le Vau and it culminated in the addition of three new wings of stone, which surrounded Louis XIIIs original building on the north, south, and west. After Le Vaus death in 1670, the work was taken over and completed by his assistant, charles Le Brun designed and supervised the elaborate interior decoration, and André Le Nôtre landscaped the extensive Gardens of Versailles. Le Brun and Le Nôtre collaborated on the fountains, and Le Brun supervised the design. During the second phase of expansion, two enormous wings north and south of the wings flanking the Cour Royale were added by the architect Jules Hardouin-Mansart. He also replaced Le Vaus large terrace, facing the garden on the west, with became the most famous room of the palace. The Royal Chapel of Versailles, located at the end of the north wing, was begun by Mansart in 1688. One of the most baffling aspects to the study of Versailles is the cost – how much Louis XIV, owing to the nature of the construction of Versailles and the evolution of the role of the palace, construction costs were essentially a private matter. Initially, Versailles was planned to be a residence for Louis XIV and was referred to as the kings house. Once Louis XIV embarked on his campaigns, expenses for Versailles became more of a matter for public record. To counter the costs of Versailles during the years of Louis XIVs personal reign. Accordingly, all materials that went into the construction and decoration of Versailles were manufactured in France, even the mirrors used in the decoration of the Hall of Mirrors were made in France. While Venice in the 17th century had the monopoly on the manufacture of mirrors, to meet the demands for decorating and furnishing Versailles, Colbert nationalised the tapestry factory owned by the Gobelin family, to become the Manufacture royale des Gobelins. In 1667, the name of the enterprise was changed to the Manufacture royale des Meubles de la Couronne, the Comptes meticulously list the expenditures on the silver furniture – disbursements to artists, final payments, delivery – as well as descriptions and weight of items purchased. Entries for 1681 and 1682 concerning the silver used in the salon de Mercure serve as an example. 5 In anticipation, For the silver balustrade for the bedroom,90,000 livres II
3.
Italy
–
Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
4.
Kingdom of France
–
The Kingdom of France was a medieval and early modern monarchy in Western Europe. It was one of the most powerful states in Europe and a great power since the Late Middle Ages and it was also an early colonial power, with possessions around the world. France originated as West Francia, the half of the Carolingian Empire. A branch of the Carolingian dynasty continued to rule until 987, the territory remained known as Francia and its ruler as rex Francorum well into the High Middle Ages. The first king calling himself Roi de France was Philip II, France continued to be ruled by the Capetians and their cadet lines—the Valois and Bourbon—until the monarchy was overthrown in 1792 during the French Revolution. France in the Middle Ages was a de-centralised, feudal monarchy, in Brittany and Catalonia the authority of the French king was barely felt. Lorraine and Provence were states of the Holy Roman Empire and not yet a part of France, during the Late Middle Ages, the Kings of England laid claim to the French throne, resulting in a series of conflicts known as the Hundred Years War. Subsequently, France sought to extend its influence into Italy, but was defeated by Spain in the ensuing Italian Wars, religiously France became divided between the Catholic majority and a Protestant minority, the Huguenots, which led to a series of civil wars, the Wars of Religion. France laid claim to large stretches of North America, known collectively as New France, Wars with Great Britain led to the loss of much of this territory by 1763. French intervention in the American Revolutionary War helped secure the independence of the new United States of America, the Kingdom of France adopted a written constitution in 1791, but the Kingdom was abolished a year later and replaced with the First French Republic. The monarchy was restored by the great powers in 1814. During the later years of the elderly Charlemagnes rule, the Vikings made advances along the northern and western perimeters of the Kingdom of the Franks, after Charlemagnes death in 814 his heirs were incapable of maintaining political unity and the empire began to crumble. The Treaty of Verdun of 843 divided the Carolingian Empire into three parts, with Charles the Bald ruling over West Francia, the nucleus of what would develop into the kingdom of France. Viking advances were allowed to increase, and their dreaded longboats were sailing up the Loire and Seine rivers and other waterways, wreaking havoc. During the reign of Charles the Simple, Normans under Rollo from Norway, were settled in an area on either side of the River Seine, downstream from Paris, that was to become Normandy. With its offshoots, the houses of Valois and Bourbon, it was to rule France for more than 800 years. Henry II inherited the Duchy of Normandy and the County of Anjou, and married Frances newly divorced ex-queen, Eleanor of Aquitaine, after the French victory at the Battle of Bouvines in 1214, the English monarchs maintained power only in southwestern Duchy of Guyenne. The death of Charles IV of France in 1328 without male heirs ended the main Capetian line, under Salic law the crown could not pass through a woman, so the throne passed to Philip VI, son of Charles of Valois
5.
Republic of Venice
–
It was based in the lagoon communities of the historically prosperous city of Venice. It was a leading European economic and trading power during the Middle Ages, the Venetian city state was founded as a safe haven for people escaping persecution in mainland Europe after the fall of the Roman Empire. In its early years, it prospered on the salt trade, in subsequent centuries, the city state established a thalassocracy. It dominated trade on the Mediterranean Sea, including commerce between Asia, Europe and North Africa, the Venetian navy was used in the Crusades. Venice achieved territorial conquests along the Adriatic Sea, the city became home to an extremely wealthy merchant class, who patronized renowned art and architecture along the citys lagoons. Venetian merchants were influential financiers in Europe, the city was also the birthplace of great European explorers, including Marco Polo, as well as the classical music composer Vivaldi. The republic was ruled by the Doge, who was elected by members of the Great Council of Venice, the ruling class was an oligarchy of merchants and aristocrats. Venice and other Italian maritime republics played a key role in fostering capitalism, Venetian citizens generally supported the system of governance. The city-state enforced strict laws and employed ruthless tactics in its prisons, the opening of new trade routes to the Americas and the East Indies via the Atlantic Ocean marked the beginning of Venices decline as a maritime republic. The city state suffered defeats from the navy of the Ottoman Empire, in 1797, the country was colonized by Austria and France, following an invasion by Napoleon Bonaparte. Venice became a part of a unified Italy in the 19th century and it was formally known as the Most Serene Republic of Venice and is often referred to as La Serenissima, in reference to its title as one of the Most Serene Republics. He was the first historical Doge of Venice, whichever the case, the first doges had their power base in Heraclea. Ursuss successor, Deusdedit, moved his seat from Heraclea to Malamocco in the 740s and he was the son of Ursus and represented the attempt of his father to establish a dynasty. Such attempts were more commonplace among the doges of the first few centuries of Venetian history. They desired to remain well-connected to the Empire, another faction, republican in nature, believed in continuing along a course towards practical independence. The other main faction was pro-Frankish, supported mostly by clergy, they looked towards the new Carolingian king of the Franks, Pepin the Short, as the best provider of defence against the Lombards. A minor, pro-Lombard faction was opposed to close ties with any of these further-off powers, the successors of Obelerio inherited a united Venice. By the Pax Nicephori, the two emperors had recognised that Venice belonged to the Byzantine sphere of influence, many centuries later, the Venetians claimed that the treaty had recognised Venetian de facto independence, but the truth of this claim is doubted by modern scholars
6.
Francis I of France
–
Francis I was the first King of France from the Angoulême branch of the House of Valois, reigning from 1515 until his death. He was the son of Charles, Count of Angoulême, and he succeeded his cousin and father-in-law Louis XII, who died without a male heir. Francis reign saw important cultural changes with the rise of absolute monarchy in France, the spread of humanism and Protestantism, Jacques Cartier and others claimed lands in the Americas for France and paved the way for the expansion of the first French colonial empire. For his role in the development and promotion of a standardized French language, he became known as le Père et Restaurateur des Lettres. He was also known as François au Grand Nez, the Grand Colas, following the policy of his predecessors, Francis continued the Italian Wars. In his struggle against Imperial hegemony, he sought the support of Henry VIII of England at the Field of the Cloth of Gold. When this was unsuccessful, he formed a Franco-Ottoman alliance with the Muslim sultan Suleiman the Magnificent, a controversial move for a Christian king at the time. Francis was born on 12 September 1494 at the Château de Cognac in the town of Cognac, which at that time lay in the province of Saintonge, today the town lies in the department of Charente. Francis was the son of Charles, Count of Angoulême, and Louise of Savoy. His family was not expected to inherit the throne, as his third cousin King Charles VIII was still young at the time of his birth, as was his fathers cousin the Duke of Orléans, later King Louis XII. However, Charles VIII died childless in 1498 and was succeeded by Louis XII, the Salic Law prevailed in France, thus females were ineligible to inherit the throne. Therefore, the four-year-old Francis became the heir presumptive to the throne of France in 1498 and was vested with the title of Duke of Valois. In 1505, Louis XII, having fallen ill, ordered that his daughter Claude and Francis be married immediately, Claude was heiress to the Duchy of Brittany through her mother, Anne of Brittany. Following Annes death, the took place on 18 May 1514. Louis died shortly afterwards and Francis inherited the throne and he was crowned King of France in the Cathedral of Reims on 25 January 1515, with Claude as his queen consort. As Francis was receiving his education, ideas emerging from the Italian Renaissance were influential in France, some of his tutors, such as François Desmoulins de Rochefort and Christophe de Longueil, were attracted by these new ways of thinking and attempted to influence Francis. His academic education had been in arithmetic, geography, grammar, history, reading, spelling, Francis came to learn chivalry, dancing, and music and he loved archery, falconry, horseback riding, hunting, jousting, real tennis and wrestling. He ended up reading philosophy and theology and he was fascinated with art, literature, poetry and his mother, who had a high admiration for Italian Renaissance art, passed this interest on to her son
7.
Battle of Ravenna (1512)
–
The Battle of Ravenna, fought on 11 April 1512, by forces of the Holy League and France, was a major battle of the War of the League of Cambrai in the Italian Wars. Although the French drove the Spanish-Papal army from the field, their failed to help them secure northern Italy. Nemours, short on supplies and increasingly anxious to give battle before he was forced to withdraw from Italy, the strengths, relative positions, and commanders of the component elements of both armies are unclear, and different arrangements are given by historians. The French army formed up in an arc to the east of Cardonas fortified camp, closest to the river were about 900 men-at-arms of the vaward, under Jacques de La Palice, next to this cavalry was the bulk of the infantry. Frederick Taylor groups the infantry into two units,9,500 landsknechts under Empser and 8,000 Gascon archers and Picard pikemen under the Seigneur de Molart. The men-at-arms of the main-battle, consisting of 780 men, was commanded by either Bohier alone, or by Bohier together with the Vicomte de Lautrec, Louis dArs, and the Chevalier de Bayard. It consisted of about 4,000 mostly Italian infantry under Frederigo de Bozzolo, flanked, on the extreme left, at the north end of the camp, near the river, was the cavalry of the vaward, consisting of about 670 Papal men-at-arms under Fabrizio Colonna. Farther along the river were two bodies of men-at-arms, the main-battle, consisting of 565 men under the Marquis of La Palude. In his section on war wagons Arnold avers that the Spanish had at least thirty carts mounting scythe blades, forward-projecting spears, the advancing French troops halted about two hundred paces from the enemy lines. De Foix placed the bulk of his artillery in front of the French right wing, directing its fire into the Holy Leagues camp, the Spanish artillery, meanwhile, ignored the French cavalry and concentrated its fire on the massed Gascons and landsknechts in the French center. Not content with bombarding the camp from one side, the French moved to enfilade it from the flanks, the fire of these two guns inflicted massive casualties on Colonnas closely packed cavalry. Pressed from both sides by the fire of the French and Ferrarese artillery, the Holy Leagues cavalry could not hold their positions indefinitely, Carvajal, Pescara, and Palude converged on the French cavalry, which split into two bodies and met both Spanish attacks head-on. The bodies of French and Spanish cavalry then engaged in a fight along the left of the French positions. As Colonna and La Palice fought along the French right, dAlègre, Colonnas formation, pressed from multiple directions, began to disintegrate, with some of his men-at-arms fleeing the field and others retreating south to where the other Spanish cavalry was engaged. DAlègre followed the retreating Spanish troops to the center, where the remnants of the Spanish cavalry were engaged in a melee against the French. A large part of the French cavalry pursued the retreating Spanish, as the Spanish cavalry was making its initial attack, Foix had sent orders for the French infantry to advance on the Holy Leagues camp. The main column of landsknechts had meanwhile made its way to the edge of the Spanish entrenchments, the landsknechts and the Gascons proceeded to attack once more, with even greater casualties. Two companies of Spanish infantry attacked the Gascons engaged on the riverbank, breaking their formation, killing Molart, the remaining infantry on both sides continued meanwhile to struggle across the entrenchments
8.
Spanish conquest of Iberian Navarre
–
Ferdinand the Catholic was in 1512 both king of Aragon and regent of Castile. When Pope Julius II declared a Holy League against France in late 1511, Ferdinand used this as an excuse to attack Navarre, conquering it while its potential protector France was beset by England, Venice, and Ferdinands Italian armies. All were defeated by the Spanish, and clashes came to halt to the north of the Pyrenees in 1528, the kingdom was absorbed into France in 1620. Navarre was mired in instability over the throne since the mid 15th century, when Catherine I of Navarre married John III of Albret, many in Navarre contested this arrangement. After the fall of Granada, pressure on Navarre intensified, Ferdinand also wanted to spite his son-in-law and successor Philip, new ephemeral king of Castile. After an year long stand-off, in 1508 the crown launched an offensive to quell the rebellion, Lerín was occupied. It was 1507 during the fight for Viana when the condottiero Cesare Borgia, the Navarrese authorities struggled to achieve a diplomatic balance in two fronts, but adverse new winds were blowing from France too. —but was met with their strong refusal. Louis XII coveted the Albrets territories and resorted to the Parliament of Toulouse, Ferdinand II waited and saw, took good note of those fears, and searched again allies for his own designs in the Navarrese Beaumont party. However, in summer 1510 the international scene took a turn in the Italian Wars. Pope Julius II was one of the most ambitious Popes of the era and he had declared a Holy League against Venice in 1508, and successfully defeated it. Navarre refused to join and kept neutral in a shaky balance, just a month later, Gaston of Foix died, so the full claim over the Pyrenean territories of the Albrets would fall in the hands of Ferdinands wife Germaine of Foix. King Louis then started to show a conciliatory tone with Queen Catherine and King John III, Catherine and John III kept negotiations with Ferdinand too, who intertwined proposals, pressure and menaces with actual movement of troops right on the outer borders of Navarre. For the purpose, Castilian diplomats negotiated with Rome for months, in June 1512, tension mounted when the Holy League made a formal petition to send English and Castilian troops through Navarre over to France. The next day Ferdinand sent his troops across the border from Álava into Navarre, commanded by his general Don Fadrique de Toledo, Duke of Alba, one that was involved in the conquest of Granada. However, by that time a Gipuzkoan militia had broken into Navarre from the border and captured Goizueta. The assault troops of the expedition numbered 6,000 veterans, the population of Pamplona did not exceed 10,000 inhabitants. Catherine and John III left for Tudela in quest for troops among loyal lords, overwhelmed by the sheer size of the Spanish expedition, the loyalists veered east to Lumbier, and on to Lower Navarre. Catherine, John III and their troops retreated to Orthez, Béarn, pamplonas peripheral defense walls were flimsy, and a threat of looting pronounced by the Duke of Alba loomed over the town
9.
Battle of the Spurs
–
The Battle of the Spurs, or Battle of Guinegate, took place on 16 August 1513. As part of the Holy League, during the ongoing Italian Wars, English and Imperial troops under Henry VIII, Henry and Maximilian were besieging the town of Thérouanne in Artois. Henrys camp was at Guinegate, now called Enguinegatte, after Thérouanne fell, Henry VIII besieged and took Tournai. Henry VIII had joined in the Holy League on 13 October 1511 with Venice and Spain to defend the Papacy from its enemies, Henry promised to attack France at Guyenne, landing 10,000 men at Hondarribia in the Basque in June 1512. This army was conveyed by the admiral Edward Howard, and commanded by Thomas Grey and it remained at Bayonne till October 1512 supporting Ferdinand II of Aragons action in the Kingdom of Navarre, though undersupplied and in poor morale. Maximilian joined the league in November 1512, Louis XII of France hoped that Scotland would aid France against England. In May 1513 English soldiers began to arrive in number at Calais to join an army commanded by George Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury, Shrewsbury was appointed Lieutenant-General on 12 May, John Hopton commanded the troop ships. On 17 May Henry announced to the Cinque Ports and Edward Poynings, Constable of Dover Castle, that he would join the invasion in person, in Henrys absence across the sea, Catherine of Aragon would rule England and Wales as Rector and Governor. The Chronicle of Calais recorded the names and arrivals of Henrys aristocratic military entourage from the 6 June 1513 onwards, at the end of the month the army set out for Thérouanne. Shrewsbury commanded the vanguard of 8,000, and Charles Somerset, Henry VIII arrived in person at Calais on 30 June 1513 with the main grouping, of 11,000 men. Eight hundred German mercenaries marched in front of Henry, Shrewsbury set up a battery and dug mines towards the towns walls, but made little progress against the defending garrison of French and German soldiers in July. The town was held for France by Antoine de Créquy, sieur de Pont-Remy who returned fire until the town surrendered, reports of setbacks and inefficiency reached Venice. On the way to Thérouanne two English cannon called John the Evangelist and the Red Gun had been abandoned, and French skirmishing hampered their recovery with loss of life. Edward Hall, the author, mentions the role of the Henry Bourchier, Earl of Essex in this operation. An Imperial agent of Margaret of Savoy wrote that two obstinate men govern everything, these were Charles Brandon, Viscount Lisle who he called the Grand Esquire, the Emperor Maximilian came to Aire-sur-la-Lys in August. Henry hosted Maximilian at a tent with a gallery of cloth-of-gold at his camp over the weekend beginning 13 August 1513, according to the chronicles, the weather on the day of the meeting was the foulest ever. Louis XII of France determined to break the siege, Fonterailles was helped by covering artillery fire from the town. Reports sent to Venice mentioned 300 English casualties or more, and Fonterailles statement that the town could hold out till the feast day of the Nativity of the Virgin, the Venetians were aware that their French sources might have been misrepresenting the situation to gain their support
10.
Battle of Flodden
–
The Battle of Flodden or Flodden Field, or occasionally Battle of Branxton, was part of a conflict between the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland. It was a decisive English victory, in terms of troop numbers, it was the largest battle fought between the two Kingdoms. James IV was killed in the battle, becoming the last monarch from the island of Britain to suffer such a death, Henry VIII had also opened old wounds by claiming to be the overlord of Scotland, which angered the Scots and their King. At this time England was involved as a member of the Catholic League in the War of the League of Cambrai—defending Italy, James also summoned sailors and sent the Scottish navy, including the Great Michael, to join the ships of Louis XII of France. Henry was in France with the Emperor Maximilian at the siege of Thérouanne, the Scottish Lyon King of Arms brought James IVs letter of 26 July to him. James asked him to desist from attacking France in breach of their treaty, henrys exchange with Islay Herald or the Lyon King on 11 August at his tent at the siege was recorded. The Herald declared that Henry should abandon his efforts against the town, moreover, fellow, I care for nothing but for misentreating of my sister, that would God she were in England on a condition she cost the Schottes King not a penny. Henry also replied by letter on 12 August that James was mistaken, however, both sides had been making lengthy preparations for this conflict. Henry VIII had already organised an army and artillery in the north of England to counter the expected invasion, some of the guns had been returned to use against the Scots by Margaret of Austria, Duchess of Savoy. A year earlier, Thomas Howard, Earl of Surrey, had been appointed Lieutenant-General of the army of the north and was issued with banners of the Cross of St George, only a small number of the light horsemen of the Scottish border had been sent to France. A northern army was maintained with artillery and its expense account starts on 21 July 1513, the first captains were recruited in Lambeth. Many of these soldiers wore green and white Tudor colours, Surrey marched to Doncaster in July and then Pontefract. Where he assembled more troops from Northern England, on 18 August, five cannon brought down from Edinburgh Castle to the Netherbow Gate at St Marys Wynd for the invasion set off towards England dragged by borrowed oxen. On 19 August two gross culverins, four culverins pickmoyance and six culverins moyane followed with the gunner Robert Borthwick, the King himself set off that night with two hastily prepared standards of St Margaret and St Andrew. Catherine of Aragon was Regent in England and on 27 August she issued warrants for the property of all Scotsmen in England to be seized, on hearing of the invasion on 3 September she ordered Thomas Lovell to raise an army in the Midland counties. In keeping with his understanding of the code of chivalry, King James sent notice to the English, one month in advance. After a muster on the Burgh Muir of Edinburgh, the Scottish host moved to Ellemford, to the north of Duns, the Scottish army then crossed the River Tweed near Coldstream. On 24 August James IV held a council or parliament at Twiselhaugh, by 29 August Norham Castle was taken and partly demolished
11.
Italian Wars
–
Ludovico Sforza of Milan, seeking an ally against the Republic of Venice, encouraged Charles VIII of France to invade Italy, using the Angevin claim to the throne of Naples as a pretext. For several months, French forces moved through Italy virtually unopposed, Charles VIII made triumphant entries into Pisa on November 8,1494, Florence on November 17,1494, and Rome on December 31,1494. Upon reaching the city of Monte San Giovanni in the Kingdom of Naples, Charles VIII sent envoys to the town, the garrison killed and mutilated the envoys and sent the bodies back to the French lines. This enraged the French army so that reduced the castle in the town with blistering artillery fire on February 9,1495 and stormed the fort. This was the sack of Naples. News of the French Armys sack of Naples provoked a reaction among the city-states of Northern Italy, the League was specifically formed to resist French aggression. The League was established on 31 March after negotiations by Venice, Milan, Spain and the Holy Roman Empire. Later on the League consisted of the Holy Roman Empire, the Duchy of Milan, Spain, the Papal States, the Republic of Florence, the Duchy of Mantua and this coalition, effectively, cut Charles army off from returning to France. After establishing a government in Naples, Charles started to march north on his return to France. However, in the town of Fornovo he met the League army. In contemporary tradition, though, the battle counted as a Holy League victory, because the French forces had to leave, to the Italian coalition, however, it was at best a pyrrhic victory, in that its strategic outcome and long-term consequences were unfavorable. Although the League managed to force Charles VIII off the battlefield, it suffered much higher casualties and could not prevent the opposing army crossing the Italian lands as it returned to France. As a result of Charles VIIIs expedition, the states of Italy were shown once. In fact, the individual Italian states could not field armies comparable to those of the feudal monarchies of Europe in numbers. Thus, Charles VIII lost all that he conquered in Italy, King Charles VIII died on April 7,1498 and was succeeded to the throne of France by his cousin, Louis II, Duke of Orléans, who became Louis XII of France. Ludovico Sforza retained his throne in Milan until 1499, when Charless successor, Louis XII of France, invaded Lombardy, Louis XII justified his claim to the Duchy of Milan by right of his paternal grandfather, Louis duc dOrléans having married Valentina Visconti in 1387. Valentina Visconti was the heir to the Duchy of Milan in the Visconti dynasty, the marriage contract between Valentina Visconti and Louis, duc dOrléans, guaranteed that in failure of male heirs, she would inherit the Visconti dominions. However, when the Visconti dynasty died out in 1447, the Milanese ignored the Orleans claim to the Duchy of Milan, however, bitter factionalism arose under the new republic which set the stage for Francisco Sforza to seize control of Milan in 1450
12.
France
–
France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
France
Republic of Venice
Swiss cantons.svg){kind=small}
Duchy of Milan
"Marignan, Battle of". Encyclopædia Britannica. 17 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 716–717.
"